95 
..8  76 

I&50 


F  R  O  N  T  1  S  P  J  E  C  E 


S3  o> 


In  explanation  of  the  Engravings  in  tliis  volume,  see  articles  Persecution, 
Inquisition,  Massacre,  Reformation,  &.c. 


V  K  II  S  F,  C  U  T  I  O  N. 


Plate  III. 


A  Pi-irailive  Christian  flayed  alive  by  Heathen  Persecutors. 


PI  ale  IV. 


Martyrdom  of  St.  Stephen. — Acts  vii.  50. 


P  E  R  S  E  C  b  T  I  O  N. 


Plate  V. 


Horrible  cruelties  inflicted  on  the  Primitive  Christians. 


Plate  VI. 


Primitive  Martyrdoms. 


P  E  It  S  E  C  U  T  1  O  N. 


Plate  VII. 


Entrails  of  Martyrs,  while  living',  devoured  by  Swine,  in  the  fourth  Century. 


Plate  VIII. 


Horrible  Cruelties  inflicted  on  the  Protestants  in  Ireland,  in  1641. 


V  E  It  S  E  C  (J  T  I  O  N. 


Piute  IX. 


Cruelties  of  the  Inquisition. 


Plate  X. 


Cruelties  of  the  Inmiisition. — Rack 


P  E  RSF.CUTIO  N. 


Plate  XL 


Dress  of  a  Male  Penitent  who 
recants  to  the  Inquisition. 


Dress  of  a  Female  Penitent  who 
recants  to  the  Inquisition. 


Plate  XII. 


Dress  of  a  Woman  condemned 
by  the  Inquisition. 


Dress  of  a  Man  condemned 
by  the  Inquisition. 


I>  E  It  S  E  C  U  T  1  0  N. 


Piute  XIII. 


Pope  Alexander  treading  on  the  neck  of  Frederick,  Emperor  of  Germany 


Plait  XIV. 


The  Burning  of  Bishops  Ridley  and  Latimer,  1555. 


V  E  it  s  i:  C  U  T  I  O  N. 


Plate  XV. 


Dreadful  Sufferings  of  the  Primitive  Martyrs. 


Plate  X\  f. 


Cruelties  practised  on  the  Protestants  in  Scotland,  154:5.     Four  men 

hung;  and  a  Woman  with  her  Infant  tied  up  in  a  bag,  and 

thrown  into  the  river,  for  violating  a  fast. 


A 

THEOLOGICAL  DICTIONARY, 


CONTAINING 


DEFINITIONS  OF  ALL  RELIGIOUS  TERMS ; 

A  COMPREHENSIVE  VIEW    OF 

EVERY  ARTICLE  IN  THE  SYSTEM  OF  DIVINITY, 

AN  IMPARTIAL  ACCOUNT   OF 

ALL  THE  PRINCIPAL  DENOMINATIONS 

WHICH  HAVE  SUBSISTED  IN  THE  RELIGIOUS  WORLD  FROM  THE  BIRTH 
OF  CHRIST  TO  THE  PRESENT  DAY: 

TOGETHER  WITH 

AN  ACCURATE  STATEMENT  OF  THE  MOST  REMARKABLE  TRANSACTIONS 
AND  EVENTS  RECORDED  IN  ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY- 

/ 
^  I 

BY  THE  REV.  CHARLES  BUCK. 


NeU)  American,  from  tijc  latest  Hcmtron  ISTittion. 

REVISED,  AND  IMPROVED  BY  THE  ADDITION  OF  MANY  NEW  ARTICLES,  AND  THE  WHOLE 

ADAPTED  TO  THE  PRESENT  STATE  OF  THEOLOGICAL  SCIENCE  AND 

OF  THE  RELIGIOUS  WORLD. 

BY  THE  REV.  GEORGE   BUSH,  A.  M. 

With  an  Appendix  :  containing  impartial  and  elaborate  Histories  of,  The  Methodist  Episcopal 

Church  in  Atnerica ;  The  Presbyterian  Church  in  the    United  States;  The  Methodist 

Protestant  Church ;  The  Baptists  of  the  United  States;  and,        The  Evangelical  Lutheran 

Church  in  the  United  Slates:  also  a  history  of  the  Adventists  or  Millerites. 


CORRECTED    EDITION. 


PHILADELPHIA  : 
CRISSY  &  MARKLEY,  No.  4  MINOR  STREET. 


1850. 


Entereo.  according  to  the  act  of  congress,  in  the  year  1844,  by  J.  J.  Woooward 
in  tlie  clerks  office  ol  the  district  court  of  the  United  States  in  aad  tor  the  easteru 
district  of  I'etidsvhania. 


jr  PHIHCETGH       t 
PREFACE  BY  THE  AUTHOR. 

Knowledge,  in  a  great  measure,  forms  the  true  dignity  and  happiness  of  man :  it  a 
that  by  which  he  holds  an  honourable  rank  in  the  scale  of  being,  and  by  which  he  is 
rendered  capable  of  adding  to  the  felicity  of  his  fellow-creatures.  Every  attempt,  there- 
fore, to  enlarge  its  boundaries,  and  facilitate  its  acquisition,  must  be  considered  as 
worthy  of  our  attention  and  regard.  The  present  work  is  designed  to  promote  these 
valuable  and  important  ends. 

The  plan  of  conveying  knowledge  by  dictionaries  has  been  long  established,  and  well 
received  in  the  republic  of  letters.  A  dictionary,  however,  of  a  religious  and  ecclesias- 
tical nature  was  still  a  desideratum  in  the  religious  world ;  for  although  we  have  had 
dictionaries  which  explained  Scripture  terms,  yet  it  is  evident  these  could  not  embrace 
the  history  of  the  church  since  the  sacred  canon  was  concluded,  nor  explain  the  numerous 
terms  which  have  been  used;  nor,  indeed,  point  out  the  various  sects  and  denominations 
which  have  subsisted  since  that  time.  I  do  not  mean,  by  these  remarks,  to  depreciate 
the  valuable  works  above  referred  to:  I  am  sensible  of  their  excellences,  and  I  have  no 
wish  to  undervalue  them  in  order  to  exalt  my  own.  This  work,  however,  is  of  a  different 
nature,  as  the  reader  will  easily  see,  if  he  takes  the  trouble  to  compare  and  examine. 

There  may,  doubtless,  be  defects  in  this  publication  which  may  have  escaped  my  atten- 
tion ;  but  whoever  considers  the  various  books  that  must  have  been  consulted ;  the  dis- 
criminations that  were  necessary  to  be  made ;  the  patient  investigation  required ;  and  the 
toil  of  selecting,  transcribing,  and  composing,  must  be  convinced  that  it  has  been  at- 
tended with  no  small  difficulty.  The  advantages,  however,  which  my  own  mind  derived 
from  the  work,  and  the  probability  of  its  being  useful  to  others,  greatly  encouraged  me  in 
its  prosecution.  Besides,  to  be  active,  to  be  useful,  to  do  something  for  the  good  of  man- 
kind, I  have  always  considered  as  the  honour  of  an  intelligent  being.  It  is  not  the 
student  wrapt  up  in  metaphysical  subtilties ;  it  is  not  the  recluse  living  in  perpetual  soli- 
tude; it  is  not  the  miser  who  is  continually  amassing  wealth,  that  can  be  considered  as 
the  greatest  ornaments  or  the  greatest  blessings  to  human  society : — it  is  rather  the 
useful  than  the  shining  talent  that  is  to  be  coveted. 

Perhaps  it  may  be  said,  the  work  is  tinctured  too  much  with  my  own  sentiments,  and 
that  the  theology  is  too  antiquated  to  please  a  liberal,  philosophising,  and  refined1  age. 
In  answer  to  this,  I  observe,  that  I  could  do  no  other,  as  an  honest  man,  than  communi- 
cate what  I  believe  to  be  the  truth.  It  is  a  false  liberality  to  acquiesce  with  every  man's 
opinion,  to  fall  in  with  every  man's  scheme,  to  trifle  with  error,  or  imagine  there  is  no 
difference  between  one  sentiment  and  another :  yet,  notwithstanding  this  declaration,  I 
trust  the  features  of  bigotry  are  not  easily  discernible  in  this  work ;  and  that,  while  I 
have  endeavoured  to  carry  the  torch  of  Truth  in  my  hand,  I  have  not  forgotten  to  walk 
in  the  path  of  Candour. 

It  is  almost  needless  here  to  say,  that  I  have  availed  myself  of  all  the  writings  of  the 
best  and  most  eminent  authors  I  could  obtain.  Whatever  has  struck  me  as  important 
in  ecclesiastical  history ;  whatever  good  and  accurate  in  definition ;  whatever  just  views 
of  the  passions  of  the  human  mind  ;  whatever  terms  used  in  the  religious  world ;  and 
whatever  instructive  and  impressive  in  the  systems  of  divinity  and  moral  philosophy, 
I  have  endeavoured  to  incorporate  in  this  work.  And  in  order  to  prevent  its  being  a 
dry  detail  of  terms  and  of  dates,  I  have  given  the  substance  of  what  has  been  generally 
advanced  on  each  subject,  and  occasionally  selected  some  of  the  most  interesting  practi- 
cal passages  from  our  best  and  celebrated  sermons.  I  trust,  therefore,  it  will  not  only  be 
of  use  to  inform  the  mind,  but  impress  the  heart ;  and  thus  promote  the  real  good  of  the 
reader.  The  critic,  however,  may  be  disposed  to  be  severe ;  and  it  will,  perhaps,  be  easy 
for  him  to  observe  imperfections.  But  be  this  as  it  may:  I  can  assure  him  I  feel  myself 
happy  in  the  idea  that  the  work  is  not  intended  to  serve  a  party,  to  encourage  bigotry,  nor 
strengthen  prejudice,  but  "for  the  service  of  Truth,  by  one  who  would  be  glad  to  attend 
and  grace  her  triumphs ;  as  her  soldier,  if  he  has  had  the  honour  to  serve  successfully 
under  her  banner ;  or  as  a  captive  tied  to  her  chariot  wheels,  if  he  has,  though  undesign- 
edly, committed  any  offence  against  her."  After  all,  however,  what  a  learned  author 
said  of  another  work  I  say  of  this : — "  If  it  have  merit,  it  will  go  down  to  posterity ;  if  it 
have  none,  the  sooner  it  dies  and  is  forgot  the  better." 

3  CHARLES  BUCK. 


PREFACE  BY  THE  AMERICAN  EDITOR. 


The  numerous  and  extensive  editions  of  Buck's  Theological  Dictionary  published  both 
in  England  and  in  this  country  since  its  first  appearance,  together  with  the  continued  and 
increasing  demand,  sufficiently  attest  the  estimate  in  which  the  work  is  held  by  the 
Christian  public.  The  judgment,  industry,  candour,  and  impartiality  evinced  by  the 
Author  in  the  selection  and  compilation  of  the  articles,  embracing,  as  they  do,  the  wide 
field  of  Theology,  didactic  and  polemic,  Ecclesiastical  Polity,  Church  History,  Moral  and 
Metaphysical  Philosophy,  and  Biblical  Literature,  together  with  a  copious  list  of  refer- 
ences to  the  most  valuable  authorities  in  each  department,  are  universally  acknowledged. 
So  far  as  the  merit  of  sterling  utility  can  entitle  any  book  to  favourable  acceptance,  the 
Dictionary  of  Mr.  Buck  presents  claims  which  will  not  be  contested.  As  a  theological 
and  ecclesiastical  manual,  embodying  a  vast  amount  of  useful  information  in  a  moderate 
compass,  and  clearly  and  judiciously  arranged,  it  would  not  be  easy  to  designate  ita 
superior. 

Yet  while  this  tribute  of  deserved  commendation  is  readily  bestowed,  it  must  still  be 
admitted,  that  the  work  hitherto  has  not  been  altogether  adapted  to  the  circumstances 
of  our  own  country,  or  the  wants  of  the  present  day.  Considered  in  this  view  the 
Theological  Dictionary  labours  under  manifold  defects,  which  it  would  be  as  easy  to 
specify  as  it  is  obvious  to  perceive.  As  might  have  been  expected,  its  local  bearings 
and  allusions  are  to  the  state  of  things  in  England,  and  not  in  this  country.  But  a  work 
of  this  nature  is  needed,  which  shall  be  suited  to  the  state  of  religious  opinion  in  the 
Christian  community  of  the  United  States.  Moreover,  since  the  first  publication  of  Mr. 
Buck's  work,  great  changes  have  occurred  in  the  religious  world;  great  advances 
have  been  made  in  theological  as  well  as  in  natural  science  ;  a  fresh  impulse  has  been 
given  to  the  investigation  of  revealed  truth ;  new  sects,  especially  in  our  own  country,  have 
risen  up,  and  with  them  new  controversies,  or  new  forms  of  old  ones  ;  the  ever  varying 
field  of  religious  discussion,  while  it  has  been  contracted  in  some  of  its  limits,  has  been 
widened  in  others;  besides  which,  nearly  every  department  treated  in  the  Theological 
Dictionary  has  been  enriched  with  new  treasures  from  the  writings  of  modern  divines, 
to  which  the  reader  will  look  m  vain  for  any  references  in  the  previous  editions.  While 
therefore  the  active  spirit  of  progress  and  improvement  is  urging  its  way  in  the  pro- 
vince of  Theological  inquiry  as  well  as  every  other,  while  modern  researches  are  shed- 
ding light  upon  numberless  points  of  Christian  and  Jewish  antiquities,  upon  Ecclesiasti- 
cal institutions,  and  Biblical  criticism,  it  is  doubtless  desirable  that  a  Theological  Dic- 
tionary should  be  prepared,  fitted  to  meet,  in  some  good  degree,  the  exigences  of  the  pre- 
sent period. 

With  this  view  the  present  edition  of  Buck  has  been  undertaken.  In  the  prosecution 
of  the  plan,  the  steady  aim  has  been  to  increase  the  amount  of  new  and  valuable 
matter,  at  the  same  time  that  the  accession  should  not  swell  the  size,  nor  enhance 
the  price  of  the  volume.  The  whole  work  therefore  has  undergone  a  careful  revision — 
Some  few  articles  of  trivial  moment  have  been  expunged  to  make  way  for  others  of  more 
consequence — Several  have  been  abridged — Several  in  whole  or  in  part  re-written  :  But 
the  principal  feature  of  the  present  edition  is  the  addition  of  a  large  mass  of  new  matter 
under  the  following  heads:  Abyss,  Accommodation  of  Scripture,  Annihilation,  Anti- 
christ, Antichristianism,  Atonement,  Church,  Commentary,  Congregationalists, 
Episcopalian,  Glassites,  New  Independents,  Neology,  Presbyterians,  Unitarians, 
besides  many  others,  which  will  be  pointed  -out  to  the  reader,  wherever  they  occur,  by 
the  letter  B.  being  annexed  to  them.  Notices  of  all  or  nearly  all  the  existing  religious 
denominations  in  the  United  States  are  given,  accompanied  with  historical  sketches  and 
ecclesiastical  statistics.  In  this  department  of  the  work  the  Editor  acknowledges  his 
obligations  to  the  very  valuable  Quarterly  Register  and  Journal  of  the  American  Edu- 
cation Society,  for  February,  by  means  of  which,  and  from  other  sources,  he  has  been 
enabled  to  bring  down  the  records  of  the  various  denominations  to  a  very  late  period. 

In  the  earnest  hope  that  the  attempted  improvements  of  the  present  edition  may  be 
found  to  be  a  benefit,  and  not  a  bar,  to  its  general  reception,  it  is  submitted  to  the  candour 
of  the  public. 

4  G.  B. 


pEIfli 


THEOLOGlGfck 


THEOLOGICAL  DICTIONARY. 


ABBEY 


A. 


ABBOT 


ABBA,  a  Syriac  word  of  Hebrew  origin,  sig- 
nifying Father.  It  is  more  particularly  used  in 
the  Syriac,  Coptic,  and  Ethiopic  churches,  as  a 
title  given  to  the  bishops.  The  bishops  them- 
selves bestowed  the  title  Abba  more  eminently  on 
the  bishop  of  Alexandria,  which  occasioned  the 
people  to  give  him  the  title  of  Baba,  or  Papa ; . 
that  is,  Grandfather :  a  title  which  he  bore  before 
the  bishop  of  Rome.  It  is  a  Jewish  title  of  honour 
given  to  certain  tRabbins  called  Tanaites:  it  is 
also  used  by  some  writers  of  the  middle  age  for  the 
superior  of  a  monastery.  Saint  Mark  and  Saint 
Paul  use  this  word  in  their  Greek,  Mark  xiv.  3b\ 
Rom.  viii.  15.  Gal.  vi.  6.  because  it  was  then 
commonly  known  in  the  synagogues  and  the 
primitive  assemblies  of  the  Christians.  It  is 
thought  by  Selden,  Witsius,  Doddridge,  and 
others,  that  Saint  Paul  alluded  to  a  law  among 
the  Jews  which  forbade  servants  or  slaves  to  call 
their  master  Abba,  or  Father;  and  that  the 
apostle  meant  to  convey  the  idea  that  those  who 
believed  in  Christ  were  no  longer  slaves  to  sin ; 
but,  being  brought  into  a  state  of  holy  freedom, 
might  consequently  address  God  as  their  Father. 

ABBE,  the  same  with  Abbot,  which  see. 
Also  the  name  of  curious  popular  characters  in 
France ;  who  are  persons  who  have  not  yet  ob- 
tained any  precise  or  fixed  settlement  in  church  or 
state,  but  most  heartily  wish  for  and  would  accept 
of  either,  just  as  it  may  happen.  In  the  mean- 
while their  privileges  are  many.  In  college,  they 
are  the  instructors  of  youth,  and  in  private  fami- 
lies the  tutors  of  young  gentlemen. 

ABBESS,  the  superior  of  an  abbey  or  convent 
of  nuns.  The  abbess  has  the  same  rights  and 
authority  over  her  nuns  that  the  abbots  regular 
have  over  their  monks.  The  sex,  indeed,  does 
not  allow  her  to  perform  the  spiritual  functions 
annexed  to  the  priesthood,  wherewith  the  abbot  is 
usually  invested  ;  but  there  are  instances  of  some 
abbesses  who  have  a  right,  or  rather  a  privilege, 
to  commission  a  priest  to  act  for  them.  They 
have  even  a  kind  of  episcopal  jurisdiction,  as  well 
as  some  abbots  who  are  exempted  from  the  visi- 
tation of  their  diocesan. 

ABBEY,  a  monastery,  governed  by  a  superior 
under  the  title  of  Abbot  or  Abbess.  Monasteries 
were  at  first  nothing  more  than  religious  houses, 
whither  persons  retired  from  the  bustle  of  the 
world  to  spend  their  time  in  solitude  and  devotion ; 
out  they  soon  degenerated  from  their  original  in- 
stitution, and  procured  large  privileges,  exemp- 
tions, and  riches.  They  prevailed  greatly  in 
Britain  before  the  Reformation,  particularly  in 
England :  and  as  they  increased  in  riches,  so  the 


state  became  poor,  for  the  lands  which  these  re- 
gulars possessed  could  never  revert  to  the  lords 
who  gave  them.  These  places  were  wholly 
abolished  by  Henry  VIII.  He  first  appointed 
visitors  to  inspect  into  the  lives  of  the  monks  and 
nuns,  which  were  found  in  some  places  very  dis- 
orderly ;  upon  which  the  abbots,  perceiving  their 
dissolution  unavoidable,  were  induced  to  resign 
their  houses  to  the  king,  who  by  that  means  be- 
came invested  with  the  abbey  lands :  these  were 
afterwards  granted  to  different  persons,  whose 
descendants  enjoy  them  at  this  day  :  they  were 
then  valued  at  2,853,000Z.  per  annum;  an  im- 
mense sum  in  those  days.  Though  the  suppres- 
sion of  these  houses,  considered  in  a  religious  and 
political  light,  was  a  great  benefit  to  the  nation, 
yet  it  must  be  owned,  that  at  the  time  they  flou- 
rished, they  were  not  entirely  useless.  Abbeys 
were  then  the  repositories  as  well  as  the  semina- 
ries of  learning :  many  valuable  books  and  na- 
tional records  have  been  preserved  in  their  libra- 
ries; the  only  places  wherein  they  could  have 
been  safely  lodged  in  those  turbulent  times.  In- 
deed the  historians  of  this. country  are  chiefly 
beholden  to  the  monks  for  the  knowledge  they 
have  of  former  national  events.  Thus  a  kind 
Providence  overruled  even  the  institutions  of  su- 
perstition for  good.     See  Monastery. 

ABBOT,  the  chief  ruler  of  a  monastery  or 
abbey.  At  first  they  were  laymen,  and  subject  to 
the  bishop  and  ordinary  pastors.  Their  monas- 
teries being  remote  from  cities,  and  built  in  the 
farthest  solitudes,  they  had  no  share  in  ecclesias- 
tical affairs ;  but,  there  being  among  them  several 
persons  of  learning,  they  were  called  out  of  their 
deserts  by  the  bishops,  and  fixed  in  the  suburbs 
of  the  cities ;  and  at  length  in  the  cities  them- 
selves. From  that  time  they  degenerated,  and, 
learning  to  be  ambitious,  aspired  to  be  independ- 
ent of  the  bishops,  which  occasioned  some  severe 
laws  to  be  made  against  them.  At  length,  how 
ever,  the  abbots  carried  their  point,  and  obtained 
the  title  of  lord,  with  other  badges  of  the  episco- 
pate, particularly  the  mitre.  Hence  arose  new 
distinctions  among  them.  Those  were  termed 
mitred  abbots  who  were  privileged  to  wear  the 
mitre,  and  exercise  episcopal  authority  within 
their  respective  precincts,  being  exempted  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop.  Others  were  called 
crosicrcd  abbots,  from  their  bearing  the  crosier, 
or  pastoral  staff.  Others  were  styled  cecumenical 
or  universal  abbots,  in  imitation  of  the  patriarch 
of  Constantinople;  while  others  were  termed 
cardinal  abbots  from  their  superiority  over  ail 
other  abbots.  At  present,  in  the  Roman  Catho- 
a  2 


ABSOLUTION 
lie  countries,  the  chief  distinctions  arc  those  of  re- 
gular and  com  mendatory.  The  former  take  the 
vow  and  wear  the  habit  of  their  order;  whereas 
the  latter  are  seculars,  though  they  are  obliged 
Ly  their  bulls  to  take  orders  when  of  proper  age. 

ABELIANS,  or  Abei.onianp,  a  sect  which 
arose  in  the  diocese  of  Hippo  in  Africa,  and  is 
supposed  to  have  begun  in  the  reign  of  Arcadius, 
and  ended  in  that  ot  Theodosius.  Indeed,  it  was 
not  calculated  for  being  of  any  long  continuance. 
They  regulated  marriage  after  the  example  of 
Abel,  who,  they  pretended,  was  married,  but 
lived  in  a  state  of  continence :  they  therefore  al- 
lowed each  man  to  marry  one  woman,  but  era- 
>oined  them  to  live  in  the  same  state.  To  keep 
up  the  sect,  when  a  man  and  woman  entered  into 
tlus  society,  they  adopted  a  boy  and  a  girl,  who 
were  to  inherit  their  goods,  and  to  marry  upon 
the  same  terms  of  not  having  children,  but  of 
adopting  two  of  different  sexes. 

ABESTA,  the  name  of  one  of  the  sacred 
books  of  the  Persian  Magi,  which  they  ascribe  to 
their  great  founder,  Zoroaster.  The  Abesta  is  a 
commentary  on  two  others  of  their  religious  books 
called  Zend  and  Pazcnd ;  the  three  together  in- 
cluding the  whole  system  of  the  Ignicola?,  or  wor- 
shippers of  fire. 

ABILITY.     See  Inability. 

ABLUTION,  a  ceremony  in  use  among  the 
ancients,  and  still  practised  in  several  parts  of  the 
world.  It  consisted  in  washing  the  body,  which 
was  always  done  before  sacriheing,  or  even  en- 
tering their  houses.  Ablutions  appear  to  be  as 
old  as  any  ceremonies,  and  external  worship 
itself.  Moses  enjoined  them,  the  heathens  adopt- 
ed them,  and  Mahomet  and  his  followers  have 
continued  them.  The  Egyptians,  the  Greeks, 
the  Romans,  the  Jews,  all  had  them.  The 
ancient  Christians  had  their  ablutions  before 
communion,  which  the  Romish  church  still  retain 
before  their  mass,  and  sometimes  after.  The 
Syrians,  Copts,  &c.  have  their  solemn  washings 
on  Good  Friday  :  the  Turks  also  have  their  ablu- 
tions, their  Ghast,  their  Wodou,  Aman,  &c. 

ABSOLUTION  signifies  acquittal.  It  is 
taken  also  for  that  act  whereby  the  priest  declares 
the  sins  of  such  as  are  penitent  remitted.  The 
Romanists  hold  absolution  a  part  of  the  sacra- 
ment of  penance ;  and  the  council  of  Trent  and 
that  of  Florence  declare  the  form  or  essence  of 
the  sacrament  to  lie  in  the  words  of  absolution, 
"  I  absolve  thee  of  thy  sins."  According  to  this, 
no  one  can  receive  absolution  without  the  privity, 
consent,  and  declaration  of  the  priest;  except, 
therefore,  the.  priest  be  willing,  God  himself  can- 
not pardon  any  man.  This  is  a  doc-trine  as  blas- 
phemous as  it  is  ridiculous.  The  chief  passage 
on  which  they  ground  their  power  of  absolution 
is  that  in  John  xx.  23  :  "  Whosesoever  sins  ye  re- 
mit, they  are  remitted  unto  them,  and  whosesoever 
sins  ye  retain,  they  are  retained."  But  this  is 
not  to  the  purpose;  since  this  was  a  special  com- 
mission to  the  apostles  themselves,  and  the  first 
preachers  of  the  Gospel,  and  most  probably  re- 
ferred to  the  power  he  gave  them  of  discerning 
spirits.  By  virtue  of  this  power,  Peter  struck 
Ananias  and  Saiiphira  dead,  and  Paul  struck 
Elymas  blind.  But,  supposing  the  passage  in 
question  to  apply  to  the  successors  of  the  apostles, 
and  to  ministers  in  general,  it  can  only  import 
that  their  office  La  to  preach  pardon  to  the  peni- 
tent assuring  those  who  believe  that  their  sins 
u 


ABYSS 

are  forgiven  through  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ 
and  that  those  who  remain  in  unbelief  are  in  a 
state  of  condemnation.  Any  idea  of  authority 
given  to  fallible,  uninspired  men,  to  absolve  sin- 
ners, different  from  this,  is  unscriptural ;  nor  can 
I  see  much  utility  in  the  terms  ministerial  or  de- 
clarative absolution,  as  adopted  by  some  divines, 
since  absolution  is  wholly  the  prerogative  of  God  • 
and  the  terms  abovementioned  may,  to  say  the 
least,  have  no  good  influence  on  the  minds  of  the 
ignorant  and  superstitious. 

ABSTEMII,  a  name  given  to  such  persons  as 
could  not  partake  of  the  cup  of  the  eucharist,  on 
account  of  their  natural  aversion  to  wine. 

ABSTINENCE,  in  a  general  sense,  is  the 
act  of  refraining  from  something  which  we  have 
a  propension  to  or  find  pleasure  in.  It  is  more 
particularly  used  for  fasting  or  forbearing  from 
necessary  food.  Among  the  Jews,  various  kinds 
of  abstinence  were  ordained  by  their  law.  Among 
the  primitive  Christians,  some  denied  themselves 
the  use  of  such  meats  as  were  prohibited  by  that 
law;  others  looked  upon  this  abstinence  with 
contempt;  as  to  which  Paul  gives  his  opinion, 
Romans  xiv.  1,  3.  The  council  of  Jerusalem, 
which  was  held  by  the  apostles,  enjoined  the 
Christian  converts  to  abstain  from  meats  strangled, 
from  blood,  from  fornication,  and  from  idolatry. 
Acts  xv.  Upon  this  passage  Dr.  Doddridge  ob- 
serves, "that  though  neither  things  sacrificed  to 
idols,  nor  the  flesh  of  strangled  animals,  nor 
blood,  have  or  can  have  any  moral  evil  in  them, 
which  should  make  the  eating  of  them  absolutely 
and  universally  unlawful ;  yet  they  were  forbid- 
den to  the  Gentile  converts,  because  the  Jews  had 
such  an  aversion  to  them,  that  they  could  not 
converse  freely  with  any  who  used  them.  This 
is  plainly  the  reason  which  James  assigns  in  the 
very  next  words,  the  21st  verse,  and  it  is  abund- 
antly sufficient.  This  reason  is  now  ceased,  and 
the  obligation  to  abstain  from  eating  these  things 
ceases  with  it.  But  were  we  in  like  circumstan- 
ces again,  Christian  charity  would  surely  require 
us  to  lay  ourselves  under  the  same  restraint." — 
The  spiritual  monarchy  of  the  western  world 
introduced  another  sort  of  abstinence,  which 
may  be  called  ritual,  and  consists  in  abstaining 
from  particular  meats  at  certain  times  and  sea- 
sons, the  rules  of  which  are  called  rogations.  If 
I  mistake  not,  the  impropriety  of  this  kind  of  ab- 
stinence is  clearly  [minted  out  in  1  Tim.  iv.  3.— 
In  England,  abstinence  from  flesh  has  been  en- 
joined by  statute,  even  since  the  Reformation ; 
particularly  on  Fridays  and  Saturdays,  on  vigils, 
and  on  all  days  commonly  called  fish  days.  1  he 
like  injunctions  were  renewed  under  queen  Eliza- 
beth; but  at  the  same  time  it  was  declared,  that 
this  was  done  not  out  of  motives  of  religion,  as 
if  there  were  any  difference  in  meats,  but  in  fa- 
vour of  the  consumption  of  fish,  and  to  multiply 
the  number  of  fishermen  and  mariners,  as  well  as 
to  spare  the  stock  of  sheep.     See  Fasting. 

ABYSS,  from  the  Greek*  /Svo-o-c,-,  composed 
of  »  priv.  and  gu<nro«,  Ion.  for  £viit,  signifies  pro- 
perly without  a  bottom.  In  the  English  version 
of  the  Scriptures  it  is  rendered  by  the  deep,  the 
great  deep,  and  the  bottomless  pit.  '  Though 
primarily  used  in  reference  to  a  vast  and  unta- 
thomed  mass  of  waters,  it  is  also  applied  to  pro- 
found depths,  cavities,  and  recesses  in  general, 
whether  in  the  earth  or  in  the  sea.  As  the 
tombs  and  cemeteries  in  the  East  consisted  of 


ABYSSINIAN  CHURCH 
spacious  subterranean  vaults  or  gloomy  caverns, 
round  the  sides  of  which  were  cells  to  receive  the 
dead  bodies,  the  term  was  employed  to  denote  the 
grave,  or  the  common  receptacle  of  the  dead, 
Rom.  x.  7.  In  the  symbolical  language  of  the 
book  of  Revelation,  its  import  is  somewhat  dif- 
ferent. In  ch.  ix.  1 — 3,  at  the  sounding  of  the 
fifth  trumpet,  "  a  star  fell  from  heaven  unto  the 
earth ;  and  to  him  was  given  the  key  of  the  bot- 
tomless pit,  (literally,  of  the  ivell  of  the  abyss,) 
and  he  opened  the  bottomless  pit;  and  there 
arose  a  smoke  out  of  the  pit,  as  the  smoke  of  a 
great  furnace, — and  tir  ■  f  came  out  of  the  smoke 
locusts  upon  the  ear  h."  On  this  passage  an 
eminent  expositor  of  .rop'.i'vy  observes,  "  The 
poetic  machinery  of  this  vistrn  is  taken  from  the 
sacred  oracular  caves  of  the  ancient  Pagans, 
which  were  often  thought  to  communicate  with 
the  sea  or  the.  great  abyss,  and  which  were  es- 
pecially valued  when  (like  that  at  Delphi)  they 
emitted  an  intoxicating  vapour ;  it  is  used,  there- 
fore, with  singular  propriety  in  foretelling  the  rise 
of  a  religious  imposture."  This  symbol,  accord- 
ingly is  interpreted  by  the  best  expositors,  of  the 
rise  of  the  Mahometan  delusion  in  the  com- 
mencement of  the  7th  century,  and  as  having  a 
special  allusion  to  Mahomet's  retiring  to  the  cave 
of  Hera  for  the  purpose  of  fabricating  his  im- 
posture. Although  the  phrase  bottomless  pit  is 
in  popular  usage  employed  as  of  the  same  import 
with  hell,  yet  there  is  no  place  in  the  Scriptures 
where  it  can  be  clearly  shown  to  be  synonymous 
with  the  places  of  future  torment  of  the  wicked. 
Faber's  Sacred  Calendar  of  Prophecy;  Daubuz  on 
the  Revelation;  Schlcvsner's  Gr.  Lexicon. — B. 

ABYSSINIAN  CHURCH,  that  which  is 
established  in  the  empire  of  Abyssinia.  They 
arc  a  branch  of  the  Copts,  with  whom  they  agree 
in  admitting  only  one  nature  in  Jesus  Christ,  and 
rejecting  the  council  of  Chalccdon ;  whence  they 
are  also  called  Monophysites  and  Eutychians, 
which  see.  The  Abyssinian  church  is  governed  by 
a  bishop,  styled  Abuna.  They  have  canons  also, 
and  monks.  The  emperor  has  a  kind  of  supre- 
macy in  ecclesiastical  matters.  The  Abyssinians 
have  at  divers  times  expressed  an  inclination  to 
be  reconciled  to  the  see  of  Rome ;  but  rather 
from  interested  views  than  any  other  motive. 
They  practice  circumcision  on  females  as  well  as 
males.  They  eat  no  meats  prohibited  by  the  law 
of  Moses.  They  observe  both  Saturday  and 
Sunday  sabbaths.  Women  are  obliged  to  the 
legal  purifications.  Brothers  marry  their  brother's 
wives,  &c.  On  the  other  hand,  they  celebrate 
the  Epiphany  with  peculiar  festivity ;  have  four 
Lents;  pray  for  the  dead;  and  invoke  angels. 
Images  in  painting  they  venerate  ;  but  abhor  all 
(hose  in  relievo,  except  the  cross.  They  admit 
the  apocryphal  books  and  the  canons  of  the  apos- 
tles, as  well  as  the  apostolical  constitutions,  for 
genuine.  They  allow  of  divorce,  which  is  easily 
granted  among  them,  and  by  the  civil  judge ;  nor 
do  their  civil  laws  prohibit  polygamy. — They 
have,  at  least,  as  many  miracles  and  legends  of 
saints  as  the  Romish  church.  They  hold  that 
the  soul  of  man  is  not  created ;  because,  say  they, 
God  finished  all  his  works  on  the  sixth  day. 
Thus  we  see  that  the  doctrines  and  ritual  of  this 
sect  form  a  strange  compound  of  Judaism  and 
Christianity,  ignorance  and  superstition.  Some, 
indeed,  have  been  at  a  loss  to  know  whether 
they  axe  most  Christians  or  Jews :  it  is  to  be 
7 


ACCOMMODATION 
feared,  however,  that  there  is  little  l>eside  the 
name  of  Christianity  among  them.  Should  the 
reader  be  desirous  to  know  more  of  this  sect,  he 
may  consult  Father  Lobo's  Voyage  to  Abyssinia  ; 
Bruce 's  Travels;  Ludolph's  History  of  Ethio- 
pia ;  and  Did.  of  Arts  and  Sciences,  vol.  i.  p.  15. 

ACADEMICS,  a  denomination  given  to  the 
cultivators  of  a  species  of  philosophy  originally 
derived  from  Socrates,  and  afterwards  illus- 
trated and  enforced  by  Plato.  The  contradictory 
systems  which  had  been  successively  urged  upon 
the  world,  were  become  so  numerous,  that,  from 
a  view  of  the  variety  and  uncertainty  of  human 
opinions,  many  were  led  to  believe  that  truth  ky 
beyond  the  reach  of  our  comprehension.  The 
consequence  of  this  conclusion  was  absolute  seep 
ticism  :  hence  the  existence  of  God,  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul,  the  preferableness  of  virtue  tn 
vice,  were  all  held  as  uncertain.  This  sect,  with 
that  of  the  Epicureans,  were  the  two  chief  that 
were  in  vogue  at  the  time  of  Christ's  appearance, 
and  were  embraced  and  supported  by  persons  of 
high  rank  and  wealth.  A  consideration  of  the 
principles  of  these  two  sects  [see  Epicureans] 
will  lead  us  to  form  an  idea  of  the  deplorable  state 
of  the  world  at  the  time  of  Christ's  birth;  and  the 
necessity  there  was  of  some  divine  teacher  to  con- 
vey to  the  mind  true  and  certain  principles  of  re- 
ligion and  wisdom.  Jesus  Christ,  therefore,  is 
with  great  propriety  called  the  Day  Spring  from 
on  high,  the  Sun  of  Righteousness,  that  arose  up- 
on a  benighted  world  to  dispel  the  clouds  of  igno- 
rance and  error,  and  discover  to  lost  man  the 
path  of  happiness  and  heaven.  But,  as  we  do 
not  mean  to  enlarge  much  upon  these  and  some 
other  sects,  which  belong  rather  to  philoso- 
phy than  theology,  we  shall  refer  the  reader  to 
Budaius's  Introduction  to  the  History  of  Philoso- 
phy ;  Stanley's  Lives ;  Snicker's  History  of 
Philosophy ;  or  (which  is  more  modern)  En- 
field's Abridgment. 

ACCLAMATIONS,  ecclesiastical,  were 
shouts  of  joy  which  the  people  expressed  by  way 
of  approbation  of  their  preachers.  It  hardly 
seems  credible  to  us  that  practices  of  this  kind 
should  ever  have  found  their  way  into  the  church 
where  all  ought  to  be  reverence  and  solemnity. 
Yet  so  it  was  in  the  fourth  century.  The  people 
were  not  only  permitted,  but  sometimes  even  ex- 
horted, by  the  preacher  himself,  to  approve  his  ta- 
lents by  clapping  of  hands,  and  loud  acclamations 
of  praise.  The  usual  words  they  made  use  of 
were,  "Orthodox,"  "Third  apostle,"  &c.  These 
acclamations  being  carried  to  excess,  and  often 
misplaced,  were  frequently  prohibited  by  the  an- 
cient doctors,  and  at  length  abrogated.  Even  as 
late,  however,  as  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth 
centuries,  we  find  practices  that  were  not  very 
decorous ;  such  as  loud  humming,  frequent  groan- 
ing, strange  gestures  of  the  body,  &c.  See  ar- 
ticles Dancers,  Shakers. 

ACCOMMODATION  of  SCRIPTURE, 
is  the  application  of  it  not  to  its  literal  meaning, 
but  to  something  analogous  to  it.  Thus  a  pro- 
phecy is  said  to  be  fulfilled  properly  when  a  thing 
foretold  comes  to  pass ;  and  by  way  of  accommo- 
dation, when  an  event  happens  to  any  place  07 
people  similar  to  what  fell  out  some  time  before 
to  another.  Thus  the  words  of  Isaiah,  spoken  to 
those  of  his  own  time,  are  said  to  be  fulfilled  in 
those  who  lived  in  our  Saviour's  "Ye  hypo- 
crites, well  did  Esaias  prophesy,  "  &c.  which  suite 


ACOLYTIII 
words  St.  Paul  afterwards  accommodates  to  the 
Jews  of  his  time.  Isa.  xxfar.  11.  Matt.  xv.  8. 
Acts  xiii.  41.  Great  cure,  however,  should  be 
taken  by  preachers  who  are  fond  of  accommo- 
dating texts,  that  they  first  clearly  state  the  literal 
sense  of  the  passage. 

ACCOMMODATION  SYSTEM,  a  name 
given  to  a  peculiar  mode  of  scriptural  interpreta- 
i  ..  adopted  during  the  last  century  by  Semler 
and  other  German  divines,  which  teaches,  that 
many  tilings,  uttered  by  our  Saviour  and  his 
Apostles,  in  the  course  of  their  instructions,  are 
not  to  be  understood  as  expressing  the  actual 
reality  and  verity  of  things,  or  conveying  true 
doctrines,  but  as  merely  adopted  in  accommoda- 
tion to  the  popular  belief,  and  the  deep-rooted 
prejudice  of  the. Jews.  For  instance,  when  our 
Saviour  speaks  of  persons  being  possessed  with 
evil  spirits,  we  are  not  according  to  this  theory, 
to  imagine  there  was  really  any  such  things  as 
demoniacal  possession,  or  that  Christ  intended 
ti)  teach  thaUdoctrine;  but  as  the  notion  had  been 
long  prevalent  among  the  Jews  that  men  under  the 
influence  of  certain  bodily  diseases  were  possessed 
by  the  devil,  he  accommodated  himself  in  his 
language  to  their  weakness  and  simplicity,  "that 
he  might  win  the  more."  And  so  the  Apostles. 
See  this  dangerous  doctrine  ably  canvassed  and 
refuted  in  Stun-'*  Essay  on  the  Historical  Sense, 
translated  by  Gibbs,  or  the  original  treatise  in  liis 
Opuscula. — B. 

ACCURSED,  something  that  lies  under  a 
curse  or  sentence  of  excommunication.  In  the 
Jewish  idiom,  accursed  and  crucified  were 
synonymous :  among  them,  every  one  was  ac- 
counted accursed  who  died  on  a  tree.  This 
serves  perhaps  to  explain  the  difficult  passage  in 
Horn.  ix.  2,  where  the  apostle  wishes  himself  ac- 
cursed after  the  manner  of  Christ;  i.  e.  crucified, 
if  happily  he  might  by  such  a  death  save  his 
countrymen.  The  preposition  xtto  here  made 
use  of,  is  used  in  the  same  sense,  2  Tim.  i.  3, 
when  it  obviously  signifies  after  the  maimer  of. 

ACEPHALI.  i.  e.  headless;  from  the  priva- 
tive x,  and  xf;-«M  head;  such  bishops  were  ex- 
empt from  the  discipline  and  jurisdiction  of  their 
ordinary  bishop  or  patriarch.  It  was  also  the 
denomination  of  certain  sects ;  1.  of  those  who, 
in  the  affair  of  the  council  of  Ephesus,  refused  to 
follow  cither  St.  Cyril  or  John  of  Antiocn;  2.  of 
certain  heretics  in  the  fifth  century,  who,  at  first, 
followed  Peter  MougUS,  but  afterwards  abandoned 
him  upon  his  subscribing  to  the  council  of  Chalce- 
(1mi,  they  themselves  adhering  to  the  Eutychian 
heresy  :  and,  !>.  of  the  followers  of  Severus  of  An- 
tioeh,  and  of  all,  in  general,  who  held  out  against 
the  council  of  Chalcedon. 

ACOEMETJE,  or  AcoemetI,  an  order  of 
monks  at  Constantinople  in  the  fifth  century, 
whom  the  writers  of  that  and  the  following  ages 
called  a<oiu!t>i,  that  is,  Watchers,  because  they 
performed  divine  service  day  and  night  without 
intermission.  They  divided  themselves  into 
three  classes,  who  alternately  succeeded  one  an- 
other, su  that  they  kept  up  a  perpetual  course  of 
v  jFship.  This  practice  they  founded  upon  that 
passage — "  Pray  without  ceasing,"  1  Thess.  v.  17. 

ACOLYTIII,  or  Acolutui.  from  «xoxou8of,a 
follower,  young  people  who,  in  the  primitive 
tunes,  aspired  to  the  ministry,  and  for  that  pur- 
pose continually  attended  the  bishop.  In  the 
Romish  church,  Acolythi  were  of  longer  coiitinu- 


ACT  OF  FAITH 
ance ;  hut  their  functions  were  different  from 
those  of  their  first  institution.  Their  business 
was  to  light  the  tapers,  carry  the  candlesticks  and 
the  incense  pot,  and  prepare  the  wine  and  water. 
At  Rome  there  were  three  kinds :  1.  those  who 
waited  on  the  pope  •  2.  those  who  served  in  the 
churches ;  3.  and  others,  who  together  with  the 
deacons,  officiated  in  other  parts  of  the  city. 

ACT  OF  FAITH  (Auto  daFe,)  in  the  Ro- 
mish church,  is  a  solemn  day  held  by  the  Inquisi- 
tion for  the  punishment  of  heretics,  and  the  abso- 
lution of  the  innocent  accused.  They  usually 
contrive  the  Auto  to  fall  on  some  gTeat  festival, 
that  the  execution  ma  >  pa.  s  with  the  more  awe  ; 
and  it  is  always  on  a  Jsuhd  .y.  The  Auto  da  Ft 
may  be  called  the  last  act  of  the  inquisitorial  tra- 
gedy :  it  is  a  land  of  gaol  delivery,  appointed  as 
often  as  a  competent  number  of  prisoners  in 
the  Inquisition  are  convicted  of  heresy,  either  by 
their  own  voluntary  or  extorted  confession,  or  on 
the  evidence  of  certain  witnesses.  The  process 
is  this  : — In  the  morning  they  are  brought  into  a 
great  hall,  where  they  have  certain  habits  put  on, 
which  they  are  to  wear  in  the  procession,  and  by 
which  they  know  their  doom.  The  procession 
is  led  up  by  Dominican  friars,  after  which  come  the 
penitents,  being  all  in  black  coats  without  sleeves, 
and  barefooted,  with  a  wax  candle  in  their  hands. 
These  are  followed  by  the  penitents  who  have 
narrowly  escaped  being  burnt,  who  over  their 
black  coats  have  flames  painted,  with  their  points 
turned  downwards.  Next  come  the  negative  and 
relapsed,  who  are  to  be  burnt,  having  flames  on 
their  habits  pointing  upwards.  After  these  come 
such  as  profess  doctrines  contrary  to  the  faith  of 
Rome,  who  besides  flames  pointing  upwards, 
have  their  picture  painted  on  their  breasts,  with 
dogs,  serpents,  and  devils,  all  open-mouthed, 
about  it.  Each  prisoner  is  attended  by  a  fami- 
liar of  the  Inquisition;  and  those  to  be  burnt 
have  also  a  Jesuit  on  each  hand,  who  are  continu- 
ally preaching  to  them  to  abjure.  After  the 
prisoners,  comes  a  troop  of  familiars  on  horseback ; 
and  after  them  the  Inquisitors,  and  other  officers 
of  the  court,  on  mules:  last  of  all  the  inquisitor- 
general  on  a  white  horse,  led  by  two  men  with 
black  hats  and  green  hatbands.  A  scaffold  ia 
erected  big  enough  for  two  or  three  thousand 
people;  at  one  end  of  which  are  the  prisoners,  at 
the  other  the  Inquisitors.  After  a  sermon  made 
up  of  encomiums  on  the  Inquisition,  and  invec- 
tives against  heretics,  a  priest  ascends  a  desk  near 
the  scaffold,  and  having  taken  the  abjuration  of 
the  penitents,  recites  the  final  sentence  of  those 
who  are  to  be  put  to  death,  and  delivers  them 
to  the  secular  arm,  earnestly  beseeching  at  the 
same  time  the  secular  power  not  to  touch  their 
blood,  or  put  their  lives  in  danger!!!  The 
prisoners,  being  thus  in  the  hands  of  the  ci\il 
magistrate,  are  presently  loaded  with  chains,  and 
carried  first  to  the  secular  gaol,  and  from  thence, 
in  an  hour  or  two,  brought  before  the  civil  judge; 
who,  after  asking  in  what  religion  they  intend  to 
die,  pronounces  sentence,  on  such  as  declare  they 
die  in  the  communion  of  the  church  of  Rome, 
that  they  shall  be  first  strangled,  and  then  burnt 
to  ashes:  or  such  as  die  in  any  other  faith,  that 
they  be  burnt  alive.  Both  are  immediately  car- 
ried to  the  Ribera,  the  place  of  execution,  where 
there  are  as  many  stakes  set  up  as  there  are 
prisoners  to  be  burnt,  with  a  quantity  of  dry  fur74» 
about  them.     The  stakes  of  the  professed,  that  w 


ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES 
such  as  persist  in   the   heresy,  are   about   four 
yards  high,  having  a  small  hoard  towards  the  top 
for  the  prisoner  to  be  seated  on.     The  negative 
and  relapsed  being  first  strangled  and  burnt,  the 

Srofessed  mount  their  stakes  by  a  ladder,  and  the 
esuits,  after  several  repeated  exhortations  to  be 
reconciled  to  the  church,  part  with  them  ;  telling 
them  that  they  leave  them  to  the  devil,  who  is 
standing  at  their  elbow,  to  receive  their  souls,  and 
carry  them  with  him  to  the  flames  of  hell.  On  this 
a  great  shout  is  raised  ;  and  the  cry  is,  "Let  the 
dogs  beards  be  made .'"  which  is  done  bvthrusting 
flaming  furzes  fastened  to  long  poles  against  their 
faces,  till  their  faces  are  burnt  to  a  coal,  which  is 
accompanied  with  the  loudest  acclamadons  of  joy. 
At  last,  fire  is  set  to  the  furze  at  the  bottom  of  the 
stake,  over  wliich  the  professed  arc  chained  so 
high,  that  the  top  of  the  flame  seldom  reaches 
higher  than  the  seat  they  sit  on ;  so  that  they  ra- 
ther seem  roasted  than  burnt.  There  cannot  be  a 
more  lamentable  spectacle :  the  sufferers  continu- 
ally cry  out  while  they  are  able,  "  Pity  for  the 
love  of  God  !"  Yet  it  is  beheld  by  all  sexes  and 
ages  with  transports  of  joy  and  satisfaction. — 
O  merciful  God!  is  this  the  benign,  humane  re- 
ligion thou  hast  given  to  men?  Surely  not.  If 
such  were  the  genius  of  Christianity,  then  it 
would  be  no  honour  to  be  a  Christian.  Let  us, 
however,  rejoice  that  the  tune  is  coming  when 
the  demon  of  Persecution  shall  be  banished  out 
this  our  world,  and  the  true  spirit  of  benevolence 
and  candour  pervade  the  universe ;  when  none 
shall  hurt  or  destroy,  but  the  earth  be  filled  with 
the  knowledge  of  the  Lord,  as  the  waters  cover 
the  sea !    See  Inquisition. 

ACTION  FOR  THE  PULPIT.     See  De- 
clamation. 

ACTS  OF  THE  APOSTLES,  the  fifth  and 
last  of  the  historical  books  of  the  New  Testament, 
containing  a  great  part  of  the  lives  and  transactions 
of  Peter  and  Paul,  and  of  the  history  of  the  infant 
church  for  the  space  of  twenty-nine  or  thirty 
years  from  the  ascension  of  our  Lord  to  the  time 
of  Paul's  arrival  at  Piome  after  his  appeal  to  Cag- 
sar,  A.  D.  65.  That  Luke  was  the  author  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  is  evident  both  from  the  in- 
troduction, and  from  the  unanimous  testimonies 
of  the  early  Christians.  This  book,  as  well  as 
the  Gospel  bearing  his  name,  is  inscribed  to 
Theophilus,  and  in  the  very  first  verse  of  the 
Acts  there  is  a  reference  made  to  his  Gospel, 
which  he  calls  the  former  treatise.  From  the 
frequent  use  of  the  first  person  plural  it  is  clear 
that  he  was  present  at  most  of  the  transactions 
he  relates.  The  design  of  the  author  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  to  give  a  complete  ecclesias- 
tical history  of  the  Christian  church  during  the 
period  embraced  in -the  work;  for  he  has  almost 
wholly  omitted  what  passed  among  the  Jews  af- 
ter the  conversion  of  PauL  and  is  totally  silent 
concerning  the  spread  of  Christianity  in  the  East 
and  in  Egypt,  as  well  as  the  foundation  of  the 
church  of  Christ  at  Rome,  as  also  concerning  the 
labours  and  sufferings  of  most  of  tlic  other  Apos- 
tles besides  Peter  and  Paul;  but  to  relate  the 
most  prominent  events  connected  with  the  esta- 
blishment of  Christianity,  and  such  as  may  be 
considered  to  have  had  the  most  important  bear- 
ings upon  its  subsequent  prosperity,  among 
winch  may  be  reckoned  the  effusion  of  the  Holy 
Spirit  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  the  persecutions 
and  dispersions  of  the  early  disciples,  the  conver- 
9  B 


ADAMITES 

sion  of  Paul,  the  ail  mission  of  the  Gentiles  info 
the  church,  the  council  of  Jerusalem,  and  the 
planting  of  Christian  Churches  in  the  principal 
provinces  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  history  is 
written  with  a  tolerably  strict  attention  to  chro- 
nological order,  though  the  author  has  not  affixed 
a  date  to  any  one  of  the  facts  recorded  by  him. 
But  as  political  events,  the  dates  of  which  are 
known,  are  frequently  introduced  or  alluded  to 
in  connexion  with  the  ecclesiastical  narrative, 
the  chronology  of  the  whole  book  is  for  the  most 
part  capable  of  being  pretty  definitely  settled. 
The  style  of  the  Acts,  which  was  written  in 
Greek,  is  perspicuous  and  noble.  Though  tinc- 
tured with  Hebraisms,  it  is  in  general  much  purer 
than  that  of  most  other  books  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, particularly  in  the  speeches  delivered  by 
Paul.  The  book  forms  one  of  the  most  import- 
ant parts  of  sacred  history ;  for  without  it  neither 
the  Gospels  nor  Epistles  could  have  been  so 
clearly  understood;  and  by  the  correspondence  of 
incidental  circumstances  mentioned  in  this  history 
and  in  the  Epistles,  of  such  a  nature  as  to  show 
that  neither  the  one  nor  the  other  could  have  been 
forged,  an  irrefragable  evidence  of  the  truth  of 
Christianity  is  afiorded.  Among  the  most  im- 
portant works  expository  or  illustrative  of  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles  are  Cradock's  Apostolical 
History ;  Benson's  First  Plantingof  Christian- 
ity; Paley's  Horce  Paulina;  Hcinrich's  Acta 
Apostolorum;  Bnddeus'  Ecclcsia  Apostolica. — B. 

There  have  been  several  acts  of  the  apostles, 
such  as  the  acts  of  Abdias,  of  Peter,  of  Paul,  St. 
John  the  Evangelist,  St.  Andrew,  St.  Thomas, 
St.  Philip,  and  St.  Matthias ;  but  they  have  been 
all  proved  to  be  spurious. 

ACTS  OF  PILATE,  a  relation  sent  by  Pi- 
late to  the  Emperor  Tiberius,  concerning  Jesus 
Christ,  his  death,  resurrection,  ascension,  and 
the  crimes  of  wliich  he  was  convicted  before  him. 
It  was  a  custom  among  the  Romans,  that  the 
proconsuls  and  governors  of  provinces  should 
draw  up  acts  or  memoirs  of  what  happened  in 
the  course  of  their  government,  and  send  them  to 
the  emperor  and  senate.  The  genuine  acts  of 
Pilate  were  sent  by  him  to  Tiberius,  who  re- 
ported them  to  the  senate ;  but  they  were  rejected 
by  that  assembly,  because  not  immediately  ad- 
dressed to  them ;  as  is  testified  by  Tertullian,  in 
his  Apol.  cap.  5,  and  20,  21.  The  heretics 
forged  acts  in  imitation  of  them ;  but  both  the 
genuine  and  the  spurious  are  now  lost. 

ADAMITES,  a  sect  that  sprang  up  in  the 
second  century.  Epiphanius  tells  us  that  they 
were  called  Adamites  from  their  pretending  to 
be  re-established  in  the  state  of  innocence,  such 
as  Adam  was  at  the  moment  of  his  creation, 
whence  they  ought  to  imitate  him  in  going  naked. 
They  detested  marriage;  maintaining  that  the 
conjugal  union  would  never  have  taken  place 
upon  earth,  had  sin  been  unknown.  This  ol«- 
scure  and  ridiculous  sect  did  not  last  long.  It 
was,  however,  revived  with  additional  absurdities 
in  the  twelfth  century.  About  the  beginning  of 
the  fifteenth  century,  these  errors  spread  in  Ger- 
many and  Bohemia:  it  found  also  some  partisans 
in  Poland,  Holland,  and  England.  They  as- 
sembled in  the  night;  and,  it  is  said,  one  of  tha 
fundamental  maxims  of  their  society  was  con- 
tained in  the  following  verse  : 

Jura,  perjura,  socretum  prodcre  noli. 
Swear,  forswear,  and  revtul  not  the  secret. 


ADOPTION 

ADTAPTIORISTS,  a  name  riven  in  the  six- 
teenth century  to  the  moderate  Lutherans  who 
adhered  to  the  sentiments  of  Melancthon;  and 
afterwards  to  those  who  subscribed  the  Interim 
of  Charles  V.  [See  Intbrih.]  The  word  is  of 
Greek  origin  (*Ti*?cpos,)  and  signifies  indiffer- 
ence or  lukewarmness. 

ADMIRATION  is  that  passion  of  the  mind 
which  is  excited  by  the  discovery  of  any  great 
excellence  in  an  object.  It  has  by  some  writers 
been  used  as  synonymous  with  surprise  and 
wonder;  but  it  is  evident  they  are  not  the  same. 
Surprise  refers  to  something  unexpected;  wonder, 
to  something  great  or  strange;  but  admiration  in- 
cludes the  idea  of  high  esteem  or  respect.  Thus, 
we  say  we  admire  a  man's  excellencies ;  but  we 
do  not  say  that  we  are  surprised  at  them.  We 
wonder  at  an  extraordinary  object  or  event,  but 
we  do  not  always  admire  it. 

ADMONITION  denotes  a  hint  or  advice 
given  to  another,  whereby  we  reprove  him  for  his 
fault,  or  remind  him  of  his  duty.  Admonition 
was  a  part  of  the  discipline  much  used  in  the  an- 
cient church ;  it  was  the  first  act  or  step  towards 
the  punishment  or  expulsion  of  delinquents.  In 
case  of  private  offences,  it  was  performed  accord- 
ing to  evangelical  rule,  privately.;  in  case  of  pub- 
lic offence,  openly  before  the  church.  If  either 
of  these  sufficed  for  the  recovery  of  the  fallen 
person,  all  further  proceedings,  in  a  way  of  cen- 
sure, ceased ;  if  they  did  not,  recourse,  was  had  to 
excommunication. — Tit.  iii.  10.  1  Thess.  v.  14. 
Eph.  vi.  4. 

ADONAT,  Hebrew  <:nX,  a  title  of  the  Su- 
preme Being  in  the  Scriptures,  rendered  in  En- 
glish by  the  word  Lord.  The  original  comes 
from  Aden,  a  base,  pillar,  or  supporter;  and  it  is 
not  a  little  remarkable  that  the  etymology  of  our 
vernacular  Lord  is  precisely  similar,  it  being  a 
contraction  of  the  old  Saxon  laford,  or  hlafford, 
from  larf,  to  support  or  sustain,  the  same  root 
from  which  also  comes  the  English  word  loaf. 
The  Hebrew  Jehovah  is  likewise  translated 
Lord  in  our  Bibles,  and  this  is  known  by  its 
being  printed  in  capital  letters,  whereas  in  the 
other  case  the  common  small  character  is  employ- 
ed. The  Jews,  from  excessive  reverence,  never 
pronounce  the  name  Jehovah  when  they  meet 
with  it  in  reading  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  but 
invariably  substitute  Adonai,  which  has  the  same 
vowel  points.  But  there  is  no  law  forbidding  the 
enunciation  of  ttie  name  Jehovah;  nor  does  it 
appear  to  have  been  scrupled  by  the  ancient 
Jews. — B. 

ADONISTS,  a  party  among  divines  and 
critics,  who  maintain  that  the  Hebrew  points  or- 
dinarily annexed  to  the  consonants  of  the  word 
Jehovah  are  not  the  natural  points  belonging  to 
that  word,  nor  express  the  true  pronounciation 
of  it;  but  are  the  vowel  points  belonging  to  the 
words  Adoiuii  and  Elokim,  applied  to  the  con- 
s  mints  of  the  ineffable  name  Jehovah,  to  warn 
the  readers,  that  instead  pf  the  word  Jehovah, 
which  the  Jews  were  forbid  to  pronounce,  and 
the  true  pronunciation  of  which  had  been  long 
unknown  to  them,  they  are  always  to  read  Ado- 
nai. They  are  opposed  to  Jehovuts,  of  whom 
the  principal  are  Drusius,  Capellus,  Buxtorf, 
Ailing,  and  Reland. 

Al  ><  U'  I'll  ).\,  an  act  whereby  any  person  re- 
ceives another  into  his  family,  owns  him  for  his 
son,  and  appoints  him  his  heir.     2.    Spiritual 
10 


ADOPTION 
adoption  Is  an  act  of  God's  free  grace,  whereby 
we  are  received  into  the  number,  and  have  a 
right  to  all  the  privileges  of  the  sons  of  God.  3. 
Glorious,  is  that  in  which  the  saints,  being  raised 
from  the  dead,  are  at  the  last  day  solemnly  owned 
to  be  the  children  of  God,  and  enter  into  the  full 
possession  of  that  inheritance  provided  for  them. 
Rom.  viii.  19,  23.  Adoption  is  a  word  taken 
from  the  civil  law,  and  was  much  in  use  among 
the  Romans  in  the  Apostles'  time;  when  it  was  a 
custom  for  persons  who  had  no  children  of  their 
own,  and  were  possessed  of  an  estate,  to  prevent 
its  being  divided  or  descending  to  strangers,  to 
make  choice  of  such  as  were  agreeable  to  them, 
and  beloved  by  them,  whom  they  took  into  this 
political  relation  of  children ;  obliging  them  to 
take  their  name  upon  them,  and  to  pay  respect 
to  them  as  though  they  were  their  natural  pa- 
rents, and  engaging  in  deal  with  them  as  though 
they  had  been  so ;  and  accordingly  to  give  them  a 
right  to  their  estates,  as  an  inheritance.  This 
new  relation,  founded  in  a  mutual  consent,  is  a 
bond  of  affection ;  and  the  privilege  arising  from 
thence  is,  that  he,  who  is  in  this  sense  a  father, 
takes  care  of  and  provides  for  the  person  whom 
he  adopts,  as  though  he  were  his  son  by  nature ; 
and  therefore  civilians  call  it  an  act  of  legitima- 
tion, imitating  nature,  or  supplying  the  place  of  it. 

It  is  easy,  then,  to  conceive  the  propriety  of  the 
term  as  used  by  the  apostle,  in  reference  to  this 
act,  though  it  must  be  confessed  there  is  some 
difference  between  civil  and  spiritual  adoption. 
Civil  adoption  was  allowed  of  and  provided  for 
the  relief  and  comfort  of  those  who  had  no  chil- 
dren ;  but  in  spiritual  adoption  this  reason  does 
not  appear.  The  Almighty  was  under  no  obli- 
gation to  do  this;  for  he  had  innumerable  spirits 
whom  he  had  created,  besides  his  own  Son,  who 
had  all  the  perfections  of  the  divine  nature,  who 
was  the  object  of  his  delight,  and  who  is  styled 
the  heir  ot  all  things,  Heb.  i.  3.  When  men 
adopt,  it  is  on  account  of  some  excellency  in  the 
persons  who  are  adopted  :  thus  Pharaoh's  daugh- 
ter adopted  Moses  because  he  was  exceeding  fair, 
Acts  vii.  20,  21 ;  and  Mordecai  adopted  Esther 
because  she  was  his  uncle's  daughter,  and  ex- 
ceeding fair,  Est.  ii.  7;  but  man  has  nothing  in 
him  that  merits  this  divine  act,  Ezek.  xvi.  5.  In 
civil  adoption,  though  the  name  of  a  son  be  given, 
the  nature  of  a  son  may  not :  this  relation  may 
not  necessarily  be  attended  with  any  change  of 
disposition  or  temper.  But  in  the  spiritual  adop- 
tion we  are  made  partakers  of  the  divine  nature, 
and  a  temper  or  disposition  given  us  becoming 
the  relationship  we  bear.     Jer.  iii.  l'J. 

Much  has  been  said  as  to  the  time  of  adoption. 
Some  place  it  before  regeneration,  liecause  it  is 
supposed  we  must  be  in  the  family  l>efore  we  can 
be  partakers  of  the  blessings  of  it.  But  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  conceive  of  one  before  the  other;  for  al- 
though adoption  may  seem  to  precede  regenera- 
tion in  order  of  nature,  yet  not  of  time;  they  may 
be  distinguished,  but  cannot  be  separated.  "As 
many  as  received  him,  to  them  gave  he  power  to 
become  the  sons  of  God,  even  to  them  that  be- 
lieve on  his  name."  John  i.  12.  There  is  no 
adoption,  says  the  great  Chamock,  without  re- 
generation. "Adoption,"  says  the  same  author, 
"  is  not  a  mere  relation :  the  privilege  and  the 
image  of  the  sons  of  God  go  together.  A  state 
of  adoption  is  ntver  without  a  separation  from 
defileou-nt."    2  Cor.  vi.  17.  18.     The  new  name 


ADULTERY 
m  adoption  is  never  given  till  the  new  creature 
be  formed  "As  many  as  are  led  by  the  Spirit 
of  God,  they  are  the  sons  of  God."  Rom.  viii.  11. 
Yet  these  are  to  be  distinguished.  Regeneration, 
as  a  physical  act,  gives  us  a  likeness  to  God  in 
our  nature ;  adoption,  as  a  legal  act,  gives  us  a 
right  to  an  inheritance.  Regeneration  makes  us 
formally  his  sons,  by  conveying  a  principle,  1 
Pet.  i.  23;  adoption  makes  us  relatively  his  sons, 
by  conveying  a  power,  John  i.  12.  By  the  one 
we  are  instated  in  the  divine  affection;  by  the 
other  we  are  partakers  of  the  divine  nature." 

See  Ridgley's  and  Gill's  Body  of  Div.  art. 
Adoption;  Charnock's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  32 — 72; 
FlaveVs  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  601 ;  Brown's  System 
of  Nat.  and  Rev.  Religion,  p.  442;  Witsii 
(Econ.  Feed.  p.  165. 

ADORATION,  the  act  of  rendering  divine 
honours,  including  in  it  reverence,  esteem,  and 
love :  this  is  called  supreme,  or  absolute.  The 
word  is  compounded  of  ad,  "  to,"  and  os,  oris, 
"mouth:"  and  literally  signifies  to  apply  the 
hand  to  the  mouth,  "to  kiss  the  hand;"  this  be- 
ing, in  the  eastern  countries,  one  of  the  great 
marks  of  respect  and  submission.  See  Jobxxxi. 
2(5,  27.  The  attitude  of  adoration,  however,  we 
find  has  not  been  confined  to  this  mode;  standing, 
kneeling,  uncovering  the  head,  prostration,  bow- 
ing, lifting  up  the  eyes  to  heaven,  or  sometimes 
fixing  them  upon  the  earth  with  the  body  bend- 
ing forward  ;  sitting  with  the  under  j>arts  of  the 
thighs  resting  on  the  heels,  have  all  been  used,  as 
expressive  of  veneration  and  esteem.  Whatever 
be  the  form,  however,  it  must  be  remembered, 
that  adoration,  as  an  act  of  worship,  is  due  to  God 
alone,  Matt.  iv.  10.  Acts  x.  25, 26.  Rev.  xix.  10. 
There  is,  2.  what  may  be  called  adoration  human, 
or  paying  homage  or  respect  to  persons  of  great 
rank  and  dignity.  This  has  been  performed  by 
Itowing,  bending  the  knee,  falling  on  the  face. 
The  practice  of  adoration  may  be  said  to  be  still 
subsisting  in  England,  in  the  ceremony  of  kiss- 
ing the  king's  or  queen's  hand,  and  in  serving 
them  at  table,  both  being  performed  kneeling  on 
one  knee.  There  is  also,  3.  adoration  relative, 
which  consists  in  worship  paid  to  an  object  as  be- 
longing to  or  representative  of  another.  In  tliis 
sense  the.  Romanists  profess  to  adore  the  cross, 
not  simply  or  immediately,  but  in  respect  of  Jesus 
Christ,  whom  they  suppose  to  be  on  it.  This  is 
generally,  however,  considered  by  Protestants  as 
coming  little  short  of  idolatry.     See  Idolatry. 

ADULTERY,  an  unlawful  commerce  be- 
tween one  married  person  and  another,  or  between 
a  married  and  unmarried  person. — 2.  It  is  also 
used  in  Scripture  for  idolatry,  or  departing  from  the 
true  God,  Jer.  iii.  9. — 3.  Also  for  any  species  of 
impurity  or  crime  against  the  virtue  of  chastity, 
Matt.  v.  28. — 4.  It  is  also  used  in  ecclesiastical 
writers  for  a  person's  invading  or  intruding  into 
a  bishopric  during  the  former  bishop's  lite. — 5. 
The  word  is  also  used  in  ancient  customs  for  the 
punishment  or  fine  imposed  for  that  offence,  or 
the  privilege  of  prosecuting  for  it.  Although 
adultery  is  prohibited  by  the  law  of  God,  yet  some 
have  endeavoured  to  explain  away  the  moral  tur- 
pitude of  it ;  but  it  is  evident,  observes  Paley,  that, 
on  the  part  of  the  man  who  solicits  the  chastity 
of  a  married  woman,  it  certainly  includes  the 
crime  of  seduction,  and  is  attended  with  mischief 
still  more  extensive  and  complicated  :  it  creates  a 
new  sufferer,  the  injured  husband,  upon  whose 
11 


AERIANS 

affection  is  inflicted  a  wound  the  most  painful 
and  incurable  that  human  nature  knows.  The 
infidelity  of  the  woman  is  aggravated  by  cruelty 
to  her  children,  who  are  generally  involved  in 
their  parent's  shame,  and  always  made  unhappy 
by  their  quarrel.  The  marriage  vow  is  witnessed 
before  God,  and  accompanied  with  circumstances 
of  solemnity  and  religion  which  approach  to  the 
nature  of  an  oath.  The  married  offender,  there- 
fore, incurs  a  crime  little  short  of  perjury,  and  the 
seduction  of  a  married  woman  is  little  less  than 
subornation  of  perjury.  But  the  strongest  apo- 
logy for  adultery  is,  the  prior  transgression  of  the 
other  party;  and  so  far,  indeed,  as  the  bad  effects 
of  adultery  are  anticipated  by  the  conduct  of  the 
husband  or  wife  who  offends  first,  the  guilt  of  the 
second  offender  is  extenuated.  But  this  can  never 
amount  to  a  justification,  uidess  it  could  be  shown 
that  the  obligation  of  the  marriage  vow  depends 
upon  the  condition  of  reciprocal  fidelity :  a  con- 
struction which  appears  founded  neither  in  expe- 
diency, nor  in  the  terms  of  the  vow,  nor  in  the 
design  of  the  legislature,  which  prescribed  the 
marriage  rite.  To  consider  the  offence  upon  the 
footing  of  provocation,  therefore,  can  by  no  means 
vindicate  retaliation.  "  Thou  shalt  not  commit 
adultery,"  it  must  ever  be  remembered,  was  an 
interdict  delivered  by  God  himself.  This  crime 
has  been  punished  in  almost  all  ages  and  nations. 
By  the  Jewish  law  it  was  punished  with  death  in 
both  parties,  where  either  the  woman  was  mar- 
ried, or  both.  Among  the  Egyptians,  adultery 
in  the  man  was  punished  by  a  thousand  lashes 
with  rods,  and  in  the  woman  by  the  loss  of  her 
nose.  The  Greeks  put  out  the  eyes  of  the  adul- 
terers. Among  the  Romans,  it  was  punished  by 
banishment,  cutting  off  the  ears,  noses,  and  by 
sewing  the  adulterers  in  sacks,  and  tluowing 
them  into  the  sea  ;  scourging,  burning.  &c.  1  n 
Spain  and  Poland  they  were  almost  as  severe. 
The  Saxons  formerly  burnt  the  adulteress,  and 
over  her  ashes  erected  a  gibbet,  whereon  the 
adulterer  was  hanged.  King  Edmund,  in  this 
kingdom,  ordered  adultery  to  be  punished  in  the 
saTie  manner  as  homicide.  Canute  ordered  the 
man  to  be  banished,  and  the  women  to  ha\e  hei 
nose  and  ears  cut  off.  Modern  punishments  in 
different  nations,  do  not  seem  to  be  so  severe.  In 
Britain  it  is  reckoned  a  spiritual  offence,  and  is 
cognizable  by  the  spiritual  courts,  where  it  is  pun- 
ished by  fine  and  penance.  Sec  Paley's  Alora^ 
and  Political  Philosophy,  p.  309.  vol.  i,  12th 
edition. 

AERIANS,  the  name  of  a  sect  which  arose  in 
the  fourth  century,  under  the  reign  of  Constau- 
tine,  so  called  from  Aerius,  a  presbyter  of  Scbas- 
tia  in  Pontus,  their  founder.  The  errors  laid  to 
the  charge  of  Aerius  by  Epiphanius  are,  1.  That 
a  presbyter  or  elder  differs  not  in  order  and  degree 
from  a  bishop,  but  he  who  is  a  presbyter  is  called 
a  bishop.  2.  That  there  is  properly  speaking  no 
passover  remaining  to  be  observed  or  celebrated 
among  Christians.  3.  That  fasts  ought  not  to  be 
fixed  to  certain  and  stated  annual  days  and  so- 
lemnities. 4.  That  prayers  ought  not  to  be  offered 
for  the  dead.  It  must  he  accounted  st.'ange,  that 
these  doctrines  should,  with  orthodox  Christians, 
ever  be  adduced  as  evidence  of  heresy.  And, 
accordingly,  the  reader  will  find  in  the  works  ot 
Mr.  John  Glas,  vol.  iv.  an  able  attempt  to  vindi- 
cate the  character  of  Aerius  from  the  opprobrium 
usually  cast  upon  it  by  ecclesiastical  writers. — B. 


AFFECTION 

AETIANS,  those  who  maintained  thai  the 
Pirn  and  Holy  Ghost  were  in  all  things  dissimi- 
lar to  the  Father.  They  received  their  name  from 

A'tius,  one  of  the  most  zealous  defenders  of 
Arianism,  who  was  l>orn  in  Syria,  and  flourished 
al>out  the  year  3".5(>.  Besides  the  opinions  which 
the  Aetians  held  in  common  with  the  Arians, 
they  maintained  that  faith  without  works  was 
sufficient  to  salvation;  and  that  no  sin,  how- 
ever grievous,  would  lie  imputed  to  the  faithful. 
Aetius,  moreover,  affirmed,  that  what  God  had 
ronceuled  from  the  apostles,  he  had  revealed  to 
him. 

AFFECTION,  in  a  philosophical  sense,  re- 
fers to  the  manner  in  which  we  are  affected  hy 
any  thing  for  a  continuance,  whether  painful  or 
pleasant ;  but  in  the  most  common  sense,  it  may 
lie  defined  to  be  a  settled  bent  of  mind  towards  a 
particular  being  or  thing.  It  holds  a  middle  place 
between  disposition  on  the  one  hand,  and  passion 
on  the  other.  It  is  distinguishable  from  disposi- 
tion, which,  being  a  branch  of  one's  nature  ori- 
ginally, must  exist  before  there  can  be  any  op- 
portunity to  exert  it  upon  any  particular  object; 
whereas  affection  can  never  be  original,  because, 
having  a  special  relation  to  a  particular  object,  it 
cannot  exist  till  the  object  have  once,  at  least, 
been  presented.  It  is  also  distinguishable  from 
passion,  which,  depending  on  the  real  or  ideal 
presence  of  its  object,  vanishes  with  its  object ; 
whereas  affection  is  a  lasting  connexion,  and, 
like  other  connexions,  subsists  even  when  we  do 
not  think  of  the  object.  [See  Disposition'  and 
Passion.]  The  alfections,  as  they  respect  reli- 
gion, deserve  in  this  place  a  little  attention.  They 
may  be  defined  to  be  the  "vigorous  and  sensible 
exercises  of  the  inclination  and  will  of  the  soul 
towards  religious  objects."  Whatever  extremes 
stoics  or  enthusiasts  have  Tun  into,  it  is  evident 
that  the  exercise  of  the  affections  is  essential  to 
the  existence  of  true  religion.  It  is  true,  indeed, 
"that  all  affectionate  devotion  is  not  wise  and 
rational ;  but  it  is  no  less  true,  that  all  wise  and 
rational  devotion  must  be  affectionate."  The 
affections  are  the  springs  of  action  :  they  belong 
to  our  nature,  so  that  with  the  Inghest  percep- 
tions of  truth  and  religion,  we  should  be  inactive 
without  them.  They  have  considerable  influence 
on  men,  in  the  common  concerns  of  life ;  how 
much  more,  then,  should  they  operate  in  those 
important  objects  that  relate  to  the  Divine  Being, 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and  the  happiness  or 
misery  of  a  future  state  !  The  religion  of  the 
most  eminent  saints  has  always  consisted  in  the 
exercise  of  holy  aflections.  Jesus  Christ  himself 
affords  us  an  example  of  the  most  lively  and 
vigorous  aflections  ;  and  we  have  every  reason  to 
believe  that  the  employment  of  heaven  consists  in 
the  exercise  of  them.  In  addition  to  all  which, 
the  Scriptures  of  truth  teach  us,  that  religion  is 
nothing,  if  it  occupy  not  the  aflections,  Deut.  id. 
4  and").  Deut.  xxx.  (3.  Horn.  xii.  11.  1  Cor.  xiii. 
13.   Ps.  xxvii.  11. 

A  distinction,  however,  must  be  made  between 
what  may  be  merely  natural,  and  what  is  truly 
spiritual.  The  affections  may  be  excited  in  a 
natural  way  under  ordinances  by  a  natural  im- 
pression, E/.ek.  xxxiii.  32;  by  a  natural  syvipa- 
tliy,  or  by  the  natural  temperament  of  our  con- 
stitution. It  is  no  sign  that  our  affections  are 
spiritual  because  they  are  raised  very  high  ;  pro- 
duce great  eHects  on  the  body ;  excite  us  to  be 

a 


AFFLICTION 
very  zealous  in  externals;  to  be  always  conversing 
about  ourselves,   &c.      These  things   are  often 
found  in  these  who  are  only  mere  professors  of 
religion,  Matt.  vii.  21,  22. 

Now,  in  order  to  ascertain  whether  our  affec- 
tions are  excited  in  ;i  spiritual  manner,  we  must 
inquire  whether  that  which  moves  our  affections 
be  truly  spiritual;  whether  our  consciences  be 
alarmed,  and  our  hearts  impressed;  whether  the 
judgment  lie  enlightened,  and  we  have  a  percep- 
tion of  the  moral  excellency  of  divine  things  ;  and, 
lastly,  whether  our  affections  have  a  holy  ten- 
dency, and  produce  the  happy effects  of  obedience 
to  God,  humility  in  ourselves,  and  justice  to  our 
fellow-creatures.  As  this  is  a  subject  worthy  of 
close  attention,  the  reader  may  consult  Lord 
Kaimes's  Elements  of  Criticism,  vol.  ii.  p.  517; 
Edwards  on  the  Affection*;  Pike  and  Hayward's 
Cases  of  Conscience  ;  W'atls's  J 'se  and  Abuse  of 
the  Passions  ;  M'Laurin' a  Essays,  sect.  5  and  ti, 
where  tins  subject  is  handled  in  a  masterly  man- 
ner. 

AFFLICTION,  that  which  causes  a  sensa- 
tion of  pain.  Calamity  or  distress  of  any  kind. 
The  afflictions  of  the  saints  are  represented,  in 
the  Scripture,  as  appointed,  1  These,  iii.  3.  Job 
v.  G,  j  ;  numerous,  Ps.  xxxiv.  19;  transient,  2 
Cor.  iv.  17.  Heb.  x.  37;  and,  when  sanctified, 
beneficial,  1  Pet.  i.  6.  Ps.  cxix.  G7,  71.  They 
wean  from  the  world  ;  work  submission  ;  produce 
humility ;  excite  to  diligence  ;  stir  up  to  prayer ; 
and  conform  us  to  the  divine  image.  To  bear 
them  with  patience,  we  should  consider  our  own 
unwerthiness ;  the  design  of  God  in  sending 
them;  the  promises  of  support  under  them  ;  and 
the  real  good  they  are  productive  of.  The  afflic- 
tions of  a  good  man,  says  an  elegant  writer,  never 
befal  without  a  cause,  nor  are  sent  but  upon  a  pro- 
per errand.  These  storms  are  never  allowed  to  rise 
but  in  order  to  dispel  some  noxious  vapours,  and 
restore  salubrity  to  the  moral  atmosphere.  Who 
that  for  the  first  time  beheld  the  earth  in  the  midst 
of  winter,  bound  up  with  frost,  or  drenched  in  floods 
of  rain,  or  covered  with  snow,  would  have  ima- 
gined that  nature,  in  this  dreary  and  torpid  state, 
was  working  towards  its  own  renovation  in  the 
spring?  Yet  we  by  experience  know  that  those 
vicissitudes  of  winter  are  necessary  for  fertilising 
the  earth  ;  and  that  under  wintry  rains  and  snows 
lie  concealed  the  seeds  of  those  roses  that  are  to 
blossom  in  the  spring ;  of  those  fruits  that  are  to 
ripen  in  the  summer ;  and  of  the  corn  and  wine 
which  are,  in  harvest,  fo  make  glad  the  heart  of 
man.  It  would  be  more  agreeable  to  us  to  be 
always  entertained  with  a  fair  and  clear  atmo- 
sphere, with  cloudless  skies,  and  perpetual  sun- 
shine ;  yet  in  such  climates  as  we  have  most 
knowledge  of,  the  earth,  were  it  always  to  remain 
in  such  a  state,  would  refuse  to  yield  its  fruits ; 
and,  in  the  midst  of  our  imagined  scenes  of  beauty, 
the  starved  inhabitants  would  perish  for  want  of 
food.  Let  us,  therefore,  quietly  submit  to  Provi- 
dence. Let  us  conceive  this  life  to  be  the  winter 
of  our  existence.  Now  the  rains  must  fall,  and 
the  winds  must  roar  around  us;  but,  sheltering 
ourselves  under  Him  who  is  the  "covert  from  the 
tempest,"  let  us  wait  with  patience  till  the  storms 
of  life  shall  terminate  in  an  everlasting  calm. 
Blair's  Ser.  vol.  v.  ser.  5;  Vincent,  Case,  and 
Adtlington,  on  Affliction;  ll'illison's  Afflicted 
Man's  Companion. 

AGAPit,   or  Love-Feasts,  (from    <*>  **•!,, 


AGNOET.E 

"love,")  feasts  of  charity  among  the  ancient 
Christians,  when  liberal  contributions  were  made 
by  the  rich  to  the  poor.  St.  Chrysostom  gives 
the  following  account  of  this  feast,  which  he  de- 
rives from  the  apostolic  practice.  He  says, — 
"  The  first  Christians  had  all  things  in  common, 
as  we  read  in  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles ;  but  when 
that  equality  of  possessions  ceased,  as  it  did  even 
in  the  apostles'  time,  the  Agape  or  love-feast  was 
substituted  in  the  room  of  it.  Upon  certain  days, 
after  partaking  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  they  met  at 
a  common  feast ;  the  rich  bringing  provisions,  and 
the  poor,  who  had  nothing,  being  invited."  It 
was  always  attended  with  receiving  the  holy  sa- 
crament; but  there  is  some  difference  between 
the  ancient  and  modern  interpreters  as  to  the 
circumstance  of  time ;  viz.  whether  this  feast  was 
held  before  or  after  the  communion.  St.  Chry- 
sostom is  of  the  latter  opinion ;  the  learned  Dr. 
Cave  of  the  former.  These  love-feasts,  during 
the  first  three  centuries,  were  held  in  the  church 
without  scandal  or  offence;  but  in  after-times 
the  heathens  began  to  tax  them  with  impurity. 
This  gave  occasion  to  a  reformation  of  these 
Agapse.  The  kiss  of  charity,  with  which  the 
ceremony  used  to  end,  was  no  longer  given  be- 
tween different  sexes ;  and  it  was  expressly  for- 
bidden to  have  any  beds  or  couches  for  tin  conve- 
niency  of  those  who  should  be  disposed  to  tat 
more  at  their  ease.  Notwithstanding  these  pie- 
cautions,  the  abuses  committed  in  them  became 
so  notorious,  that  the  holding  them  (in  churches 
at  least)  was  solemnly  condemned  at  the  council 
of  Carthage  in  the  year  397.  Attempts  have  been 
made,  of  late  years,  to  revive  these  feasts  :  but  in 
a  different  manner  from  the  primitive  custom,  and, 
perhaps,  with  little  edification.  They  are,  how- 
ever, not  very  general. 

AGAPETiE,  a  name  given  to  certain  virgins 
and  widows,  who  in  the  ancient  church  associated 
themselves  with  and  attended  on  ecclesiastics,  out 
of  a  motive  of  piety  and  charity.  See  Deacon- 
esses. 

AGENDA,  among  divines  and  philosophers, 
signify  the  duties  which  a  man  lies  under  an 
obligation  to  perform:  thus  we  meet  with  the 
agenda  of  a  Christian,  or  the  duties  he  ought  to 
i>erform,  in  opposition  to  the  credenda,  or  tilings 
he  is  to  believe.  It  is  also  applied  to  the  ser- 
vice or  office  of  the  church,  and  to  church  books 
compiled  by  public  authority,  prescribing  the  or- 
der to  be  observed  ;  and  amounts  to  the  same  as 
ritual,  formulary,  directory,  missal,  &c. 

AGENT,  that  which  acts ;  opposed  topaticnt, 
or  that  which  is  acted  upon. 

AGENTS,  moral.     See  Moral  Agent. 

AGNOET^E,  (from  *yv„£co,  "  to  be  ignorant 
of?')  a  sect  which  appeared  about  370.  They 
railed  in  question  the  omniscience  of  God  ;  alleg- 
ing that  he  knew  things  past  only  by  memory, 
and  things  future  only  by  an  uncertain  prescience. 
There  arose  another  sect  of  the  same  name  in  the 
sixth  century,  who  followed  Themistius,  deacon 
of  Alexandria.  They  maintained  that  Christ 
was  ignorant  of  certain  things,  and  particularly 
of  the  time  of  the  day  of  judgment.  It  is  supposed 
they  built  their  hypothesis  on  that  passage  in 
Mark  xiii.  30. — "Of  that  day  and  that  hour 
knoweth  no  man ;  no,  not  the  angels  which  are 
in  heaven,  neither  the  Son,  but  the  Father."  The 
meaning  of  which,  most  probably,  is,  that  this  was 
not  known  to  the  Messiah  himself  in  his  human 
13 


ALBIGENSES 

nature,  or  by  virtue  of  his  unction,  as  any  part 
of  the  mysteries  he  was  to  reveal ;  for,  considering 
him  as  God,  he  could  not  be  ignorant  of  any  thing. 
AGNUS  DEI,  in  the  church  of  Rome,  a  cake 
of  wax,  stamped  with  the  figure  of  a  lamb  sup- 
porting the  banner  of  the  cross.  The  name  lite- 
rally signifies  "  Lamb  of  God."  These  cakes, 
being  consecrated  by  the  pope  with  great  so- 
lemnity, and  distributed  among  the  people,  are 
supposed  to  have  great  virtues.  They  cover  them 
with  a  piece  of  stuff  cut  in  the  form  of  a  heart, 
and  carry  them  very  devoutly  in  their  processions. 
The  Romish  priests  and  religious  derive  conside- 
rable pecuniary  advantage  from  selling  them  to 
some,  and  presenting  them  to  others. 

AGONISTICI,  a  name  given  by  Donatus  to 
such  of  his  disciples  as  he  sent  to  fairs,  markets, 
and  other  public  places,  to  propagate  his  doctrine. 
Thev  were  called  Agonistici  from  the  Greek  xyw, 
"combat,"  because  they  were  sent,  as  it  were,  to 
fight  and  subdue  the  people  to  their  opinions.  See 
Doxatist. 

AGONYCLIT^E,  a  sect  of  Christians  in  the 
seventh  century,  who  prayed  always  standing,  as 
thinking  it  unlawful  to  kneel. 

AGYNIANI,  a  sect  which  appeared  about 
694.  They  condemned  all  use  of  flesh  and  mar- 
riage as  not  instituted  by  God,  but  introduced  at 
the  instigation  of  the  devil. 

ALASCANI,  a  sect  of  Anti-lutherans  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  whose  distinguishing  tenet, 
besides  their  denying  baptism,  is  said  to  have 
been  this,  that  the  words,  "  This  is  my  body,"  in 
the  institution  of  the  eucharist,  are  not  to  be  un- 
derstood of  the  bread,  but  of  the  whole  action  or 
celebration  of  the  supper. 

ALBANENSES,  a  denomination  which  com- 
menced about  the  year  796.  They  held,  with  the 
Gnostics  and  Manicheans,  two  principles,  the  one 
of  good,  and  the  other  of  evil.  They  denied  the 
divinity  and  even  the  humanity  of  Jesus  Christ ; 
asserting  that  he  was  not  truly  man,  did  not  suffer 
on  the  cross,  die,  rise  again,  nor  really  ascend  into 
heaven.  They  rejected  the  doctrine  of  the  resur- 
rection, affirmed  that  the  general  judgment  was 
past,  and  that  hell  torments  were  no  other  than 
the  evils  we  feel  and  sutler  in  this  life.  They 
denied  free-will,  did  not  admit  original  sin,  and 
never  administered  baptism  to  infants.  They 
held  that  a  man  can  give  the  Holy  Spirit  of  him- 
self, and  that  it  is  unlawful  for  a  Christian  to  take 
an  oath. 

This  denomination  derived  their  name  from 
the  place  where  their  spiritual  ruler  resided.  See 
Manicheans  and  Catheimst. 

ALBANOIS,  a  denomination  which  sprung 
up  in  the  eighth  century,  and  renewed  the  great- 
est part  of  the  Manichean  principles.  They  also 
maintained  that  the  world  was  from  eternity.  See 
Manicheans. 

ALBIGENSES,  a  party  of  reformers  about 
Toulouse  and  the  Alhigeois,  in  Languedoc,  who 
sprung  up  in  the  twelfth  century,  and  distinguish- 
ed themselves  by  their  opposition  to  the  church  of 
Rome.  They  were  charged  with  many  errors  by 
the  monks  of  those  days ;  but  from  these  charges 
they  are  generally  acquitted  by  the  Protestants, 
who  consider  them  only  as  the  inventions  of  the 
Romish  church  to  blacken  their  character.  The 
Albigenses  grew  so  formidable,  that  the  Catholics 
agreed  upon  a  holy  league  or  crusade  against 
them.  Pope  Innocent  III.  desirous  to  put  a 
B 


ALMARICIANS 

stop  to  their  progress,  stirred  up  the  great  men  of 
the  kingdom  to  make  war  upon  them.  After 
suffering  from  their  persecutors,  they  dwindled 
by  little  and  little,  till  the  time  of  the  Reformation  ; 
when  such  of  them  as  were  left,  fell  in  with  the 
Vaudois,  and  conformed  to  the  doctrine  of  Zuin- 
glius,  and  the  disciples  of  Geneva.  The  Albi- 
genses  have  been  frequently  confounded  with  the 
Waldenses ;  from  whom  it  is  said  they  differ  in 
many  respects,  both  as  being  prior  to  them  in 
point  of  time,  as  having  their  origin  in  a  different 
country,  and  as  being  charged  with  divers  here- 
sies, particularly  Manicheism,  from  which  the 
Waldenses  were  exempt.     See  Wai.df.nses. 

ALEXANDRIAN  MANUSCRIPT,  a  fa- 
mous copy  of  the  Scriptures,  in  four  volumes 
quarto.  It  contains  the  whole  Bible  in  Greek, 
including  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  with  the 
Apocrypha  and  some  smaller  pieces,  but  not  quite 
complete.  It  is  preserved  in  the  British  Museum  : 
it  was  sent  as  a  present  to  king  Charles  I,  from 
Cyrillus  Lucaris,  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  by 
Sir  Thomas  Rowe,  ambassador  from  England  to 
the  Grand  Seignior,  about  the  year  1628.  Cyril- 
lus brought  it  with  him  from  Alexandria,  where 
probably  it  was  written.  In  a  schedule  annexed 
to  it,  he  gives  this  account : — That  it  was  written, 
as  tradition  informed  them,  by  Thecla,  a  noble 
Egyptian  lady,  about  1300  years  ago,  not  long 
after  the  council  of  Nice.  But  this  high  anti- 
quity, and  the  authority  of  the  tradition  to  which 
the  patriarch  refers,  have  been  disputed  ;  nor  are 
the  most  accurate  biblical  writers  agreed  about  its 
age.  Grabe  tliinks  that  it  might  have  been  writ- 
ten before  the  end  of  the  fourth  century  ;  others 
are  of  opinion  that  it  was  not  written  till  near  the 
end  of  the  fifth  century,  or  somewhat  later.  See 
Dr.  Woide's  edition  of  it. 

ALEXANDRIAN  VERSION,  another 
name  for  the  Septuagint,  a  Greek  translation  of 
the  Old  Testament,  so  called  from  its  having  been 
made  at  the  command  of  Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 
king  of  Egypt,  for  the  use  of  the  great  library  at 
Alexandria.     See  Septuagint. — B. 

ALKORAN.    See  Koran. 

ALL-SUFFICIENCY  OF  GOD,  is  that 
power  or  attribute  of  his  nature  whereby  he  is  able 
to  communicate  as  much  blessedness  to  his  crea- 
tures as  he  is  pleased  to  make  them  capable  of  re- 
ceiving. As  his  self-sufficiency  is  that  whereby 
he  has  enough  in  himself  to  denominate  him 
completely  blessed,  as  a  God  of  infinite  perfection ; 
so  his  all-sufficiency  is  that  by  which  he  hath 
enough  in  liimself  to  satisfy  the  most  enlarged 
dt'sirvs  of  his  creatures,  and  to  make  them  com- 
pletely blessed.  We  practically  deny  this  perfec- 
tion, when  we  are  discontented  with  our  present 
condition,  and  desire  more  than  God  has  allotted 
f>r  us,  Gen.  iii.  5.  Prov.  xix.  3.  Ridgley's  Body 
of  Div.  ques.  17 ;  Saurin's  Scr.  scr.  5.  vol.  i. : 
Barrow's  Works,  vol.  ii.  ser.  11. 

ALMARICIANS,  a  denomination  that  arose 
in  the  thirteenth  century.  They  derived  their 
origin  from  Almaric,  professor  of  logic  and  the- 
ology at  Paris.  11:.*  adversaries  charged  him  with 
having  taught  that  every  Christian  was  obliged 
to  believe  himself  a  member  of  Jesus  Christ,  and 
that  without  this  belief  none  could  be  saved.  His 
followers aaserta I  that  the  power  of  the  Father  had 
Continued  only  during  the  Mosaic  dispensation, 
that  of  the  Son  twelve  hundred  years  after  his  en- 
trance upon  earth;  and  that  in  the  thirteenth 
11 


AMAURITES 

century  the  age  of  the  Holy  Spirit  commence^ 
in  which  the  sacraments,  and  all  external  wor- 
ships were  to  be  abolished  ;  and  that  every  one 
was  to  be  saved  by  the  internal  operation  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  alone,  without  any  external  act  of  re- 
ligion. 

ALMONER,  a  person  employed  by  another, 
in  the  distribution  of  charity.  In  its  primitivo 
sense  it  denoted  an  officer  in  religious  houses,  to 
whom  belonged  the  management  and  distribution 
of  the  alms  of  the  house. 

ALMS,  what  is  given  gratuitously  for  the  re- 
lief of  the  poor,  and  in  repairing  the  churches. 
That  alms-giving  is  a  duty  is  every  way  evident 
from  the  variety  of  passages  which  enjoin  it  in 
the  sacred  Scriptures.  It  is  observable,  however, 
what  a  number  of  excuses  are  made  by  those  who 
are  not  found  in  the  exercise  of  the  duty;  1. 
That  they  have  nothing  to  spare ;  2.  That  cha- 
rity begins  at  home;  3.  That  charity  does  not 
consist  in  giving  money,  but  in  benevolence, 
love  to  all  mankind,  &c. ;  4.  That  giving  to  the 
poor  is  not  mentioned  in  St.  Paul's  description  of 
charity,  1  Cor.  xiii;  5.  That  they  pay  the  poor- 
rates;  6.  That  they  employ  many  poor  persons, 
7.  That  the  poor  do  not  sutler  so  much  as  we 
imagine ;  8.  That  these  people,  give  them  what 
you  will,  will  never  be  thankful ;  9.  That  we  are 
liable  to  be  imposed  upon ;  10.  That  they  should 
apply  to  their  parishes ;  11.  That  giving  money 
encourages  idleness;  12.  That  we  have  too 
many  objects  of  charity  at  home.  O  the  love  of 
money,  how  fruitful  is  it  in  apologies  for  a  con- 
tracted mercenary  spirit !  In  giving  of  alms,  how- 
ever, the  following  rules  should  be  observed: 
first,  They  should  be  given  with  justice ;  only  our 
own,  to  which  we  have  a  just  right,  should  be 
given.  2.  With  cheerfuhiess,  Deut.  xv.  10.  2. 
Cor.  ix.  7.  3.  With  simplicity  and  sincerity, 
Rom.  xii.  Matt.  vi.  3.  4.  With  compassion  and 
affection,  Is.  Iviii.  10.  1  John  iii.  17.  5.  Season- 
ably, Gal.  vi.  10.  Prov.  iv.  27.  0.  Bountifully 
Deut.  xviii.  11.  1  Tim.  vi.  18.  7.  Prudently, 
according  to  every  one's  need,  1  Tim.  v.  8.  Acts 
iv.  35.  See  Dr.  Barrow's  admirable  Sermon  on 
Bounty  to  the  Poor,  which  took  him  tip  three 
hours  and  a  half  in  preaching ;  Saurin's  Ser 
vol.  iv.  Eng.  Trans,  ser.  9;  Palcy's  J/or.  PhL. 
ch.  5.  vol.  i. 

ALOGIANS,  a  sect  of  ancient  heretics  who 
denied  that  Jesus  Christ  was  the  Logos,  and  con- 
sequently rejected  the  Gospel  of  St.  John.  The 
word  is  compounded  of  the  privative  a  and  >.«>  °; 
q.  d.  without  logos,  or  word.  They  made  their  ap- 
pearance toward  the  close  of  the  second  century. 

ALTAR,  a  kind  of  table  or  raised  structure 
whereon  the  ancient  sacrifices  were  offered.  2. 
The  table,  in  Christian  churches,  where  the 
Lord's  Supper  is  administered.  Altars  are,  doubt- 
less, of  great  antiquity  ;  some  suppose  they  wore 
as  early  as  Adam ;  but  there  is  no  mention  made 
of  them  till  after  the  flood,  when  Noah  built  one, 
and  offered  burnt-offerings  on  it.  The  Jews  had 
two  altars  in  and  about  tlieir  temple ;  1.  the  altar 
of  burnt  offerings ;  2.  the  altar  of  incense  :  some 
also  call  the  table  for  shew-brcad  an  altar,  but 
improperly,  Exod.  sx.  24,  25.  1  Kings  xviii.  30. 
Exod.  xxv.  xxvii.  and  xxx.    Heb.  ix. 

AMAURITES,  the  followers  of  Amauri,  a 
clergyman  of  Bonne,  in  the  thirteenth  century. 
He  acknowledged  the  divine  Three,  to  whom  he 
attributed   the   empire  of  the    world.     But,  ac- 


AMYRALDISM 
rording  to  him,  religion  had  three  epochas,  which 
bore  a  similitude  to  the  reign  of  the  three  persons 
in  the  Trinity.  The  reign  of  God  had  existed  as 
I  jng  as  the  law  of  Moses.  The  reign  of  the  Son 
would  not  always  last.  A  time  would  come 
when  the  sacraments  should  cease,  and  then  the 
religion  of  the  Holy  Ghost  would  begin,  when 
men  would  render  a  spiritual  worship  to  the  Su- 
preme Being.  This  reign  Amauri  thought  would 
succeed  to  the  Christian  religion,  as  the  Christian 
had  succeeded  to  that  of  Moses. 

AMAZEMENT,  a  term  sometimes  employ- 
ed to  express  our  wonder;  but  it  is  rather  to  be 
considered  as  a  medium  between  wonder  and 
astonishment.  It  is  manifestly  borrowed  from  the 
extensive  and  complicated  intricacies  of  a  laby- 
rinth, in  which  there  are  endless  mazes,  without 
the  discovery  of  a  clue.  Hence  an  idea  is  con- 
veyed of  more  than  simple  wonder ;  the  mind  is 
lost  in  wonder.     See  Wonder. 

AMBITION,  a  desire  of  excelling,  or  at  least 
of  being  thought  to  excel,  our  neighbours  in  any 
thing.  It  is  generally  used  in  a  bad  sense  for  an 
immoderate  or  illegal  pursuit  of  power  or  honour. 
See  Praise. 

AMEDIANS,  a  congregation  of  religious  in 
Italy ;  so  called  from  their  professing  themselves 
amantes  Deum,  "lovers  of  God;"  or  rather 
amati  Deo,  "beloved  of  God."  They  wore  a 
grey  habit  and  wooden  shoes,  had  no  breeches,  and 
girt  themselves  with  a  cord.  They  had  twenty- 
eight  convents,  and  were  united  by  pope  Pius  V. 
partly  with  the  Cistercian  order,  and  partly  with 
that  of  the  Soccolanti,  or  wooden  shoe  wearers. 

AMEN,  a  Hebrew  word,  which,  when  pre- 
fixed to  an  assertion,  signifies  assuredly,  cer- 
tainly, or  emphatically  so  it  is ;  but  when  it  con- 
cludes a  prayer,  so  be  it,  or  so  let  it  be,  is  its  ma- 
nifest import.  In  the  former  case  it  is  assertive, 
or  assures  of  a  truth  or  a  fact ;  and  is  an  asse- 
veration and  is  properly  translated,  verily,  John 
lii.  3.  In  the  latter  case  it  is  petitionary,  and,  as 
it  were,  epitomises  all  the  requests  with  which  it 
stands  connected.  Numb.  v.  25.  Rev„xxii.  20. 
This  emphatical  term  was  not  used  among  the 
Hebrews  by  detached  individuals  only,  but,  on 
certain  occasions,  by  an  assembly  at  large.  Deut. 
xxii.  14.  20.  It  was  adopted,  also,  in  the  public 
worship  of  the  primitive  churches,  as  appears  by 
that  passage,  1  Cor.  xiv.  16,  and  was  continued 
among  the  Christians  in  following  times;  yea, 
such  was  the  extreme  into  which  many  ran,  that 
Jerome  informs  us,  that,  in  his  time,  at  the  con- 
clusion of  every  public  prayer,  the  united  amen 
of  the  people  sounded  like  the  fall  of  water,  or 
the  noise  of  thunder.  Nor  is  the  practice  of  some 
professors  in  our  own  time  to  be  commended, 
who,  with  a  low,  though  audible  voice,  add  their 
amen  to  almost  every  sentence  as  it  proceeds 
from  the  lips  of  him  who  is  praying.  As  this 
has  a  tendency  to  interrupt  the  devotion  of  those 
that  are  near  them,  and  may  disconcert  the; 
thoughts  of  him  who  leads  the  worship,  it  would 
be  better  omitted,  and  a  mental  amen  is  sufficient. 
The  term,  as  used  at  the  end  of  our  prayers,  sug- 
gests that  we  should  pray  with  understanding, 
faith,  fervour  and  expectation.  See  Mr.  Booth's 
Amen  to  Social  Prayer. 

AMMONIANS.     See  New  Platonics. 

AMYRALDISM,   a  name  given  by  some 
writers  to  the  doctrine  of  universal  grace,  as  ex- 
plained and  asserted  by  Amyraldus,  or  Moses 
15 


ANABAPTISTS 

Amyrault  and  others  his  followers,  among  the 
rof  brined  in  France,  towards  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century.  This  doctrine  principally 
consisted  of  the  following  particulars,  \iz.  that 
God  desires  the  happiness  of  all  men,  and  none 
are  excluded  by  a  divine  decree ;  that  none  can 
obtain  salvation  without  faith  in  Christ ;  that 
God  refuses  to  none  the  power  of  believing, 
though  he  does  not  grant  to  all  liis  assistance 
that  they  may  improve  this  power  to  saving  pur- 
poses ;  and  that  they  may  perish  through  their 
own  fault.  Those  who  embraced  this  doctrine 
were  called  Universalists ,  though  it  is  evident 
they  rendered  grace  universal  in  words,  butpa?- 
tial  in  reality.     See  Cameronites. 

ANABAPTISTS,  those  who  maintain  that 
baptism  ought  always  to  be  performed  by  immer- 
sion. The  word  is  compounded  of  »>,  "  anew," 
and  &x7rTt<rT>is,  "  a  Baptist ;"  signifying  that  those 
who  have  been  baptized  in  their  infancy  ought  to 
be  baptized  anew.  It  is  a  word  which  has  been 
indiscriminately  applied  to  Christians  of  very  dif- 
ferent principles  and  practices.  The  English  and 
Dutch  Baptists  do  not  consider  the  word  as  at  all 
applicable  to  their  sect;  because  those  persons 
whom  they  baptize  they  consider  as  never  having 
been  baptized  before,  although  they  have  under- 
gone what  they  term  the  ceremony  of  sprinkling 
in  their  infancy. 

The  Anabaptists  of  Germany,  besides  their 
notions  concerning  baptism,  depended  much  upon 
certain  ideas  which  they  entertained  concerning  a 
perfect  church  establishment,  pure  in  its  members, 
and  free  from  the  institutions  of  human  policy. 
The  most  prudent  part  of  them  considered  it  pos- 
sible, by  human  industry  and  vigilance,  to  purify 
the  church ;  and  seeing  the  attempts  of  Luther 
to  be  successful,  they  hoped  that  the  period  was 
arrived  in  which  the  church  was  to  be  restored  to 
this  purity.  Others,  not  satisfied  with  Luther's 
plan  of  reformation,  undertook  a  more  perfect 
plan,  or,  more  properly,  a  visionary  enterprise,  to 
found  a  new  church,  entirely  spiritual  and  divine. 

This  sect  was  soon  joined  by  great  numbers, 
whose  characters  and  capacities  were  very  dif- 
ferent. Their  progress  was  rapid  :  for,  in  a  very 
short  space  of  time,  their  discourses,  visions,  and 
predictions,  excited  great  commotions  in  a  great 
part  of  Europe.  The  most  pernicious  taction  of 
all  those  which  composed  this  motley  mu'titude, 
was  that  which  pretended  that  the  founders,  of  this 
new  and  -perfect  church  were  under  a  divine  im 
pulse,  and  were  armed  against  all  opposition  by 
the  power  of  working  miracles.  It  was  this  fac- 
tion, that,  in  the  year  1521,  began  their  fanatical 
work  under  the  guidance  of  Munzer,  Stubner, 
Storick,  &c.  These  men  taught,  that,  among 
Christians,  who  had  the  precepts  of  the  Gospel  to 
direct,  and  the  Spirit  of  God  to  guide  them,  the 
office  of  magistracy  was  not  only  unnecessary,  but 
an  unlawful  encroachment  on  their  spiritual  li- 
berty ;  that,  the  distinctions  occasioned  by  birth, 
rank,  or  wealth  should  be  abolished  ;  that  all 
Christians,  throwing  their  possessions  into  one 
stock,  should  live  together  in  that  state  of  equality 
which  becomes  members  of  the  same  family ; 
that,  as  neither  the  laws  of  nature,  nor  the  pre- 
cepts of  the  New  Testament,  had  prohibited 
polygamy,  they  should  use  the  same  liberty  as  the 
patriarchs  did  in  this  respect. 

They  employed,  at  first,  the  various  arts  of 
persuasion,  in  order  to  propagate  their  doctrines 


ANAGOGICAL 
«nd  related  a  number  of  visions  and  revelations, 
with  which  they  pretended  to  have  been  favoured 
from  above:  but,  whcji  they  found  that  this 
would  not  avail,  and  that  the  ministry  of  Luther 
and  other  reformers  was  detrimental  to  their 
cause,  they  then  madly  attempted  to  propagate 
their  sentiments  by  force  of  arms.  Munzer  and 
his  associates,  in  the  year  1525,  put  themselves  at 
the  head  of  a  numerous  army,  and  declared  war 
against,  all  laws,  governments,  and  magistrates  of 
every  kind,  under  the  chimerical  pretext,  that 
Christ  himself  was  now  to  take  the  reins  of  all 
government  into  his  hands:  but  this  seditious 
crowd  was  routed  and  dispersed  by  the  elector  of 
Saxony  and  other  princes,  and  Munzer,  their 
leader,  put  to  death. 

Many  of  his  followers,  however,  survived,  and 
propagated  their  opinions  through  Germany, 
Switzerland,  and  Holland.  In  1533,  a  party  of 
them  settled  at  Munster,  under  two  leaders  of  the 
names  of  Matthias  and  Bockholdt.  Having 
made  themselves  masters  of  the  city,  they  deposed 
the  magistrates,  confiscated  the  estates  of  such  as 
had  escaped,  and  deposited  the  wealth  in  a  public 
treasury  for  common  use.  They  made  prepara- 
tions for  the  defence  of  the  city;  invited  the 
A  nabaptists  in  the  Low  Countries  to  assemble  at 
Munster,  which  they  called  Mount  Sion,  that 
from  thence  they  might  reduce  all  the  nations  of 
the  earth  under  their  dominion.  Matthias  was 
soon  cut  off  by  the  bishop  of  Munster's  army,  and 
was  succeeded  by  Bockholdt,  who  was  proclaimed 
by  a  special  designation  of  heaven,  as  the  pretended 
king  of  Sion,  and  invested  with  legislative  powers 
like  those  of  Moses.  The  city  of  Munster,  how- 
ever, was  taken,  after  a  long  siege,  and  Bockholdt 
punished  with  death. 

It  must  be  acknowledged  that  the  true  rise  of 
the  insurrections  of  this  period  ought  not  to  be 
attributed  to  religious  opinions.  The  (irst  insur- 
gents groaned  under  severe  oppressions,  and  took 
up  arms  in  defence  of  their  civil  liberties;  and  of 
these  commotions  the  Anabaptists  seem  rather  to 
have  availed  themselves,  than  to  have  been  the 
prime  movers.  That  a  great  part  were  Anabap- 
tists seems  indisputable;  at  the  same  time,  it  ap- 
pears from  history,  that  a  great  part  also  were 
lloman  Catholics,  and  a  still  greater  part  of  those 
who  had  scarcely  any  religious  principles  at  all. 
Indeed,  when  we  read  of  the  vast  numbers  that 
were  concerned  in  these  insurrections,  of  whom  it 
is  reported  that  100,000  fell  by  the  sword,  it  ap- 
pears reasonable  to  conclude  that  they  were  not 
all  Anabaptists. 

It  is  but  justice  to  observe  also,  that  the  Bap- 
tists in  England  and  Holland  are  to  be  considered 
in  a  different  light  from  those  above  mentioned: 
they  profess  an  equal  aversion  to  all  principles  of 
rebellion  on  the  one  hand,  and  to  enthusiasm  on 
the  other.  See  Robertson's  Hist,  of  Charles  V.  ; 
Enc.  Brit.  vol.  i.  p.  644;  and  articles  Baptists 
u:id  Mennonites. 

ANACHORETS,  or  Anchorites,  a  sort  of 
monks  in  the  primitive  church,  who  retired  from 
the  society  of  mankind  into  some  desert,  with  a 
view  to  avoid  the  temptations  of  the  world,  and  to 
be  more  at  leisure  for  prayer,  meditation,  &c. 
Such  were  Paul,  Anthony,  and  Ililarion,  the 
first  founders  of  monastic  life  in  Egypt  and  Pa- 
lestine. 

ANAGOGICAL,  signifies  mysterious,  trans- 
porting :  and  Lj  used  to  express  whatever  elevates 
16 


ANATHEMA 

the  mTnd,  not  only  to  the  knowledge  of  divine 
things,  but  of  divine  things  in  the  next  life.  Tha 
word  js  seldom  used,  but  with  regard  to  the  dif- 
ferent senses  of  the  Scripture.  The  anagogical 
sense  is  when  the  sacred  text  is  explained  with 
regard  to  eternal  life,  the  point  which  Christians 
should  have  in  view ;  for  example,  the  rest  of  the 
sabbath,  in  the  anagogical  sense,  signifies  the  re- 
pose of  everlasting  happiness. 

ANALOGY  OF  FAITH,  is  the  proportion 
that  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel  bear  to  each  other, 
or  the  close  connection  between  the  truths  of  re- 
vealed religion,  Rom.  xii.  6.  This  is  considered  as 
a  grand  rule  for  understanding  tlie  true  sense  of 
Scripture.  It  is  evident  that  the  Almighty  doth 
not  act  without  a  design  in  the  system  of  Chris- 
tianity, any  more  than  he  does  in  the  works  of 
nature.  Now  this  design  must  be  uniform ;  for 
as  in  the  system  of  the  universe  every  part  is  pro- 
portioned to  the  whole,  and  made  subservient  to 
it,  so  in  the  system  of  the  Gospel  all  the  various 
truths,  doctrines,  declarations,  precepts,  and  pro- 
mises, must  correspond  with  and  tend  to  the  end 
designed.  For  instance,  supposing  the  glory  of 
God  in  the  salvation  of  man  by  free  grace  be  the 
grand  design ;  then,  whatever  doctrine,  assertion, 
or  hypothesis,  agree  not  with  this,  is  to  he  con- 
sidered as  false. — Great  care,  however,  must  be 
taken,  in  making  use  of  this  method,  that  the  in- 
quirer previously  understand  the  whole  scheme, 
and  that  he  harbour  not  a  predilection  only  for  a 
part ;  without  attention  to  this,  we  shall  be  liable 
to  error.  If  we  come  to  the  Scriptures  with  any 
preconceived  opinions,  and  are  more  desirous  to 
put  that  sense  upon  the  text  which  quadrates 
with  our  sentiments,  rather  than  the  truth,  it  be- 
comes then  the  analogy  of  our  faith,  rather  than 
that  of  the  whole  system.  This  was  the  source 
of  the  error  of  the  Jews,  in  our  Saviour's  time. 
They  searched  the  Scriptures;  but,  such  were 
their  favourite  opinions,  that  they  could  not,  or 
would  not,  discover  that  the  sacred  volume  testi- 
fied of  Christ.  And  the  reason  was  evident ;  for 
their  great  rule  of  interpretation  was,  what  they 
might  call  the  analogy  of  faith,  i.e.  the  system 
of  the  Pharisean  scribes,  the  doctrine  then  in  vogue, 
and  in  the  profound  veneration  of  which  they 
had  been  educated.  Perhaps  there  is  hardly  any 
sect  but  what  has  more  or  less  been  guilty  in  this 
respect.  It  may,  however,  be  of  use  to  the  serious 
and  candid  inquirer ;  for,  as  some  texts  may  seem 
to  contradict  each  other,  and  difficulties  present 
themselves,  by  keeping  the  analogy  of  faith  in 
view,  he  will  the  more  easily  resolve  those  difficul- 
ties, and  collect  the  true  sense  of  the  sacred  ora- 
cles. What  "the  aphorisms  of  Hippocrates  are 
to  a  physician,  the  axioms  in  geometry  to  a  ma- 
thematician, the  adjudged  cases  in  law  to  a  coun- 
sellor, or  the  maxims  of  war  to  a  general,  such  is 
the  analogy  of  faith  to  a  Christian.''  Of  the 
analogy  of  religion  to  the  constitution  and  course 
of  nature,  we  must  refer  our  readers  to  Bishop 
Butler's  excellent  treatise  on  that  subject. 

AN  ATHEM  A,  imports  whatever  is  set  apart, 
separated,  or  divided  ;  but  is  most,  usually  meant 
to  express  the  cutting  off  of  a  person  from  the 
communion  of  the  faithful.  It  was  practised  in 
the  primitive  church  against  notorious  offenders. 
Several  councils  also  have  pronounced  anathe- 
mas against  such  as  they  thought  corrupted  the 
purity  of  the  faith.  Anai'hcma  MaraimHia,  men- 
tioned by  Paul,  (1  Cor.  xiv.  22,)  imports  that  he 


ANGELS 
who  Io'ts  not  the  Lord  Jesus  will  be  accursed  at 
Lis  coming.  Anathema  signifies  a  thing  devoted 
to  destruction,  and  Maranatha  is  a  Svriac  word, 
signifying  the  Lord  comes.  It  is  proba'ble  in  this 
passage  there  is  an  allusion  to  the  form  of  the 
Jews,°  who,  when  unable  to  inflict  so  great  a 
punishment  as  the  crime  deserved,  devoted  the 
culprit  to  the  immediate  vindictive  retribution  of 
divine  vengeance,  both  in  this  life  and  in  a  future 
state. 

ANDRONA,  a  term  used  for  that  part  in 
churches  which  was  destined  for  the  men.  An- 
ciently, it  was  the  custom  for  the  men  and  women 
to  have  separate  apartments  in  places  of  worship, 
where  they  performed  their  devotions  asunder, 
which  method  is  still  religiously  observed  in  the 
Greek  church. 

ANGEL,  a  spiritual  intelligent  substance,  the 
first  in  rank  and  dignity  among  created  beings. 
The  word  angel  (xyy.Ke;)  is  Greek,  and  signifies 
a  messenger.  The  Hebrew  word  "1X7E  signi- 
fies the  same.  Angels,  therefore,  in  the  proper 
signification  of  the  word,  do  not  import  the  na- 
ture of  any  being,  but  only  the  office  to  which 
they  are  appointed,  especially  by  way  of  message 
or  intercourse  between  God  and  his  creatures. 
Hence  the  word  is  used  differently  in  various 
parts  of  the  Scripture,  and  signifies,  1.  Human 
messengers,  or  agents  for  others.  2  Sam.  ii.  5. 
"David  sent  messengers (Heb.  angels)  to  Jabesh 
Gilead."  PAv.  xiii.  17.  Mark  i.  2.  James  ii. 
25. — 2.  Officers  of  the  churches,  whether  pro- 
phets or  ordinary  ministers,  Hag.  i.  13.  Rev.  i. 
20.— 3.  Jesus  Christ,  Mai.  iii.  1.  Is.  lxiii.  9.— 
4.  Some  add  the  dispensations  of  God's  provi- 
dence, either  beneficial  or  calamitous,  Gen.  xxiv. 
7.  Ps.  xxxiv.  7.  Acts  xii.  23.  1  Sam.  xiv.  14 ;  but 
I  must  confess,  that,  though  I  do  not  at  all  see  tbe 
impropriety  of  considering  the  providences  of 
God  as  his  angels  or  messengers  for  good  or  for 
evil,  yet  the  passages  generally  adduced  under 
this  head  do  not  prove  to  me  that  the  providences 
of  God  are  meant  in  distinction  from  created  an- 
gels.— 5.  Created  intelligences,  both  good  and 
bad.  Heb.  i.  14.  Jude  vi. ;  the  subject  of  the  pre- 
sent article. — As  to  the  time  when  the  angels 
were  created,  much  has  been  said  by  the  learned. 
Some  wonder  that  Moses,  in  his  account  of  the 
creaiion,  should  pass  over  this  in  silence.  Others 
suppose  that  he  did  this  because  of  the  proneness 
of  the  Gentile  world,  and  even  the  Jews,  to  idola- 
try :  but  a  better  reason  has  been  assigned  by 
others,  viz.  that,  this  first  history  was  purposely 
and  principally  written  for  information  concerning 
the  visible  world;  the  invisible,  of  which  we 
know  but  in  part,  being  reserved  for  a  better  life. 
Some  think  that  the  idea  of  God's  not  creating 
them  before  this  world  was  made,  is  very  con- 
tracted. To  suppose,  say  they,  that  no  creatures 
whatever,  neither  angels  nor  other  worlds,  had 
been  created  previous  to  the  creation  of  our 
world,  is  to  suppose  that  a  Being  of  infinite 
power,  wisdom,  and  goodness,  had  remained 
totally  inactive  from  all  eternity,  and  had  per- 
mitted the  infinity  of  space  to  continue  a  perfect 
vacuum  till  within  tluse  6000  years ;  that  such 
an  idea  only  tends  to  discredit  revelation,  instead 
of  serving  it.  On  the  other  hand  it  is  alleged, 
that  they  must  have  been  created  within  the  six 
days;  because  it  is  said,  that  within  this  space 
God  made  heaven  and  earth,  and  all  things  that 
arc  therein.  It  is,  however,  a  needless;  specula- 1 
17  C 


ANGELS 
tion,  and  we  daTe  not  indulge  a  spirit  of  conjec- 
ture.    It  is  our  happiness  to  know  tnat   they 
are  all  ministering  spirits,  sent  forth  to  minister 
to  them  who  are  heirs  of  salvation. 

As  to  the  nature  of  these  beings,  we  are  told  that 
they  are  spirits;  but  whether  pure  spirits,  divested  of 
all  matter,  or  united  to  some  thin  bodies,  or  corpo- 
real vehicles,  has  been  a  controversy  of  long  stand- 
ing ;  the  more  general  opinion  is,  that  they  are  sub- 
stances entirely  spiritual,  though  they  can  at  any 
time  assume  bodies,  and  appear  in  human  shape, 
Gen.  xviii.  xix.  and  xxxii.  Matt,  xxviii.  Lukei. 
&c.  The  Scriptures  represent  them  asendued  with 
extraordinary  wisdom  and  power,  2  Sam.  xiv.  20. 
Ps.  ciii.  20 ;  holy  and  regular  in  their  inclinations; 
zealous  in  their  employ,  and  completely  happy  in 
their  minds,  Job  xxxviii.  7.  Heb.  i.  7.  Matt, 
xviii.  10.  Their  number  seems  to  be  great,  Ps. 
Ixviii.  17.  Heb.  xii.  22 ;  and  perhaps  have  dis- 
tinct orders,  Col.  i.  16,  17.  1  Pet.  iii.  22.  1  Thee, 
iv.  16.  Dan.  x.  13.  They  are  delighted  with  the 
grand  scheme  of  redemption,  and  the  conversion 
of  sinners  to  God,  Luke  ii.  12.  1  Pet.  i.  12.  Luke 
xv.  10.  They  not  only  worship  God,  and  exe- 
cute his  commands  at  large,  but  are  attendant  on 
the  saints  of  God  while  here  below,  Ps.  xci.  11, 
12.  Heb.  i.  13.  Luke  xvi.  22.  Some  conjecture 
that  every  good  man  has  his  particular  guardian 
angel,  Matt,  xviii.  10.  Acts  xii.  15 ;  but  this  is 
easier  to  be  supposed  than  to  be  proved ;  nor  is 
it  a  matter  of  consequence  to  know.  "What 
need  we  dispute,"  says  Henry,  "whether  every 
particular  saint  has  a  guardian  angel,  when  we 
arc  sure  he  has  a  guard  of  angels  about  him?" 
They  will  gather  the  elect  in  the  last  day,  attend 
the  final  judgment,  Matt.  xxv.  31.  Rev.  xiv.  18. 
Matt.  xiii.  39 ;  and  live  for  ever  in  the  world  of 
glory,  Luke  xx.  36. 

Although  the  angels  were  originally  created 
perfect,  yet  they  were  mutable :  some  of  them 
sinned,  and  kept  not  their  fust  estate;  and  so, 
of  the  most  blessed  and  glorious,  became  the  most 
vile  and  miserable  of  all  God's  creatures.  They 
were  expelled  the  regions  of  light,  and  with  hea- 
ven lost  their  heavenly  disposition,  and  loll  into 
a  settled  rancour  against  God,  and  malice  against 
men.  What  their  offence  was  is  difficult  to  de- 
termine, the  Scripture  being  silent  about  it.  Some 
think  envy,  others  unbelief;  but  most  suppose  it 
was  pride.  As  to  the  time  of  their  fall,  we  are 
certain  it  could  not  be  before  tbe  sixth  day  of  the 
creation,  because  on  that  day  it  is  said,  "God  saw 
every  thing  that  he  had  made,  and  behold  it  was 
very  good ;"  but  that  it  was  not  long  after,  is  very 
probable,  as  it  must  have  preceded  the  fail  of  our 
first  parents.  The  number  of  the  fallen  angels 
seems  to  be  great,  and,  like  the  holy  angels,  per- 
haps, have  various  orders  among  them,  Mat!, 
xii.  21.  Eph.  ii.  2.  vi.  12.  Col.  ii.  15.  Rev.  xii. 
7.  Their  constant  employ  is  not  only  doing  evil 
themselves,  but  endeavouring  by  all  arts  to  seduce 
and  pervert  mankind,  1  Pet.  v.  8.  Job.  i.  6.  It 
is  supposed  they  will  be  restrained  during  the 
millennium,  Rev.  xx.  2 ;  but  afterwards  again,  for 
a  short  tune,  deceive  the  nations,  Rev.  xx.  8;  and 
then  be  finally  punished,  Matt.  xxv.  41.  The 
authors  who  have  written  on  this  subject  have 
been  very  numerous;  we  shad  only  refer  to  a 
few :  Reynolds's  Inquiry: into  the  Slate  and  (Kcu~ 
nomy  of  Ike  Angelical  World  ;  Cudworth's  In 
tclleciu-al  System  ;  Doddridge's  LeeL  p.  10.  lect. 
210  to  214  ;  Mili-m's  Paradise  Lvat  i  Up.  .Yckk 
b2 


ANGER 
ion's  Works,  vol  hi.  p.  538.  566  ;  Slicpherd  of  An- 
gvU,   Gilpin  on  Temptation}  CasmwtniAngeh- 
ip-ciphi'i;  QUI  and  Ridgelcy's  Bodies  of  Divinity. 

A.NGELITE8,  a  sect  in  the  reign  of  the  Em- 
beror  Anastasius,  about  the  year  404;  so  called 
from  Angeliom,  a  place  iii  the  city  of  .Alexandria, 
where  they  held  their  first  meetings.  They  were 
called  likewise  Seterites,  from  Severus,  who  was 
the  head  of  their  sect ;  as  also  Theodoeiana,  from 
one.  Theodosius,  whom  they  made  Pope  at  Alex- 
andria. They  held  that  tlie  persons  of  the  Tri- 
nity are  not  the  same  ;  that  none  of  them  exists 
of  himself,  and  of  his  own  nature  ;  lint  that  there 
is  a  common  God  or  Deity  existing  in  them  all,  and 
that  each  is  God  by  a  participation  of  this  Deity. 

ANGER,  a  violent  passion  of  the  mind,  arising 
upon  the  receipt,  or  supposed  receipt,  of  any  in- 
jury, with  a  present  purpose  of  revenge.  All 
anger  is  by  do  means  sinful;  it  was  designed  by 
the  Author  of  our  nature  for  self-defence  :  nor  is 
it  altogether  a  selfish  passion,  since  it  is  excited 
hv  injuries  offered  to  others  as  well  as  ourselves, 
and  sometimes  prompts  us  to  reclaim  offenders 
from  sin  and  danger,  Eph.  iv.  2*3,  but  it  becomes 
sinful  when  conceived  upon  trivial  occasions  or 
inadequate  provocations ;  when  it  breaks  forth 
into  outrageous  actions :  vents  itself  in  reviling 
language,  or  is  concealed  in  our  thoughts  to  the 
degree  of  hatred.  To  suppress  this  passion,  the 
following  reflections  of  Archdeacon  Paley  may 
not  be  unsuitable: — "We  should  consider  the 
possibility  of  mistaking  the  motives  from  which 
the  conduct  that  offends  us  proceeded  ;  how  often 
our  offences  have  been  the  effect  of  inadvertency, 
when  they  were  construed  into  indications  of  ma- 
lice ;  the  inducement  which  prompted  our  adver- 
sary to  act  as  he  did,  and  how  powerfully  the  same 
inducement  has,  at  one  time  or  other,  operated 
upon  ourselves ;  that  he  is  suffering,  perhaps, 
under  a  contrition,  which  he  is  ashamed,  or  wants 
opportunity,  to  confess;  and  how  ungenerous  it 
is  to  triumph,  by  coldness  or  insult,  over  a  spirit 
already  humbled  in  secret ;  that  the  returns  of 
kindness  are  sweet,  and  that  there  is  neither 
honour,  nor  virtue,  noi  use,  in  resisting  them ;  for 
some  persons  think  themselves  bound  to  cherish 
and  keep  alive  their  indignation,  when  they  find 
it  dying  away  of  itself.  Vie  may  remember  that 
others  have  their  passions,  their  prejudices,  their 
favourite  aims,  their  fears,  their  cautions,  their 
interests,  their  sudden  impulses,  their  varieties  of 
apprehension,  as  well  as  we  :  we  may  recollect 
what  has  sometimes  passed  in  our  own  minds 
when  we  have  got  on  the  wrong  side  of  a  quarrel, 
and  imagine  the  same  to  be  passing  in  our  adver- 
sary's mind  now:  when  we  became  sensible  of 
<iur  misbehaviour,  what  palliations  we  perceived 
in  it,  and  expected  others  to  perceive;  how  we 
were  affected  by  the  kindness,  and  felt  the  supe- 
riority of  a  generous  reception,  and  ready  forgive- 
ness; how  persecution  revived  our  spirit*  with 
oar  enmity,  and  seemed  to  justify  the  conduct  in 
ourselves,  which  we  before  blamed.  Add  to  this 
the  indecency  of  extravagant  anger;  how  it  ren- 
ders us  whilst  it  lasts  the  scorn  and  sport  of  all 
about  us,  of  which  it  leaves  us,  when  it  ceases, 
sensible  and  ashamed  ;  the  inconveniences,  and 
irretrievable  misconduct  into  which  our  irascibi- 
lity has  sometimes  betrayed  us;  the  friendships  it 
bus  lott  us;  the  distresses  ami  embarrassments  in 
which  we  have  been  involved  by  it;  and  the  re- 
pentance which,  jii  one  account  or  other,  it 
16 


ANNIHILATION 
always  cost  us.  Put  the  reflection  calculated, 
above  all  others,  to  allay  that  haughtiness  of  tem- 
per which  is  ever  finding  out  provocations,  and 
which  renders  anger  so  impetuous,  is,  that  which 
tin1  Gospel  proposes;  namely,  that  we  ourselves 
are,  or  shortly  shall  be,  supplicants  for  mercy  and 
pardon  at  the  judgment-seat  of  God.  Imagine 
our  secret  sins  all  disclosed  and  brought  to  light ; 
imagine  us  thus  humbled  and  exposed  ;  trembling 
under  the  hand  of  God;  casting  ourselves  on  his 
compassion  :  crying  out  for  mercy  ;  imagine  sue!) 
a  creature  to  talk  of  satisfaction  and  revenge ;  re- 
fusing to  be  entreated,  disdaining  to  forgive,  ex- 
treme to  mark  and  to  resent  what  is  done  amiss ; 
imagine,  I  say,  this,  and  you  can  hardly  feign  to 
yourself  an  instance  of  more  impious  and  unnatu- 
ral arrogance."  Palei/s  Moral  Phil.  ch.  7. 
vol.  i. ;  FawcetVs  excellent  Treatise  on  Anger  ; 
Seed's  Po.fth.  Sferro.  ser.  11. 

ANGER  of  GOD.  See  Wrath. 

ANGLO-CALV1N1STS,  a  name  given  by1 
some  wTiters  to  the  members  of  the  church  of 
England,  as  agreeing  with  the  other  Calvinists  in 
most  points,  excepting  church  government. 

ANNATES,  an  ecclesiastical  term,  signifying 
a  year's  income  of  a  spiritual  living.  These  were, 
in  ancient  times,  given  to  the  Pope  throughout 
all  Christendom,  upon  the  decease  of  any  bishop, 
abbot,  or  parish  clerk,  and  were  paid  by  his  suc- 
cessor. At  the  Reformation  they  were  taken  from 
the  Pope  and  vested  in  the  king ;  and  finally 
queen  Anne  rcstoied  them  to  the  church,  by  ap- 
propriating them  to  the  augmentation  of  poor 
livings — H. 

ANNIHILATION,  the  act  of  reducing  any 
created  substance,  whether  spirit  or  matter,  into 
nothing.  On  this,  as  well  as  every  other  subject, 
on  which  revelation  is  not  express,  endless  diver- 
sities of  opinion  have  prevailed  in  the  world.  Dr. 
Thomas  Bennett,  in  his  Archaologia,  under- 
takes to  show  that  the  first  notions  of  the  pro- 
duction of  a  thing  from,  or  the  reduction  of  it  to, 
nothing,  arose  from  the  Christian  theology ;  the 
words  creation  and  annihilation,  in  the  sense 
now  given  to  them,  having  been  equally  unknown 
to  the  Hebrews,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Latins.  The 
ancient  philosophers,  he  says,  denying  all  annihi- 
lation as  well  as  creation,  resolved  all  changes  in 
the  world  into  new  modifications,  without  sup- 
posing the  production  of  any  thing  new,  or  the 
destruction  of  the  old.  In  respect  to  annihilation, 
Christianity  adds  nothing  to  the  light  of  reason 
and  philosophy.  That  the  power  which  created 
is  able  to  destroy,  cannot  be  doubted ;  but  whether, 
asa  matterof  fact,  omnipotence  will  ever  reduce  the 
smallest  particle  of  matter  to  a  state  of  nonentity, 
we  are  not  informed  ;  and  throughout  the  whole 
extent  of  nature  we  meet  with  no  changes  or  ope- 
rations calculated  to  solve  the  question.  The 
eternal  existence  of  human  and  angelic  spirits  at 
least  appears  to  be  secured  by  the  plain  declara- 
tions of  holy  writ,  though  some  have  asserted  the 
contrary.     See  Df.striJctionists. 

As  to  the  idea  that  existence  is  a  state  of  vio- 
lence ;  that  all  things  are  continually  endeavour- 
ing to  return  to  their  primitive  nothing ;  that  no 
positive  power  is  required  to  effect  it,  but  that  the 
mere  withdrawal  of  the  Creator's  upholding  ener- 
gy is  sufficient,  we  conceive  that  these  are  sul>- 
jects  beyond  the^grasp  of  human  intellect,  and 
that  speculations  upon  them  are  entirely  profit- 
less.—  B. 


ANTICHRIST 

ANNUNCIATION,  the  tidings  brought  by 
the  angel  Gabriel  to  the  Virgin  Mary  of  the  in- 
carnation of  Cnrist.  It  is  also  usen  to  denote  a 
festival  kept  by  the  church  on  the  25tn  of  March, 
in  commemoration  of  those  tidings. 

ANOMOEANS,  the  name  by  which  the  pure 
Arians  were  called  in  the  fourth  century,  in  con- 
tra-distinction  to  the  Semi-arians.  The  word  is 
formed  from  the  Greek  «vo/ioio;,  different.  See 
Arians  and  Semi-arians. 

ANTEDILUVIANS,  a  general  name  for  all 
mankind  who  lived  before  the  flood,  including  the 
whole  human  race  from  the  creation  to  the  de- 
luge.  For  the  history  of  the  Antediluvians,  see 
Book  of  Genesis,  Wfiiston'sJosephus.  Cockbum's 
Treatise  on  the  Deluge,  and  article  Deluge. 

ANTHEM,  a  church  song  performed  in  ca- 
thedral service  by  choristers  who  sung  alternately. 
It  was  used  to  denote  both  psalms  and  hymns, 
when  performed  in  this  manner ;  but,  at  present, 
anthem  is  used  in  a  more  confined  sense,  being 
applied  to  certain  passages  taken  out  of  the 
Scriptures,  and  adapted  to  a  particular  solemnity. 
Anthems  were  first  introduced  in  the  reformed 
service  of  the  English  church,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth. 

ANTHROPOMORPHITES,  a  sect  of  an- 
cient heretics,  who,  taking  every  thing  spoken  of 
God  in  the  Scripture  in  a  literal  sense,  particu- 
larly that  passage  of  Genesis  in  which  it  is  said, 
"God  made  man  after  his  own  image,"  main- 
tained that  God  had  a  human  shape. 

ANTHROPOPATHY,  a  figure,  expression, 
or  discourse,  whereby  some  passion  is  attributed 
to  God  which  properly  belongs  only  to  man. 
Anthropopathy  is  frequently  used  promiscuously 
with  anthropology ;  yet  in  strictness  they  ought 
to  be  distinguished,  as  the  genus  from  the  species, 
Anthropology  may  be  understood  of  any  thing 
human  attributed  to  God,  as  eyes,  hands,  &c.  but 
anthropopathy  only  of  human  alfections  and  pas- 
sions, as  joy,  grief.  We  have  frequent  instances 
of  the  use  of  these  figures  in  holv  Scripture. 

ANTIBURGHERS,  a  numerous  and  re- 
spectable body  of  dissenters  from  the  church  of 
Scotland,  who  differ  from  the  established  church 
chiefly  in  matters  of  church  government;  and 
who  differ,  also,  from  the  Burgher  seceders,  with 
whom  they  were  originally  united,  chiefly,  if  not 
solely,  respecting  the  lawfulness  of  taking  the 
Burgess  oath.  For  an  account  of  their  origin 
anil  principles,  see  Seceders. 

ANTICHRIST,  from  «,.T«,  against,  and 
Xe<<rros,  Christ.  The  exact  import  of  the  name 
is  important  to  a  right  determination  of  the  cha- 
racter. The  Greek  »vti  signifies  pro,  rice,  loco, 
i.  e.  in  the  place  of,  instead  of,  as  well  as  contra. 
a  i versus,  i.  e.  against,  in  opposition  to.     Thus, 

avrtZzTihm;  is   prO-TCX,  OX  vice-king;  *i/ti5;0;,  like 

a  god,  ec/ual  to  a  god;  xvti^i„v,  like  a  lion.  Al- 
though, therefore,  Antichrist  is  usually  defined  an 
adversary  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  word  includes  the 
twofold  idea  of  rivxl  and  adversary,  or  one  who 
becomes  an  adversary  by  claiming  to  be  a  rival. 
In  order,  then,  to  appropriate  this  title  where  it 
properly  belongs,  we  must  have  recourse  to  the 
■lids  of  history,  and  find  if  possible  a  power  which 
combines  the  above  attributes  in  itself.  To  be- 
stow it  where  it  is  not  due  is  to  bear  false-witness 
against  our  neighbour,  and  to  become  an  accuser 
of  the  brethren.  The  words  of  an  apostle  furnish 
us  with  a  luminous  clue  towards  a  right  applica- 
13 


ANTICHRIST 
tion.  1  John  ii.  IS — 22.  "As  ye  have  heard 
that  Antichrist  shall  come,  even  now  are  there 
many  Antichrists.  Who  is  a  liar  but  he  that 
denieth  that  Jesus  is  the  Christ  ?  He  is  Anti- 
christ that  denieth  the  Father  and  the  Son." 
We  may  say  then  that  wherever,  under  the  pro- 
fession of  Christianity,  the  true  doctrines  and  in 
stitutions  of  the  Gospel  are  contravened,  there  is 
the  working  of  Antichrist;  and  we  are  not  to 
look  upon  the  name  as  the  designation  of  an  in- 
dividual person,  or  some  single  formidable  adver- 
sary, who  was  to  arise  and  be  a  scourge  to  the 
church  in  the  latter  day,  as  was  anciently  believ- 
ed, but  rather  as  the  denomination  of  a  power, 
a  corrupt  and  baneful  influence,  existing  in  a 
wicked  mystical  body,  directly  opposed  to  the 
spiritual  body  of  Christ.  Such  is  Antichrist  of 
the  Scriptures,  which  frequently  employs  a  sin- 
gular title  to  point  out  a  collective  body  united  in 
a  kind  of  corporate  capacity,  or  assimilated  by  a 
common  character,  and  actuated  by  the  same  spi- 
rit. Thus  the  expression,  the  new  man,  is  used 
to  signify  the  whole  mass  of  real  believers.  Satan 
is  also  a  term  of  collective  import ;  and  what  is 
still  more  to  the  point,  man  of  sin,  and  son  of  per- 
dition, are  both  employed  as  appellations  of  a 
community  of  wicked  men,  setting  themselves 
against  God  and  his  kingdom,  whatever  might  be 
their  pretences.  Antichrist,  therefore,  is  a  word 
of  great  latitude  of  meaning,  and  not  confined  in 
the  Scriptures  exclusively  to  any  particular  socie- 
ty, church,  or  communion,  but  as  descriptive  of 
all,  in  every  piace,  and  every  age,  who  under  the 
form  of  Christianity  renounce  its  spirit,  corrupt 
its  doctrines,  pervert  its  institutions,  and  assume 
the  prerogatives  of  its  Head.  Still  it  may  be  sup- 
posed, and  can  doubtless  be  shown,  that  this  epi- 
thet is  emphatically  applied  wherever  this  impious 
power  is  more  especially  concentrated  and  drawn 
to  a  head,  where  it  manifests  itself  in  the  most 
unblushing  manner,  and  does,  as  it  were,  fix  its 
throne  and  dominion.  Accordingly,  Protestant 
writers,  with  scarce  a  dissenting  voice,  agree  in 
applying  it  pre-eminently  to  the  church  of  Rome, 
which,  as  we  learn  from  history,  answers  to  all 
the  characters  of  Antichrist.  Grotius,  Ham- 
mond, Bossuet,  and  others,  supposed  Rome  pagan 
to  be  designed;  but  Rome  Christian  seems  more 
evident,  for  John  "saw  the  beast  rise,  up  out  of 
the  sea,"  Rev.  xiii.  I. — Now  as  heathen  Rome 
had  risen  and  been  established  long  before  his 
time,  this  could  not  refer  to  the  Roman  empire 
then  subsisting,  but  to  a  form  ot  government  af- 
terwards to  arise.  As,  therefore,  none  did  arise, 
after  Rome  was  broken  to  pieces  by  the  barbari- 
ans, but  that  of  the  papal  power,  it  must  be  con- 
sidered as  applying  to  that.  The  descriptions, 
also,  of  the  beast,  as  the  great  apostacy,  the  man. 
of  sin,  the  mystery  of  iniquity,  and  the  son  of 
perdition,  will  apply  only  to  Christian  Rome. 
Sec  Daniel  vii.  2  Thess.  ii.  and  Rev.  xiii.  Be- 
sides, the  time  allowed  for  the  continuance  of  the 
beast  will  not  apply  to  heathen  Rome;  for  power 
was  given  to  the  beast  for  1200  years,  wheret-s 
heathen  Rome  did  not  last  400  years  after  this 
prophecy  was  delivered. 

Authors  have  differed  as  to  the  time  when  A  nti  • 
christ  arose.  Some  suppose  that  his  reign  did 
not  commence  till  he  became  a  temporal  prince, 
in  the  year  75i>,  when  Pepin  wrested  the  ex- 
archate of  Ravenna  from  the  Lombards,  and 
made  it  over  to  the  pope  and   liis  successors. 


ANTICHRIST 


ANTINOMIANS 


Others  think  that  it  was  in  727,  when  Rome  and  [  own  will.     See  Up.  Newton  on  Hie  Prophecies 
the  Roman  dukedom  came  from  the  Greeks  to    >limpsons's  Key  to  ditto; 


the  Roman  pontiff.     Mede  dates  his  rise  in  the 
vcar  456;  hut  others,  ami  I  think  with  the  great- 
est reason,  place  it  in  the  year  GOG.     Now,  it  is 
generally  agreed  that  the  rei:_rn  of  Antichrist  is 
1360  years;  consequently,  it'  his  rise  is  not  to  be 
reckoned  till  he  was  possessed  of  secular  autho- 
rity, then  his  fall  must  be  when  this  power  is 
taken  away.     According  to  the  first  opinion,  he 
must  have  possessed  his  temporal  power  till  the 
year  "201G;  according  to  the  second,  he  must  have 
possessed  it  till  the  year  li)87.     If  his  rise  began, 
according  to  Medc,  in  45G,  then  he  must  have 
fallen   in    1716.     Now   that   these   dates   were 
wrong,  circumstances  have  proved;  the  first  and 
second  being  too  late,   and  the  third  too  early. 
As  these  hypotheses,  therefore,  must  fall  to  the 
ground,  it  remains  for  us  to  consider  why  the 
last-mentioned   is   the   more    probable.     It    was 
about  the  year  GOG  that  pope  Boniface  III.,  by 
flattering  Phoeas,  the  emperor  of  Constantinople, 
one  of  the  worst  of  tyrants,  procured  for  himself 
the  title  of  Universal  Bishop.     The  bishops  of 
Rome  and  Constantinople  had  long  been  strug- 
gling for  this  honour;  at  last,  it  was  decided  in 
favour  of  the  bishop  of  Rome ;  and  from  this  time 
he  was  raised  above  all  others,  and  his  supremacy 
established  by  imperial  authority:  it  was  now, 
also,  that  the  most  profound  ignorance,  debauch- 
ery, and  superstition  reigned.     From  this  time 
the  popes  exerted  all  their  power  in  promoting 
the  idolatrous  worship  of  images,  saints,  reliques, 
and  angels.     The  church  was  truly  deplorable ; 
all  the  clergy  were  given  up  to  the  most  flagrant 
ami  abominable  acts  of  licentiousness.     Places  of 
worship  resembled  the  temples  of  heathens  more 
than  the  churches  of  Christians;  in  tine,  nothing 
could  exceed  the  avarice,  pride,  and  vanity  of  all 
the  bishops,  presbyters,  deacons,   and  even  the 
cloistered  monks!     All  this  fully  answered  the 
description  St.  Paul  gave  of  Antichrist,  2  Thess. 
ii.     It  is  necessary  also  to  observe,  that  this  epoch 
agrees   best  with  the  time  when,   according  to 
prophecy,  he  was  to  be  revealed.     The  rise  of 
Antichrist  was  to  be  preceded  by  the  dissolution 
of  the  Roman  empire,  the  establishment  of  a  dif- 
ferent form  of  government  in  Italy,  and  the  divi- 
sion of  the  empire  into  ten  kingdoms;  all  these 
events  taking  place,  make  it  very  probable  that 
the  year  606  was  the  time  of  his  rise.     Nor  have 
the  events  of  the  last  century  made  it  less  proba- 
ble.    The  power  of  the  pope  was  never  so  much 
shaken  as  within  a  few  years :  "  his  dominion  is, 
in  a  great  measure,  taken  from  him;"  and  every 
thing  seems  to  be  going  on  gradually  to  terminate 
his  authority,  so  that,  by  the  time  this  PJGO years 
shall  be  concluded,  we  may  suppose  that  Anti- 
christ shall  he  finally  destroyed. 

As  to  the  cruelties  of  Antichrist,  the  persecu- 
tions that  have  been  carried  on,  and  the  miseries 
to  which  mankind  have  been  subject,  by  the 
power  of  the  beast,  the  reader  may  consult  the 
articles  Inuuikition  and  Pf.rskcutiov.  In  this 
we  have  to  rejoice,  that,  however  various  the 
opinions  of  the  learned  may  be  as  to  the  time 
when  Antichrist  rose,  it  is  evident  to  all  that  he 
is  fast  declining,  and  will  certainly  fall,  Rev.  xviii. 
1,  5.  What  means  the  Almighty  may  further 
i>se,  the  exact  time  w  hen,  and  the  manner  how, 
ill  shall  he  accomplished,  we  must  leave  to  Him 
who  urdereth  all  thing!  after  the  counsel  of  his 
•JO 


mpsons's  Key  to  ditto;  Moseleifa  Set.  on  Pm, 
of  Babylon ;  Ward's  Three  Discourses  on  Pro- 
phecy, and  Iwoks  under  that  articic. 

ANT1CHRISTIANISM,  a  state  or  quality 
in  persons  or  principles,  which  denominates  then, 
antichristian  or  opposite  to  the  kingdom  of  Christ. 
M.  Jurieu  takes  the  idea  of  the  visible  unity  of 
the  church  to  have  been  the  source  of  Anti- 
christianism.  Had  not  manKind  been  infatuateo 
with  this,  they  would  never  have  stood  in  such 
awe  of  the  anathemas  of  Rome.  It  was  on  this 
the  popes  erected  their  monarchical  power. 

ANTIDORON,  a  name  given  by  the  Greeks 
to  the  consecrated  bread  ;  out  of  which  tho  mid- 
dle part,  marked  with  the  cross,  wherein  the  con- 
secration resides,  being  taken  away  by  the  priest, 
the  remainder  is  distributed  after  mass  to  the  poor. 
ANTINOMIANS,  those  who  maintain  that 
the  law  is  of  no  use  or  obligation  under  the  Gos- 
pel dispensation,  or  who  hold  doctrines  that  clearly 
supersede  the  necessity  of  good  works.   The  An- 
tinomians  took  their  origin  from  John  Agricola, 
about  the  year  1538,  who  taught  that  the  law  is 
no  way  necessary  under  the  Gospel ;  that  good 
works  do  not  promote  our  salvation,  nor  ill  ones 
hinder  it ;  that  repentance  is  not  to  be  preached 
from  the  decalogue,  but  only  from  the  GospeL 
This  sect  sprung  up  in  England  during  the  pro- 
tectorate of  Cromwell,  and  extended  their  system 
of  libertinism  much  farther  than  Agricola  did. 
Some  of  them,  it  is  said,  maintained,  that  if  they 
should  commit  any  kind  of  sin,  it  would  do  them 
no  hurt,  nor  in  the  least  affect  their  eternal  state ; 
and  that  it  is  one  of  the  distinguishing  characters 
of  the  elect,  that  they  cannot  do  any  thing  dis- 
pleasing to  God.     It  is  necessary,   however,  to 
observe  here,  and  candour  obliges  us  to  confess, 
that  there  have  been  others,  who  have  been  styled 
Antinomians,  who  cannot,  strictly  speaking,  be 
ranked  with  these  men ;   nevertheless,  the  un- 
guarded   expressions   they   have   advanced,    the 
bold  positions  they  have  laid  down,  and  the  dou- 
ble construction  which  might  so  easily  be  put 
upon  many  of  their  sentences,  have  led  some  to 
charge  them  with  Antinomian  principles.     For 
instance ;  when  they  have  asserted  justification 
to  be  eternal,  without  distinguishing  between  the 
secret  determination  of  God  in  eternity  and  the 
execution  of  it  in  time ;  when  they  have  spoken 
lightly  of  good  works,  or  asserted  that  believers 
have  nothing  to  do  with  the  law  of  God,  without 
fully  explaining  what  they  mean  ;  when  they  as- 
sert that  God  is  not  angry  with  his  people  for 
their  sins,  nor  in  any  sense  punishes  them  for 
them,   without  distinguishing   between  fatherly 
correction    and    vindictive    punishment;    these 
things,  whatever  be  the  private  sentiments  of 
those  who  advance  them,  have  a  tendency  to  in- 
jure the  minds  of  many.     It  has  been  alleged, 
that  the  principal  thing  they  have  had  in  view, 
was  to  counteract  those   legal  doctrines   which 
have  so  much  abounded  among  the  self-righteous  ; 
but   granting  this  to  be  true,  there  is  no  occasion 
to  run  from  one  extreme  to  another.    Had  many 
of  those  writers  proceeded  with   more   caution, 
been  less  dogmatical,  mere  explicit  in  the  expla- 
nation of  their  sentiments,  and  possessed  more 
candour  towards  those  who  uift'ered  from  them, 
they  would  have  been  more  serviceable  to  th« 
cause  of  truth  and  religion.     Some  of  the  chief 
of  those  who  have  been  charged  as  favouring  the 


ANTITYPE 

above  sentiments  are,  Crisp,  Richardson,  Salt- 
marsh,  Husscy,  Eatom,  Town,  <JV.  These 
have  been  answered  by  Gatakcr,  Sedgwick,  WU- 
sius,  Ball,  Williams,  Ridglcy,  Beart,  De  Fleu- 
ry,  qV.  See  also  Bellamy's  Letters  and  Dia- 
logues between  Theron,  Paulinus,  and  Asnasio; 
with  his  Essay  on  the  Nature  and  Glory  of  the 
Gospel;  Edwards's  Crispianism  unmasked. 

ANTIPATHY,  hatred,  aversion,  repugnan- 
cy. Hatred  is  entertained  against  persons,  aver- 
sion and  antipathy  against  persons  or  things, 
and  repugnancy  against  actions  alone.  Haired 
is  more  voluntary  than  aversion,  antipathy,  or 
repugnancy :  these  last  have  greater  affinity  with 
the  animal  constitution.  The  causes  of  antipathy 
are  less  known  than  those  of  aversion.  Repug- 
nancy is  less  permanent  than  cither  the  one  or 
the  other.  We  hate  a  vicious  character;  we 
feel  an  aversion  to  its  exertions.  We  are  affected 
with  antipathy  for  certain  persons  at  first  sight ; 
there  are  some  affairs  which  we  transact  with  re- 
■pugnarx'y.  Hatred  calumniates,  aversion  keeps 
us  at  a  distance  from  certain  persons.  Antipathy 
makes  us  detest  them;  repugnancy  hinders  us 
from  imitating  them. 

ANTIPjEDOBAPTISTS  (from  «n,, 
against,  and  jrx<s,  vxiSos,  child,  and  /S»jtti^w, 
baptize  )  is  a  distinguishing  denomination  given 
to  those  who  object  to  the  baptism  of  infants.  See 
Baptists,  Baptism. 

ANTIQ.UITIES,  a  term  implying  all  testi- 
monies or  authentic  accounts  that  have  come 
down  to  us  of  ancient  nations.  As  the  study  of 
antiquity  may  be  useful  both  to  the  inquiring 
Christian,  as  well  as  to  those  who  are  employed 
in,  or  are  candidates  for  the  Gospel  ministry,  we 
shall  here  subjoin  a  list  of  Ihose  which  are  es- 
teemed the  most  valuable. — Fabricii  Bibliogra- 
phia  Antiquafia  ;  Spencer  de  Legibus  Heb.  Ri- 
tual ihus ;  Godwyn's  Moses  and  Aaron  ;  Bing- 
ham's Antiquities  of  the  Christian  Church  ; 
Jennings's  Jexcish  Antiquities;  Potter's  and 
Hirwood's  Greek,  and  Kcnnetl's  and  Adams's 
Roman  Antiquities  ;  Preface  to  the  Prussian 
Testament,  published  by  h'Enfant  and  Beau- 
sobre  ;  Pridcaux  and  Shuckford's  Connections ; 
Jones's  Asiatic  Researches  ;  and  Maurice's  In- 
dian Antiquities  ;  Brown's  Jcirish  Antiquities ; 
Lewis's  Origines  Hcbraa: ;  Fleury's  Manners 
of  the  Ancient  Israelites. 

ANT1SABBATAUIANS,  a  modern  reli- 
gious sect,  who  deny  the  necessity  of  observing 
the  Sabbath  Day.     Their  chief  arguments  are, 

1.  That  the  Jewish  Sabbath  was  only  of  cere- 
monial, not  of  moral  obligation ;  and  conse- 
quently, is  abolished  by  the  coming  of  Christ. — 

2.  That  no  other  Sabbath  was  appointed  to  be 
observed  by  Christ  or  his  apostles. — 3.  That 
there  is  not  a  word  of  Sabbath-breaking  in  all  the 
New  Testament. — 4.  That  no  command  was 
jriven  to  Adam  or  Noah  to  keep  any  Sabbath. — 
And,  5.  That,  therefore,  although  Christians  are 
commanded  "  not  to  forsake  the  assembling  of 
themselves  together,"  they  ought  not  to  hold  one 
day  more  holy  than  another.  See  article  Sab- 
bath. 

ANTITRINITARIANS,  those  who  deny 
the  Trinity,  and  teach  that  there  are  not  three 
persons  in  the  Godhead.     See  Trinity. 

ANTITYPE,  a  Greek  word,  properly  signi- 
fying a  type  or  figure  corresponding  to  some 
other  type. 
21 


APOCRYPHA 

The  word  antitype  occurs  twice  in  the  New 
Testament,  viz.  in  the  Epistle  to  the  Hebrews, 
chap.  ix.  v.  24.  and  in  the  1st  Epistle  of  St.  Peter, 
chap.  iii.  v.  21.  where  its  genuine  import  has 
been  much  controverted.  The  former  says,  that 
Christ  is  not  entered  into  the  holy  places  made 
with  hands,  which  are  Hmm,  the  figures  or  an- 
titypes of  the  true — now  to  appear  in  the  pre- 
sence of  God.  Now  TU5ro;  signifies  the  pattern 
by  which  another  thing  is  made ;  and  as  Moses 
was  obliged  to  make  the  tabernacle,  anil  all  things 
in  it,  according  to  the  pattern  shown  him  in  the 
Mount,  the  tabernacle  so  formed  was  the  anti- 
type of  what  was  shown  to  Moses ;  any  thing, 
therefore,  formed  according  to  a  model  or  pattern, 
is  an  antitype.  In  the  latter  passage,  the  Apos- 
tle, speaking  of  Noah's  flood,  and  the  deliverance 
of  only  eight  persons  in  the  ark  from  it.  says, 
a  xxi  >ijixs  avTiTujrov  vuv  vji'O'  &xx-Ti<r/*x :  Bap- 
tism being  an  antitype  to  th  at,  now  saves  us  ; 
not  the  putting  away  of  the  filth  of  the  flesh,  but 
the  answer  of  a  good  conscience  toward  God,  <f-c. 
The  meaning  is,  that  righteousness,  or  the  an- 
swer of  a  o-ood  conscience  towards  God,  now 
saves  us,  by3 means  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ, 
as  formerly  righteousness  saved  these  eight  per- 
sons by  means  of  the  ark  during  the  flood.  The 
word  antitype,  therefore,  here  signifies  a  general 
similitude  of  circumstances  ;  and  the  particle  «,, 
whercunto,  refers  not  to  the  immediate  antecedent 
vixric,  water,  but  to  all  that  precedes. 

ANTOSIANDR1ANS,  a  sect  of  rigid  Lu- 
therans, who  opposed  the  doctrine  of  Osiandei 
relating  to  justification.  These  are  otherwise  de- 
nominated Osiandroynastiges. — The  Antosian 
drians  deny  that  man  is  made  just,  with  thai 
justice  wherewith  God  himself  is  just ;  that  is, 
"they  assert  that  he  is  not  made  essentially,  bul 
only  imputatively  just ;  or  that  he  is  not  really- 
made  just,  but  only  pronounced  so. 

APATHY,  among  the  ancient  philosophers, 
implied  an  utter  privation  of  passion,  and  an  in- 
sensibility of  pain.  The  word  is  compounded  of  * 
priv.  and  *-*;=;,  affection.  The  Stoics  affected  an 
entire  apathy;  they  considered  it  as  the  highest 
wisdom  to  eiijoy  a  perfect  calmness  or  tranquillity 
of  mind,  incapable  of  being  ruffled  by  either  plea 
sure  or  pain.  In  the  first  ages  of  t lit-  church,  the 
Christians  adopted  the  term  apathy  to  express  a 
contempt  of  all  earthly  concerns  ;  a  state  of  mor- 
tification such  as  the  Gospel  prescribes.  Clemens 
Alexandrinus,  in  particular,  brought  it  exceed- 
in  l'Iv  in  vogue,  thinking  hereby  to  draw  such 
philosophers'  to  Christianity  who  aspired  after 
such  a  sublime  pitch  of  virtue. 

APELLEANS,  so  called  from  Apelles,  in  the 
second  century.  They  affirmed,  that  Christ, 
when  he  came  down  from  heaven,  received  a 
body  not  from  the  substance  of  his  mother,  but 
from  the  four  elements,  which  at  his  death  he 
rendered  back  to  the  world,  and  so  ascended  into 
heaven  without,  a  body. 

APOCALYPSE,  or  Revelation,  from  the 
Greek  a:rox*.\u?rT«,,  to  unveil,  discover,  reveal; 
the  name  of  the  last  of  the  sacred  books  of  the 
New  Testament,  and  so  called  from  its  contain- 
ing important,  revelations  concerning  the  future 
destinies  of  the  church.     See  Revelation. — B. 

APOCRYPHA,  books  not  admitted  into  the 
canon  of  Scripture,  being  cither  spurious,  or  at 
least  not  acknowledged  as  divine.  The  word 
is  Greek,  and  is  derived   from  «.*<>,  from,  an  J 


APOSTACY 

«3u^T»),  to  hide,  or  conceal.  They  seem  most 
of  them  to  have  bean  composed  by  Jews.  None 
of  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  mention 
hem;  neither  Philo  nor  Josephus  speak  of  them. 
The  Christian  church  was  for  some  ages  a  stran- 
ger to  them.  Onsen,  Athanasius,  Hilary,  Cyril 
of  Jerusalem,  ami  all  the  orthodox  writers  who 
have  given  catalogues  of  the  canonical  hooks  of 
Scripture,  unanimously  concur  in  rejecting  these 
out  of  the  canon.  The  Protestants  acknowledge 
such  hooks  of  Scripture  only  to  be  canonical  as 
were  esteemed  to  be  so  in  the  first  ages  of  the 
church ;  such  as  are  cited  by  the  earliest  writers 
among  the  Christians,  as  of  divine  authority,  and 
after  the  most  diligent  inquiry,  were  received  and 
judged  to  be  so  by  the  council  of  Laodicea.  They 
were  written  alter  the  days  of  Malachi,  in  whom, 
according  to  the  universal  testimony  of  the  Jews, 
the  spirit  of  prophecy  ceased,  Mai.  iv.  4 — G. 
Not  one  of  the  writers  in  direct  terms  advances  a 
claim  to  inspiration.  They  contain  fables,  lies, 
and  contradictions.  1  Maccabees,  vi.  4,  1G.  2 
Maccabees,  i.  13,  1G.  ix.  28.  The  apocryphal 
books  are  in  general  believed  to  be  canonical  by 
the  church  of  Rome;  and,  even  by  the  sixth  ar- 
ticle of  the  church  of  England,  they  are  ordered 
to  be  read  for  example  of  life  and  instruction  of 
manners,  though  it  doth  not  apply  them  to  esta- 
blish any  doctrine.  Other  reformed  churches  do 
not  so  much  as  make  even  this  use  of  them.  See 
Pridcaux's  Connection,  vol.  i.  p.  36 — 42;  Lee's 
Dis.  on  Esdras;  Dick  on  Inspiration,  p.  344 ; 
Alexander  on  the  Canon  ;  Home's  Introduction, 
vol.  iv.  p.  239. 

APOLLINARIANS  were  ancient  heretics, 
who  denied  the  proper  humanity  of  Christ,  and 
maintained  that  the  body  he  assumed  was  en- 
dowed with  a  sensitive  and  not  a  rational  soul ; 
but  that  the  divine  nature  supplied  the  place  of 
the  intellectual  principle  in  man.  This  sect  de- 
rived its  name  from  Apollinaris,  bishop  of  Lao- 
dicea.  Their  doctrine  was  first  condemned  by  a 
council  at  Alexandria  in  302,  and  afterwards  in  a 
more  formal  manner  by  a  council  at  Rome  in 
373,  and  by  another  council  in  378,  which  de- 
posed Apollinaris  from  his  bishopric.  This,  with 
other  laws  enacted  against  them,  reduced  them  to 
a  very  small  number;  so  that  at  last  they  dwin- 
dled away. 

APOLOGY,  a  Greek  term,  literally  import- 
ing an  excuse  or  defence  of  some  person,  cause, 
or  action.  Both  in  ancient  and  modern  times 
the  word  has  been  applied  to  works  written  for 
the  professed  design  of  defending  or  vindicating 
Christianity  from  the  attacks  of  its  enemies,  ami 
also  to  those  written  in  defence  of  certain  reli- 
gious seels  by  their  advocates.  Thus,  among  the 
ancients,  we  meet  with  the  Apology  of  Justin 
Mart;,  r,  the  Apologetic  of  Tertuilian,  &c.  And 
amou_r  the  moderns,  with  "Watson's  Apology, 
Barclay's  Apology,  and  others. — 1). 

APOSTAC  V,  a  forsaking  or  renouncing  our 
religion,  cither  by  an  open  declaration  in  words, 
ora  virtual  declaration  of  it  by  our  actions.  The 

E punitive  Christian  church  distinguished  several 
[rids  of  apostacy  :  the  first,  of  those  who  went 
entirely  from  Christianity  to  Judaism:  the  se- 
cond, of  tho  e  wiio  complied  so  far  with  the  Jews, 
as  to  communicate  with  them  in  many  of  their 
unlawful  practices,  without  making  a  lor  ma!  pro- 
fession of  their  religion;  thirdly,  of  those  who 
mingled  Judaism  and  Christianity  together;  and 
» 


APOSTOLIC 
fourthly,  of  those  who  voluntarily  relapsed  into 
paganism.  Apostacy  may  he  farther  considered 
as  1.  Original,  in  which  we  have  all  participated, 
Rom.  iii.  23; — -.  National,  when  a  kingdom  re- 
linquishes the  profession  of  Christianity  ; — 3. 
Personal,  when  an  individual  backslides  from 
God,  Heb.  x.  38 ; — 4.  Final,  when  men  are  given 
up  to  judicial  hardness  of  heart,  as  Judas.  See 
Backsliding. 

APOSTLE,  properly  signifies  a  messenger  or 
person  sent  by  another  upon  some  business.  It 
is  particularly  applied  to  them  whom  our  Saviour 
deputed  to  preach. — 2.  Apostle,  in  the  Greek 
liturgy,  is  used  for  a  book  containing  the  epistles 
of  St.  Paul,  printed  in  the  order  wherein  they  are 
to  be  read  in  churches  through  the  course  of  the 
year. — 3.  The  appellation  was  also  given  to  the 
ordinary  travelling  ministers  of  the  church,  Rom. 
xvi.  7.  Phil.  ii.  25.,  though  in  our  translation 
the  last  is  rendered  messenger. — 4.  It  is  likewise 
given  to  those  persons  who  first  planted  the 
Christian  faith  in  any  place.  Thus  Dionysius  of 
Ccrinth  is  called  the  Apostle  of  France,  Xaviei 
the  Apostle  of  the  Indies,  &c. 

APOSTLES'  CREED.     See  Creed. 

APOSTOLATE,  in  a  general  sense,  is  used 
for  mission ;  but  it  more  properly  denotes  the 
dignity  or  office  of  an  apostle  of  Christ.  It  is  also 
used  m  ancient  writers  for  the  office  of  a  bishop. 
But  as  the  title  apostolicus  has  been  appropriated 
to  the  pope,  so  that  of  apostolate  became  at  length 
restrained  to  the  sole  dignity  of  the  popedom. 

APOSTOLIC,  apostolical;  something  that 
relates  to  the  apostles,  or  descends  from  them. 
Thus  we  say,  the  apostolical  age,  apostolical  doc- 
trine, apostolical  character,  constitutions,  tradi- 
tions, &c. 

APOSTOLIC,  in  the  primitive  church,  was 
an  appellation  given  to  all  such  churches  as  were 
founded  by  the  apostles ;  and  even  to  the  bishops 
of  those  churches,  as  beLng  the  reputed  successors 
of  the  apostles.  These  were  confined  to  four, 
viz.  Rome,  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem. 
In  after-times,  the  other  churches  assumed  the 
same  quality,  on  account,  principally,  of  the  con- 
formity of  their  doctrine  \\  ith  that  of  the  churches 
which  were  apostolical  by  foundation,  and  be- 
cause all  bishops  held  themselves  successors  of 
the  apostles,  or  acted  in  their  dioceses  with  the 
authority  of  apostles. 

The  first  tune  the  term  apostolical  is  attributed 
to  bishops,  as  such,  is  in  a  letter  of  Clovis  to  the 
council  of  Orleans,  held  in  511,  though  that  king 
does  not  there  expressly  denominate  them  apos- 
tolical, but  (apostolica  scde  dignissiTni)  highly 
worthy  of  the  apostolical  see.  in  581,  Gun  tram 
calls  the  bishops,  met  at  the  council  of  Macon, 
apostolical  pontiffs,  apostolici  pontificss. 

In  progress  of  lime,  the  bishop  of  Rome  grow 
ing  in  power  above  the  rest,  and  the  three  pa- 
triarchates of  Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusa- 
lem falling  into  the  hands  of  the  Saracens,  tho 
title  apostolical  was  restrained  to  the  pope  and 
his  church  alone;  though  some  of  the  popes,  and 
St.  Gregory  the  Great,  not  contented  to  hold  the 
title  by  this  tenure,  began  at  length  to  insist  that 
it  belonged  to  them  by  another  ami  peculiar  right, 
as  being  the  successors  of  St.  Peter.  The  coun- 
cil of  Rheims,  in  1049,  declared  that  the  pope 
was  the  sole  apostolical  primate  oi  the  universal 
church.  And  hence  a  great  number  of  apostoli- 
cals ;  apostolical  see,  upostulical  nuncio,  apost 


APPROPRIATION 

c<i?  notary,  apostolical  brief,  apostolical  chamber, 
apostolical  vicar,  &c. 

APOSTOLICAL  CONSTITUTIONS,  a 
collection  of  regulations  attributed  to  the  apostles, 
and  supposed  to  have  been  collected  by  St.  Cle- 
ment, whose  name  they  likewise  bear.  It  is  the 
general  opinion,  however,  that  they  are  spurious, 
and  that  St  Clement  had  no  hand  in  them. 
They  appeared  first  in  the  fourth  century,  but 
have  been  much  changed  and  corrupted  since. 
There  are  so  many  things  in  them  different  from 
and  even  contrary  to  the  genius  and  design  of 
the  New  Testament  writers,  that  no  wise  man 
would  believe,  without  the  most  convincing  and 
irresistible  proof,  that  both  could  come  from  the 
same  hand.  Grabe's  Answer  to  Whislon  ;  Sau- 
rin's  Ser.  voL  ii.  p.  185 ;  Lardncr's  Cred.  vol.  iii. 
p.  11.  ch.  nit.;  Doddridge's  Lcct.  lee.  119. 

APOSTOLIC  FATHERS,  an  appellation 
usually  given  to  the  writers  of  the  first  century, 
who  employed  their  pens  in  the  cause  of  Chris- 
tianity. Of  these  writers,  Cotelerius,  and  after 
him  Le  Clerc,  have  published  a  collection  in  two 
volumes,  accompanied  both  with  their  own  anno- 
tations, and  the  remarks  of  other  learned  men. 
See  also  the  genuine  epistles  of  the  apostolic 
fatnersbv  Abp.  Wake. 

APOSTOLIC  SUCCESSION.  See  Suc- 
cession. 

APOTACTITiE,  an  ancient  sect,  who  af- 
fected to  follow  the  example  of  the  apostles,  and 
renounced  all  their  effects  and  possessions.  It 
does  not  appear  that  they  held  any  errors  at  first ; 
but  afterwards  they  taught  that  the  renouncing 
of  all  riches  was  not  only  a  matter  of  counsel  and 
ad"ice,  but  of  precept  and  necessity. 

APPLICATION  is  used  for  the  act  whereby 
our  Saviour  transfers  or  makes  over  to  us  what 
he  had  earned  or  purchased  by  his  holy  life  and 
death.  Accordingly  it  is  by  this  application  of 
the  merits  ot  Christ  that  we  are  to  be  justified 
and  entitled  to  grace  and  glory. 
•  Application  is  also  used  for  that  part  of  a  ser- 
mon in  which  the  preacher  brings  home  or  ap- 
(ilies  the  truth  of  religion  to  the  consciences  of 
lis  hearers.     See  Sermon. 

APPROBATION,  a  state  or  disposition  of 
the  mind,  wherein  wre  put  a  value  upon,  or  be- 
come pleased  with,  some  person  or  thing.  Mo- 
ralists are  divided  on  the  principle  of  approbation, 
or  the  motive  which  determines  us  to  approve  or 
iisapprove.  The  Epicureans  will  have  it  to  be 
only  self-interest :  according  to  them,  that  which 
determines  any  agent  to  approve  his  own  action, 
is  its  apparent  tendency  to  his  private  happiness ; 
and  even  the  approbation  of  another's  action 
flows  from  no  other  cause  but  an  opinion  of  its 
tendency  to  the  happiness  of  the  approver,  either 
immediately  or  remotely.  Others  resolve  appro- 
bation into  a  moral  sense,  or  a  principle  of  be- 
nevolence, by  which  we  are  determined  to  ap- 
prove every  kind  affection  either  in  ourselves  or 
others,  and  all  publicly  useful  actions  which  we 
imagine  to  flow  from  such  affections,  without 
any  view  therein  to  our  own  private  happiness. 

But  may  we  not  add,  that  a  true  Christian's 
approbation  arises  from  his  perception  of  the  will 
of  God?     See  Obligation. 

APPROPRIATION,  the  annexing  a  bene- 
fice to  the  proper  and  perpetual  use  of  some  reli- 
gious house.     It  is  a  term  also  often  used  in  the 
religious  world  as  referring  to  that  act  of  the 
S3 


ARIANS 
mind  by  which  we  apply  the  blessings  of  the  Gos- 
pel to  ourselves.  This  appropriation  is  real  when 
we  are  enabled  to  believe  in,  feel,  and  obey  the 
truth;  but  merely  nominal  and  delusive  when 
there  are  no  fruits  of  righteousness  and  true  holi- 
ness.    See  Assurance. 

AClUARIANS,  those  who  consecrated  water 
in  the  cucharist  instead  of  wine.  Another  branch 
of  them  approved  of  wine  in  the  sacrament,  when 
received  at  the  evening:  they  likewise  mixed 
water  with  the  wine. 

ARABICIj  erroneous  Christians,  in  the  third 
century,  who  thought  that  the  soul  and  body 
died  together,  and  rose  again.  It  is  said  that  Ori- 
gen  convinced  them  of  their  error,  and  that  they 
then  abjured  it. 

ARCHANGEL,  according  to  some  divines, 
means  an  angel  occupying  the  eighth  rank  in  the 
celestial  hierarchy ;  but  others,  not  without  rea- 
son, reckon  it  a  title  only  applicable  to  our  Sa- 
viour. Compare  Jude  ix.  with  Dan.  xii.  1.  1 
Thes.  iv.  16. 

ARCHBISHOP,  the  chief  or  metropolitan 
bishop,  who  has  several  suffragans  under  him. 
Archbishops  were  not  known  in  the  East  tiil 
about  the  year  330  ;  and  though  there  were  some 
soon  after  this  who  had  the  title,  yet  that  was 
only  a  personal  honour,  by  which  the  bishops  of 
considerable  cities  were  distinguished.  It  was 
not  till  of  late  that  archbishops  became  metropo- 
litans, and  had  suffragans  under  them.  The  ec- 
clesiastical government  of  England  is  divided  into 
two  provinces,  viz.  Canterbury  and  York.  The 
first  archbishop  of  Canterbury  was  Austin,  ap- 
pointed by  king  Ethelbert,  on  his  conversion  to 
Christianity,  about  the  year  598.  His  grace  of 
Canterbury  is  the  first  peer  of  England,  and  the 
next  to  the  royal  family,  having  precedence  of  all 
dukes,  and  all  great  officers  of  the  crown.  It  is 
his  privilege,  by  custom,  to  crown  the  kings  and 
queens  of  tliis  kingdom.  The  archbishop  of 
York  has  precedence  of  all  dukes  not  of  the  royal 
blood,  and  of  all  officers  of  state,  except  the  lord 
high  chancellor.  The  first  archbishop  of  York 
was  PaulimiSj  appointed  by  pope  Gregory  about 
the  year  622. 

ARCHDEACON,  a  priest  invested  with  au- 
thority or  jurisdiction  over  the  clergy  and  laity, 
next  to  the  bishop,  either  through  the  whole  dio- 
cese, or  enly  a  part  of  it.  There  are  sixty  in 
England,  who  visit  every  two  years  in  three, 
when  they  inquire  into  the  reparations  and 
moveables  belonging  to  churches ;  reform  abuses ; 
suspend;  excommunicate:  in  some  places  prove 
wills;  and  induct  all  clerks  into  benefices  within 
their  respective  jurisdictions. 

ARCHONTlCS,  a  sect  about  the  year  160  or 
203.  Among  many  other  extravagant  notions, 
they  held  that  the  world  was  created  by  archan- 
gels ;  thev  alsodenicd  the  resurrection  of  the  body. 
ARCH-PRESBYTER,  or  Arch-Priest,  a 
priest  established  in  some  dioceses  with  a  supe- 
riority over  the  rest.  He  was  anciently  chosen 
out  of  the  college  of  presbyters,  at  the  pleasure  of 
the  bishop.  The  arch-presbyters  were  much  of 
the  same  nature  with  our  deans  in  cathedral 
churches. 

ARIANS,  followers  of  Arius,  a  presbyter  of 
the  church  of  Alexandria,  about  315,  who  main- 
tained that  the  Son  of  God  was  totally  and  essen- 
tially distinct  from  the  Father;  that  he  was  the 
first  and  noblest  of  those  beings  whom  God  had 


ARIAN 
fronted — the  instrument,  by  whose  subordinate 
operation  he  formed  the  universe;  and,  therefore, 
inferior  to  the  Father  both  in  nature  and  dignity  : 
also,  that  the  Holy  Ghost  was  not  God,  but 
created  by  the  power  of  the  Son.  The  Arians 
owned  that  the  Son  was  the  Word ;  but  denied 
that  Word  to  have  been  eternal.  They  held  that 
Christ  had  nothing  of  man  in  him  but  the  flesh, 
to  which  the  xoj.  0,-,  or  word,  was  joined,  which 
was  tne  same  as  the  soul  in  us.  The  Arians 
were  first  condemned  and  anathematized  by  a 
council  at  Alexandria,  in  320,  under  Alexander, 
bishop  of  that  city,  who  accused  Arius  of  impiety, 
and  caused  him  to  be  expelled  from  the  commu- 
nion of  the  church  ;  and  afterwards  by  380  fathers 
in  the  general  council  of  Nice,  assembled  by  Con- 
stantino, in  325.  His  doctrine,  however,  was  not 
extinguished ;  on  the  contrary,  it  became  the 
reigning  religion,  especially  in  the  east.  Arius 
was  recalled  from  banishment  by  Constantine  in 
two  or  three  years  after  the  council  ot  Nice,  and 
the  laws  that  had  been  enacted  against  him  were 
repealed.  Notwithstanding  tliis,  Athanasius, 
then  bishop  of  Alexandria,  refused  to  admit  him 
and  his  followers  to  communion.  This  so  en- 
raged them,  that,  by  their  interest  at  court,  they 
procured  that  prelate  to  be  deposed  and  banished  ; 
but  the  church  of  Alexandria  still  refusing  to  ad- 
mit Arius  into  their  communion,  the  emperor 
sent  for  him  to  Constantinople;  whore  upon  de- 
livering in  a  fresh  confession  of  his  faith  in  terms 
less  offensive,  the  emperor  commanded  him  to  be 
received  into  their  communion ;  but  that  very 
evening,  it  is  said,  Arius  died  as  his  friends 
were  conducting  him  in  triumph  to  the  great 
church  of  Constantinople.  Arius,  pressed  by 
a  natural  want,  stepped  aside,  but  expired  on  the 
spot,  his  bowels  gushing  out.  The  Arian  party, 
however,  found  a  protector  in  Constantius,  who 
succeeded  his  father  in  the  East.  They  under- 
went various  revolutions  and  persecutions  under 
succeeding  emperors;  till,  at  length,  Thcodosius 
the  Groat  exerted  ever)'  effort  to  suppress  them. 
Their  doctrine  was  carried,  in  the  fifth  century, 
into  Africa,  under  the  Vandals;  and  into  Asia 
under  the  Goths. — Italy,  Gaul,  and  Spain,  were 
also  deeply  infected  with  it;  and  towards  the 
commencement  of  the  sixth  century,  it  was  tri- 
umphant in  many  parts  of  Asia,  Africa,  and  Eu- 
rope :  but  it  sunk  almost  at  once,  when  the  Van- 
dals were  driven  out  of  Africa,  and  the  Goths  out 
of  Italy  by  the  arms  of  Justinian.  However,  it 
revived  again  in  Italy,  under  the  protection  of  the 
Lombards,  in  the  seventh  century,  and  was  not 
extinguished  till  about  the  end' of  the  eighth. 
Arianism  was  again  revived  in  the  West  by  Ser- 
vetus,  in  1531,  for  which  he  suffered  death.  "After 
this  the  doctrine  got  footing  in  Geneva,  and  in 
Poland  ;  but  at  length  degenerated  in  a  great 
measure  into  Socinianism.  Erasmus,  it  is  thought, 
aimed  at  reviving  it,  in  his  commentaries  on  the 
New  Testament;  and  the  learned  Grotius  seems 
to  lean  tli.it  way.  Mr.  Winston  was  one  of  the 
first  divines  who  revived  this  controversy  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  lie  was  followed*  by  Dr. 
Clarke,  who  was  chiefly  opposed  by  Dr.  Water- 
land.  Those  who  hold  the  doctrine  which  is 
usually  called  Low  Ar inn  ism,  say  that  Christ 
rate-existed;  but  not  as  the  eternal  Logos  of  the 
Father,  or  as  the  being  by  whom  he  made 
the  worlds,  and  had  interc  lurae  with  the  patri 
an  ha,  or  as  having  any  certain  rank  or  employ- 
24 


ARK  OF  THE  COVENANT 
mont  whatever  in  the  divine  dispensations.  In 
modern  times,  the  term  Arian  isindisoriminately 
applied  to  those  who  consider  Jesus  simply  sub- 
ordinate to  the  Father.  Some  of  them  believo 
Christ  to  have  been  the  creator  of  the  world  ;  but 
they  all  maintain  that  he  existed  previously  to 
his  incarnation,  though  in  his  pre-existcnt  state 
they  assign  him  different  degrees  of  dignity. 
Hence  the  terms  High  and  Low  Arian.  See 
Pre-EXISTEN'CE.  Some  of  the  more  recent  vin- 
dicators of  Arianism  have  been//.  Taylor,  in  his 
Apology  of  Ben  Mordecai  to  his  friends  for 
embracing  Christianity ;  Dr.  Harvoxl,  in  his 
Five  Dissertations ;  Dr.  Price,  in  his  Sermons 
on  the  Christian  Doctrine.  See  also  the  4th  vol. 
of  the  Theological  Repository,  p.  153 — lt>3, 
and  Cornish's  Tract  on  the  Prc-cxistence  of 
Christ. 

On  the  opposite  side,  Bogne  and  Bennett's 
Hist  of  Dissenters,  vol.  iii.  Abbadie,  Waterland, 
Guysc,  Hey,  Robinson,  Erelcigh,  Hauler  on  the 
Divinity  of  Christ; — Calamy,  Taylor,  Gill, 
Jones,  Pike,  and  Simpson  on  the  Trinity. 

ARISTOTELIANS.  The  followers  of  Aris- 
totle. They  believed  in  the  eternity  of  the  world, 
and  represented  the  Deity  as  somewhat  similar 
to  a  principle  of  power  giving  motion  toa  machine ; 
and  as  happy  in  the  contemplation  of  himself,  but 
regardless  of  human  affairs.  They  were  uncer' 
tain  as  to  the  immortality  of  the  soul. — As  this 
was  rather  a  philosophical  than  religious  sect,  we 
shall  not  enlarge  on  it. 

ARK,  or  JNoau's  Ark,  a  floating  vessel  built 
by  Noah  for  the  preservation  of  his  family,  and 
the  several  species  of  animals,  during  the  deluge. 
The  form  of  the  ark  was  an  oblong,  with  a  flat 
bottom,  and  a  sloped  roof,  raised  to  a  cubit  in  the 
middle ;  it  had  neither  sails  nor  rudder ;  nor 
was  it  sharp  at  the  ends  for  cutting  the  water. 
This  form  was  admirably  ealculated  to  make 
it  lie  steady  on  the  water,  without  rolling,  which 
might  have  endangered  the  lives  of  the  animals 
within. 

The  length  of  this  ark  was  300  cubits,  which, 
according  to  Dr.  Arbuthnot's  calculation,  amount 
to  a  little  more  than  517  feet ;  its  breadth,  50  cu- 
bits, or  91-2  feet ;  its  height,  30  cubits,  or  54-72 
feet :  and  its  solid  contents  2,730-782  solid  feet, 
sufficient  lor  a  carriage  for  81,0(12  tons.  It  con- 
sisted of  three  stories,  each  of  which,  abating  the 
thickness  of  the  floors,  might  bo  about  18  feet 
high,  and  no  doubt  was  partitioned  into  a  great 
many  rooms  or  apartments.  This  vessel  was 
doubtless  so  contrived,  as  to  admit  the  air  and  the 
light  on  all,  though  the  particular  construction  of 
the  windows  be  not  mentioned. 

ARE  OF  THE  COVENANT,  a  small 
chest  or  cotter,  three  feet  nine  inches  in  length, 
two  feet  three  inches  in  breadth,  and  two  feet 
three  inches  in  height,  in  which  were  contained 
the  golden  pot  that  had  manna,  Aaron's  rod,  and 
the  tables  of  the  covenant.  The  ark  was  ivposit- 
ed  in  the  holiest  place  of  the  tabernacle.  It  was 
taken  by  the  Philistines,  and  detained  twenty 
(some  say  forty)  years  at  Kirjath-jearim;  but,  the 
people  being  afflicted  with  emerooson  account  of 
it,  returned  it  with  divers  presents.  It  was  after- 
wards placed  in  the  temple.  The  lid  or  covering 
of  the  ark  was  called  the  propitiatory  or  mercy- 
seat;  over  which  two  figures  were  placed,  called 
chcrnbims,  with  expanded  wings  of  a  peculiar 
form.     Hero  the  Shechinah  rested  both  in  the 


ARMINIANS 

tabernacle  and  temple  in  a  visible  cloud  :  hence 
were  issued  the  Divine  oracles  by  an  audible 
voice;  and  the  high  priest  appeared  before  this 
mercy-seat  once  every  year  on  the  great  day  of 
expiation  ;  and  the  Jews,  wherever  they  worship- 
ped, turned  their  faces  towards  the  place  where 
the  ark  stood. 

In  the  second  temple  there  was  also  an  ark, 
made  of  the  same  shape  and  dimensions  with  the 
first,  and  put  in  the  same  place,  but  without  any 
of  its  contents  and  peculiar  honours.  It  was  used 
as  a  representative  of  the  former  on  the  day  of 
expiation,  and  a  repository  of  the  original  copy  of 
the  holy  Scriptures,  collected  by  Ezra  and  the 
men  of  the  great  synagogue  after  the  captivity  ; 
and,  in  imitation  of  this,  the  Jews,  to  this  day, 
have  a  kind  of  ark  in  their  synagogues,  wherein 
their  sacred  books  are  kept. 

ARMENIANS,  the  inhabitants  of  Armenia, 
whose  religion  is  the  Christian  of  the  Eutychian 
sect;  that  is,  they  hold  but  one  nature  in  Jesus 
Christ.  See  Etjtychians.  They  assert  also  the 
procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  Father 
only.  They  believe  that  Christ,  at  his  descent 
into  hell  freed  the  souls  of  the  damned  from 
thence,  and  reprieved  them  to  the  end  of  the 
world,  when  they  shall  be  remanded  to  eternal 
flames.  They  believe  that  the  souls  of  the  righte- 
ous shall  not  be  admitted  to  the  beatific  vision  till 
after  the  resurrection,  notwithstanding  which  they 
pray  to  departed  saints,  adore  their  pictures,  and 
burn  lamps  before  them.  The  Armenian  clergy 
consist  of  patriarchs,  archbishops,  doctors,  secular 
priests,  and  monks.  The  Armenian  monks  are 
of  the  order  of  St.  Basil ;  and  every  Wednesday 
and  Friday  they  eat  neither  fish,  nor  eggs,  nor 
oil,  nor  any  thing  made  of  milk ;  and  during  Lent 
they  live  upon  nothing  but  roots.  They  have 
seven  sacraments;  baptism,  confirmation,  pe- 
nance, the  cucharist,  extreme  unction,  orders,  and 
matrimony. — They  admit  infants  to  the  commu- 
nion at  two  or  three  months  old.  They  seem  to 
place  the  chief  part  of  their  religion  in  fastings 
and  abstinences;  and,  among  the  clergy,  the  higher 
the  degree,  the  lower  they  must  live;  insomuch, 
that  it  is  said  the  archbishops  live  on  nothing  but 
pulse.  They  consecrate  holy  water  but  once  a 
year;  at  which  time  every  one  fills  a  pot,  and 
carries  it  home,  which  brings  in  a  considerable 
revenue  to  the  church. 

ARMINIANS,  persons  who  follow  the  doc- 
trines of  Arminius,  who  was  pastor  at  Amster- 
dam, and  afterwards  professor  of  divinity  at  Ley- 
den.  Arminius  had  been  educated  in  the  opinions 
of  Calvin  ;  but,  thinking  the  doctrine  of  that  great 
man  with  regard  to  free  will,  predestination  and 
grace,  too  severe,  he  began  to  express  his  doubts 
concerning  them  in  the  year  1591 ;  and,  upon 
further  inquiry,  adopted  the  sentiments  of  those 
whose  religious  system  extends  the  love  of  the 
Supreme  Being  and  the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ  to 
all  mankind.  The  Arminians  are  also  called  Re- 
monstrants, because,  in  Kill,  they  presented  a 
remonstrance  to  the.  states-general,  wherein  they 
state  their  grievances,  and  pray  for  relief. 

The  distinguishing  tenets  of  the  Arminians 
may  be  comprised  in  the  five  following  articles 
relative  to  predestination,  universal  redemption, 
the  corruption  of  man  conversion,  and  perseve- 
rance, viz. 

I.  That  God,  from  all  eternity,  determined  to 
bestow  salvation  on  those  who  he  foresaw  would 
'25  D 


ARMINIANS 

persevere  unto  the  end  ;  and  to  inflict  cvorlastinr 
punishments  on  those  who  should  continue  in 
their  unbelief,  and  resist  his  divine  succours;  so 
that  election  was  conditional,  and  reprobation  in 
like  manner  the  result  of  foreseen  infidelity  and 
persevering  wickedness. 

II.  That  Jesus  Christ,  by  his  sufferings  and 
death,  made  an  atonement  for  the  sins  of  all  man- 
kind in  general,  and  of  every  individual  in  par 
ticular;  that,  however,  none  but  those  who  be 
licve  in  him  can  be  partakers  of  divine  benefits. 

III.  That  true  faith  cannot  proceed  from  the 
exercise  of  our  natural  faculties  and  powers,  nor 
from  the  force  and  operation  of  free  will ;  since 
man,  in  consequence  of  his  natural  corruption,  is 
incapable  either  of  thinking  or  doing  any  good 
thing;  and  that,  therefore,  it  is  necessary,  in  order 
to  his  conversion  and  salvation,  that  he  be  rege- 
nerated and  renewed  by  the  operations  of  the  Holy 
Ghost,  which  is  the  gift  of  God  through  Jesus 
Christ. 

IV.  That  this  divine  grace  or  energy  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  begins  and  perfects  every  thing  that 
can  be  called  good  in  man.  and,  consequently  all 
good  works  arc  to  he  attributed  to  God  alone  ; 
that,  nevertheless,  this  grace  is  offered  to  all,  and 
does  not  force  men  to  act  against  their  inclinations, 
but  may  be  resisted  and  rendered  ineffectual  by 
the  perverse  will  of  the  impenitent  sinner.  Some 
modern  Arminians  interpret  this  and  the  last  ar- 
ticle with  a  greater  latitude. 

V.  That  God  gives  to  the  truly  faithful,  who 
are  regenerated  by  his  grace,  the  means  of  pre- 
serving themselves  in  this  state.  The  first  Ar- 
minians, indeed,  had  some  doubt  with  respect  to 
the  closing  part  of  this  article;  but  their  follow- 
ers uniformly  maintain  "that  the  regenerate  may 
lose  true  justifying  faith,  fall  from  a  state  of  grace, 
and  die  in  their  sins." 

After  the  appointment  of  Arminius  to  the  theo- 
logical chair  at  Lcyden,  he  thought  it  his  duty  to 
avow  and  vindicate  the  principles  which  he  had 
embraced  ;  and  the  freedom  with  which  he  pub- 
lished and  defended  them,  exposed  him  to  the 
resentment  of  those  thai,  adhered  to  the  theologi- 
cal system  of  Geneva,  which  then  prevailed  in 
Holland ;  but  his  principal  opponent  was  Goniar, 
his  colleague.  The  controversy  which  was  thus 
begun  became  more  general  after  the  death  of 
Arminius,  in  the  year  1609,  and  threatened  to 
involve  the  United  Provinces  in  civil  discord. 
The  Arminian  tenets  gained  ground  under  the 
mild  and  favourable  treatment  of  the  magistrates 
of  Holland,  and  were  adopted  by  several  persons 
of  merit  and  distinction.  The  Calvinists  or  Go- 
marists,  as  they  were  now  called,  appealed  to  a 
national  synod;  accordingly  the  synod  of  Dort 
was  convened,  by  order  of  the  states-general,  in 
lb'lfl;  and  was  composed  of  ecclesiastic  deputies 
from  the  United  Provinces  as  well  as  frcm  the 
reformed  churches  of  England,  Hessia,  Bremen, 
Switzerland,  and  the  Palatinate.  The  principal 
advocate  in  favour  of  the  Arminians  was  Episco- 
pius,  who  at  that  time  was  professor  of  divinity 
at  Leyden.  It  was  first  proposed  to  discuss  the 
principal  subjects  in  dispute,  that  the  Arminians 
should  be  allowed  to  state  and  vindicate  the 
grounds  on  which  their  opinions  were  founded; 
but,  some  difference  arising,  as  to  the  proper  mode 
of  conducting  the  debate,  the  Arminians  were 
excluded  from  the  assembly,  their  case  was  tried 
in  their  absence,  and  they  were  pronounced  guilty 
G 


ARTICLES,  LAMBETH 

of  pestilential  errors,  and  condemned  as  corrupt- 
ers of  the  true  religion.  A  curious  account  of  the 
proceedings  of  the  above  synod  may  be  seen  in  a 
series  of  letters  written  by  Mr.  John  Hales,  who 
was  present  on  the  occasion. 

In  consequence  of  the  abovementioned  deci- 
sion, the  Aruiinians  were  considered  as  enemies 
to  their  country,  and  its  established  religion, 
and  were  much  persecuted.  They  were  treated 
with  great  severity,  and  deprived  of  all  their  posts 
and  employments ;  their  ministers  were  silenced, 
and  their  congregations  were  suppressed.  The 
Treat  Barnevcldt  was  beheaded  on  a  scaffold ;  and 
he  learned  Grotius,  being  condemned  to  per- 
petual imprisonment,  fled,  and  took  refuge  in 
France. 

After  the  death  of  prince  Maurice,  who  had 
Dccn  a  violent  partisan  in  favour  of  the  Goma- 
rists,  in  the  year  1625,  the  Arminian  exiles  were 
restored  to  their  former  reputation  and  tranquillity  ; 
and  under  the  toleration  of  the  state,  they  erected 
Churches  and  founded  a  college  at  Amsterdam, 
appointing  Episcopius  the  first  theological  profes- 
sor. The  Arminian  system  has  very  much  pre- 
vailed in  England  since  the  time  of  Archbishop 
Laud,  and  its  votaries  in  other  countries  are  very 
numerous.  It  is  generally  supposed  that  a  ma- 
jority of  the  clergy  in  both  the  established  churches 
of  Great  Britain  favour  the  Arminian  system, 
not  withstanding  their  articles  are  strictly  Calvi- 
nistic.  The  name  of  Mr.  John  Wesky  hardly 
need  be  mentioned  here.  Every  one  knows  what 
an  advocate  he  was  for  the  tenets  of  Arminius, 
and  the  success  he  met  with.  See  Methodists. 

Some  of  the  principal  writers  on  the  side  of  the 
Arminians  have  been  Arminius,  Episcopius, 
Vorstiua,  Grothis,  Curcelaus,  Ldmborch,  he 
Clerc,  Wetstcin,  Goodwin,  Whitby,  Taylor, 
Fletcher,  &c. 

Some  of  the  principal  writers  on  the  other  side 
have  been  Polhill  in  his  Book  on  the  Decrees ; 
John  Edwards  in  his  Veritas  Redux  ;  Cole  in 
his  Sovereignty  of  God ;  Edwards  on  the  Will, 
and  Original  Sin;  Dr.  Owen  in  his  Display 
of  Arminianism,  and  on  Particular  Redemp- 
tion; Gill  in  his  Cause  of  God  and  Truth; 
and  T&plady  in  almost  all  his  works. 

ARNOLDISTS,  the  followers  of  Arnold,  of 
Brescia,  in  the  twelfth  century,  who  wras  a  great 
declaimer  against  the  wealth  and  vices  ot  the 
clergy.  He  is  also  charged  with  preaching 
against  baptism,  and  the  eucharist.  He  was 
burnt  at  Rome  in  1155,  and  Ms  ashes  cast  into 
the  Tiber. 

ARRHABONARII,  a  sect  who  held  that  the 
eucharist  is  neither  the  real  flesh  or  blood  of 
Christ,  nor  yet  the  sign  of  them,  but  only  the 
pledge  or  earnest  thereof'. 

ARTEMONTES,  a  denomination  in  the  se- 
cond century ;  so  called  from  Artemon,  who 
taught  that  at  the  birth  of  the  man  Christ,  a  cer- 
tain divmc  energy,  or  portion  of  the  divine  nature, 
united  itself  to  him. 

ARTICLE  OF  FAITH  is,  by  some,  dsfmed 
a  point  oi  Christian  doctrine,  which  we  are 
obliged  to  bolieve  as  having  been  revealed  by 
Gad  himself,  and  allowed  ami  established  as  such 
by  fue  church.    See  '  Ionfjsssions. 

ARTICLES  OF  THE  CHURCH  OF 
ENGLAND.    See  Ci  ohch  dp  England. 

ARTICLES,  LAMBETH.  The  Lambeth 
articles  were  so  called,  because  drawn  up  at  Lam- 
26 


ASCENSION  OF  CHRIST 
beth  palace,  under  the  eye  and  with  the  assistance 
of  archbishop  Whitgift,  bishop  Bancroft,  bishop 
Vaughan,  and  other  eminent  dignitaries  of  the 
Church.  That  the  reader  may  judge  how  Calvi- 
nistic  the  clergy  were  under  the  reign  of  queen 
Elizabeth,  we  shall  here  insert  them.  "  1.  God 
hath  from  eternity  predestinated  certain  persons  to 
life,  and  hath  reprobated  certain  persons  unto 
death.  2.  The  moving  or  efficient  cause  of  pie- 
destination  unto  life  is  not  the  foresight  of  faith, 
or  of  perseverance,  or  of  good  works,  or  of  any 
tiling  that  is  in  the  persons  predestinated  ;  but  the 
alone  will  of  God's  good  pleasure.  3.  The  pre- 
destinati  are  a  pre-determined  and  certain  number, 
which  can  neither  be  lessened  nor  increased.  4. 
Such  as  are  not  predestinated  to  salvation  shall 
inevitably  be  condemned  on  account  of  their  sins. 
5.  The  true,  lively,  and  justifying  faith,  and 
the  Spirit  of  God  justifying,  is  not  extinguished, 
doth  not  utterly  fail,  doth  not  vanish  away  in  the 
elect,  either  finally  or  totally.  6.  A  true  believer, 
that  is,  one  who  is  endued  with  justifying  faith,  is 
certified  by  the  full  assurance  of  faith  that  his 
sins  are  forgiven,  and  that  he  shall  be  everlastingly 
saved  by  Christ,  7.  Saving  grace  is  not  allowed, 
is  not  imparted,  is  not  granted  to  all  men,  by 
which  they  may  be  saved  if  they  will.  8.  No 
man  is  able  to  come  to  Christ,  unless  it  be  given 
him ;  and  unless  the  Father  drew  him ;  and  all 
men  are  not  drawn  by  the  Father,  that  they  may 
come  to  his  Son.  'J.  It  is  not  in  the  will  or  power 
of  every  man  to  be  saved."  "What  gave  occasion 
to  the  framing  these  articles  was  this: — Some 
persons  had  distinguished  themselves  at  the  uni- 
versity of  Cambridge,  by  opposing  predestination. 
Alarmed  at  the  opinions  that  were  vented,  the 
above-mentioned  archbishop,  with  others,  com- 
posed these  articles,  to  prevent  the  belief  of  a 
contrary  doctrine.  These,  when  completed,  were 
sent  down  to  Cambridge,  to  which  the  scholars 
were  strictly  enjoined  to  conform. 

ARTOTYRITES,  a  Christian  sect  in  the 
primitive  church,  who  celebrated  the  eucharist 
with  bread  and  cheese.  The  word  is  derived 
from  ap-ros,  bread,  and  -rvpo;,  cheese.  The  Ar- 
totyrites  admitted  women  to  the  priesthood 
and  episcopacy;  and  Epiphanius  tells  us  that  it 
was  a  common  thing  to  see  seven  girls  at  once 
enter  into  their  church  robed  in  white,  and  hold- 
ing a  torch  in  their  hand  ;  where  they  wept  and 
bewailed  the  wretchedness  of  human  nature,  and 
the  miseries  of  this  life. 

ASCENSION  OF  CHRIST,  his  visible  ele- 
vat'.on  to  heaven.  The  ascension  of  Jesus  Christ 
was  not  only  presignified  by  many  Scripture 
types,  but  also  by  many  remarkable  Scripture 
prophecies,  Ps.  xlvii.  5.  ex.  1.  Dan.  vii.  13,  14. 
Mic.  ii.  13.     Ps.  lxviii.  18. 

The  evidences  of  h  is  ascension  were  numerous. 
The  disciples  saw  him  ascend,  Acts  i.  9,  10.  Two 
angels  testified  that  he  did  ascend,  Acts  i.  11. 
Stephen,  Paul,  and  John  saw  him  in  his  ascended 
state,  Acts  vii.  55,  56.  ix.  Rev.  i.  The  mar- 
vellous descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  demonstrated 
it,  John  xvi.  7.  14.  Acts  ii.  33.  The  terrible  over- 
throw and  dispersion  of  the  Jewish  nation  is  a 
standing  proof  of  it,  John  viii.  21.  Matt  xxvi.  64. 

The  lime  of  his  ascension.  It  was  forty  days 
after  his  resurrection.  He  continued  so  many 
days  on  earth,  that  he  might  give  many  re- 
peated proofs  of  his  resurrection,  Arts  i.  3;  that 
he  might  instruct  his  followers  in  e\ery  thing 


ASSURANCE 
which  pertained  to  the  abolishment  of  the  Jewish 
ceremonies,  Acts  i.  3 ;  and  that  he  might  open  to 
them  the  Scriptures  concerning  himself"  and  re- 
new their  commission  to  preach  the  gospel,  Acts 
i.  5,  (').     Mark  xvi.  15. 

The  manner  of  his  ascension.  It  was  from 
Mount  Olivet  to  heaven,  Acts  i,  12 ;  not  in  ap- 
pearance only,  but  in  reality  and  truth;  visibly 
and  locally;  a  real  motion  of  his  human  nature; 
sadden,  swift,  glorious,  and  in  a  triumphant  man- 
ner. He  was  parted  from  his  disciples  while  he 
was  solemnly  blessing  them ;  and  multitudes  of 
angels  attended  him  with  shouts  of  praise,  Ps. 
lxviii.  17.  xlvii.  5,  6. 

The  effects  or  ends  of  Christ's  ascension  were, 
1.  To  fulfd  the  prophecies  and  types  concerning 
it.  2.  To  take  upon  him  more  openly  the  exer- 
cise of  his  kingly  office.  3.  To  receive  gifts  for 
men  both  ordinary  and  extraordinary,  Ps.  lxviii. 
18.  4.  To  open  the  way  into  heaven  for  his 
people,  Heb.  x.  19,  20.  5.  To  assure  the  saints 
of  their  ascension  also,  John  xiv.  1,  2. 

ASCETIC,  one  who  retires  from  the  world 
for  the  purpose  of  devotion  and  mortification. 
When  the  monks  came  in  fashion,  this  title  was 
bestowed  upon  them,  especially  such  as  lived  in 
solitude.  It  was  also  the  title  of  several  books  of 
spiritual  exercises,  as  the  Ascetics,  or  devout  ex- 
ercises of  St.  Basil,  &c. 

ASCODROGITES,  a  denomination  which 
arose  about  the  year  181.  They  brought  into 
their  churches  bags  or  skins  filled  with  new  wine, 
to  represent  the  new  bottles  filled  with  new  wine, 
mentioned  by  Christ.  They  danced  round  these 
bags  or  skins,  and,  it  is  said,  intoxicated  them- 
selves with  the  wine. 

ASCOODRUTES,  a  sect,  in  the  second  cen- 
tury, who  rejected  the  use  of  all  symbols  and  sa- 
craments, on  this  principle,  that  incorporeal  things 
cannot  be  communicated  by  things  corporeal,  nor 
divine  mysteries  by  any  thincr  visible. 

ASSEMBLIES  OF  THE  CLERGY  are 
called  convocations,  synods,  councils.  The  an- 
nual meeting  of  the  church  of  Scotland  is  called 
a  general  assembly.  In  this  assembly  his  majesty 
is  represented  by  his  commissioner,  who  dissolves 
one  meeting  and  calls  another  in  the  name  of  the 
king,  while  the  moderator  does  the  same  in  the 
name  of  Jesus  Christ.  See  Convocation,  Pres- 
byterians, Westminster  Assembly. 

ASSENT,  that  act  of  the  mind,  whereby  it 
takes  or  acknowledges  any  proposition  to  be  true 
or  false.  There  are  three  degrees  of  assent ; 
— conjecture,  opinion,  and  belief.  Conjecture  is 
but  a  slight  and  weak  inclination  to  assent  to  the 
thing  proposed  by  reason  of  the  weighty  objections 
that  lie  against  it.  Opinion  is  a  more  steady  and 
fixed  assent,  when  a  man  is  almost  certain,  though 
yet  some  fear  of  the  contrary  remains  with  him. 
Belief  is  a  more  full  and  assured  assent  to  the 
truth.     See  Belief. 

ASSURANCE  is  the  firm  persuasion  we 
have  of  the  certainty  of  any  thing,  or  a  certain 
expectation  of  something  future. 

Assurance  of  the  Understanding  is  a  well- 
grounded  knowledge  of  divine  things  founded  on 
God's  word.  Col.  ii.  2. — Assurance  of  Faith 
does  not  relate  to  our  personal  interest  in  Christ, 
but  consists  in  a  firm  belief  of  the  revelation  that 
God  has  given  us  of  Christ  in  his  word,  with  an 
entire  dependence  on  him.  Heb.  x.  22. — As- 
swance  of  Hope  is  a  firm  expectation  that  God 
27 


ASSURANCE 

will  grant  us  the  complete  enjoyment  of  what  rw 
has  promised,  Heb.  vi.  11. 

The  doctrine  of  assurance,  i.  e.  the  belief  thai 
we  have  an  interest  in  the  divine  favour,  has  af- 
forded matter  for  dispute  among  divines.  Some 
have  asserted  that  it  is  not  to  be  obtained  in  the 
present  state,  allowing  that  persons  may  be  in  a 
hopeful  way  to  salvation,  but  that  they  have  no 
real  or  absolute  assurance  of  it :  but  this  is  clearly 
refuted  by  fact  as  well  as  by  scripture.  That  it  is 
to  be  obtained  is  evident,  for  we  have  reason  to 
believe  many  persons  have  actually  obtained  it. 
Job  xix.  25.  Ps.  xvii.  15.  2  Tim.  i.  12.  The 
Scriptures  exhort  us  to  obtain  it,  2  Cor.  xiii.  5. 
Heb.  vi.  11.  1  Thess.  v.  21.  The  Holy  Spirit  is 
said  to  bear  witness  of  it,  Rom.  viii.  16.  The  ex- 
ercise of  the  Christian  graces  is  considered  as  a 
proof  of  it,  1  John  iii.  14.  1  John  ii.  3.  We  must, 
however  guard  against  presumption  ;  for  a  mere 
persuasion  that  Christ  is  our's  is  no  proof  that 
he  is  so.  We  must  have  evidence  before  we  can 
have  genuine  assurance.  It  is  necessary  to  ob- 
serve, also,  that  it  is  not  a  duty  imposed  upon  all 
mankind,  so  that  every  one,  in  whatsoever  state  lie 
may  be,  ought  to  be  fully  persuaded  of  his  salva- 
tion. "We  do  not  aflirm,"  says  Saurin,  "that 
Christians,  of  whose  sincerity  there  may  be  some 
doubt,  have  a  right  to  assurance;  that  back- 
sliders, as  such,  ought  to  persuade  themselves  that 
they  shall  be  saved ;  nor  do  we  say  that  Christians 
who  have  arrived  to  the  liighest  degree  of  holiness 
can  be  persuaded  of  the  certainty  of  their  solva- 
tion in  every  period  of  their  lives ;  nor,  if  left  to 
their  own  efforts,  can  they  enjoy  it;  but  believers, 
supported  by  the  Divine  aid,  who  walk  in  all  good 
conscience  before  him,  these  only  have  ground  to 
expect  this  privilege." 

Some  divines  have  maintained  that  assurance 
is  included  in  the  very  essence  of  faith,  so  that  a 
man  cannot  have  faith  without  assurance  ;  but  we 
must  distinguish  between  assurance  and  justify- 
ing faith.  The  apostle,  indeed,  speaks  of  the  full 
assurance  of  faith ;  but  then  this  is  a  full  and 
firm  persuasion  of  what  the  Gospel  reveals; 
whereas  the  assurance  we  are  speaking  of  re- 
lates to  our  personal  interest  in  Christ,  and  is  an 
effect  of  this  faith,  and  not  faith  itself.  Faith  in 
Christ  certainly  includes  some  idea  of  assurance ; 
for,  except  we  be  assured  that  he  is  the  Saviour, 
we  shall  never  go  to  rely  upon  him  as  such ;  but 
faith  in  Christ  does  not  imply  an  assurance  of  our 
interest  in  him;  for  there  may  be  faith  long  be- 
fore the  assurance  of  personal  interest  com- 
mences. The  confounding  of  these  ideas  has 
been  the  cause  of  presumption  on  the  one  hand, 
and  despair  on  the  other.  When  men  have  been 
taught  that  faith  consists  in  believing  that  Christ 
died  for  them,  and  been  assured  that,  if  they  can 
only  believe  so,  all  is  well ;  and  that  then  they  are 
immediately  pardoned  and  justified,  the  conse- 
quence has  been,  that  the  bold  and  self-conceited 
have  soon  wrought  themselves  up  to  such  a  per- 
suasion, without  any  ground  for  it,  to  their  own 
deception ;  whilst  the  dejected,  humble,  and  poor 
in  spirit,  not  being  able  to  work  themselves  to  such 
a  pitch  of  confidence,  have  concluded  that  they 
have  not  the  faith  of  God's  elect,  and  must  inevit- 
ably be  lost. 

The  means  to  attain  assurance  are  not  those  of 
an  extraordinary  kind,  as  some  people  imagine; 
such  as  visions,  dreams,  voices,  &c. ;  but  such  as 
are  ordinary;  self-examination,  humble  and  con 


ATHEIST 
stant  prayer,  consulting  the  sacred  oracles,  Chris- 
tian communication,  attendance  on  the  divine 
ordinances,  and  perseverance  in  thepnthof  duty; 
without  which  all  our  assurance  is  but  presump- 
tion, and  our  profession  but  hypocrisy. 

Assurance  may  be  lost  for  a  season  through 
bodily  diseases  which  depress  the  spirits,  unwateh- 
rulneee,  fidling  into  sin,  manifold  temptations, 
worldly  can's,  and  neglect  of  private  duty.  He, 
therefore,  who  would  wish  to  enjoy  this  privilege, 
let  him  cultivate  communion  with  God,  exercise  a 
watchful  spirit  ngainst  his  spiritual  enemies,  and 
give  himself  unreservedly  to  him  whose  he  is,  and 
whom  he  professes  to  serve.  See  Svarin'a  Ser. 
vol.  iii.  ser.  10,  F,ng.  ed. ;  Gate's  Sermons,  ser.  13.; 
Lambert's  Ser.  on  Johnix.  35;  Herrey's  Tlicron 
and  Amasio,  dialogue  17 ;  Howe's  Worlts,  vol.  i. 
p.  342,  348;  Brooks,  Burgess,  Roberts,  Baxter, 
Polhill,  and  Davye  on  Assurance;  Horace  Sol. 
vol.  it  p.  869. 

ASSURITANS,  a  branch  of  the  Donatists, 
who  held  that  the  Son  was  inferior  to  the  Father, 
and  the  Holy  Ghost  to  the  Son.  See  Don-atists. 

ASTONISHMENT,  a  kind  or  degree  of 
wonder  introduced  by  surprise.  This  emotion 
always  relates  to  things  of  the  highest  importance  ; 
to  things  which  appear  too  vast  and  extensive  for 
the  grasp  of  intellect,  rather  than  to  any  thing  of 
an  intricate  nature.  The  body  marks  in  a  striking 
manner  the  singular  slate  of  the  mind  under  this 
emotion.  The  eyes  are  firmly  fixed,  without 
bring  directed  to  any  particular  object;  the.  cha- 
racter of  countenance,  which  was  formed  by  the 
habitual  influence  of  some  predominant  affection, 
is  for  a  time  effaced ;  and  a  suspension  of  every 
other  expression,  a  certain  vacuity,  strongly  notes 
this  state  of  mind. 

ATHANAS1ANS,  those  who  profess  the 
sentiments  held  in  the  Athanasian  creed.  See 
Crkkd. 

ATHEIST,  one  who  denies  the  existence  of 
God: — this  is  called  speculative  atheism.  Pro- 
fessing to  believe  in  God,  and  yet  acting  contrary 
to  this  belief,  is  called  practical  atheism.  Absurd 
and  irrational  as  atheism  is,  it  has  had  its  vota- 
ries and  martyrs.  In  the  seventeenth  century, 
Spiuosa,  a  foreigner,  was  its  noted  defender. 
Lucilio  Vanini,  a  native  of  Naples,  also  publicly 
taught  atheism  in  France;  and  being  convicted 
of  it  at  Toulouse,  was  condemned  and  executed 
in  1619.  It  has  been  questioned,  however,  whe- 
ther any  man  ever  seriously  adopted  such  a  prin- 
ciple. The  pretensions  to  it  have  been  generally 
founded  on  pride  or  affectation.  The  open  avowal 
of  atheism  by  several  of  the  leading  members  of 
the  French  convention  seems  to  have  been  an  ex- 
traordinary moral  phenomenon.  This,  however, 
as  we  have  seen,  was  too  vague  and  uncomfort- 
able a  principle  to  last  long.  Archbishop  Tillot- 
son  justly  observes,  that  speculative  atheism  is 
unreasonable  upon  five  accounts.  1.  Because  it 
gives  no  tolerable  account  of  the  existence  of  the 
world. — 2.  It  docs  not  give  any  reasonable  ac- 
count of  the  universal  consent  of  mankind  in  this 
apprehension,  that  there  is  a  God. — 3.  It  requires 
more  evidence  for  things  than  they  are  capable 
of  giving. — 1.  The  atheist  pretends  to  know  that 
which  no  man  can  know. — 5.  Atheism  contra- 
dicts itself.  Under  the  first  of  these  he  thus 
argues. — "1  appeal  to  any  man  of  reason  whe- 
ther any  thing  can  be  more  unreasonable  than 
obstinately  to  impute  an  effect  to  chance,  which 
28 


ATONEMENT 
carries  in  the  very  face  of  it  all  the  arguments 
and  characters  of  a  wise  design  anil  contrivance. 
Was  ever  any  considerable  work,  in  which  there 
was  required  a  great  variety  of  parts,  and  a  regu- 
lar and  orderly  disposition  of  those  parts,  done 
by  chancel  Will  chance  fit  means  to  ends,  and 
that  in  ten  thousand  instances,  and  not  tail  in 
any  one  ?  How  often  might  a  man,  after  he  had 
jumbled  a  set  of  letters  in  a  bag,  fling  them  out 
ujton  the  ground  before  they  would  iall  into  an 
exact  poem;  yea,  or  so  much  as  make  a  good  dis- 
course in  prose?  And  may  not  a  little  book  be 
as  easily  made  by  chance  as  the  great  volume  of 
the  world  1  How  long  might  a  man  be  in  sprink- 
ling colours  upon  canvass  with  a  careless  hand, 
before  they  would  happen  to  make  the  exact  pic- 
ture of  a  man  7  And  is  a  man  easier  made 
by  chance  than  his  picture  ?  How  long  might 
twenty  thousand  blind  men  who  should  be  sent 
out  from  several  remote  parts  of  England,  wan- 
der up  and  down  before  they  would  all  meet  upon 
Salisbury  plain,  and  fall  into  rank  and  file  in  the 
exact  order  of  an  army'?  And  yet  this  is  much 
more  easy  to  be  imagined  than  how  the  innume- 
rable blind  parts  of  matter  should  rendezvous 
themselves  into  a  world.  A  man  that  sees  Henry 
the  Seventh's  chapel  at  Westminster  might  with 
as  good  reason  maintain  (yea,  with  much  better, 
considering  the  vast  difference  betwixt  that  little 
structure  and  the  huge  fabric  of  the  world.)  that 
it  was  never  contrived  or  built  by  any  means,  but 
that  the  stones  did  by  chance  grow  into  those 
curious  figures  into  which  they  seem  to  have 
been  cut  and  graven;  and  that  upon  a  time  (as 
tales  usually  begin)  the  materials  of  that  building, 
the  stone,  mortar,  timber,  iron,  lead,  and  glass, 
happily  met  together,  and  very  fortunately  ranged 
themselves  into  that  delicate  order  in  which  we 
see  them,  now  so  close  compacted,  that  it  must 
be  a  very  great  chance  that  parts  them  again. 
What  would  the  world  tliink  of  a  man  that  should 
advance  such  an  opinion  as  this,  and  write  a  book 
for  it  ?  If  they  would  do  him  right,  they  ought 
to  look  upon  him  as  mad ;  but  yet  with  a  little 
more  reason  than  any  man  can  have  to  say,  that 
the  world  was  made  by  chance,  or  that  the  first 
men  grew  up  out  of  the  earth  as  plants  do  now. 
For,  can  anv  thing  be  more  ridiculous,  and  against 
all  reason,  than  to  ascribe  the  production  of  men 
to  the  first  fruitfulncss  of  the  earth,  without  so 
much  as  one  instance  and  experiment,  in  any  age 
or  history,  to  countenance  so  monstrous  a  suppo- 
sition 1  The  thing  is,  at  first  sight,  so  gross  and 
palpable,  that  no  discourse  about  it  can  make  it 
more  apparent.  And  yet,  these  shameful  beg- 
gars of  principles  give  this  precarious  account  of 
the  original  of  things;  assume  to  themselves  to 
be  the  men  of  reason,  the  great  wits  of  the  world, 
the  only  cautious  ami  wary  persons  that  hate  to 
be  imposed  upon,  that  must  have  convincing  evi- 
dence for  every  thing,  and  can  admit  of  nothing 
without  a  clear  demonstration  of  it."  Sec  EX- 
ISTENCE OF  GOD. 

Some  of  the  principal  writers  on  the  existence 
of  a  Deity  have  been  Char  nock,  Newton,  Boyle, 
Ckeync,  Locke,  Nicuvcntyt,  Derham,  Bcnt'ley, 
Bay,  'Cudworth,  Samuel  and  John  Clarke,  Aber- 
ncthy,  Balguy,  Baxter,  Fenelon,  <J-c.  qV.  Til- 
lots,. u's  sermon  on  the  subject,  as  quoted  above, 
ha<  been  considered  as  one  of  the  best  in  the  En- 
glish language.     See  ser.  i.  vol.  1. 

ATONEMENT  is  the  satisfying  Divine  Ju* 


ATONEMENT 
lice  by  Jesus  Christ  giving  himself  a  ransom  for  us, 
undergoing  the  penalty  due  to  our  sins,  and  there- 
by releasing  us  from  that  punishment  which  God 
might  justly  inflict  upon  us,  Roin.  v.  11.  The 
Hebrew  word  signifies  covering,  and  intimates 
that  our  offences  are,  by  a  proper  atonement, 
covered  from  the  avenging  justice  of  God.  In 
order  to  understand  the  manner  wherein  Christ 
becomes  an  atonement,  "we  should,"  says  Dr. 
Watts,  "consider  the  following  propositions,  1. 
The  great  God  having  made  man,  appointed  to 
govern  him  by  a  wise  and  righteous  law,  wherein 
glory  and  honour,  life  and  immortality,  are  the 
designed  rewards  for  perfect  obedience ;  but  tri- 
bulation and  wrath,  pain  and  death,  are  the  ap- 
pointed recompense  to  those  who  violate  this  law, 
Gen.  iii.  Rom.  ii.  G,  16.  i.  32. — 2.  All  man- 
kind have  broken  this  law,  Rom.  iii.  23.  v.  12. — 
3.  God,  in  his  infinite  wisdom,  did  not  think 
lit  to  pardon  sinful  man,  without  some  compensa- 
tion for  his  broken  law ;  for,  1.  If  the  great  Ruler 
of  the  world  had  pardoned  the  sins  of  men  with- 
out any  satisfaction,  then  his  laws  might  have 
seemed  not  worth  the  vindicating. — 2.  Men  would 
have  been  tempted  to  persist  in  their  rebellion, 
and  to  repeat  their  old  offences. — 3.  His  forms 
of  government  among  his  creatures  might  have 
appeared  as  a  matter  of  small  importance. — 4. 
God  had  a  mind  to  make  a  very  illustrious  display 
both  of  his  justice  and  of  his  grace  among  man- 
kind ;  on  these  accounts  he  would  not  pardon  sin 
without  a  satisfaction. — 5.  Man,  sinful  man,  is 
not  able  to  make  any  satisfaction  to  God  for  his 
own  sins,  neither  by  his  labours,  nor  by  his  suf- 
ferings, Eph.  ii.  1,  8,  9. — 6.  Though  man  be  in- 
capable to  satisfy  for  his  own  violation  of  the  law, 
yet  God  would  not  suffer  all  mankind  to  perish. — 
7.  Because  God  intended  to  make  a  full  display 
of  the  terrors  of  his  justice,  and  his  divine  re- 
sentment for  the  violation  of  his  law,  therefore 
he  appointed  his  own  Son  to  satisfy  for  the  breach 
of  it,  by  becoming  a  proper  sacrifice  of  expiation 
or  atonement,  Gal.  iii.  10,  13. — 8.  The  Son  of 
God  being  immortal,  could  not  sustain  all  these 
penalties  of  the  law  which  man  had  broken  with- 
out taking  the  mortal  nature  of  man  upon  him, 
without  assuming  flesh  and  blood,  Heb.  ii.  13, 
14 . — 9.  The  Divine  Being  having  received  such 
ample  satisfaction  for  sin  by  the  sufferings  of  his 
own  Son,  can  honourably  forgive  his  creature 
man,  who  was  the  transgressor,  Rom.  iii.  25,  2(5. 
i\oic  that  this  doctrine  is  true,  will  appear,  if  we 
consider,  1.  That  an  atonement  for  sin,  or  an 
effectual  method  to  answer  the  demands  of  an 
offended  God,  is  the  first  great  blessing  guilty 
man  stood  in  need  of,  Mic.  vi.  6,  7. — 2.  The  very 
first  discoveries  of  grace  which  were  made  to  man 
after  his  fall  implied  in  them  something  of  an 
atonement  for  sin,  and  pointed  to  the  propitiation 
Christ  has  now  made.  Gen.  iii.  15. — 3.  The  train 
of  ceremonies  which  were  appointed  by  God  in 
the  Jewish  church  are  plain  significations  of  such 
an  atonement,  2  Cor.  iii.  Cot  ii.  7,  8,  9.  Heb. 
x. — 1.  Some  of  the  prophecies  confirm  and  ex- 
plain the  first  promise,  and  show  that  Christ  was 
to  die  as  an  atoning  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  men, 
Dan.  ix.  24 — 20.  Is.  liii. — 5.  Our  Saviour  him- 
self taught  us  the  doctrine  of  the  atonement  for 
sin  by  his  death,  Matt.  xx.  28.  John  vi.  51. 
Luke  xxii.  19. — 0.  The  terrors  of  soul,  the  con- 
sternation and  inward  agonies  which  our  blessed 
Lord  sustained  a  little  before  his  death,  were  a 
29 


ATONEMENT 
sufficient  proof  that  he  endured  punishments  m 
his  soul  which  were  due  to  sin,  Mark  xiv.  33. 
Heb.  v.  7.-7.  This  doctrine  is  declared,  and 
confirmed,  and  explained  at  large,  by  the  apostles 
in  their  writings,  1  Cor.  xv.  3.  Eph.  i.  7.  1  John 
ii.  2.,  etc.  &c. — 8.  This  was  the  doctrine  that 
was  witnessed  to  the  world  by  the  amazing  gifts 
of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  attended  the  Gospel. 
[See  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles.]  The  inferences 
and  uses  to  be  derived  from  this  doctrine  are 
these:  1.  How  vain  are  all  the  labours  and  pre- 
tences of  mankind  to  seek  or  hope  for  any  better 
religion  than  that  which  is  contained  in  the  Gos- 
pel of  Christ!  It  is  here  alone  that  we  can  find 
the  solid  and  rational  principle  of  reconciliation 
to  an  offended  God,  Heb.  iv.  14. — 2.  How 
strange  and  unreasonable  is  the  doctrine  of  the 
Popish  church,  which,  while  it  professes  to  be- 
lieve the  religion  of  Christ,  yet  introduces  many 
other  methods  of  atonement  for  sin,  besides  the 
sufferings  of  the  Son  of  God.  [See  above.] — 3. 
Here  is  a  solid  foundation,  on  which  the  greatest 
of  sinners  may  hope  for  acceptance  with  God,  1 
Tim.  i.  15. — 4.  This  doctrine  should  be  used  as 
a  powerful  motive  to  excite  repentance,  Acts  v. 
31. — 5.  We  should  use  this  atonement  of  Christ 
as  our  constant  way  of  access  to  God  in  all  oui 
prayers.  Heb.  x.  19,  22. — 6.  Also  as  a  divine 
guard  against  sin,  Rom.  vi.  1,  2.  1  Pet.  i.  15, 
19. — 7.  As  an  argument  of  prevailing  force  te 
be  used  in  prayer,  Rom.  viii.  32. — 8.  As  a  spring 
of  love  to  God,  and  to  his  Son  Jesus  Christ,  1 
John  iv.  10. — 9.  As  a  strong  persuasive  to  that 
love  and  pity  which  we  should  show  on  all  occa- 
sions to  our  fellow  creatures,  1  John  iv.  11. — 10. 
It  should  excite  patience  and  holy  joy  under  afflic- 
tions and  earthly  sorrows,  Rom.  v.  1  to  3. — 11. 
We  should  consider  it  as  an  invitation  to  the 
Lord's  Supper,  where  Christ  is  set  forth  to  us  in 
the  memorials  of  his  propitiation. — 12.  As  a  most 
effectual  defence  against  the  terrors  of  dying,  and 
as  our  joyful  hope  of  a  blessed  resurrection,  1 
Cor.  xv.  50. — 13.  Lastly,  as  a  divine  allurement 
to  the  upper  world."  See  Watts's  Ser..  ser.  34, 
35,  36,  37;  Evans  on  the  Atonement ;  Dr.  Owen 
on  the  Satisfaction  of  Christ;  West's  Scripture 
Doctrine  of  the  Atonement;  Herrey's  Thcron 
and  Aspasio,  dial.  3 ;  Dr.  Magee's  Discourses  on 
the  Atonement ;  Jerram's  Letters  on  ditto. 

[The  Christian  doctrine  of  Atonement,  consi- 
dered especially  in  respect  to  its  nature  and  ex- 
tent, has  in  our  own  country  undergone  great 
discussion,  and  given  rise  to  a  diversity  of  opi- 
nions, since  Mr.  Buck's  work  was  first  published. 
Of  the  leading  views  entertained  among  the  or 
thodox  on  this  subject,  it  will  be  proper  to  give  a 
brief  notice.  These  may  be  classed  under  the 
heads  of  the  general  or  indefinite,  and  the  limited 
or  definite  scheme.  The  advocates  of  the  former 
maintain,  that  the  atonement  is  to  be  viewed  dis- 
tinct from  its  application  —  that  the  sufferings  of 
Christ  were  of  such  a  nature  that  they  constitute 
a  real  atonement  though  we  should  suppose  that 
none  should  ever  actually  repent  and  be  saved — 
that  the  grand  design  of  the  Saviour's  sufferings 
was  to  make  a  display  of  the  evil  of  sin  and  o( 
the  divine  justice,  and  thereby  to  remove  the  ol>- 
stacle  in  the  way  of  the  sinner's  salvation — that 
in  consequence  of  the  death  of  Christ,  God  can 
now  consistently  with  all  his  perfections  and  the 
honour  of  his  law,  exercise  his  sovereign  mercy 
and  bestow  eternal  life  upon  whom  he  pioases— 

c9 


ATONEMENT 
ami  as  it  was  not  designed  for  one  man  more  than 
another,  bat  has  an  equal  bearing  upon  the  whole 

world  indiscriminately,  the  offers  Of  salvation  can 
now  be  freely  made  to  all  mankind  without  dis- 
tinction. Some  of  the  friends  of  this  theory  go 
still  further,  and  deny  that  Christ  made  a  plenary 
satisfaction  for  the  sins  of  believers,  because  such 
a  satisfaction  would,  in  (heir  view,  be  incompati- 
ble with  the  grace  that  reigns  in  the  salvation  of 
sinaeTB;  and  consequently,  although  a  provision 
has  been  made  by  which  all  who  believe  will  be 
saved,  yet  they  assert  that  the  claims  of  the  law 
will  remain  for  ever  unsatisfied,  that  the  ransomed 
of  the  Lord  will  never  be  free  from  guilt,  and 
that  Paul  and  his  companions  now  in  glory,  are 
at  this  moment  as  guilty  as  when  on  earth,  and 
will  for  ever  deserve  the  punishment  of  hell. 

The  grounds  upon  which  this  theory  of  the 
atonement  is  urged,  are  the  following: — 1.  The 
style  of  the  Scriptures;  which,  in  speaking  of 
the  atonement,  apply  to  it  the  most  universal  and 
unlimited  language.  "  Who  gave  himself  a  ran- 
dom for  all  to  be  testified  in  due  time."  "  Who 
is  the  Saviour  of  all  men,  especially  of  them  that 
believe."  "  He  is  the  propitiation  for  our  sins, 
and  not  fdr  ours  only,  but  for  the  sins  of  the 
whole  world." — "2.  If  Christ  has  made  an  atone- 
ment for  the  elect,  and  for  them  only,  then  salva- 
tion is  not  provided  for  all,  and  those  for  whom  it 
is  not  provided,  cannot  be  guilty  in  not  receiving 
tt.  But  this  is  contrary  to  the  whole  tenor  of  the 
(jfospel,  which  every  where  exhibits  sinners  as 
greatly  guilty  for  rejecting  Christ.  3.  The  Gos- 
pel, or  glad  tidings  published  by  Christ,  is  said  to 
be,  good  tidings  unto  all  people.  But  if  there  be 
no  atonement  made  for  the  sins  of  all  people,  the 
Gospel,  instead  of  being  good  news  to  them,  is  not 
addressed  to  them  at  all.  4.  Ministers  are  re- 
quired to  preach  faith,  as  well  as  repentance,  to 
all  sinners  as  their  duty.  But  if  no  atonement 
h;is  been  made  for  their  sins,  they  cannot  believe; 
for  to  them  Christ  is  in  no  sense  a  Saviour,  and 
therefore  not  a  possible  object  of  faith. 

The  advocates  of  the  limited  or  definite  atone- 
ment, on  the  other  hand,  maintain,  that  the  atone- 
ment cannot  properly  be  considered  apart  from 
its  actual  application,  or  from  the  intention  of  the 
author  in  regard  to  its  application — that,  in  strict- 
ness of  speech,  the  death  of  Christ  is  not  an 
atonement  to  any  until  it  be  applied — that  the  suf- 
ferings of  the  Lamb  of  God  are  therefore  truly 
vicarious,  or  in  other  words,  that  Christ  in  suffer- 
ing became  a  real  substitute  for  his  people,  was 
charged  with  their  sins,  and  bore  the  punishment 
of  them,  and  thus  has  made  a  full  and  complete 
satisfaction  tc  divine  justice  in  behalf  of  all  who 
shall  ever  believe  on  him — that  this  atonement 
will  eventually  be  applied  to  all  for  whom  in  the 
divine  intention  it  was  made,  or  to  all  to  whom 
God  in  his  sovereignty  has  been  pleased  to  decree 
its  application.  They  believe,  however,  notwith- 
standing the  atonement  is  to  be  properly  consi- 
dered as  exactly  commensurate  with  its  intended 
application,  that  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  did  offer 
i  sacrifice  sufficient  in  its  intrinsic  value  to  expi- 
ate the  sins  of  the  whole  world,  and  that  if  it  had 
neen  the  pleasure  of  God  to  apply  it  to  every  in- 
dividual, the  whole  human  race  would  have  been 
saved  by  its  immeasurable  worth.  They  hold, 
therefore,  that  on  the  ground  of  the  infinite  value 
of  the  atonement,  the  offer  of  salvation  can  be 
consistently  and  sincerely  made  to  all  who  hear 
30 


ATONEMENT 

the  Gospel,  assuring  them  that  if  they  will  he- 
lieve  they  shall  be  saved;  whereas,  if  they  wilful- 
ly reject  the  overtures  of  mercy,  they  will  increase 
their  guilt  and  aggravate  their  damnation.  At 
the  same  time,  the  Scriptures  plainly  teach,  that 
the  will  and  disposition  to  comply  with  this  con- 
dition depends  upon  the  sovereign  gift  of  God, 
and  that  the  actual  compliance  is  secured  to  those 
only  for  whom  in  the  divine  counsels  the  atone- 
ment was  specifically  intended. 

This  view  of  the  atonement  is  supported  by  the 
following  considerations: — 1.  The  language  of 
Scripture.  "Christ  loved  the  church  and  gave 
himself  for  it."  "  All  that  the  Father  hath  given 
vie  shali  come  unto  me."  "  I  lay  down  my  life 
for  the  sheep."  "  I  pray  not  for  the  world,  but 
for  them  which  thou  hast  given  me."  As  to 
passages  of  apparently  a  contrary  import,  which 
seem  to  extend  the  object  and  design  of  the  atone- 
ment to  all,  these  they  sav  are  capable  in  general 
of  being  interpreted,  according  to  the  plain  usages 
of  Scripture,  as  implying  some  of  all  sorts,  instead 
of  every  individual,  or  as" pointing  out  every  one 
of  the  class  or  body  spoken  of.  2.  That  the  doc- 
trine of  vicarious  or  substitutive  atonement  was 
taught  by  the  typical  sacrifices  of  the  Jewish 
economy.  3.  That  the  meaning  of  the  term 
implies  an  actual  reconciliation  as  the  effect  of  a 
satisfaction  to  the  demands  of  divine  justice;  con- 
sequently, if  the  atonement  was  made  for  all  men, 
all  men  are  actually  reconciled,  which  is  contrary 
to  fact.  4.  That  inasmuch  as  it  is  admitted  on  all' 
sides  that  the  Saviour  suffered  and  died,  not  with 
the  actual  intention  of  securing  the  salvation  of  all 
men  universally,  but  only  of  a  definite  number 
determined  by  the  gift  of  the  Father  in  the  decree 
of  election,  the  atonement  is  therefore  properly  to 
be  denominated  a  definite  atonement,  and  that 
every  objection  brought  against  this  view  of  it  falls 
directly  against  the  doctrine  of  election.  If  it  be 
conceded  that  the  Father  gave  to  the  Son  in  the  co- 
venant of  redemption  a  particular  definite  number 
ot  the  human  race  to  save ;  that  for  these,  and  these 
alone,  did  the  Son  die  with  an  intention  to  savo 
them ;  that  to  none  but  this  elect  number  will  the 
atonement  ever  be  in  fact  applied,  the  consequence 
is  affirmed  to  be  inevitable,  that  the  atonement  is 
definite,  because  election  is  definite.  "We  may 
call  it  otherwise;  we  may  call  it  general,  we  may 
call  it  indefinite.  But  it  retains  its  true  charac- 
ter. It  is  what  the  divine  purpose  has  made  it — 
definite,  limited;  not,  indeed,  in  its  value,  which 
is  unlimited  and  infinite;  but  in  its  application, 
and  in  respect  to  the  intention  of  the  Father  who 
appointed,  and  of  the  Son  who  made,  the  atone- 
ment." As  to  the  objection,  that  if  the  atone- 
ment was  not  made  for  all,  then  those  for  whom 
it  was  not  intentionally  maid?  are  not  guilty  for 
not  receiving  it,  and  therefore  cannot  justly  be 
condemned  on  this  account,  it  is  answered,  that 
the  primary  ground  of  a  sinner's  condemnation 
is  not  so  much  his  n jection  of  the  Gospel  as  his 
previous  violation  of  the  law.  The  rejection  of 
the  Gospel  when  sincerely,  though  conditionally, 
offered,  aggravates  his  guilt,  and  according  to 
human  modes  of  speech  adopted  in  the  Scrip- 
tures, there  is  no  impropriety  in  referring  lus  con- 
demnation to  his  slighting  the  terms  of  pardon; 
as  he  knows  nothing  of  the  secret  purposes  of 
Heaven  in  regard  to  himself,  and,  therefore,  has 
no  excuse  to  offer  for  his  pervcrseness.  Thus,  if 
a  capital  offender  were  doomed  to  die  for  a  crime 


BACKSLIDING 

against  the  laws  of  his  country,  and  a  pardon 
were  tendered  him  on  certain  terms  while  under 
sentence  of  death,  which  pardon  he  madly  rejects 
from  disaffection  with  the  terms,  it  might  be  said, 
the  man  dies,  because  he  rejected  the  offered  par- 
don, whereas  the  real  ground  of  his  condemna- 
tion is  his  previous  crime.  The  same  holds  in 
the  case  of  sinners  under  the  Gospel.  Their 
voluntary  rejection  of  proffered  mercy  great]) 
illustrates  the  deep-rooted  depravity  of  their  hearts, 
and  in  the  same  proportion  displays  the  justice 
of  God  in  their  punishment.  See  Dwiglit's 
Theology,  vol.  ii.  serm.  50.  Janewai/s  Letters  on 
the  Atonement.  Bemanon  the  Atonement.  Mur- 
dochs Sermon  on  the  Atonement.  Review  of 
Murdock  in  Christian  Advocate,  vol.  v. — B.] 

ATTRIBUTES  OF  GOD  are  the  several 
qualities  or  perfections  of  the  Divine  nature. 
Some  distinguish  them  into  the  negative  and  po- 
sitive or  affirmative.  The  negative  are  such  as 
remove  from  him  whatever  is  imperfect  in  crea- 
tures: such  arc  infinity,  immutability,  immor- 
tality j  Sue.  The  positive  are  such  as  assert  some 
perfection  in  God  which  is  in  and  of  himself,  and 
which  in  the  creatures^  in  any  measure,  is  from 
him.  This  distinction  is  now  mostly  discarded. 
Some  distinguish  them  into  absolute  and  relative  : 
absolute  ones  are  such  as  agree  with  the  essence 
of  God;  as  Jehovah,  Jah,  &c:  relative  ones  are 
such  as  agree  with  him  in  time,  with  some  re- 
spect to  his  creatures,  as  Creator,  Governor,  Pre- 
server, Redeemer,  &c.  But  the  more  commonly 
received  distinction  of  the  attributes  of  God,  is 
into  communicable  and  incommunicable  ones. 
The  communicable  ones  are  those  of  which  there 
is  some  resemblance  in  men ;  as  goodness,  holi- 
ness, wisdom,  &c.  the  incommunicable  ones  are 
such  as  there  is  no  appearance  or  shadow  of  in 
men ;  as  independence,  immutability,  immensity, 
and  eternity.  See  those  different  articles  in  this 
work;  and  Bates,  Charnock,  Abernethy,  and 
Saurin  on  the  Divine  Perfections. 

ATTRITION.  The  casuists  of  the  church 
of  Rome  have  made  a  distinction  between  a  per- 
fect and  an  imperfect  contrition.  The  latter  they 
call  attrition ;  which  is  the  lowest  degree  of  re- 
pentance, or  a  sorrow  for  sin  arising  from  a  sense 
of  shame,  or  any  temporal  inconvenience  attend- 
ing the  commission  of  it,  or  merely  from  fear  of 
the  punishment  due  to  it,  without  any  resolution 
to  sin  no  more :  in  consequence  of  which  doc- 
trine, they  teach  that,  after  a  wicked  and  flagi- 
tious course  of  life,  a  man  may  be  reconciled  to 
God,  and  his  sins  forgiven  on  his  death-bed,  by 
confessing  them  to  the  priest  with  this  imperfect 
degree  of  sorrow  and  repentance.  This  distinc- 
tion was  settled  by  the  council  of  Trent.  It 
might,  however,  be  easily  shown  that  the  mere 
sorrow  for  sin  because  of  its  consequences,  and 
not  on  account  of  its  evil  nature,  is  no  more  ac- 
ceptable to  God  than  hypocrisy  itself  can  be. 

AVARICE  is  an  immoderate  love  to  and  de 


BACKSLIDING 

sire  after  riches,  attended  with  extreme  diffidence 
of  future  events,  making  a  person  rob  himself  of 
the  necessary  comforts  of  life,  for  fear  of  dimi- 
nishing his  riches.  SeeCovKTorsNEss  and  Miser, 

AVERSION,  hatred,  or  dislike.  Dr.  Watts 
and  others  oppose  aversion  to  desire.  When  we 
look,  say  they,  upon  an  object  as  good,  it  excites 
desire ;  but  when  we  look  upon  an  object  as  evil, 
it  awakens  what  we  call  aversion  or  avoidance. 
But  Lord  Kaimes  observes  that  aversion  is  op- 
posed to  affection,  and  not  to  desire.  We  have 
an  affection  to  one  person,  we  have  an  aversion  to 
another ;  the  former  disposes  us  to  do  good,  the 
latter  to  do  ill. 

AUDIENTES,  an  order  of  catechumens  in 
the  primitive  Christian  church.  They  were  so 
called  from  their  being  admitted  to  hear  sermons 
and  the  Scriptures  read  in  the  church ;  but  they 
were  not  allowed  to  be  present  at  the  prayers. 

AUGSBURGH,  or  AUGUSTAN*  CON- 
FESSION, a  celebrated  confession  of  faith  drawn 
up  by  Luther  and  Melancthon  on  behalf  of 
themselves  and  other  ancient  reformers,  and  pre- 
sented in  1550  to  the  emperor  Charles  V.  at  the 
diet  of  Augusta,  or  Augsburgh,  in  the  name  of 
the  evangelic  body.  This  confession  contains 
twenty-eight  chapters,  of  which  the  greatest  part 
is  employed  in  representing  with  perspicuity  and 
truth  the  religious  opinions  of  the  Protestants, 
and  the  rest  in  pointing  out  the  errors  and  abuses 
that  occasioned  their  separation  from  the  church 
of  Rome.  The  leading  doctrines  of  this  confes- 
sion are,  the  true  and  essential  divinity  of  the 
Son  of  God ;  his  substitution  and  vicarious  sa- 
crifice ,  and  the  necessity,  freedom,  and  efficacy 
of  Divine  grace.  A  civil  war  followed  this  diet 
that  lasted  upwards  of  twenty  years,  but  which 
only  spread  the  new  opinions,  instead  of  extirpa- 
ting them. 

AUGUSTINS,  a  religious  order,  who  ob- 
served the  rule  of  St.  Augustin,  prescribed  them 
by  pope  Alexander  IV.  in  1250.  This  rule  was 
to  have  all  things  in  common  ;  the  rich  who  en- 
ter among  them  to  sell  their  possessions,  and 
give  them  to  the  poor ;  to  employ  the  first  part 
of  the  morning  in  labouring  with  their  hands, 
and  the  rest  in  reading  :  when  they  go  abroad,  to 
go  always  two  in  company  ;  never  to  cat  but  in 
their  monastery,  &c. 

AUSTERITY,  a  state  of  rigid  mortification. 
It  is  distinguished  from  severity  and  rigour  thus : 
Austerity,  relates  to  the  manner  of  living;  se- 
verity to  the  manner  of  thinking ;  rigour  to  the 
manner  of  punisliing.  To  austerity  is  opposed 
effeminacy ;  to  severity,  relaxation ;  to  rigour, 
clemency.  A  hermit  is  austere  in  his  life;  a 
casuist  severe  in  his  application  of  religion  or 
law ;  a  judge  rigorous  in  his  sentences. 

AUTOCEPHALI  BISHOPS.  This  de- 
nomination was  given  to  such  bishops  in  the  pri- 
mitive church  as  were  exempted  from  the  juris- 
diction of  others. 


B. 


BACKBITING.  See  Detraction  and 
Slander. 

BACKSLIDING,  the  act  of  turning  from  the 
path  of  duty.  It  may  be  considered  as  partial 
when  applied  to  true  believers,  who  do  not  back- 
31 


slide  with  the  whole  bent  of  their  will ;  as  volun  ■ 
tary,  when  applied  to  those  who,  after  professing 
to  know  the  truth,  wilfully  turn  from  it,  and  live 
in  the  practice  of  sin ;  asfnal,  when  the  mind  is 
given  up  to  judicial  hardness,  as  in  the  case  vl 


BAPTISM 
Jiutas.  Partial  backsliding  must  be  distinguish- 
ed from  hypocrisy,  as  the  former  may  exist  when' 
there  are  gracious  intentions  on  the  whole;  but 
the  latter  is  ;i  studied  profession  of  appearing  to 
be  what  we  are  not. 

The  causes  of  backsliding  are — the  eares  of  the 
■world ;  improper  connexions ;  inattention  to  se- 
cret or  closet  duties;  self-eoneeitand  dependence; 
indulgence;  listening  to  and  parleying  with 
temptations.  A  backsliding  state  is  manifested 
by  indifference  to  prayer  and  self-examination; 
trifling  or  unprofitable  conversation;  neglect  of 
public  ordinances;  shunning  the  people  of  God; 
associating  with  the  world;  thinking  lightly  of 
sin;  neglect  of  the  Bible;  and  often  by  gross  im- 
morality. The  consequences  of  this  awful  state 
are — loss  of  character  ;  loss  of  comfort;  loss  of 
usefulness;  and,  as  long  as  any  remain  in  this 
state,  a  less  of  a  vSett-groundcd  hope  of  future 
happiness.  To  avoid  this  slate,  or  recover  from 
it,  we  should  beware  of  the  first  appearance  of 
sin;  he  much  in  prayer;  attend  the  ordinances ; 
and  unite  with  the  people  of  God.  We  should 
consider  the  awful  instances  of  apostacy,  as  Saul, 
Judas,  Demas,  &c.;  the  many  warnings  we  have 
of  it,  Matt.  xxiv.  13.  Heb.  x.  38.  Luke  ix.62 ;  how 
it  grieves  the  Holy  Spirit;  and  how  wretched  it 
makes  us;  above  all  things,  our  dependence  should 
be  on  God,  that  we  may  always  be  directed  by  his 
Spirit,  and  kept  by  his  power.  See  Apostacy. 

BANGORIAN  CONTROVERSY,  so  call- 
ed from  Bangor,  or  the  bishop  thereof.  Bishop 
Hoadley,  the  bishop  of  that  diocese,  preaching  be- 
fore George  1.,  asserted  the  supreme  authority  of 
Christ,  as  king  in  his  own  kingdom ;  and  that  he 
had  not  delegated  his  power,  like  temporal  law- 
givers during  their  absence  from  their  kingdom, 
to  any  persons,  as  his  vicegerents  or  deputies. 
This  important  sermon  may  be  seen  reprinted  in 
the  Liverpool  Theological  Repository,  vol.  v.  p. 
301.  In  1717,  he  also  published  his  Preservative, 
in  which  he  advanced  some  positions  contrary  to 
temporal  and  spiritual  tyranny,  and  in  behalf  of 
the  civil  and  religious  liberties  of  mankind:  upon 
which  he  was  violently  opposed,  accused,  and  per- 
secuted, by  the  advocates  for  church  power;  but 
he  was  defended  and  supported  by  the  civil  pow- 
ers, and  his  abilities  and  meekness  gained  him 
the  plaudits  of  many. 

BANIANS,  a  religious  sect  in  the  empire  of 
the  Mogul,  who  believe  a  Metempsychosis ;  and 
will  therefore  eat  no  living  creature,  nor  kill  even 
noxious  animals,  but  endeavour  to  release  them 
when  in  the  hands  of  others.  The  name  Banian 
is  sometimes  extended  to  all  the  idolators  of  India, 
as  contradistinguished  from  the  Mahometans. 

BA  PTISM,  the  ceremony  of  washing,  or  the 
application  of  water  to  a  person,  in  the  name  of 
the  Fath3T,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost,  by 
which  he  is  initiated  into  the  visible  church. 
Baptism  exhibits  to  us  the  blessings  of  pardon, 
Balvation  through  Jesus  Christ,  union  to  and 
communion  with  him,  the  out-pouring  of  the 
Spirit,  regeneration,  and  sanctification.  From 
baptism  results  the  obligation  of  repentance,  love 
to  Christ,  and  perpetual  devoted ness  to  his  praise. 
Baptism  does  not  constitute  a  visible  subjee',  hut 
only  recognizes  one.  Ministers  only  have  a  right 
to  administer  it,  and  have  a  negative  voice  in  op- 
position to  all  claims.  It  is  an  ordinance  binding 
on  all  who  have  been  given  up  to  God  in  it ;  and 
to  be  wrpetuated  to  the  end  of  the  world.  It  is 
32 


BAPTISM 

not,  however,  essential  to  salvation  ;  formerepar 
ticipation  of  sacraments  cannot  qualify  men  lot 
heaven  :  many  have  real  grace,  and  are  conse- 
quently in  a  salvable  state,  before  they  were  bap- 
tized :  besides,  to  suppose  it  essential  is  to  put  it 
in  the  place  of  that  which  it  signifies. 

Baptism  has  been  supposed  by  many  learned 
persons  to  have  had  its  origin  from  the  Jewish 
church ;  in  which,  they  maintain,  it  was  the 
practice,  long  before  Christ's  time,  to  baptize  pro- 
selytes or  converts  to  their  faith,  as  part  of  the 
ceremony  of  their  admission.  "  It  is  strange  to 
me,"  says  Dr.  Doddridge,  "  that,  any  should  doubt 
of  this,  when  it  is  plain  from  express  passages  in 
the  Jewish  law,  that  no  Jew  who  had  lived  like 
a  Gentile  for  one  day  could  be  restored  to  the 
communion  of  this  church  without  it.  Compare 
Numb.  xix.  19  and  20,  and  many  other  precepts 
relating  to  ceremonial  pollutions,  in  which  it  may 
be  seen,  that  the  Jews  were  rendered  incapable 
of  appearing  before  God  in  the  tabernacle  or  tem- 
ple, till  they  were  washed  either  by  bathing  or 
sprinkling."  Others,  however,  insist  that  the 
Jewish  proselyte  baptism  is  not  by  far  so  ancient ; 
and  that  John  the  Baptist  was  the  first  adminis- 
trator of  baptism  amongThe  Jews. 

The  baptism  of  John,  and  that  of  our  Saviour 
and  his  apostles,  have  been  supposed  to  be  the 
same ;  because  they  agree,  it  is  said,  in  their  sub- 
jects, form,  and  end.  But  it  must  be  observed, 
that  though  there  be  an  agreement  in  some  par- 
ticulars, yet  there  is  not  in  all.  The  immediatt 
institulor  of  John's  baptism  was  God  the  Father, 
John  1.  33  ;  but  the  immediate  institutor  of  the 
Christian  baptism  was  Christ,  Matt,  xxviii.  10. 
John's  baptism  was  a  preparatory  rite,  referring 
the  subjects  to  Christ,  who  was  about  to  confer 
on  them  spiritual  blessings,  Matt.  iii.  11.  John's 
baptism  was  confined  to  the  Jews;  but  the 
Christian  was  common  to  Jews  and  Gentiles, 
Matt.  iii.  5.  7.  xxviii.  19.  It  does  not  appear 
that  John  had  any  formula  of  administration; 
but  the  Christian  baptism  has,  viz.  "  In  the 
name,"  &c.  The  baptism  of  John  was  the  con- 
cluding scene  of  the  legal  dispensation,  and,  in 
feet,  part  of  it ;  and  to  be  considered  as  one  of 
those  "divers  washings"  among  the  Jews;  for 
he  did  not  attempt  to  make  any  alteration  in  I  he 
Jewish  religion,  nor  did  the  persons  he  baptized 
cease  to  be  members  of  the  Jewish  church  on  ac- 
count of  their  baptism  :  but  Christian  baptism  is 
the  regular  entrance  into,  and  is  a  part  of,  the 
evangelical  dispensation,  Gal.  iii.  27.  It  does  net 
appear  from  the  inspired  narrative  (however  pro- 
bable from  inferential  reasoning),  that  any  but 
John  himself  was  engaged  as  operator  in  hisbap- 
tism;  whereas  Christ  himself  baptized  none  ;  but 
his  disciples,  by  his  authority,  and  in  his  name. 
John  iv.  2. 

Baptism  has  been  the  subject  of  long  and  sharp 
controversy,  both  as  it  respects  the  subjoctand  the 
mode.  To  state  all  that  has  been  said  on  both 
sides  would  be  impossible  in  a  work  of  this  kind. 
An  abstract,  however,  of  the  chief  arguments,  I 
think  it  my  duty  to  present  to  the  reader,  in  order 
that  he  may  judge  for  himself. 

As  to  ihc  subject. 

The  ANTIPJEDOBAPTISTS  hold  the 
belief  that  adults  only  are  proper  subjects,  lie- 
cause  Christ's  commission  to  baptize  appears  to 
them  to  restrict  this  ordinance  to  such  only  as 


BAPTISM 
are  taught,  or  made  disciples ;  and  that,  conse- 
quently infants,  who  cannot  be  thus  taught,  are 
to  be  excluded  It  does  not  appear,  say  they,  that 
the  apostles,  in  executing  Christ's  commission, 
ever  baptized  any  but  those  who  were  first  in- 
structed in  the  Christian  faith,  and  professed  their 
belief  of  it.  They  contend  that  infants  can  re- 
ceive no  benefit  from  it,  are  not  capable  of  faith 
and  repentance,  which  are  to  be  considered  as 
pre-requisitcs. 

As  to  the  mode. 

They  observe  that  the  meaning  of  the  word 
g«roj«  signifies  immersion  or  dipping  only;  that 
John  baptized  in  Jordan  ;  that  he  chose  a  place 
where  there  was  much  water;  that  Jesus  came 
up  out  of  the  water;  that  Philip  and  the  eunuch 
went  down  both  into  the  water.  That  the  terms 
washing,  purifying,  burying  in  baptism,  so  often 
mentioned  in  Scripture,  allude  to  this  mode ;  that 
immersion  only  was  the  practice  of  the  apostles 
and  the  first  Christians;  and  that  it  was  only 
laid  aside  from  the  love  of  novelty,  and  the  cold- 
ness of  our  climate.  These  positions,  they  think 
are  so  clear  from  Scripture,  and  the  history  of 
the  church,  that  they  stand  in  need  of  but  little 
argument  to  support  them.  Further,  they  also 
insist  that  all  positive  institutions  depend  entirely 
upon  the  will  and  declaration  of  the  institutor, 
and  that,  therefore,  reasoning  by  analogy  from 
previous  abrogated  rites,  is  to  be  rejected,  and  the 
express  command  of  Christ  respecting  baptism 
ought  to  be  our  rule. 

P^DOBAPTISTS. 

The  Pffidobaptists,  however,  are  of  a  different 
opinion.  As  to  the  subject,  they  believe  that  quali- 
fied adults  who  have  not  been  baptized  before 
are  certainly  proper  subjects;  but,  then,  they  think 
also  that  infants  are  not  to  be  excluded.  They 
believe  that,  as  the  Abrahamic  and  the  Christian 
covenants  are  the  same,  Gen.  xvii.  7.  Heb.  viii. 
12  j  that  as  children  were  admitted  under  the 
former;  and  that  as  baptism  is  now  a  seal,  sign, 
or  confirmation  of  this  covenant,  infants  have  as 
great  a  right  to  it  as  the  children  had  a  right  to 
the  seal  of  circumcision  under  the  law,  Acts  i.  39. 
Rom.  iv.  11.  That  if  children  are  not  to  be 
baptized  because  there  is  no  positive  command 
for  it,  for  the  same  reason  women  should  not  come 
to  the  Lord's  Supper;  we  should  not  keep  the 
first  day  of  the  week,  nor  attend  public  worship, 
for  none  of  these  are  expressly  commanded;  that 
if  infant  baptism  had  been  a  human  invention, 
how  would  it  have  been  so  universal  in  the  first 
300  years,  and  yet  no  record  left  when  it  was  in- 
troduced, nor  any  dispute  or  controversy  about 
it?  Some  bring  it  to  these  two  ideas:  1.  That 
God  did  constitute  in  the  Jewish  church,  the 
membership  of  infants,  and  admitted  them  to  it 
by  a  religious  ordinance,  Gen.  xvii.  Gal.  iii.  14, 
17.  2.  That  this  right  of  infants  to  church 
membership  was  never  taken  away.  This  being 
the  case,  infants  must  be  received,  because  God  has 
instituted  it;  and,  siace  infants  must  be  received, 
it  must  be  either  without  baptism  or  with  it :  but 
none  must  be  received  without  baptism,  therefore 
infants  must,  of  necessity,  be  baptized.  Hence, 
it  is  clear,  that  under  the  Gospel,  infants  are  still 
continued  exactly  in  the  same  relation  to  God  and 
his  church,  in  which  they  were  originally  placed 
under  the  former  dispensation. 

33  E 


BAPTISM 

That  infants  are  to  be  received  into  the  church, 
and  as  such  baptized,  is  also  inferred  from  the 
following  passages  of  Scripture :  Gen.  xvii.  Isa. 
xliv.  3.  Mattxix.  13.  Luke  ix.  47,  48.  Mark  ix. 
14.  Acts  ii.  33, 39.  Rom.  xi.  17, 21.  1  Cor.  vii.  14. 

Though  there  are  no  express  examples  in  the 
New  Testament  of  Christ  and  his  apostles  bap- 
tizing infants,  yet  this  is  no  proof  that  they  were 
excluded.  Jesus  Christ  actually  blessed  little 
children;  and  it  would  be  hard  to  believe  that 
such  received  his  blessing,  and  yet  were  not  to  be 
members  of  the  Gospel  church.  If  Christ  receiv- 
ed them,  and  would  have  us  receive  them  in  his 
name,  how  can  it  be  reconciled  to  keep  them  out 
of  the  visible  church  ?  Besides,  if  children  were 
not  to  be  baptized,  it  would  have  been  expressly 
forbidden.  None  of  the  Jews  had  any  apprehen- 
sion of  the  rejection  of  infants,  which  they  must 
have  had,  if  infants  had  been  rejected.  As  whole 
households  were  baptized,  it  is  probable  there 
were  children  among  them.  From  the  year  400 
to  1 150,  no  society  of  men,  in  all  that  period  of  750 
years,  ever  pretended  to  say  it  was  unlawful  to 
baptize  infants ;  and  still  nearer  the  time  of  cur 
Saviour,  there  appears  to  have  been  scarcely  any 
one  that  so  much  as  advised  the  delay  of  infant 
baptism.  Irenams,  who  lived  in  the  second  centu- 
ry, and  was  well  acquainted  with  Polycarp,  who 
was  John's  disciple,  declares  expressly  that  the 
church  learned  from  the  apostles  to  baptize  children. 
Origen,  in  the  third  century,  affirmed  that  the  cus- 
tom of  baptizing  infants  was  received  from  Christ 
and  his  apostles.  Cyprian,  and  a  council  of  minis- 
ters (held  about  the  year  254),  no  less  than  sixty- 
six  in  number,  unanimously  agreed  that  children 
might  be  baptized  as  soon  as  they  were  born. 
Ambrose,  who  wrote  about  274  years  from  the 
apostles,  declares  that  the  baptism  of  infants  had 
been  the  practice  of  the  apostles  themselves,  and 
of  the  church,  till  that  time.  The  catholic 
church  ever)'  where  declared,  says  Chrysostom, 
in  the  fifth  century,  that  infants  should  be  bap- 
tized; And  Augustin  affirmed  that  he  never 
heard  nor  read  of  any  Christian,  catholic,  or 
sectarian,  but  who  always  held  that  infants  were 
to  be  baptized.  They  further  believe,  that  there 
needed  no  mention  in  the  New  Testament  of  re- 
ceiving infants  into  the  church,  as  it  had  been 
once  appointed  and  never  repealed.  The  dictates 
of  nature,  also,  in  parental  feelings ;  the  verdict 
of  reason  in  favour  of  privileges ;  the  evidence  in 
favour  of  children  being  sharers  of  the  seals  of 
grace,  in  common  with  their  parents,  for  the  space 
of  4000  years ;  and  especially  the  language  of  pro- 
phecy, in  reference  t<*  the  children  of  the  Gospel 
church,  make  it  very  probable  that  they  were  not 
to  be  rejected.  So  far  from  confining  it  to  adults 
it  must  be  remembered  that  there  is  not  a  single 
instance  recorded  in  the  New  Testament  in 
which  the  descendants  of  Christian  parents  were 
baptized  in  adult  years. 

That  infants  are  not  proper  subjects  for  baptism 
because  they  cannot  profess  faith  and  repentance, 
they  deny.  This  objection  falls  with  as  much 
weight  upon  the  institution  of  circumcision  as 
infant  baptism ;  since  they  are  as  capable,  or  are 
as  fit  subjects  for  the  or*3  as  the  other.  It  i> 
generally  acknowledged,  that,  if  infants  die  (and 
a  great  part  of  the  human  race  do  die  in  infancy,) 
they  are  saved:  if  this  be  the  case,  then,  wby  re- 
fuse them  the  sign  in  infancy,  if  they  are  capable 
of  enjoying  the  tiling  signified?    "Why,"  say* 

r* 


BAPTISM 
Dr.  Owen,  "  is  it  thn  will  of  God  that  unbelievers 
should  not  Ik?  baptized?  It  is  localise,  not  grant- 
ing them  the  grace  he  will  not  grant  them  the 
sign.  It'  Cod,  therefore,  denies  the  sign  to  the 
infant  seed  of  believers,  it  must  be  because  he  de- 
nies them  the  grace  of  it;  and  then  all  the  chil- 
dren of  believing  parents  (upon  these  principles) 
dying  in  their  infancy,  must,  without  hope,  be 
eternally  damned.  1  do  not  say  that  all  must  be 
BO  who  are  not  baptized;  but  all  must  be  so  whom 
God  would  not  have  baptized."  Something  is 
said  of  baptism,  it  is  observed,  that  cannot  agree 
to  infants:  faith  goes  before  baptism;  and,  as 
none  but  adults  are  capable  of  believing,  so  no 
others  are  capable  of  baptism;  but  it  is  replied,  if 
infants  must  not  be  baptized  because  something 
is  said  of  baptism  that  does  not  agree  to  infants, 
Mark  xvi.  16,  then  infants  must  not  be  saved, 
because  something  is  said  of  salvation  that  does 
not  agree  to  infants,  Mark  xvi.  16.  As  none 
but  adults  are  capable  of  believing,  so,  by  the  ar- 
gument of  the  Baptists,  none  but  adults  are  capa- 
ble of  salvation :  for  he  that  believeth  not  shall  be 
damned.  But  Christ,  it  is  said,  set  an  example 
of  adult  baptism.  True ;  but  he  was  baptized  in 
honour  to  John's  ministry,  and  to  conform  liim- 
self  to  what  he  appointed  to  his  followers;  for 
which  last  reason  he  drank  of  the  sacramental 
cup :  but  this  is  rather  an  argument  for  the  Pse- 
dobaptists  than  against  them;  since  it  plainly 
shows,  as  Doddridge  observes,  that  baptism  may 
be  administered  to  those  who  are  not  capable 
of  all  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  designed ; 
since  Jesus  Christ,  not  being  a  sinner,  could 
not  be  capable  of  that  faith  and  repentance 
which  are  said  to  be  necessary  to  this  ordi- 
nance. 

As  to  the  mode. 

They  believe  that  the  word  £:»*■-»  signifies  to 
dip  or  plunge;  but  that  the  term£«irTi£»,  which 
is  only  a  derivative  of  3«^to>,  and  consequently 
must  be  somewhat  less  in  its  signification,  should 
In:  invariably  used  in  the  New  Testament  to  ex- 
press plunging,  is  not  so  clear.  It  is  therefore 
doubted  whether  dipping  be  the  only  meaning, 
and  whether  Christ  absolutely  enjoined  immer- 
sion, and  that  it  is  his  positive  will  that  no  other 
should  be  used.  As  the  word  g»sn-i£u>  is  used  for 
the  various  ablutions  among  the  Jews,  such  as 
sprinkling;  pouring,  &c.  Heb.  ix.  10;  for  the 
custom  ot  washing  before  meals,  and  the  washing 
of  household  furniture,  pots,  &c.;  it  is  evident 
from  hence  that  it  does  not  express  the  manner 
of  doing,  whether  by  immersion  or  affusion,  but 
only  the  thing  done,  that  is,  washing,  or  the  appli- 
cation of  water  in  one  form  or  other.  Dr.  Owen 
observes,  that  it  no  where  signifies  to  dip  but  as 
denoting  a  mode  of  and  in  order  to  washing  or 
cleansing;  and,  according  to  others,  the  mode  of 
use  is  only  the  ceremonial  part  of  a  positive  in- 
stitute; just  as  in  the  supper  of  the  Lord,  the 
time  of  the  day,  the  number  and  posture  of  com- 
municants, the  quality  and  quantity  of  bread 
a: id  wine,  are  circumstances  not  accounted  es- 
sential  by  any  party  of  Christians.  As  to  ths 
1  lebrew  word  Tubal,  it  is  considered  as  a  generic 
term;  that  its  radical,  primary,  and  proper  mean- 
ing is  to  tinge,  to  dye,  to  wet,  or  the  like:  which 
primary  design  is  effected  by  different  modes  of 
application,  If  in  baptism  also  there  is  an  ex- 
pressive emblem  of  the  descending  influence  of 


BAPTISM 
the  Spirit,  pouring  must  be  the  mode  of  adminis- 
tration; for  that  is  the  Scriptural  term  most 
commonly  and  properly  used  for  the  communica- 
tion of  divine  influences.  There  is  no  object 
whatever  in  all  the  New  Testament  so  frequently 
and  so  explicitly  signiticd  ny  baptism  as  these 
divine  influences.  Matt.  iii.  11.  Mark  i.  8,  10. 
Luke  iii.  16  to  22.  John  i.  33.  Acts  i.  5.  ii.  38, 
39.  via.  12,  17.  xi.  15,  16.  The  term  sprinkling, 
also,  is  made  use  of  in  reference  to  the  act  of  pu- 
rifying, Isa.  Iii.  15.  Heb.  ix.  13,  14.  Ezck.  xxxvi. 
25,  and  therefore  cannot  be  inapplicable  to  bap- 
tismal purification.  But  it  is  observed  that  John 
baptized  in  Jordan :  to  this  it  is  replied,  to  infer 
always  a  plunging  of  the  whole  body  in  water 
from  this  word,  would,  in  many  instances,  be 
false  and  absurd  :  the  same  Greek  preposition  » 
is  used  when  it  is  said  they  should  be  baptized 
with  fire ;  while  few  will  assert  that  they  should 
be  plunged  into  it.  The  apostle,  speaking  of 
Christ,  says,  he  came  not  (ev)  by  water  only,  but 
(iv)  by  water  and  blood.  There  the  same  word  i» 
is  translated  by,  and  with  justice  and  propriety, 
for  we  know  no  good  sense  in  which  we  could 
say  he  came  in  water.  It  has  been  remarked, 
that  iy  is  more  than  a  hundred  times,  in  the  New 
Testament,  rendered  "at,"  and  in  a  hundred  and 
fifty  others  it  is  translated  with.  If  it  be  rendered 
so  here,  "  John  baptized  at  Jordan,"  or  with  the 
water  of  Jordan,  there  is  no  proof  from  thence 
that  he  plunged  his  disciples  in  it. 

It  is  urged  that  John's  choosing  a  place  where 
there  was  much  water  is  a  certain  proof  of  im- 
mersion. To  which  it  is  answered,  that  as  there 
went  out  to  him  Jerusalem,  and  all  Judea,  and 
all  the  region  round  about  Jordan,  that  by  choos- 
ing a  place  where  there  were  many  streams  or  rivu- 
lets, it  would  be  much  more  expeditiously  perform- 
ed by  pouring ;  and  that  it  seems  in  the  nature  of 
things  highly  improbable  that  John  should  have 
baptized  this  vast  multitude  by  immersion,  to  say 
nothing  of  the  indecency  of  both  sexes  being  bap- 
tized together. 

Jesus,  it  is  said,  came  up  out  of  the  water;  but 
this  is  said  to  be  no  proof  of  his  being  immersed, 
as  the  Greek  term  t.™  often  signifies  from ;  for 
instance,  "who  hath  warned  you  to  flee  from," 
not  out  of,  "the  wrath  to  come,"  with  many 
others  which  might  be  mentioned. 

Again :  it  is  said  that  Philip  and  the  eunuch 
went  down  both  into  the  water.  To  this  it  is 
answered  that  here  is  no  proof  of  immersion;  for 
if  the  expression  of  their  going  down  into  tho 
water  necessarily  includes  dipping,  then  Philip 
was  dipped  as  well  as  the  eunuch.  The  prepo- 
sition (nt)  translated  into,  often  signifies  no  more 
than  to  or  unto.  See  Matt.  xv.  24.  Rom.  x.  10. 
Acts  xxviii.  14.  Matt.  xvii.  27.  iii.  11.  So  that, 
from  all  these  circumstances,  it  cannot  be  conclu- 
ded that  there  was  a  single  person  of  all  the  bap- 
tized who  went  into  the  water  ankle  deep.  As 
to  the  apostle's  expression,  "  buried  with  him  in 
baptism,"  they  think  it  has  no  force;  and  that  it 
docs  not  allude  to  any  custom  of  dipping,  anv 
more  than  our  baptismal  crucifixion  and  death 
has  any  such  reference.  It  is  not  tlic  sign  but 
the  thing  signified  that  is  here  alluded  to.  As 
Christ  was  buried,  and  rose  again  to  a  heavenly 
life,  so  we  by  baptism  signify  that  we  are  cut  off 
from  the  life  of  sin,  that  we  may  rise  again  to  a 
new  life  of  faith  and  love. 

To  concludo  this  article,  it  is  observed  against 


BAPTISM 
the  mode  of  immersion,  that,  as  it  carries  with  it 
too  mucii  of  the  appearance  of  a  burdensome  rite 
for  the  Gospel  dispensation ;  that  as  it  is  too  in- 
decent for  so  solemn  an  ordinance;  as  it  has  a 
tendency  to  agitate  the  spirits,  often  rendering  the 
subject  unfit  for  the  exercise  of  proper  thoughts 
and  affections,  and,  indeed,  utterly  incapable  of 
(.hem ;  as  in  many  cases  the  immersion  of  the  body 
would  in  all  probability  be  instant  death ;  as  in 
other  situations  it  would  be  impracticable  for  want 
of  a  sufficient  quantity  of  water,  it  cannot  be  con- 
sidered as  necessary  to  the  ordinance  of  baptism. 

See  Gale,  Robinson,  Stennett,  Gill,  and  Booth, 
on  An/ipcedobaptism  ;  and  Wall,  Henry,  Brad- 
bury, Bastwick,  Towgood,  Addington,  Williams, 
Edwards,  Miller,  Evans,  &c.  on  the  other  side. 

BAPTISM  OF  THE  DEAD,  a  custom 
which  anciently  prevailed  among  some  people  in 
Africa,  of  giving  baptism  to  the  dead.  The  third 
council  of  Carthage  speaks  of  it  as  a  thing  that 
ignorant  Christians  are  fond  of:  Gregory  Na- 
zianzen  also  takes  notice  of  the  same  superstitious 
©pinion.  The  practice  seems  to  be  grounded  on  a 
vain  idea,  that,  when  men  had  neglected  to  receive 
baptism  in  their  lifetime,  some  compensation  might 
be  made  for  this  default  by  receiving  it  after  death. 

BAPTISM  FOR  THE  DEAD,  a  practice 
formerly  in  use,  when  a  person  dying  without 
baptism,  another  was  baptized  in  his  stead ;  thus 
supposing  that  God  would  accept  the  baptism  of 
the  proxy,  as  though  it  had  been  administered  to 
the  principal.  Chrysostom  says,  this  was  prac- 
tised among  the  Marcionites  with  a  great  deal  of 
ridiculous  ceremony,  which  he  thus  describes : — 
"  After  any  catechumen  was  dead,  they  had  a 
living  man  under  the  bed  of  the  deceased :  then, 
coming  to  the  dead  man,  they  asked  him  whether 
he  would  receive  baptism:  and  he  making  no  an- 
swer, the  other  answered  for  him,  and  said  he 
would  be  baptized  in  his  stead ;  and  so  they  bap- 
tized the  living  for  the  dead."  If  it  can  be  proved 
(as  some  think  it  can)  that  this  practice  was  as 
early  as  the  days  of  the  apostle  Paul,  it  might 
probably  form  a  solution  of  those  remarkable 
words  in  1  Cor.  xv.  29 :  "  If  the  dead  rise  not  at 
all,  what  shall  they  do  who  are  baptized  for  the 
dead?"  The  allusion  of  the  apostle  to  this  prac- 
tice, however,  is  rejected  by  some,  and  especially 
by  Dr.  Doddridge,  who  thinks  it  too  early :  he 
thus  paraphrases  the  passage :  "  Such  are  our 
views  and  hopes  as  Christians,  else,  if  it  were  not 
so,  what  should  they  do  who  are  baptized  in  token 
of  their  embracing  {he  Christian  faith,  in  the  room 
of  the  dead,  who  are  just  fallen  in  the  cause  of 
Christ,  but  are  yet  supported  by  a  succession  of 
new  converts,  who  immediately  offer  themselves 
to  fill  up  their  places,  as  ranks  of  soldiers  that 
advance  to  the  combat  in  the  room  of  their  com- 
panions who  have  just  been  slain  in  their  sight?" 

Lay  baptism  we  find  to  have  been  permitted  by 
iKith  the  common  prayer-books  of  king  Edward 
and  queen  Elizabeth,  when  an  infant,  was  in  im- 
mediate danger  of  death,  and  a  lawful  minister 
could,  not  be  had.  This  was  founded  on  a  mis- 
taken notion  of  the  impossibility  of  salvation 
without  the  sacrament  of  baptism ;  but  afterwards, 
when  they  came  to  have  clearer  notions  of  the  sa- 
craments, it  was  unanimously  resolved,  in  a  con- 
vocation held  in  1575,  that  even  private  baptism  in 
a  case  of  necessity  was  only  to  be  administered  by 
a  lawful  minister. 

BAPTISM  METAPHORICAL.  InScrip- 
■  3i 


BARDESAN1ST8 
ture  th«  term  Baptism  is  used  as  referring  to  the 
work  of  the  Spirit  on  the  heart,  Matt.  iii.  11. ;  also 
to  the  sufferings  of  Christ,  Matt.  xx.  "22;  and  to 
so  much  of  the  Gospel  as  John  the  Baptist  taught 
his  disciples,  Acts  xviii.  25. 

BAPTISTS,  a  denomination  of  Christians 
who  maintain  that  baptism  is  to  be  administered  by 
immersion,  and  not  by  sprinkling.  See  Baptism. 

Although  there  were  several  Baptists  among 
the  Albigenses,  Waldcnses,  and  the  followers  of 
Wickliff'e,  it  does  not  appear  that  they  were  form- 
ed into  any  stability  until  the  time  of  Menno, 
about  the  year  153G.  See  Anabaptists  and 
Mennonites.  About  1644  they  began  to  make 
a  considerable  figure  in  England,  and  spread 
themselves  into  several  separate  congregations. 
They  separated  from  the  Independents  about  the 
year  1638,  and  set  up  for  themselves  under  the 
pastoral  care  of  Mr.  Jesse ;  and,  having  renounced 
their  former  baptism,  they  sent  over  one  of  their 
number  to  be  immersed  by  one  of  the  Dutch  Ana- 
baptists of  Amsterdam,  that  he  might  be  qualified 
to  baptize  his  friends  in  England  after  the  same 
manner. 

The  Baptists  subsist  under  two  denominations, 
viz.  the  Particular,  or  Calvinistical,  and  the 
General,  or  Arminian.  Their  modes  of  church 
government  and  worship  are  the  same  as  those  of 
the  Independents ;  in  the  exercise  of  which  they 
are  protected,  in  common  with  other  dissenters,  by 
the  act  of  toleration.  Some  of  both  denominations 
allow  of  mixed  communion;  by  which  it  is  un- 
derstood that  those  who  have  not  been  baptized  by 
immersion,  on  the  profession  of  their  faith,  may 
sit  down  at  the  Lord's  table  with  those  who  have 
been  thus  baptized.  Others,  however,  disallow  it, 
supposing  that  such  have  not  been  actually  bap- 
tized at  all.     See  Free  Communion. 

Some  of  them  observe  the  seventh  day  of  the 
week  as  the  Sabbath,  apprehending  the  law 
that  enjoined  it  not  to  have  been  repealed  by 
Christ. 

The  Baptists  in  America  and  in  the  East  and 
West  Indies  are  chiefly  Calvinists,  and  hold  oc- 
casional fellowship  wi*h  the  Particular  Baptist 
churches  in  England.  Those  in  Scotland,  having 
imbibed  a  considerable  part  of  the  principles  of 
Messrs.  Glass  and  Sandeman.  have  no  commu- 
nion with  the  other.  They  have  liberally  con- 
tributed, however,  towards  the  translation  of  the 
Scriptures  into  the  Bengalee  language,  which 
some  of  the  Baptist  brethren  are  now  accomplish- 
ing in  the  East.  See  Nippon's  Baptist  Register, 
vol.  i.  p.  172 — 175;  Adams's  View  of  Religions, 
article  Baptists;  Evans's  Sketch  of  Religious 
Denominations.     [See  APPENDIX,  No.  6.] 

BAPTISTERY,  the  place  in  which  the  cere- 
mony of  baptism  is  performed.  In  the  ancient 
church,  it  is  said,  it  was  generally  a  buildtno 
separate  and  distinct  from  the  church.  It  con- 
sisted of  an  ante-room,  where  the  adult  persons  to 
be  baptized  made  their  confession  of  faith ;  and 
an  inner  room,  where  the  ceremony  of  baptism 
was  j>erformed.  Thus  it  continued  to  the  sixth 
century,  when  the  baptisteries  began  to  be  taken 
into  the  church. 

BARDESANISTS,  a  sect  so  denominated 
from  their  leader  Bardesanes,  a  Syrian,  of  Edessa, 
in  Mesopotamia,  who  lived  in  the  second  century. 
They  believed  that  the  actions  of  men  depended 
altogether  on  fate,  and  that  God  himself  is  subject 
to  necessity. — They  denied  the  resurrection  of 


BASILIDIANS 
the  body,  and  the  incarnation  and  death  of  our 
Saviour. 

BARLA  AMITES,  the  followers  of  Barlaam, 
in  the  fourteenth  century,  who  was  a  very  zealous 
champion  in  behalf  of the  Greek  against  the  Latin 
church.  It  is  add  that  he  adopted  the  sentiments 
and  precepts  of  the  Stoics,  with  respect  to  the 
obligations  of  morality  and  the  duties  of  life;  and 
digested  them  into  a  work  of  his,  which  is  known 
b\  the  i  it  to  of  Ethica  ex  Stoicis. 
'  BARNABAS,  EPISTLES  OF,  an  apocry- 
phal work  ascribed  to  St.  Barnabas.  It  was  first 
published  in  Greek,  from  a  copy  of  father  Hugh 
Menaed,  a  monk.  Vossius  published  it,  in  1656, 
with  the  epistles  of  Ignatius. — The  Gospel  of 
Barnabas  is  another  apocryphal  work  ascribed  to 
Barnabas,  wherein  the  history  of  Jesus  Christ  is 
given  in  a  different  manner  from  that  of  the 
evangelists. 

BARNABITES,  a  religious  order,  founded  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  by  three  Italian  gentlemen, 
who  had  been  advised  by  a  famous  preacher  of 
those  days  to  read  carefully  the  epistles  of  St. 
Paul.  Hence  they  were  called  clerks  of  St.  Paul ; 
and  BarnabUcs,  because  they  performed  their 
first  exercise  in  a  church  of  St.  Barnabas  at  Milan. 
Their  habit  is  black ;  and  their  office  is  to  in- 
struct, catechise,  ami  serve  in  mission. 

BARTHOLOMEW'S  DAY,  ST.(the  24th 
August)  is  a  day  distinguished  in  history,  as  the 
anniversary  of  the  horrid  and  atrocious  sacrifices 
of  human  blood,  called  the  Parisian  Massacre. 
See  Persecution. 

BARTHOLOMITES,  a  religious  order 
founded  at  Geneva  in  1307;  but,  the  monks 
leading  irregular  lives,  it  was  suppressed  in  1650, 
and  their  effects  confiscated.  In  the  church  of 
the  monastery  of  this  order  at  Geneva  is  pre- 
served the  image,  which,  it  is  pretended,  Christ 
sent  to  king  Abcrarus. 

BASlLfAN^MONKS,  religious  of  the  order 
of  St.  Basil,  in  the  fourth  century,  who,  having 
retired  into  a  desert  in  the  province  of  Pontus, 
founded  a  monastery,  and  drew  up  rules,  to  the 
amount  of  some  hundreds,  fir  his  disciples.  This 
new  society  soon  spread  all  over  the  East:  nor 
was  it  long  before  it  passed  into  the  West.  Some 
pretend  that  St.  Basil  Raw  himself  the  spiritual 
father  of  more  than  00,000  monks  in  the  East 
only;  but  this  order,  which  flourished  for  more 
than  three  centuries,  was  considerably  diminished 
by  heresy,  schism,  and  a  change  of  empire.  The 
historians  of  this  order  say  that  it  has  produced 
14  popes,  1805  bishops,  3010  abbots,  and  11,085 
martyrs,  besides  an  infinite  number  of  confessors 
and  virgins.  This  order  likewise  boasts  of  several 
emperors,  kings,  and  princes,  who  have  em- 
braced its  rule. 

BASILIDIANS,  a  denomination  in  the  se- 
cond century,  from  Basilulcs,  chief  of  the  Egyp- 
tian Gnostics.  lie  acknowledged  the  existence 
of  one  supreme  God,  perfect  in  goodness  and 
wisdom,  who  produced  from  his  own  substance 
seven  beings,  or  aions,  of  a  most  excellent  nature. 
Two  of  these  aions,  called  Dynamis  and  Sophiz 
(i.  e.  poicer  and  wisdom),  engendered  the  angels 
of  the  highest  order.  These  angels  formed  a 
heaven  for  their  habitation,  and  brought  forth 
other  angelic  brings  ot  a  nature  somewhat  in- 
ferior to  their  own  Many  other  generations  of 
angels  followed  these.  New  heavens  were  also 
crea'.cd,  until  the  number  of  angelic  orders,  and 
36 


BATANIST3 
of  their  respective  heavens,  amounted  to  three 
hundred  and  sixty-five,  and  thus  equalled  the 
days  of  the  year.  All  these  are  under  the  empire 
of  an  omnipotent  Lord,  whom  Basilides  called 
Abraxas. 

The  inhabitants  of  the  lowest  heavens,  which 
touched  upon  the  borders  of  the  eternal,  malig- 
nant, and  self-animated  matter,  conceived  the 
design  of  forming  a  world  from  that  confused  mass, 
and  of  creating  an  order  of  beings  to  people  it. 
This  design  was  carried  into  execution,  and  was 
approved  by  the  Supreme  God,  who  to  the  animal 
life,  with  which  only  the  inhabitants  of  this  new 
world  were  at  first  endowed,  added  a  reasonable 
soul,  giving  at  the  same  time  to  the  angels  the 
empire  over  them. 

These  angelic  beings,  advanced  to  the  govern- 
ment of  the  world  which  they  had  created,  fell 
by  degrees  from  their  original  purity,  and  soon 
manifested  the  fatal  marks  of  their  depravity  and 
corruption.  They  not  only  endeavoured  to  efface 
in  the  minds  of  men  their  knowledge  of  the  Su- 
preme Being,  that  they  might  be  worshipped  in 
his  stead,  but  also  began  to  war  against  each 
other,  with  an  ambitious  view  to  enlarge  every 
one  the  bounds  of  his  respective  dominion.  The 
most  arrogant  and  turbulent  of  all  these  angelic 
spirits  was  that  which  presided  over  the  Jewish 
nation. — Hence  the  Supreme  God,  beholding 
with  compassion  the  miserable  state  of  rational 
beings,  who  groaned  under  the  contest  of  these 
jarring  powers,  sent  from  heaven  his  son  .Yw.s,  or 
Christ,  the  chief  of  the  aions,  that,  joined  in  a 
substantial  union  with  the  man  Jesus,  he  might 
restore  the  knowledge  of  the  Supreme  God, 
destroy  the  empire  of  those  angelic  natures 
which  presided  over  the 'world,  and  particularly 
that  of  the  arrogant  leader  of  the  Jewish  people. 
The  God  of  the  Jews,  alarmed  at  this,  sent 
forth  his  ministers  to  seize  the  man  Jesus,  and  put 
him  to  death.  They  executed  his  commands ;  but 
their  cruelty  could  not  extend  to  Christ,  against 
whom  their  efforts  were  vain.  Those  souls,  who 
obey  the  precepts  of  the  Son  of  God,  shall,  after 
the  dissolution  of  their  mortal  frame,  ascend  to 
the  Father,  while  their  bodies  return  to  the  cor- 
rupt mass  of  matter  whence  they  were  formed. 
Disobedient  spirits,  on  the  contrary,  shall  pass  suc- 
cessively into  other  bodies. 

BATAN1STS,  or  Assassins;  a  famous  he- 
retical sect  of  murderers  among  the  Mahometans, 
who  settled  in  Persia  about  1090.  Their  head 
and  cliief  seems  to  have  been  Hassan  Sabah, 
who  made  fanatical  slaves  of  his  subjects.  Their 
religion  was  a  compound  of  that  of  the  Magi, 
the  Jews,  the  Christians,  and  the  Mahometans, 
They  believed  the  Holy  Ghost  resided  in  thei- 
chief;  that  his  orders  proceeded  from  God  him- 
self, and  were  real  declarations  of  liis  will. 

This  chief,  from  his  exalted  residence  on 
Mount  Lebanon,  was  called  the  old  man  of  the 
mountain ;  who,  like  a  vindictive  deity,  with  the 
thunderbolt  in  his  hand,  sent  inevitable  death  to 
all  quarters,  so  that  even  kings  trembled  at  his 
sanguinary  power.  His  subjects  would  prostrate 
themselves  at  the  foot  of  his  throne,  requesting  to 
die  by  his  hand  or  order,  as  a  favour  by  which 
they  were  sure  of  passing  into  paradise.  "Are 
your  subjects,"  said  the  old  man  of  the  mountain 
to  the  son-in-law  of  Amoury,  king  of  Jerusalem; 
"as  ready  in  their  submission  as  mine?*  and 
without  staying  for  an  answer,  made  a  sign*,  with 


BAXTERIANS 

his  hand,  when  ten  young  men  in  white,  who 
were  standing  on  an  adjacent  tower,  instantly 
threw  themselves  down.  To  one  of  his  guards  he 
said,  "  Draw  your  dagger,  and  plunge  it  into  your 
breast ;"  which  was  no  sooner  said  than  obeyed. 
At  the  command  of  their  chief,  they  made  no 
difficulty  of  stabbing  any  prince,  even  on  his 
throne ;  and  for  that  purpose  conformed  to  the 
dress  and  religion  of  the  country,  that  they  might 
be  less  suspected.  To  animate  them  on  such  at- 
tempts, the  Scheik  previously  indulged  them 
with  a  foretaste  of  the  delights  of  paradise.  De- 
licious soporific  drinks  were  given  them;  and 
while  they  lay  asleep,  they  were  carried  into 
beautiful  gardens,  where,  awakening,  as  it  were, 
in  paradise,  and  inflamed  with  views  of  perpetual 
enjoyments,  they  sallied  forth  to  perform  assassina- 
tions of  the  blackest  dye. 

It  is  said,  they  once  thought  of  embracing  the 
Christian  religion ;  and  some  have  thought  the 
Druses  a  remnant  of  this  singular  race  oi  barba- 
rians. 

BATH-KOL  (i.  e.  the  daughter  of  a  voice), 
an  oracle  among  the  Jews,  frequently  mentioned 
in  their  books,  especially  the  Talmud.  It  was  a 
fantastical  way  of  divination  invented  by  the  Jews, 
though  called  by  them  a  revelation  from  God's 
will,  which  he  made  to  his  chosen  people  after  all 
verbal  prophecies  had  ceased  in  Israel. 

BAXTERIANS,  so  called  from  the  learned 
and  pious  Mr.  Richard  Baxter,  who  was  born  in 
the  year  1615.  His  design  was  to  reconcile  Cal- 
vin and  Arminius :  for  this  purpose  he  formed  a 
middle  scheme  between  their  systems.  He  taught 
that  God  had  elected  some,  whom  he  is  deter- 
mined to  save,  without  any  foresight  of  their  good 
works ;  and  that  others  to  whom  the  Gospel  is 
preached  have  common  grace,  which,  if  they  im- 
prove, they  shall  obtain  saving  grace,  according 
to  the  doctrine  of  Arminius.  This  denomination 
own,  with  Calvin,  that  the  merits  of  Christ's 
death  are  to  be  applied  to  believers  only  ;  but  they 
also  assert  that  all  men  are  in  a  state  capable  of 
salvation. 

Mr.  Baxter  maintains  that  there  may  be  a  cer- 
tainty of  perseverance  here,  and  yet  he  cannot  tell 
whether  a  man  may  not  have  so  weak  a  degree 
of  saving  grace  as  to  lose  it  again. 

In  order  to  prove  that  the  death  of  Christ  has 
put  all  in  a  state  capable  of  salvation,  the  follow- 
ing arguments  aTe  alleged  by  this  learned  author. 
— 1.  It  was  the  nature  of  all  mankind  which 
Christ  assumed  at  his  incarnation,  and  the  sins  of 
all  mankind  were  the  occasion  of  his  suffering. — 
2.  It  was  to  Adam,  as  the  common  father  of 
lapsed   mankind,   that   God   made   the  promise 

SUen.  iii.  15.)  The  conditional  new  covenant 
oes  equally  give  Christ,  pardon,  and  life  to  all 
mankind,  on  condition  of  acceptance.  The  con- 
ditional grant  is  universal :  Whoever  believcth 
shall  be  saved. — 3.  It  is  not  to  the  elect  only,  but 
to  all  mankind,  that  Christ  has  commanded  his 
ministers  to  proclaim  his  Gospel,  and  oiler  the 
benefits  of  his  procuring. 

There  are,  Mr.  Baxter  allows,  certain  fruits 
of  Christ's  death  which  are  proper  to  the  elect 
only :  1.  Grace  eventually  vvorketh  in  them  true 
faith,  repentance,  conversion,  and  union  with 
Christ  as  his  living  members. — 2.  The  actual 
forgiveness  of  sin  as  to  the  spiritual  and  eternal 
punishment. — 3.  Our  reconciliation  with  God, 
and  adoption  and  right  to  the  heavenly  inherit- 
37 


BEGUINES 
ance. — 4.  The  Spirit  of  Christ  to  dwell  in  us  and 
sanctify  us,  by  a  habit  of  divine  love,  Rom.  viii. 
9 — 13.  Gal.  v.  6. — 5.  Employment  in  holy,  ac 
ceptable  service,  and  access  in  prayer,  with  a  pro 
mise  of  being  heard  through  Christ,  Heb.  ii.  5,  6. 
John  xiv.  13. — G.  Well-grounded  hopes  of  salva- 
tion, peace  of  conscience,  and  spiritual  commu- 
nion with  the  church  mystical  in  heaven  and 
earth,  Rom.  v.  12.  Heb.  xii.  22. — 7.  A  special 
interest  in  Christ,  and  intercession  with  the  Fa- 
ther, Rom.  viii.  32,  33. — 8.  Resurrection  unto 
life,  and  justification  in  judgment ;  glorification 
of  the  soul  at  death,  and  of  the  body  at  the  resur- 
rection, Phil.  iii.  20,  21.   2  Cor.  v.  1,  2,  3. 

Christ  has  made  a  conditional  deed  of  gift  ot 
these  benefits  to  all  mankind  ;  but  the  elect  only 
accept  and  possess  them.  Hence  he  infers,  that 
though  Christ  never  absolutely  intended  or  de- 
creed that  his  death  should  eventually  put  all  men 
in  possession  of  those  benefits,  yet  he  did  intend 
and  decree  that  all  men  should  have  a  conditional 
gift  of  them  by  his  death. 

Baxter,  it  is  said,  wrote  120  books,  and  had  60 
written  against  him.  20,000  of  his  Call  to  the 
Unconverted  were  sold  in  one  year.  He  told  a 
friend,  that  six  brothers  were  converted  by  read 
ing  that  Call.  The  eminent  Mr.  Elliott,  of  New 
England,  translated  this  tract  into  the  Indian 
tongue.  A  young  Indian  prince  was  so  taken 
with  it,  that  he  read  it  with  tears,  and  died  with 
it  in  his  hand.  Calamy's  Life  of  Baxter  ;  Bax 
tcr's  Catholic  Theology,  p.  51 — 53 ;  Baxter's 
End  of  Doctrinal  Controversy,  p.  154,  155. 

BEATIFICATION,  in  the  Romish  churcfc, 
the  act  whereby  the  pope  declares  a  person  happy 
after  death.     See  Canonization. 

BEATITUDE  imports  the  highest  degree  ot 
happiness  human  nature  can  arrive  to,  the  fruition 
of  God  in  a  future  life  to  all  eternity.  It  is  also 
used  when  speaking  of  the  theses  contained  in 
Christ's  sermon  on  the  Mount,  whereby  he  pro- 
nounces the  several  characters  there  mentioned 
blessed. 

BEGHARDS,  or  Bkguards,  a  sect  that  arose 
in  Germany  in  the  thirteenth  century,  and  took 
St.  Begghe  for  their  patroness.  They  employed 
themselves  in  making  linen  cloth,  each  supporting 
himself  by  his  labour,  and  were  united  only  by 
the  bonds  of  charity,  without  having  any  particu- 
lar rule ;  but  when  pope  Nicholas  IV.  had  con- 
firmed that  of  the  third  order  of  St.  Francis,  in 
1289,  they  embraced  it  the  year  following. 

BEGUINES,  a  congregation  of  nuns,  founded 
either  by  St.  Begghe  or  by  Lambert  le  Begue. 
They  were  established,  first  at  Liege,  and  alter- 
wards  at  Neville,  in  1207 ;  and  from  tliis  last  set- 
tlement sprang  the  great  number  of  Beguinages 
which  are  spread  over  all  Flanders,  and  which 
have  passed  from  Flanders  into  Germany.  In  the 
latter  country  some  of  them  fell  into  extravagant 
errors,  persuading  themselves  that  it  was  possible 
in  the  present  life  to  arrive  to  the  highest  perfec- 
tion, even  to  impeccability,  ana  x  clear  view  ot 
God  ;  in  short,  to  so  eminent  a  degree  of  contem- 
plation, that  there  was  no  necessity,  after  this,  to 
submit  to  the  laws  of  mortal  men,  civil  or  eccle- 
siastical. The  council  of  Vienna  condemned 
these  errors ;  permitting,  nevertheless^  those 
among  them,  who  continued  in  the  true  faith,  to 
live  in  charity  and  penitence,  either  with  or  with- 
out vows.  There  still  subsists,  or  at  least  sub- 
sisted till  lately,  many  communities  of  thein  in 
D 


BEIIMENTSTS 
Flanders.     Their  grand  rule  of  conduct  was  uni- 
versal charity,  and  their  only  motive,  the  love  of 
God. 

BEHMENISTS,  a  name  given  to  those  mys- 
tics who  adopt  the  explications  of  the  mysteries 
of  nature  and  grace,  as  given  by  Jacoh  Behmen. 
This  writer  was  born  in  the  year  1 575,  at  Old 
Sekienburg,  near  Gorlitz,  in  Upper  Lusatia ;  he 
was  a  shoemaker  by  trade.  He  is  described  as 
having  been  thoughtful  and  religious  from  his 
youth  up,  taking  peculiar  pleasure  in  frequenting 
public  worship.  At  length,  seriously  considering 
within  himself  that  speech  of  our  Saviour,  My 
father  which  is  in  heaven  will  give  the  Holy 
Spirit  to  them  that  ask  him,  he  was  thereby  tho- 
roughly awakened  in  himself,  and  set  forward  to 
desire  that  promised  Comforter;  and,  continuing 
in  that  earnestness,  he  was  at  last,  to  use  his  own 
expression.  "  surrounded  with  a  divine  light  for 
seven  days,  and  stood  in  the  highest  contempla- 
tion and  kingdom  of  joys !"  After  this,  about  the 
year  1000,  he  was  again  surrounded  by  the  divine 
light,  anil  replenished  with  the  heavenly  know- 
ledge; insomuch  as,  going  abroad  into  the  fields, 
and  viewing  the  herbs  and  grass,  by  his  inward 
light,  lie  saw  into  their  essences,  use  and  proper- 
ties, which  were  discovered  to  him  by  their  linea- 
ments, figures  and  signatures.  In  the  year  1610, 
he  had  a  third  special  illumination,  wherein  still 
further  mysteries  were  revealed  to  him.  It  was 
not  till  the  year  1612,  that  Behmen  committed 
these  revelations  to  writing.  His  first  treatise  is 
entitled  Aurora,  which  was  seized  on  and  with- 
hold from  him  by  the  senate  of  Gorlitz  (who  per- 
secuted him  at  the  instigation  of  the  primate  of 
that  place)  before  it  was  finished,  and  he  never 
afterwards  proceeded  with  it  further  than  by  add- 
ing some  explanatory  notes.  The  next  produc- 
tion of  his  pen  is  called  The  Three  Principles. 
In  this  work  he  more  fully  illustrates  the  subjects 
treated  of  in  the  former,  and  supplies  what  is 
wanting  in  that  work.  The  contents  of  these 
two  treatises  may  be  divided  as  follow  : — 1.  How 
all  things  came  from  a  working  will  of  the  holy 
triune  incomprehensible  God,  manifesting  him- 
self as  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Spirit,  through  an 
outward  perceptible  working  triune  power  of  fire, 
light,  and  spirit,  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven. — 
2.  How  and  what  angels  and  men  were  in  their 
creation  ;  that  they  are  in  and  from  God,  his  real 
offspring ;  that  their  life  began  in  and  from  this 
divine  lire,  which  is  the  Father  of  light,  generat- 
ing a  birth  of  light  in  their  souls ;  from  both  which 
proceeds  the  Hoiy  Spirit,  or  breath  of  divine  love 
in  the  triune  creature,  as  it  does  in  the  triune 
(  Sreator. — 3.  How  some  angels,  and  all  men,  are 
fallen  from  God,  and  their  first  state  of  a  divine 
triune  life  in  him  ;  what  they  arc  in  their  fallen 
state,  and  the  difference  between  the  fall  of  an- 
gels and  that  of  man. — I.  How  the  earth,  stars, 
and  elements  were  created  in  consequence  of  the 
fallen  angels. — 5.  Whence  there  is  good  and  evil 
in  all  this  temporal  world,  in  all  its  creatures  ani- 
mate  and  inanimate;  and  what  is  meant  by  the 
curse  that  dwells  every  wherein  it. — 0.  Of  the 
kingdom  of  Christ ;  how  it  is  set  in  opposition  to 
and  tights  and  strives  against  the  kingdom  of 
hell. — 7.  How  man,  through  faith  in  Christ,  is 
hie  to  overcome  the  kinird. >u>  of  hell,  and  triumph 
over  it  in  the  divine  power,  and  thereby  obtain 
eternal  salvation  ;  also  how,  through  the  working 
(if  the  hellish  quantity  or  principle,  he  casts  hiin- 
3d 


BELIEVERS 
self  into  perdition. — 8.  How  and  win  *m  anrf 
misery,  wrath  and  death,  shall  only  reign  for  a 
time,  till  the  love,  the  wisdom,  and  the  power  of 
God  shall  in  a  supernatural  way  (the  mystery  ol 
God  made  man)  triumph  over  sin,  misery,  and 
death  ;  and  make  fallen  man  rise  to  the  glery  ol 
angels,  and  this  material  system  shake  off  its 
curse,  and  enter  into  an  everlasting  union  with 
that  heaven  from  whence  it  fell. 

The  year  after  he  wrote  his  Three  Principles, 
by  which  are  to  be  understood — the  dark  world, 
or  hell,  in  which  the  devils  live — the  light  world, 
or  heaven,  in  which  the  angels  live — the  external 
and  visible  world,  which  has  proceeded  from  the 
internal  and  spiritual  worlds,  in  which  man,  as 
to  his  bodily  life,  lives;  Behmen  produced  his 
Threefold  Life  of  Man,  according  to  the  Three 
Principles.  In  this  work  he  treats  more  largely 
of  the  state  of  man  in  this  world  : — 1.  That  he  has 
that  immortal  spark  of  life  which  is  common  to 
angels  and  devils. — 2.  That  divine  life  of  the 
light  and  spirit  of  God,  which  makes  the  essential 
difference  between  an  angel  and  a  devil,  the  last 
having  extinguished  this  divine  life  in  himself; 
but  that  man  can  only  attain  unto  this  heavenly 
life  of  the  second  principle  through  the  new  birth 
in  Christ  Jesus. — 3.  The  life  of  the  third  principle, 
or  of  this  external  and  visible  world.  Thus  the 
life  of  the  first  and  third  principles  is  common  to 
all  men  ;  but  the  life  of  the  second  principle  oidy 
to  a  true  Christian  or  child  of  God. 

Behmen  wrote  several  other  treatises,  besides 
the  three  already  enumerated ;  but  these  three 
being,  as  it  were,  the  basis  of  all  his  other  writings, 
it  was  thought  proper  to  notice  them  particularly. 
His  conceptions  are  often  clothed  under  allegori- 
cal symbols ;  and  in  his  latter  works  he  has  fre- 
quently adopted  chemical  and  Latin  phrases  to 
express  his  ideas,  which  phrases  he  borrowed 
from  conversation  with  learned  men,  the  educa- 
tion he  had  received  being  too  illiterate  to  furnish 
him  with  them  :  but  as  to  the  matter  contained  in 
his  writings,  he  disclaimed  having  borrowed  it 
either  from  men  or  books.  He  died  in  the  year 
1621.  His  last  words  were,  "Now  I  go  hence 
into  Paradise." 

Some  of  Behmen's  principles  were  adopted  by 
the  ingenious  and  pious  William  Law,  who  clothed 
them  in  a  more  modern  dress,  and  in  a  loss  ob- 
scure style.  See  Behmen's  Works ;.  Okcly's 
Memoirs  of  Behmen. 

BELIEF,  in  its  general  and  natural  sense,  de- 
notes a  persuasion  or  an  assent  of  the  mind  to  the 
truth  of  any  proposition.  In  this  sense  belief  has 
no  relation  to  any  particular  kind  of  means  or  ar- 
guments, but  may  be  produced  by  any  means 
whatever :  thus  we  are  said  to  believe  our  senses, 
to  believe  our  reason,  to  believe  a  witness.  Belief, 
in  its  more  restrained  sense,  denotes  that  kind  of 
assent  which  is  grounded  only  on  the  authority 
or  testimony  of  some  person.  In  this  sense  belief 
stands  opposed  to  knowledge  and  science.  We 
do  not  say  that  we  believe  snow  is  white,  but  we 
know  it  to  be  so.  But  when  a  thing  is  propound- 
ed to  us,  of  which  we  ourselves  have  no  know- 
ledge, but  which  appears  to  us  to  be  true  from  the 
testimony  given  to  it  by  another,  this  is  what  we 
call  belief.     See  Faith. 

BELIEVERS,  an  appellation  given,  toward 
the  close  of  the  first  century,  to  those  Christians 
who  had  been  admitted  into  the  church  by  bap- 
tism, and  instructed  in  all  the  mysteries  of  religion. 


BENEFICENCE 
They  were  thus  called  in  contradistinction  to  the 
catechumens  who  had  not  been  baptized,  and 
twere  debarred  from  those  privileges.  Among  us 
it  is  often  used  synonymously  with  Christian. 
See  Christian. 

BENEDICTINES,  an  order  of  monks,  who 
professed  to  follow  the  rules  of  St.  Benedict. 
They  were  obliged  to  perform  their  devotions 
seven  times  in  twenty-four  hours.  They  were 
obliged  always  to  go  two  and  two  together. 
Every  day  in  Lent  they  fasted  till  six  in  the  even- 
-.ig,  and  abated  of  their  usual  time  in  sleeping, 
eating,  &c. — Every  monk  had  two  coats,  two 
cowls,  a  table-book,  a  knife,  a  needle,  and  a  hand- 
kerchief; and  the  furniture  of  his  bed  was  a  mat, 
a  blanket,  a  rug,  and  a  pillow.  The  time  when 
this  order  came  into  England  is  well  known,  for 
to  it  the  English  owe  their  conversion  from  idola- 
try. They  founded  the  metropolitan  church  of 
Canterbury,  and  all  the  cathedrals  that  were  af- 
terwards erected.  The  order  has  produced  a  vast 
number  of  eminent  men.  Their  Alcuinus  form- 
ed the  university  of  Paris  ;  their  Dionysius  Exi- 
guus  perfected  the  ecclesiastical  computation ; 
their  Guido  invented  the  scale  of  music  ;  and  their 
Sylvester  the  organ. 

"BENEDICTION,  in  a  general  sense,  the 
act  of  blessing,  or  giving  praise  to  God,  or  return- 
ing thanks  for  his  favours.  The  Jews,  it  is  said, 
are  obliged  to  rehearse  a  hundred  benedictions 
per  day,  of  which  eighty  are  to  be  spoken  in  the 
morning.  It  was  usual  to  give  a  benediction  to 
travellers  on  their  talcing  leave ;  a  practice  which 
is  still  preserved  among  the  monks.  Benedictions 
were  likewise  given  among  the  ancient  Jews  as 
well  as  Christians,  by  imposition  of  hands.  And 
when  at  length  the  primitive  simplicity  of  the 
Christian  worship  began  to  give  way  to  ceremo- 
ny, they  added  the  sign  of  the  cross,  winch  was 
made  with  the  same  hand  as  before,  only  elevated 
or  extended.  Hence  benediction  in  the  modern 
Romish  church  is  used,  in  a  more  particular 
manner,  to  denote  the  sign  of  the  cross  made  by 
a  bishop  or  prelate  as  conferring  some  grace  on 
the  people. 

Benediction  is  also  used  for  an  ecclesiastical 
ceremony,  whereby  a  thing  is  rendered  sacred  or 
venerable.  In  this  sense  benediction  differs  from 
consecration,  as  in  the  latter  unction  is  applied, 
which  is  not  in  the  former:  thus  the  chalice  is 
consecrated  and  the  pix  blessed ;  as  the  former, 
not  the  latter,  is  anointed ;  though  in  the  common 
usage  these  two  words  are  applied  promiscuously. 
The  spirit  of  piety,  or  rather  of  superstition,  has 
introduced  into  the  Romish  church  benedictions 
for  almost  every  thing :  we  read  of  forms  of  bene- 
■  dictions  for  wax  candies,  for  boughs,  for  ashrs, 
for  church  vessels,  for  ornaments,  for  flags,  or  en- 
signs, arms,  first-fruits,  houses,  ships,  paschal 
eggs,  ciliciutu,  or  the  hair-cloth  of  penitents, 
church-yards,  &c.  In  general,  these  benedictions 
are  performed  by  aspersions  of  holy  water,  signs 
of  the  cross,  and  prayers  suitable  to  the  nature  of 
tire  ceremony.  The  forms  of  these  benedictions 
•ire  found  in  the  Roman  pontifical,  in  the  Roman 
missal,  in  the  book  of  ecclesiastical  ceremonies, 
printed  in  Pope  Leo  X.'s  time,  and  in  the  rituals 
and  ceremonies  of  tlie  different  churches,  which 
are  found  collected  in  father  Martene's  work  on 
the  rites  and  discipline  of  the  church. 

BENEFICENCE,  the  practice  of  doing  good; 
39 


BENEFICENCE 
active  goodness. — Next  to  justice,  the  most  pro- 
minent virtue  in  the  system  of  morality,  is  benefi- 
cence. Power  makes  us  to  be  feared,  riches  to 
be  flattered,  learning  to  be  admired ;  but  benefi- 
cence renders  us  amiable  and  useful  in  the  scale 
of  society.  Some  qualifications  are  solitary,  and 
centre  mostly  in  ourselves ;  but  this  is  social,  dif- 
fusive and  kind.  The  objects  of  our  beneficence 
are  all  those  who  are  in  the  sphere  of  our  influ- 
ence and  action,  without  respect  to  party  or  sect. 
Towards  superiors,  beneficence  expresses  itself  in 
respect,  honour,  submission,  and  service ;  toward 
inferiors,  in  liberality,  condescension,  protection, 
and  support ;  toward  equals,  in  all  the  offices  of 
love  their  cases  require,  and  which  they  have 
ability  for.  It  includes  all  the  kind  exertions  on 
the  behalf  of  the  poor,  the  sick,  the  fatherless, 
the  widow,  the  distressed,  &c.  and  especially 
those  "  who  are  of  the  household  of  faith,"  GaL 
vi.  10.  The  means  of  beneficence  are — commu- 
nication of  temporal  supplies,  Gal.  vi.  G ;  prayer, 
James  v.  1G;  sympathy,  Rom.  xii.  15;  appropri- 
ate advice  and  conversation,  Col.  iii.  16. —  Obli- 
gations to  beneficence  arise  from  the  law  of  na- 
ture, Acts  xvii.  2G ;  the  law  of  revelation,  Heb. 
xiii.  1G ;  the  relations  we  stand  in  to  each  other, 
Gal.  vi.  1,  2 ;  the  example  of  Christ  and  illustri- 
ous characters,  Acts  x.  38 ;  the  resemblance  we 
herein  bear  to  the  best  of  Beings,  Acts  xiv.  17 ; 
and  the  pleasure  we  receive  and  give  in  so  noble 
an  employ.  See  Benevolence,  Charity,  Love. 
BENEVOLENCE,  the  love  of  mankind  in 
general,  accompanied  with  a  desire  to  promote 
their  happiness.  It  is  distinguished  from  benefi- 
cence, that  being  the  practice,  benevolence  the 
desire  of  doing  good.  Benevolence  must  be  uni- 
versal, reaching  to  every  man  without  exception; 
but  beneficence  cannot  be  so  universal,  for  it  is 
necessarily  confined  by  several  considerations; 
such  as  our  knowledge  of  objects,  and  their  (lif- 
erent circumstances,  as  well  as  our  own  abilities 
and  opportunities  of  exercising  them.  Bene- 
volence or  good  will  to  others  does  not  imply 
that  we  are  to  neglect  our  own  interests.  Our 
salvation,  health,  prosperity,  and  reputation, 
should  all  be  objects  of  concern :  nor  will  this 
clash  with  the  affection  we  may  bear  to  others ; 
on  the  contrary,  experiencing  the  importance 
of  these  blessings  ourselves,  we  shall  be  anxious 
for  others  to  possess  them  also.  The  duties 
of  benevolence  include  those  we  owe  to  men, 
purely  on  the  ground  of  their  being  of  the 
same  species  with  ourselves;  such  as  sympa- 
thy, relief,  &c. ;  those  w-e  owe  to  our  country, 
desiring  its  honour,  safety,  prosperity;  those  we 
owe  to  the  church  of  God,  as  love,  zeal,  &c. ; 
those  we  owe  to  families  and  individuals,  as  af- 
fection, care,  provision,  justice,  forbearance,  &c. 
Benevolence  manifests  itself  by  being  pleased 
with  the  share  of  good  every  creature  enjoys;  in 
a  disposition  to  increase  it ;  in  feeling  an  uneasi- 
ness at  their  sufferings;  and  in  the  abhorrence  of 
cruelty  under  every  disguise  or  pretext.  The 
desire  of  doing  good  unconnected  with  any  idea 
of  advantage  to  ourselves  is  called  disinterested 
benevolence,  though  some  doubt  whether,  strictly 
speaking,  there  be  any  such  thing;  as  benevo- 
lence is  always  attended  with  a  pleasure  to  our- 
selves, which  forms  a  kind  of  mental  interest. 
So  far,  however,  as  we  are  able  to  prefer  the  good 
of  others  to  our  own,  and  sacrifice  our  own  com- 


BEREANS 
fort  for  the  welfare  of  any  about  us,  so  far  it  may 
be  said  to  be  disinterested.  See  Hutclieson  on 
the  Passions,  p.  13 — 26;  Doddridge's  Led.  65; 
Seattle's  Elements  of  Moral  Science,  vol.  i.  p. 
244 — 249;  Brown's  Second  Essay  on  Shaftes- 
bury's Characteristics;  and  articles  Love  and 
SkLp-lote. 

BEREANS,  a  sect  of  Protestant  Dissenters 
from  the  church  of  Scotland,  who  take  their  title 
from  and  profess  to  follow  the  example  of  the 
ancient  Bereans,  in  building  their  system  of  faith 
and  practice  upon  the  Scriptures  alone,  without 
regard  to  any  human  authority  whatever. 

As  to  the  origin  of  this  sect,  we  find  that  the 
Bereans  first  assembled  as  a  separate  society  of 
Christians,  in  the  city  of  Edinburgh,  in  the  au- 
tumn of  1773,  and  soon  after  in  the  parish  of  Fet- 
tercaim.  The  opponents  of  the  Berean  doc- 
trines allege,  that  this  new  system  of  faith  would 
never  have  been  heard  of,  had  not  Mr.  Barclay, 
the  founder  of  it,  been  disappointed  of  a  settle- 
ment in  the  church  of  Scotland.  But  the  Be- 
reans, in  answer  to  this  charge,  appeal  not  only  to 
Mr.  Barclay's  doctrine,  uniformly  preached  in 
the  church  of  Fettercairn,  and  many  other  places 
in  that  neighbourhood,  for  fourteen  years  before 
that  benefice  became  vacant,  but  likewise  to  two 
different  treatises,  containing  the  same  doctrines, 
published  by  him  about  ten  or  twelve  years  before 
that  period.  They  admit,  indeed,  that  previous 
to  May  1773,  when  the  general  assembly,  by  sus- 
taining the  king's  presentation  in  favour  of  Mr. 
Foote,  excluded  Mr.  Barclay  from,  succeeding  to 
the  church  of  Fettercairn  (notwithstanding  the 
almost  unanimous  desire  of  the  parishioners),  the 
Bereans  had  not  left  the  established  church,  or  at- 
tempted to  erect  themselves  into  a  distinct  society  ; 
but  they  add,  that  this  was  by  no  means  neces- 
sary on  their  part,  until  by  the  assembly's  decision 
they  were  in  danger  of  being  not  only  deprived 
of  his  instructions,  but  of  being  scattered  as  sheep 
without  a  shepherd.  And  they  add,  that  it  was 
Mr.  Barclay's  open  and  public  avowal,  both  from 
the  pulpit  and  the  press,  of  those  peculiar  senti- 
ments which  now  distinguish  the  Bereans,  that 
was  the  first  and  principal,  if  not  the  only  cause 
of  the  opposition  set  on  foot  against  his  settle- 
ment in  Fettercairn. 

The  Bereans  agree  with  the  great  majority  of 
Christians  respecting  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity, 
which  they  hold  as  a  fundamental  article;  and 
they  also  agree  in  a  great  measure  with  the  pro- 
fessed principles  of  both  our  established  churches 
respecting  predestination  and  election,  though 
they  allege  that  these  doctrines  are  not  con- 
sistently taught  in  either  church.  But  they  differ 
from  the  majority  of  all  sects  of  Christians  in  va- 
rious other  important  particulars,  such  as,  1.  Re- 
specting our  knowledge  of  the  Deity.  Upon  this 
subject  they  say,  the  majority  of  professed  Chris- 
tiana stumble  at  the  very  threshold  of  revelation; 
and,  by  admitting  the  doctrine  of  natural  religion, 
natural  conscience,  natural  notices,  &c.  not  found- 
ed upon  revelation,  or  derived  from  it  by  tradition, 
they  give  up  the  cause  of  Christianity  at  once  to 
the  infidels;  who  may  justly  argue,  as  Mr. 
Paine  in  fact  docs  in  his  Age  of  Reason,  that 
there  is  no  occasion  for  iinv  revelation  or  word  of 
God,  if  man  can  discover  his  nature  and  perfec- 
tions from  his  works  alone.  But  tliis  the  Bereans 
argue  is  beyond  the  natural  powers  of  human 
reason)  and  therefore  our  knowledge  of  God  is 
40 


BEREANS 
from  revelation  alone,  and  that  without  revelation 
man  would  never  have  entertained  an  idea  of  hia 
existence. — 2.  With  regard  to  faith  in  Christ, 
and  assurance  of  salvation  through  his  merits, 
they  differ  from  almost  all  other  sects  whatsoever. 
These  they  reckon  inseparable,  or  rather  tha 
same,  because  (say  they)  "God  hath  expressly 
declared,  he  that  believeth  shall  be  saved;  and 
therefore  it  is  not  only  absurd  but  impious,  and 
in  a  manner  calling  God  a  liar,  for  a  man  to  say, 
1  believe  the  Gospel,  but  have  doubts,  neverthe- 
less, of  my  own  salvation."  With  regard  to  the 
various  distinctions  and  definitions  that  have  been 
given  of  different  kinds  of  faith,  they  argue  that 
there  is  nothing  incomprehensible  or  obscure  in 
the  meaning  of  this  word  as  used  in  Scripture ; 
but  that  as  faith,  when  applied  to  human  testi- 
mony, signifies  neither  more  nor  less  than  the 
mere  simple  belief  of  that  testimony  as  true,  upon 
the  authority  of  the  testifier,  so,  when  applied  to 
the  testimony  of  God,  it  signifies  precisely  "  the 
belief  of  his  testimony,  and  resting  upon  his  ve- 
racity alone,  without  any  kind  of  collateral  sup- 
port from  concurrence  of  any  other  evidence  or 
testimony  whatever."  And  they  insist  that,  aa 
this  faith  is  the  gift  of  God  alone,  so  the  person 
to  whom  it  is  given  is  as  conscious  of  possessing 
it  as  the  being  to  whom  God  gives  life  is  of  being 
alive ;  and  therefore  he  entertains  no  doubta 
either  of  his  faith  or  his  consequent  salvation 
through  the  merits  of  Christ,  who  died  and  rose 
again  for  that  purpose.  In  a  word,  they  argue 
that  the  Gospel  would  not  be  what  it  is  held  forth 
to  be,  glad  tidings  of  great  joy,  if  it  did  not  bring 
full  personal  assurance  of  eternal  salvation  to  the 
believer ;  which  assurance,  they  insist,  is  the 
present  infallible  privilege  and  portion  of  every 
individual  believer  of  the  Gospel. — 3.  Consist- 
ently with  the  above  definition  of  faith,  they  say 
that  the  sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  has 
alarmed  and  puzzled  so  many  in  all  ages,  is  no- 
thing else  but  unbelief;  and  that  the  expression — 
"  it  shall  not  be  forgiven  neither  in  this  world  nor 
that  which  is  to  come,"  means  only  that  a  person 
dying  in  infidelity  would  not  be  forgiven,  neither 
under  the  former  dispensation  by  Moses  (tho 
then  present  dispensation,  kingdom,  or  govern- 
ment of  God),  nor  under  the  Gospel  dispensation 
which,  in  respect  of  the  Mosaic,  was  a  kind  of 
future  world  or  kingdom  to  come. — 4.  The  Be- 
reans interpret  a  great  part  of  the  Old  Testament 
prophecies,  and  in  particular  the  whole  of  the 
Psalms,  excepting  such  as  are  merely  historical 
or  laudatory,  to  be  typical  or  prophetical  of  Jesus 
Christ,  his  sufferings,  atonement,  mediation,  and 
kingdom  ;  and  they  esteem  it  a  gross  j perversion 
of  these  Psalms  and  prophecies  to  apply  them  to 
the  experiences  of  private  Christians.  In  proof 
of  this,  they  not  only  urge  the  words  of  the  apos- 
tle, that  no  prophecy  is  of  any  private  interpreta- 
tion, but  they  insist  that  the  whole  of  the  quota- 
tions from  the  ancient  prophecies  in  the  New 
Testament,  and  particularly  those  from  the 
Psalms,  are  expressly  applied  to  Christ.  In  this 
opinion  many  other  classes  of  Protestants  agree 
with  them. — 6.  Of  the  absolute  all-superintend- 
ing sovereignty  of  the  Almighty,  the  Bereans 
entertain  the  highest  idea,  as  well  as  of  the  unin- 
terrupted exertion  thereof  over  all  his  works,  in 
heaven,  earth,  and  hell,  however  unsearchable  by 
his  creatures.  A  God  without  election,  they 
argue,  or  choice  in  all  Ids  works,  id  a  God  with- 


BERENGARIANS 

out  existence,  a  mere  idol,  a  non-entity.  And  to 
deny  God's  election,  purpose,  and  express  will  in 
all  his  works,  is  to  make  him  inferior  to  ourselves. 
'  As  to  their  practice  and  discipline,  they  consi- 
der infant  ba])tism  as  a  divine  ordinance,  insti- 
tuted in  the  room  of  circumcision ;  and  think  it 
absurd  to  suppose  that  infants,  who,  all  agree,  are 
admissible  to  the  kingdom  of  God  in  heaven, 
should,  nevertheless,  be  incapable  of  being  ad- 
mitted into  his  visible  church  on  earth.  They 
commemorate  the  Lord's  Supper  generally  once  a 
month ;  but  as  the  words  of  the  institution  fix 
no  particular  period,  they  sometimes  celebrate  it 
oftener,  and  sometimes  at  more  distant  periods,  as 
h  may  suit  their  general  convenience.  They 
meet  every  Lord's  day  for  the  purpose  of  preach- 
ing, praying,  and  exhorting  to  love  and  good 
works.  With  regard  to  admission  and  exclusion 
of  members,  their  method  is  very  simple :  when 
any  person,  after  hearing  the  Berean  doctrines, 
professes  his  belief  and  assurance  of  the  truths  of 
the  Gospel,  and  desires  to  be  admitted  into  their 
communion,  he  is  cheerfully  received  upon  his 
profession,  whatever  may  have  been  his  former 
manner  of  life.  But  if  such  a  one  should  after- 
wards draw  back  from  his  good  profession  or 
practice,  they  first  admonish  him,  and,  if  that  has 
no  effect,  they  leave  him  to  himself.  They  do 
not  think  that  they  have  any  power  to  deliver  a 
backsliding  brother  to  Satan ;  that  text,  and  other 
similar  passages,  such  as,  "  Whatsoever  ye  shall 
bind  on  earth  shall  be  bound  in  heaven,"  &c. 
they  consider  as  restricted  to  the  apostles,  and  to 
the  inspired  testimony  alone,  and  not  to  be  ex- 
tended to  any  church  on  earth,  or  any  number 
of  churches  or  of  Christians,  whether  decided  by 
a  majority  of  votes,  or  by  unanimous  voices. 
Neither  do  they  think  themselves  authorized,  as 
a  Christian  church,  to  enquire  into  each  other's 
political  opinions,  any  more  than  to  examine  into 
each  other's  notions  of  philosophy.  They  both 
recommend  and  practise,  as  a  Christian  duty, 
submission  to  lawful  authority ;  but  they  do  not 
think  that  a  man,  by  becoming  a  Christian,  or 
joining  their  society,  is  under  any  obligation  by 
the  rules  of  the  Gospel  to  renounce  his  right  of 
private  judgment  upon  matters  of  public  or  pri- 
vate importance.  Upon  all  such  subjects  they 
allow  each  other  to  think  and  act  as  each  may  see 
it  his  duty,  and  they  require  nothing  more  of 
the  members  than  a  uniform  and  steady  profes- 
sion of  the  apostolic  faith,  and  a  suitable  walk  and 
conversation. 

It  is  said  that  their  doctrine  has  found  con- 
verts in  various  places  of  Scotland,  England,  and 
America ;  and  that  they  have  congregations  in 
Edinburgh,  Glasgow,  Paisley,  Stirling,  Crieff, 
Dundee,  Arbroath,  Montrose,  Fettercairn,  Aber- 
deen, and  other  towns  in  Scotland,  as  well  as  in 
London,  and  various  places  in  England. 

For  further  particulars  of  the  doctrines  of  this 
sect,  see  the  works  of  Messrs.  Barclay,  Nicol, 
Brooksbank,  and  M'Rae.  See  also  Mr.  A. 
3/' Lean's  Treatise  on  the  Commission,  first 
edition,  p.  88,  in  which  Mr.  Barclay's  notion  of 
assurance  is  combated. 

BERENGARIANS,  a  denomination  in  the 
eleventh  century,  which  adhered  to  the  opinions 
of  Berengariu.!,  who  asserted  that  the  bread  and 
wine  in  the  Lord's  Supper  are  not  really  and  es- 
sentially, but  figuratively  changed  into  the  body 
and  blood  of  Christ.  His  followers  were  divided 
41  F 


BIBLE 
in  opinion  as  to  the  eueliarist.  Some  allowed 
them  to  be  changed  in  effect;  others  admitted  a 
change  in  part ;  and  others  an  entire  change, 
with  this  restriction,  that,  to  those  who  commu- 
nicated unworthily,  the  elements  were  changed 
back  again. 

BERYLLIANS,  so  called  from  Beryllus,  an 
Arabian,  bishop  of  Bozrah,  who  flourished  in  the 
third  century.  He  taught  that  Christ  did  not 
exist  before  Mary ;  but  that  a  spirit  issuing  from 
God  himself,  and  therefore  superior  to  all  human 
souls,  as  being  a  portion  of  the  divine  nature,  waa 
united  to  him  at  the  time  of  his  birth. 

BETHLEHEM1TES,  a  sect  called  also  Star- 
bearers,  because  they  were  distinguished  by  a  red 
star  having  five  rays,  which  they  wore  on  their 
breast,  in  memory  of  the  star  which  appeared  to 
the  wise  men.  Several  authors  have  mentioned 
this  order,  but  none  of  them  have  told  us  their 
origin,  nor  where  their  convents  were  situated ; 
if  we  except  Matthew  Paris,  who  says  that,  in 
1257,  they  obtained  a  settlement  in  England, 
which  was  at  Cambridge,  in  Trumpington-street. 

BIBLE,  the  name  applied  by  Christians,  by 
way  of  eminence,  to  the  collection  of  sacred 
writings,  or  the  Holy  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments. 

1.  Bible,  ancient  Divisions  and  Order  of. 
After  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  Ezra  collected  as  many  copies  as  he 
could  of  the  sacred  writings,  and  out  of  them  all 
prepared  a  correct  edition,  arranging  the  several 
books  in  their  proper  order.  These  books  he  di- 
vided into  three  parts.  I.  The  law.  II.  The 
prophets.  III.  The  Hagiograpliia,  i.  e.  the  holy 
writings.  I.  The  law  contains — 1.  Genesis; — 
2.  Exodus  ; — 3.  Leviticus  ; — 4.  Numbers  ; — b. 
Deuteronomy.  II.  The  writings  of  the  prophets 
are — 1.  Joshua; — 2.  Judges,  with  Ruth; — S.Sa- 
muel;— 4.  Kings  ; — 5.  Isaiah  ; — 0.  Jeremiah,  with 
his  Lamentations ; — 7.  Ezekiel ; — 8.  Daniel ; — 9. 
The  twelve  minor  prophets  ; — 10.  Job; — 11.  Ez- 
ra ;— 12.  Nehemiah  ;— 13.  Esther.  III.  The  Ha- 
giograpliia  consists  of — 1.  The  Psalms; — 2.  The 
Proverbs; — 3.  Ecclesiastes ; — 4.  The  Song  of 
Solomon.  This  division  was  made  for  the  sake 
of  reducing  the  number  of  the  sacred  books  to  the 
number  of  the  letters  in  their  alphabet,  which 
amount  to  twenty-two.  Afterwards  the  Jews 
reckoned  twenty-four  books  in  their  canon  of 
Scripture;  in  disposing  of  which  the  law  stood  as 
in  the  former  division,  anil  the  prophets  were  dis- 
tributed into  former  and  latter :  the  former  pro- 
phets are  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  and  Kings; 
the  latter  prophets  are  Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel, 
and  the  twelve  minor  prophets.  And  the  Ha- 
giograpliia consists  of  the  Psalms,  the  Proverbs, 
Job,  the  Song  of  Solomon,  Ruth,  the  Lamenta- 
tions, Ecclesiastes,  Esther,  Daniel,  Ezra,  the  Chro- 
nicles. Under  the  name  of  Ezra  they  compre 
bended  Nehemiah:  this  order*  hath  not.  always 
been  observed,  but  the  variations  from  it  are  of 
no  moment.  The  five  books  of  the  low  are  divi- 
ded into  forty-five  sections.  This  division  many 
of  the  Jews  hold  to  have  been  appointed  by 
Moses  himself;  but  others,  with  more  probability, 
ascribe  it  to  Ezra.  The  design  of  this  division 
was,  that  one  of  these  sections  might  be  read  in 
their  synagogues  every  sabbath  day  :  the  number 
was  fifty-four,  because,  in  their  intercalated  years, 
a  month  being  then  added,  there  were  fifty-four 
sabbaths :  in  ;>ther  years  they  reduced  them  to 
v>  2 


BIBLE 

fifty-two,  by  twice  joining  together  two  short  sec- 
tions. Till  the  persecution  01  Antiochus  Epipha- 
nes,  they  read  only  the  law;  hut  the  reading 
»f  it  being  then  prohibited,  they  substituted  in  the 
room  of  it  fifty-four  sections  out  of  the  prophets  ; 
and  when  the  reading  of  the  law  was  restored  by 
the  Maccabees,  the  section  which  was  read  every 
sabbath  out  of  the  law  served  for  thelv  first  lesson, 
and  the  section  out  of  the  prophets  for  their  se- 
cond. These  sections  were  divided  into  verses ; 
of  which  division,  if  Ezra  was  not  the  author,  it 
was  introduced  not  long  after  him,  and  seems  to 
have  been  designed  for  the  use  of  the  Targumists, 
or  Chaldee  interpreters  ;  for  after  the  return  of 
the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  when 
the  Hebrew  language  ceased  to  be  their  mother 
tongue,  and  the  Chaldee  grew  into  use  instead  of 
it,  the  custom  was,  that  the  law  should  be  first 
read  in  the  original  Hebrew,  and  then  interpre- 
ted to  the  people  in  the  Chaldee  language ;  for 
which  purpose  these  shorter  sections  were  very 
convenient, 

II.  Bible,  History  of.  It  is  thought  that 
Ezra  published  the  Scriptures  in  the  Chaldee 
character,  for,  that  language  being  generally  used 
among  the  Jews,  he  thought  proper  to  change 
the  old  Hebrew  character  for  it,  which  hath  since 
that  time  been  retained  only  by  the  Samaritans, 
among  whom  it  is  preserved  to  this  day.  Pri- 
deaux  is  of  opinion  that  £zra  made  additions  in 
several  parts  of  the  Bible,  where  any  thing  ap- 
peared necessary  for  illustrating,  connecting,  or 
completing  the  work;  in  which  he  appears  to 
have  been  assisted  by  the  same  Spirit  in  which 
they  were  first  written.  Among  such  additions 
are  to  be  reckoned  the  last  chapter  of  Deute- 
ronomy, wherein  Moses  seems  to  give  an  account 
of  his  own  death  and  burial,  and  the  succession 
of  Joshua  after  him.  To  the  same  cause  our 
learned  author  thinks  are  to  be  attributed  many 
other  interpolations  in  the  Bible,  which  created 
difficulties  and  objections  to  the  authenticity  of 
the  sacred  text,  no  ways  to  be  solved  without  al- 
lowing them.  Ezra  changed  the  names  of  seve- 
ral places  which  were  grown  obsolete,  and,  in- 
stead of  them,  put  their  new  names  by  which 
they  were  then  called,  in  the  text.  Thus  it  is 
that  Abraham  is  said  to  have  pursued  the  kings 
who  carried  Lot  away  captive  as  far  as  Dan; 
whereas  that  place  in  Moses's  time  was  called 
Laish,  the  name  Dan  being  unknown  till  the 
Danites,  long  after  the  death  of  Moses,  possessed 
themselves  of  it.  The  Jewish  canon  of  Scripture 
was  then  settled  by  Ezra,  yet  not  so  but  that 
several  variations  have  been  made  in  it.  Malachi, 
for  instance,  could  not  be  put  in  the  Bible  by 
him,  since  that  prophet  is  allowed  to  have  lived 
after  Ezra;  nor  could  Nehemiah  be  there,  since 
that  book  mentions  (chap.  xii.  v.  22. )  Jaddua  as 
high  priest,  and  Darius  Codomanus  as  king  of 
Persia,  who  were  at  least  a  hundred  years  later 
than  Ezra.  It  may  be  added,  that,  in  the  first 
book  of  Chronicles,  the  genealogy  of  the  sons  of 
Zerubbabel  is  carried  down  for  so  many  generations 
as  must  necessarily  bring  it  to  the  time  of  Alex- 
ander; and  consequently  this  Iwok,  or  at  least 
this  pari  of  it,  could  not  beinthecanon  in  Ezra's 
days.  It  is  probable  the  two  books  of  Chronicles, 
Ezra,  Nehemiah,  Esther,  and  Malachi,  were 
adopted  into  the  Bible  in  the  time  of  Simon  the 
Just,  the  lasi  of  the  men  of  the  great  synagogue. 
The  Jews,  at  first,  were  very  reserved  in  com- 
42 


BIBLE 
municatingtheir  Scriptures  to  strangers;  despising 
and  shunning  the  Gentiles,  they  would  not  disclose 
to  them  any  of  the  treasures  concealed  in  the  Bible. 
We  may  add,  that  the  people  bordering  on  the 
Jews,  as  the  Egyptians,  Phoenicians,  Arabs,  &c, 
were  not  very  curious  to  know  the  laws  or  his- 
tory of  a  people,  whom  in  their  turn  they  hated 
and  despised.  Their  first  acquaintance  with 
these  books  was  not- till  after  the  several  captivi- 
ties of  the  Jews,  when  the  singularity  of  the  He* 
brew  laws  and  ceremonies  induced  several  to 
desire  a  more  particular  knowledge  of  them.  Jo- 
sephus  seems  surprised  to  find  such  slight  foot- 
steps of  the  Scripture  history  interspersed  in  the 
Egyptian,  Chaldean,  Phoenician,  and  Grecian 
history ;  and  accountsfor  it  hence,  that  the  s.tcred 
books  were  not  as  yet  translated  into  Greek  or 
other  languages,  and  consequently  not  known  to 
the  writers  of  those  nations.  The  first  version 
of  the  Bible  was  that  of  the  Septuagint  into 
Greek,  by  order  of  that  patron  of  literature, 
Ptolemy  Philadelphus ;  though  some  maintain 
that  the  whole  was  not  then  translated,  but  only 
the  Pentateuch;  between  which  and  the  other 
books  in  the  Septuagint  version,  the  critics  find  a 
great  diversity  in  point  of  style  and  expression,  as 
well  as  of  accuracy. 

III.  Bible,  modern  Divisions  of.  The  di- 
vision of  the  Scriptures  into  chapters,  as  we  at 
present  have  them,  is  of  modern  date.  Some  at- 
tribute it  to  Stephen  Langton,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  in  the  reigns  of  John  and  Henry  IIL 
But  the  true  author  ol  the  invention  was  Hugo 
de  Sancto  Caro,  commonly  called  Hugo  Cardina- 
lis,  because  he  was  the  first  Dominican  that  ever 
was  raised  to  the  degree  of  cardinal.  This  Huge 
flourished  about  A.  D.  1210 :  he  wrote  a  comment 
on  the  Scriptures,  and  projected  the  first  con- 
cordance, which  is  that  of  the  vulgar  Latin  Bible. 
The  aim  of  this  work  being  for  the  more  easy 
finding  out  any  word  or  passage  in  the  Scriptures, 
he  found  it  necessary  to  divide  the  book  into  sec- 
tions, and  the  sections  into  sub-divisions;  for  till 
that  time  the  vulgar  Latin  Bibles  were  without 
any  division  at  all.  These  sections  are  the  chap- 
ters into  which  the  Bible  hath  ever  since  been 
divided  ;  but  the  subdivision  of  the  chapters  was 
not  then  into  verses,  as  it  is  now.  Hugo's  method 
of  subdividing  them  was  by  the  letters,  A,  B,  C, 
D,  E,  F,  G,  placed  in  the  margin,  at  an  equal  dis- 
tance from  each  other,  according  to  the  length  of 
the  chapters.  The  subdivision  of  the  chapters 
into  verses,  as  they  now  stand  in  our  Bibles,  had 
its  original  from  a  famous  Jewish  rabbi  named 
Mordecai  Nathan,  about  1445.  This  rabbi,  in 
imitation  of  Hugo  Cardinalis,  drew  up  a  con- 
cordance to  the  Hebrew  Bible,  for  the  use  of  the 
Jews.  But  though  he  followed  Hugo  in  his  di- 
vision of  the  books  into  chapters,  he  refined  upon 
his  inventions  as  to  the  subdivision,  and  contrived 
that  by  verses :  this  being  found  to  be  a  much 
more  convenient  method,  it  has  been  ever  since 
followed.  And  thus,  as  the  Jews  borrowed  the 
division  of  the  books  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  into 
chapters  from  the  Christians,  in  like  manner  the 
Christians  borrowed  that  of  the  chapters  into 
verses  from  the  Jews.  The  present  order  of  the 
several  books  is  almost  the  same  (the  Apocrypha 
excepted)  as  that  made  by  the  council  of  Trent 

IV.  Bible,  rejected  Books  of.  The  apocry- 
phal books  of  the  Old  Testament,  according  to 
the  Romanists,   are  the   books  of  Er  jch  (see 


BIBLE 

Jade  xiv.,)  the  third  and  fourth  hooks  of  Esdras, 
tlie  third  and  fourth  books  of  Maccabees,  the 
prayer  of  Manasseh,  the  Testament  of  the  twelve 
Patriarchs,  the  Psalter  of  Solomon,  and  some 
other  pieces  of  this  nature.  The  apocryphal 
books  of  the  New  Testament  are  the  epistle  of 
St.  Barnabas,  the  pretended  epistle  of  St.  Paul  to 
the  Laodiceans,  several  spurious  Gospels,  Acts  of 
the  Apostles,  and  Revelations ;  the  book  of 
Hennas,  entitled  the  Shepherd;  Jesus  Christ's 
letter  to  Abgarus ;  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul  to 
Seneca,  and  several  other  pieces  of  the  like  nature. ; 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  collection  of  the  apocryphal 
writings  of  the  New  Testament  made  by  Fa- 
bricius.  Protestants,  while  they  agree  with  the 
Roman  Catholics  in  rejecting  all  those  as  uncano- 
nical,  have  also  justly  rejected  the  books  of  Tobit, 
Judith,  Wisdom,  Ecclesiasticus,  Baruch,  and  1st 
and  2d  Maccabees. 

V.  Bible,  Translations  of.  We  have  already 
mentioned  the  first  translation  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment by  the  LXX.  (§2.)  Both  Old  "and  New 
Testaments  were  afterwards  translated  into  Latin 
by  the  primitive  Christians;  and  while  the  Roman 
empire  subsisted  in  Europe,  the  reading  of  the 
Scriptures  in  the  Latin  tongue,  which  was  the 
Universal  language  of  that  empire,  prevailed  every 
where ;  but  since  the  face  of  affairs  in  Europe  has 
been  changed,  and  so  many  different  monarchies 
erected  upon  the  ruins  of  the  Roman  empire,  the 
Latin  tongue  has  by  degrees  grown  into  disuse ; 
whence  has  arisen  a  necessity  of  translating  the 
Bible  into  the  respective  languages  of  each  peo- 
ple :  and  this  has  produced  as  many  different  ver- 
sions of  the  Scriptures  in  the  modern  languages 
as  there  are  different  nations  professing  the  Chris- 
tian religion.  Of  the  principal  of  these,  as  well 
as  of  some  other  ancient  translations,  and  the 
earliest  and  most  elegant  printed  editions,  we 
shall  now  take  notice  in  their  order. 

1.  Bible,  Ar men ian.  There  is  a  very  ancient 
Armenian  version  of  the  whole  Bible  done  from 
the  Greek  of  the  LXX.  by  some  of  their  doctors, 
about  the  time  of  Chrysostom.  This  was  first 
printed  entire,  1664,  by  one  of  their  bishops  at 
Amsterdam,  in  quarto,  with  the  New  Testament 
in  octavo. 

2.  Bible,  Bohemian.  The  Bohemians  have 
a  Bible  translated  by  eight  of  their  doctors,  whom 
they  had  sent  to  the  schools  of  Wirtemberg  and 
Basil  on  purpose  to  study  the  original  languages  : 
it  was  printed  in  Moravia  in  1539. 

3.  Bible,  Croatian.  A  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  into  the  Croatian  language  was  pub- 
lished by  Faber  Creim,  and  others,  in  1562  and 
1563. 

4.  Bible,  Gaelic.  A  few  years  ago,  a  ver- 
sion of  the  Bible  in  the  Gaelic  or  Erse  language 
was  published  at  Edinburgh,  where  the  Gospel  is 
preached  regularly  in  that  language  in  two 
chapels,  for  the  benefit  of  the  natives  oi  the  High- 
lands. 

5.  Bible,  Georgian.  The  inhabitants  of 
jeorgia,  in  Asia,  have  long  had  a  translation  of 

the  Bible  in  their  ancient  language:  but  that 
language  having  now  become  almost  obsolete, 
and  the  Georgians  in  general  being  very  ignorant, 
few  of  them  can  either  read  or  understand  it. 

6.  Bible,  Gothic.  It  is  generally  said  that 
Ulphilas,  a  Gothic  bishop,  who  lived  in  the  fourth 
century,  made  a  version  of  the  whole  Bible,  ex- 
cept the  book  of  Kings,  for  the  use  of  his  coun- 


BIBLE 

trymen;  that  book  he  omitted,  because  of  the 
frequent  mention  of  the  wars  therein,  as  fearing 
to  inspire  too  much  of  the  military  genius  into 
that  people.  We  have  nothing  remaining  of  this 
version  but  the  four  Evangelists,  printed  in  quar- 
to, at  Dort,  in  1665,  from  a  very  ancient  manu- 
script. 

7.  Bible,  Grison.  A  translation  of  the  Bi- 
ble into  the  language  of  the  Grisons,  in  Italy,  was 
completed  by  Coir,  and  published  in  1720. 

8.  Bible,  Icelandic.  The  inhabitants  of 
Iceland  have  a  version  of  the  Bible  in  their  lan- 
guage, which  was  translated  by  Thorlak,  and 
published  in  1584. 

9.  Bible,  Indian.  A  translation  of  the  Bi 
ble  into  the  North  America  Indian  language,  by 
Elliot,  was  published  in  quarto,  at  Cambridge  in 
1685. 

10.  Bible,  Irish.  About  the  middle  of  the 
sixteenth  century,  Bedell,  bishop  of  Kilmore,  set 
on  foot  a  translation  of  the  Old  Testament  into 
the  Irish  language,  the  New  Testament  and  the 
Liturgy  having  been  before  translated  into  that 
language :  the  bishop  appointed  one  King  to 
execute  this  work,  who,  not  understanding  thw 
oriental  languages,  was  obliged  to  translate  it 
from  the  English.  This  work  was  received  by 
Bedell,  who,  after  having  compared  the  Irish  with 
the  English  translation,  compared  the  latter  with 
the  Hebrew,  the  LXX.  and  the  Italian  version 
of  Diodati.  When  it  was  finished,  the  bishop 
would  have  been  himself  at  the  charge  of  the  im- 
pression ;  but  his  design  was  stopped,  upon  ad- 
vice given  to  the  lord  lieutenant  and  the  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury  that  it  would  seem  a 
shameful  thing  for  a  nation  to  publish  a  Bible 
translated  by  such  a  despicable  hand  as  King : 
however,  the  manuscript  was  not  lost,  for  it  went 
to  press  in  1685,  and  was  afterwards  published. 

11.  Bible,  King  James's.     See  No.  24. 

12.  Bible,  Malabarian.  In  1711,  Messrs. 
Ziegenbald  and  Grindler,  two  Danish  mission- 
aries, published  a  translation  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  the  Malabarian  language,  after  which 
they  proceeded  to  translate  the  Old  Testament. 

13.  Bible,  Malayan.  About  1670,  Sir  Ro- 
bert Boyle  procured  a  translation  of  the  New 
Testament  into  the  Malayan  language,  which  he 
printed,  and  sent  the  whole  impression  to  the 
East  Indies. 

14.  Bible,  Rhemish.    See  No.  23. 

15.  Bible,  Samaritan.  At  the  head  of  the 
oriental  versions  of  the  Bible  must  be  placed  the 
Samaritan,  as  being  the  most  ancient  of  all 
(though  neither  its  age  nor  author  have  been  yet 
ascertained),  and  admitting  no  more  for  the  Holy 
Scripture  but  the  five  books  of  Moses.  This 
translation  is  made  from  the  Samaritan  Hebrew 
text,  which  is  a  little  different  from  the  Hebrew 
text  of  the  Jews :  this  version  has  never  been 
printed  alone,  nor  any  where  but  in  the  Polyglots 
of  London  and  Paris. 

16.  Bible,  Swedish.  In  1534,  Olaus  and 
Laurence  published  a  Swedish  Bible  from  the 
German  version  of  Martin  Luther:  it  was  re- 
vised in  1617,  by  order  of  king  Gustavus  Adol- 
phus,  and  was  afterwards  almost  universally  re- 
ceived. 

17.  Bible,  Anglo  Saxon.  If  we  inquire  into 
the  versions  of  the  Bible  of  our  own  country,  we 
shall  find  that  Adelm,  bishop  of  Sherburn,  who 
lived  in  709,  made  an  English  Saxon  version  of 


BIBLE 
the  Psalms;  and  that  Edfrid,  or  Eebert,  bishop 
of  Lindisferne,  who  lived  about  I'M),  translated 
■several  of  the  books  of  Scripture  into  the  same 
language.  It  is  said,  likewise,  that  the  venerable 
Bede,  who  died  in  785,  translated  the  whole  Bi- 
ble into  Saxon. — But  Cuthbcrt,  Bede's  disciple, 
m  the  enumeration  of  his  master's  works,  speaks 
only  of  his  translation  of  the  Gospels,  and  says 
nothing  of  the  rest  of  the  Bible.  Some  say  that 
king  Alfred,  who  lived  about  800,  translated  a 
great  part  of  the  Scriptures.  We  find  an  old 
version  in  the  Anglo  Saxon  of  several  books  of 
the  Bible,  made  by  Ell'ric,  abbot  of  Malmesbury  : 
it  was  published  at  Oxford  in  1699.  There  is  an 
old  Anglo  Saxon  version  of  the  four  Gospels, 
published  by  Matthew  Parker,  archbishop  of 
Canterbury,  in  1571,  the  author  whereof  is  un- 
known. Air.  Mill  observes,  that  this  version 
was  made  from  a  Latin  copy  of  the  old  Vulgate. 
The  whole  Scripture  is  said  by  some  to  have  been 
translated  into  the  Anglo  Saxon  by  Bede,  about 
701,  though  others  contend  he  only  translated  the 
Gospels.  We  have  certain  books  or  parts  of  the 
Bible  by  several  other  translators ;  as,  first,  the 
Psalms,  by  Adelm,  bishop  of  Sherburn,  contem- 
porary with  Bede,  though  by  others  this  version  is 
attributed  to  king  Alfred,  who  lived  two  hundred 
years  later.  Another  version  of  the  Psalms,  in 
Anglo  Saxon,  was  published  by  Spclman,  in 
1640. — 3.  The  evangelists,  still  extant,  done  from 
the  ancient  Vulgate,  before  it  was  revised  by  St. 
Jerome,  by  an  author  unknown,  and  published 
by  Matthew  Parker  in  1571.  An  old  Saxon 
version  of  several  books  of  the  Bible  made  by  El- 
frie,  abbot  of  Malmesbury,  several  fragments  of 
which  were  published  by  Will.  Lilly,  1638 ;  the 
genuine  copy  by  Edm.  Thwaites,  in  1699,  at  Ox- 
ford. 

18.  Bibles,  Arabic.  In  1516,  Aug.  Justinian, 
bishop  of  Nebio,  printed  at  Genoa  an  Arabic  ver- 
sion of  the  Psalter,  with  the  Hebrew  text  and 
Chaldee  paraphrase,  adding  Latin  interpretations: 
there  are  also  Arabic  versions  of  the  whole  Scrip- 
ture in  the  Polyglots  of  London  and  Paris;  and 
we  have  an  edition  of  the  Old  Testament  entire, 
printed  at  Rome,  in  1671,  by  order  of  the  congre- 
gation de  -propaganda  fide;  but  it  is  of  little 
esteem,  as  having  been  altered  agreeably  to  the 
Vulgate  edition.  The  Arabic  Bibles  among  us 
are  not  the  same  with  those  used  with  the  Chris- 
tians in  the  East.  Some  learned  men  take  the 
Arabic  version  of  the  Old  Testament  printed  in 
the  Polyglots  to  be  that  of  Saadias's,  who  lived 
about  A.  D.  900 :  their  reason  is,  that  Aben  Ezra, 
a  great  antagonist  of  Saadias,  quotes  some  pas- 
sages of  his  version,  which  are  the  same  with 
those  iajthe  Arabic  version  of  the  Polyglots;  yet 
others  are  of  opinion  that  Saadias's  version  is  not 
extant.  In  1622,  Erpenius  printed  an  Arabic 
Pentateuch,  called  also  the  Pentateuch  of  Mau- 
ritania, as  being  made  by  the  Jews  of  Barbary, 
and  for  their  use.  This  version  is  very  literal,  and 
esteemed  very  exact.  The  four  evangelists  have 
also  been  published  in  Arabic,  with  a  Latin  ver- 
sion, at  Rome,  in  1591,  folio.  These  have  been 
since  reprinted  in  the  Polyglots  of  London  and 
Paris,  with  some  little  alteration  ol  Gabriel  Sionita. 
Erpenius  published  an  Arabic  New  Testament 
entire,  as  he  found  it  in  his  manuscript  copy,  at 
Leyden,  1616.  There  are  some  other  Arabic 
versions  of  later  date,  mentioned  by  Walton  in 
bis  Prolegomena,  particularly  a  version  of  the 
44 


BIBLE 
Psalms,  preserved  at  Sion  College,  London,  and 
another  of  the  prophets  at  Oxford;  neither  of 
which  have  been  published.  Proj»sals  were  is- 
sued for  printing  a  new  edition  of  the  Arabio 
Bible,  by  Mr.  Carl  vie,  chancellor  of  the  diocese 
of  Carlisle,  and  professor  of  Arabic  in  the  uni- 
versity of  Cambridge ;  but  his  death  prevented  hia 
finishing  it. 

19.  Bibles,  Chaldee,  are  only  the  glosses  or 
expositions  made  by  the  Jews  at  the  time  when 
they  spoke  the  Chaldee  tongue :  these  they  call 
by  the  name  of  Targumim,  or  paraphrases,  as  not 
being  any  strict  version  of  the  Scripture.  They 
have  been  inserted  entire  in  the  large  Hebrew 
Bibles  of  Venice  and  Basil ;  but  are  read  more 
commodiously  in  the  Polyglots,  being  there  at- 
tended with  a  Latin  translation. 

20.  Bibles,  Coptic.  There  are  several  manu- 
script copies  of  the  Coptic  Bible  in  some  of  the 
great  libraries,  especially  in  that  of  the  king  of 
Prance.  Dr.  Wilkins  published  the  Coptic  New 
Testament,  in  quarto,  in  1716;  and  the  Penta- 
teuch, also  in  quarto,  in  1731,  with  Latin  trans- 
lations. He  reckons  these  versions  to  have  been 
made  in  the  end  of  the  second  or  the  beginning 
of  the  third  century. 

21.  Bibles,  Danish.  The  first  Danish  Bible 
was  published  by  Peter  Palladus,  Olaus  Chrysos- 
tom,  John  Synningius,  and  John  Maccabseus,  in 
1550,  in  which  they  followed  Luther's  first  Ger- 
man version.  There  are  two  other  versions,  tha 
one  by  John  Paal  Resenius,  bishop  of  Zealand, 
in  1605;  the  other  of  the  New  Testament  only, 
by  John  Michel,  in  1524. 

22.  Bibles,  Dutch.     Sec  No.  26. 

23.  Bibles,  East  Indian.  See  Nos.  12,  13,  14. 

24.  Bibles,  English.  The  first  English  Bible 
we  read  of  was  that  translated  by  J.  Wicklilfe, 
about  the  year  1360,  but  never  printed,  though 
there  are  manuscript  copies  of  it  in  several  of  the 
public  libraries.  A  translation,  however,  of  the 
^ew  Testament  by  Wickliffe  was  printed  by 
Mr.  Lewis,  about  1731.  J.  de  Trevisa,  who  died 
about  1398,  is  also,  said  to  have  translated  the 
whole  Bible;  but  whether  any  copies  of  it  are  re- 
maining does  not  appear.  The  first  printed  Bible 
in  our  language  was  that  translated  by  W.  Tin- 
dal,  assisted  by  Miles  Coverdale,  printed  abroad 
in  1526 ;  but  most  of  the  copies  were  bought  up 
and  burnt  by  bishop  Tunstal  and  Sir  Thomas 
More.  It  only  contained  the  New  Testament, 
and  was  revised  and  republished  by  the  same  per- 
son in  1530.  The  prologues  and  prefaces  added 
to  it,  reflect  on  the  bishops  and  clergy;  but  this 
edition  was  also  suppressed,  and  the  copies  burnt. 
In  1532  Tindal  and  Ids  associates  finished  the 
whole  Bible,  except  the  Apocrypha,  and  printed 
it  abroad;  but,  while  he  was  afterwards  preparing 
a  second  edition,  he  was  taken  up  and  burnt  lor 
heresy  in  Flanders.  On  Tindal's  death,  his 
work  was  carried  on  by  Coverdale,  and  John 
Rogers,  superintendent  of  an  English  church  in 
Germany,  and  the  first  martyr  in  the  reign  of 
queen  Mary,  who  translated  the  Apocrypha,  and 
revised  Tindal's  translation,  comparing  it  with 
the  Hebrew,  Greek,  Latin,  and  German,  and 
adding  prefaces  and  notes  from  Luther's  Bible. 
He  dedicated  the  whole  to  Henry  VIII.  in  1537, 
under  the  l>orrovved  name  of  Thomas  Matthews; 
whence  this  has  been  usually  called  Matthews'a 
Bible.  It  was  printed  at  Hamburgh,  and  licence 
obtained  for  publishing  it  in  England,  by  the  fa- 


BIBLE 
vour  of  archbishop  Cranmer,  and  the  bishops 
Latimer  and  Shaxton.  The  first  Bible  printed 
by  authority  in  England,  and  publicly  set  up  in 
churches,  was  the  same  Tindal's  version,  revised 
and  compared  with  the  Hebrew,  and  in  many 
places  amended  by  Miles  Coverdale,  afterwards 
bishop  of  Exeter;  and  examined  after  him  by 
archbishop  Cranmer,  who  added  a  preface  to  it; 
whence  this  was  called  Cranmer's  Bible.  It  was 
printed  by  Grafton,  of  the  largest  volume,  and 
published  in  1540;  and  by  a  royal  proclamation, 
every  parish  was  obliged  to  set  one  of  the  copies 
in  their  church,  under  the  penalty  of  forty  shil- 
lings a  month;  yet,  two  years  after,  the  popish 
bishops  obtained  its  suppression  by  the  king.  It 
was  restored  under  Edward  VI.,  suppressed  again 
under  queen  Mary's  reign,  and  restored  again  in 
the  first  year  of  queen  Elizabeth,  and  a  new  edi- 
tion of  it  given  in  1562.  Some  English  exiles  at 
Geneva,  in  queen  Mary's  reign,  viz.,  Coverdale, 
Goodman,  Gilbie,  Sampson,  Cole,  Wittingham, 
and  Knox,  made  a  new  translation,  printed  there 
in  15G0,  the  New  Testament  having  been  printed 
in  1557;  hence  called  the  Geneva  Bible,  contain- 
ing the  variations  of  readings,  marginal  annota- 
tions, &c.  on  account  of  which  It  was  much 
valued  by  the  puritan  party  in  that  and  the  fol- 
lowing reigns.  Abp.  Parker  resolved  on  a  new 
translation  for  the  public  use  of  the  church;  and 
engaged  the  bishops,  and  other  learned  men,  to 
take  each  a  share  or  portion;  these,  being  after- 
wards joined  together  and  printed,  with  short 
annotations,  in  15G8,  in  large  folio,  made  what 
was  afterwards  called  the  Great  English  Bible,  and 
commonly  the  Bishops'  Bible.  In  1589,  it  was 
published  in  octavo,  in  a  small  but  fine  black  letter ; 
and  here  the  chapters  were  divided  into  verses, 
but  without  any  breaks  for  them,  in  which  the 
method  of  the  Geneva  Bible  was  followed,  which 
was  the  first  English  Bible  where  any  distinction 
of  verses  was  made.  It  was  afterwards'  printed 
in  large  folio,  with  corrections,  and  several  pro- 
legomena, m  1572;  this  is  called  Matthew  Par- 
ker's Bible.  The  initial  letters  of  each  transla- 
tor's name  were  put  at  the  end  of  his  part;  e.gr. 
at  the  end  of  the  Pentateuch,  W.  E.  for  William 
Exon ;  that  is  William,  bishop  of  Exeter,  whose 
allotment  ended  there ;  at  the  end  of  Samuel,  R. 
M.  for  Richard  Menevensis,  or  bishop  of  St. 
David's,  to  whom  the  second  allotment  fell;  and 
the  like  of  the  rest.  The  archbishop  oversaw, 
directed,  examined,  and  finished  the  whole.  This 
translation  was  used  in  the  churches  for  forty 
years,  though  the  Geneva  Bible  was  more  read 
m  private  houses,  being  printed  above  twenty 
times  in  as  many  years.  King  James  bore  it  an 
inveterate  hatred,  on  account  of  the  notes,  which, 
at  the  Hampton  Court  conference,  he  charged  as 
partial,  untrue,  seditious,  &c.  The  Bishops' 
Bible,  too,  had  its  faults.  The  king  frankly 
owned  that  he  had  seen  no  good  translation  of 
the  Bible  in  English;  but  he  thought  that  of  Ge- 
neva the  worst  of  all.  After  the  translation  of 
the  Bible  by  the  bishops,  two  other  private  ver- 
sions had  been  made  of  the  New  Testament;  the 
first  by  Laurence  Thompson,  from  Beza's  Latin 
edition,  with  the  notes  of  Beza,  published  in  1582, 
in  quarto,  and  afterwards  in  1589,  varying  very 
little  from  the  Geneva  Bible ;  the  second  by  the 

Bipists  at  Rheims,  in  1584,  called  the  Rhemish 
ible,  or  Rhemish  translation.     These,  finding 
it  impossible  to  keep  the  people  from  having  the 
45 


BIBLE 

Scriptures  in  their  vulgar  tongue,  resolved  to  give 
a  version  of  their  own,  as  favourable  to  their 
cause  as  might  be.  It  was  printed  on  a  large  pa- 
per, with  a  fair  letter  and  margin;  one  complaint 
against  it  was,  its  retaining  a  multitude  of  He- 
brew and  Greek  words  untranslated,  for  want, 
as  the  editors  express  it,  of  proper  and  adequate 
terms  in  the  English  to  render  them  by;  as 
the  words  azymes,  tunike,  holocaust,  prepuce, 
pasche,  &c. :  however,  many  of  the  copies  were 
seized  by  the  queen's  searchers,  and  confiscated ; 
and  Thomas  Cartwright  was  solicited  by  secre- 
tary Walsingham  to  refute  it ;  but,  after  a  good 
progress  made  therein,  archbishop  Whitgift  pro- 
hibited his  further  proceeding,  as  judging  it  im- 
proper that  the  doctrine  of  the  church  of  England 
should  be  committed  to  the  defence  of  a  puritan; 
and  appointed  Dr.  Fulkc  in  his  place,  who  re- 
futed the  Rhemists  with  great  spirit  and  learning. 
Cartwright's  refutation  was  also  afterwards  pub- 
lished in  1618,  under  archbishop  Abbot.  About 
thirty  years  after  their  New  Testament,  the  Ro- 
man Catholics  published  a  translation  of  the  Old, 
at  Douay,  1609  and  1610,  from  the  Vulgate,  with 
annotations,  so  that  the  English  Roman  Catho- 
lics have  now  the  whole  Bible  in  their  mother 
tongue ;  though,  it  is  to  be  observed,  they  are 
forbidden  to  read  it  without  a  licence  from  their 
superiors.  The  last  English  Bible  was  that  which 
proceeded  from -Hampton  Court  conference,  in 
1603;  where,  many  exceptions  being  made  to  the 
Bishops'  Bible,  king  James  gave  order  for  a  new 
one;  not,  as  the  preface  expresses  it,  for  a  trans- 
lation altogether  new,  nor  yet  to  make  a  good  one 
better;  or,  of  many  good  ones,  one  best.  Fifty- 
four  learned  men  were  appointed  to  this  office  by 
the  king,  as  appears  by  his  letter  to  the  arch- 
bishop, dated  1604;  which  being  three  years  be- 
fore the  translation  was  entered  upon,  it  is  pro- 
bable seven  of  them  were  either  dead,  or  had 
declined  the  task ;  since  Fuller's  list  of  the  trans- 
lators makes  but  forty-seven,  who,  being  ranged 
under  six  divisions,  entered  on  their  province  in 
1607.  It  was  published  in  1613,  with  a  dedication 
to  James,  and  a  learned  preface;  and  is  commonly 
called  king  James's  Bible.  After  this,  all  the 
other  versions  dropped,  and  fell  into  disuse,  ex- 
cept the  Epistles  and  Gospels  in  the  Common 
Prayer  Book,  which  were  still  continued  accord- 
ing to  the  Bishops'  translation  til)  the  alteration 
of  the  liturgy  in  1661,  and  the  psalms  and  hymns, 
which  are  to  this  day  continued  as  in  the  old  ver- 
sion. The  judicious  Selden,  in  his  Table-talk, 
speaking  of  the  Bible,  says,  "  The  English  trans- 
lation ot  the  Bible  is  the  best  translation  in  the 
world,  and  renders  the  sense  of  the  original  best; 
taking  in  for  the  English  translation,  the  Bishops' 
Bible,  as  well  as  king  James's.  The  translators 
in  king  James's  time  took  an  excellent  way.  That 
part  of  the  Bible  was  given  to  him  who  was  most 
excellent  in  such  a  tongue,  (as  the  Apocrypha  to 
Andrew  Downs,)  and  then  they  met  together, 
and  one  read  the  translation,  the  rest  holding  in 
their  hands  some  Bible,  either  of  the  learned 
tongues,  or  French,  Spanish,  or  Italian,  &c.  If 
they  found  any  fault,  they  spoke ;  if  not,  he  read 
on."  [King  James's  Bible  is  that  now  read  by 
authority  in  all  the  churches  in  Britain.] 

Notwithstanding,  however,  the  excellency  of 
this  translation,  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  our 
increasing  acquaintance  with  oriental  customs 
and  manners,  and  the  changes  our  language  had 


BIBLE 
Undergone  since  king  James's  time,  are  very  pow- 
erful arguments  for  a  new  translation,  or  at  least  a 
correction  of  the  old  one.  There  have  been  various 
English  Bibles  with  marginal  references  by  I  <8H- 
ne,  Hayes,  Parker,  Scattcrgood,  Field,  Tennison, 
Lloyd,  Blarney,  Wilson,  &c.;  but  the  best  we  have, 
perhaps,  of  this  kind,  are  Brown's  and  Scott's. 

25.  Bibles,  Ethiopic  The  Ethiopians  have 
also,  translated  the  Bible  into  their  language. 
There  have  been  printed  separately  the  Psalms, 
Canticles,  some  chapters  of  Genesis,  Ruth,  Joel, 
Jonah,  Zephaniah,  Malachi,  and  the  New  Tes- 
tament, all  which  have  been  since  reprinted  in 
the  Polyglot  of  London.  As  to  the  Ethiopic 
New  Testament,  which  was  first  printed  at  Rome 
in  1548,  it  is  a  very  inaccurate  work,  and  is  re- 
printed in  the  English  Polyglot  with  nil  its  faults. 

26.  Bibles,  Flemish.  The  Flemish  Bibles  of 
the  Romanists  are  very  numerous,  and  for  the 
most  part  have  no  author's  name  prefixed  to  them, 
till  that  of  Nicholas  Vinck,  printed  at  Louvain  in 
1548.  The  Flemish  versions  made  use  of  by 
the  Calvinists  till  1637,  were  copied  principally 
from  that  of  Luther.  But  the  Synod  of  Dort 
having,  in  1618,  appointed  a  new  translation  of 
the  Bible  into  Flemish,  deputies  were  named  for 
the  work,  which  was  not  finished  till  1637. 

27.  Bibi.es,  French.  The  oldest  French  Bible 
we  hear  of  is  the  version  of  Peter  de  Vaux,  chief 
of  the  Waldenses,  who  lived  about  the  year  1160. 
Raoul  de  Prcste  translated  the  Bible  into  French 
in  the  reign  of  kins  Charles  V.  of  France,  about 
A.  D.  1383.  Besides  these,  there  are  several  old 
French  translations  of  particular  parts  of  the 
Scripture.  The  doctors  of  Louvain,  published 
the  Bible  in  French,  at  Louvain,  by  order  of 
the  emperor  Charles  V.  in  1550.  There  is  a 
version  by  Isaac  le  Maitre  de  Sacy,  published  in 
1672,  with  explanations  of  the  literal  and  spiritual 
meaning  of  the  text ;  which  was  received  with 
wonderful  applause,  and  has  often  been  reprinted. 
Of  the  New  Testaments  in  French,  which  have 
been  printed  separately,  one  of  the  most  remark- 
able is  that  of  F.  Amelotte,  of  the  Osatory,  com- 
posed by  the  direction  of  some  French  prelates, 
anil  printed  with  annotations  in  1666,  1667,  and 
1670.  The  author  pretends  he  had  searched  all 
the  libraries  in  Europe,  and  collated  the  oldest 
manuscripts;  but,  in  examining  his  work,  it  ap- 
pears that  ho  has  produced  no  considerable  vari- 
ous readings  which  had  not  before  been  taken 
notice  of  either  in  the  London  Polyglot,  or  clse- 
whe  re.  ^  The  New  Testament  of  Mons,  printed 
1665,  with  the  archbishop  of  Cambray's  permis- 
sion, and  the  king  of  Spain's  licence,  made  great 
noise  in  the  world.  It  was  condemned  by  pope 
( 'lement  IX.  in  1669;  by  pope  Innocent  XI.  in 
1669;  and  in  several  bishoprics  t»f  France  at  se- 
veral times.  The  New  Testament,  published  at 
Trevoux,  in  1702,  by  M.  Simon,  with  literal  and 
critical  annotations  upon  difficult  passages,  was 
condemned  by  the  bishops  of  Paris  and" Meaux 
in  1703.  P.  Honours,  a  Jesuit,  with  the  assist- 
ance of  F.  F.  Michael  Tollior  and  Peter  Bernier, 
Jesuits,  likewise  published  a  translation  of  the 
New  Testament  in  1697;  but  this  translation  is 
for  the  most  part  harsh  and  obscure,  which  was 
owing  to  the  anthor"s  adhering  too  strictly  to  the 
Latin  text.  There  are  likewise  French  transla- 
tions published  by  Protestant  authors;  one  bv 
Robert  Peter  Olivetan,  printed  in  1535,  %n>\  often 
reprinted  with  the  corrections  of  John  Cuhin  and 

4ti 


BIBLE 

others;  another  by  Sebastian  Castalio,  remark 
able  for  particular  ways  of  expression  never  used 
by  good  judges  of  the  language.  John  Diodati 
likewise  published  a  French  Bible  at  Geneva  in 
16-14;  but  some  find  fault  with  his  method,  in  that 
he  rather  paraphrases  the  text  than  translates  it 
Faber  Stapalensis  translated  the  New  Testament 
into  French,  which  was  revised  and  accommo- 
dated to  the  use  of  the  reformed  churches  in 
Piedmont,  and  printed  in  1531.  Lastly,  John  le 
Clerc  published  a  New  Testament  in  French  at 
Amsterdam,  in  1703,  with  annotations  taken 
chiefly  from  Grotius  and  Hammond;  but  the  uso 
of  this  version  was  prohibited  by  order  of  the 
States-general,  as  tending  to  revive  the  errors  of 
Sabellius  and  Socinus. 

28.  Bibles,  German.  The  first  and  most  an- 
cient translation  of  the  Bible  in  the  German  lan- 
guage is  that  of  Ulphilas,  bishop  of  the  Goths,  in 
the  year  360.  An  imperfect  manuscript  of  this 
version  was  found  in  th,e  abbey  of  Vcrden,  near 
Cologne,  written  in  letters  of  silver,  for  which 
reason  it  is  called  Codex  Argenteus;  and  it  was 
published  by  Francis  Junius  in  1665.  The  oldest 
German  printed  Bible  extant  is  that  of  Nurem- 
burg,  in  1547;  but  who  was  the  author  of  it  is 
uncertain.  John  Emzer,  chaplain  to  George  duke 
of  Saxony,  published  a  version  of  the  New  Tes- 
tament in  opposition  to  Luther.  There  is  a 
German  Bible  of  John  Ekeus,  in  1537,  with 
Emzer's  New  Testament  added  to  it ;  and  one 
by  Ulemburgius  of  Westphalia,  procured  by  Fer- 
dinand duke  of  Bavaria,  and  printed  1630.  Mar- 
tin Luther,  having  employed  eleven  years  in  trans- 
lating the  Old  and  New  Testaments,  published 
the  Pentateuch  and  the  New  Testament  in  1522, 
the  historical  books  and  the  Psalms  in  1524,  tlie 
books  of  Solomon  in  1527,  Isaiah  in  1529,  the 
Prophets  in  1531,  and  the  other  books  in  1530. 
The  learned  agree  that  his  language  is  pure,  and 
the  version  clear  and  free  from  intricacies.  It 
was  revised  by  several  persons  of  quality,  who 
were  masters  of  all  the  delicacies  of  the  German 
language.  The  German  Bibles  which  have  been 
printed  at  Saxony,  Switzerland,  and  elsewhere, 
are,  for  the  most  part,  the  same  as  that  of  Luther, 
with  little  variation.  In  1604,  John  Piscator 
published  a  version  of  the  Bible  in  German,  taken 
from  that  of  Junius  and  Trcmellius ;  but  his  turn 
of  expression  is  purely  Latin,  and  not  at  all 
agreeable  to  the  genius  of  the  German  language. 
The  Anabaptists  have  a  German  Bible  printed 
at  Worms  in  1529.  John  Crellius  published  his 
version  of  the  New  Testament  at  Racovia  in  1630, 
and  Fclbinger  his  at  Amsterdam  in  1660. 

29.  Bibles,  Greek.  There  are  many  editions 
of  the  Bible  in  Greek,  but  they  may  be  ail  reduced 
to  three  or  four  principal  ones;  viz.  that  of  Con>- 
plutum,  or  Alcala  de  Henares ;  that  of  Venice, 
that  of  Rome,  and  that  of  Oxford.  The  first  was 
published  in  1515  by  cardinal  Ximencs,  and  in- 
serted in  the  Polyglot  Bible,  usually  called  the 
Complutensian  Bible :  this  edition  is  not  just,  the 
Greek  of  the  LXX.  being  altered  in  many  places 
according  to  the  Hebrew  text.  It  has,  however, 
been  reprinted  in  the  Polyglot  Bible  of  Antwerp, 
in  that  of  Paris,  and  in  the  quarto  Bible  commonly 
called  Vatablus's  Bible.  The  second  Greek  Bi- 
ble is  that  of  Venice,  printed  by  Aldus  in  1518. 
Here  the  Greek  text  of  the  Septuagint  is  reprint- 
ed just  as  it  stood  in  the  manuscript,  full  of  faults 
of  the  copyists,  but  easily  amended.   This  edition 


BIBLE 

was  reprinted  at  Strasburg  in  152(5,  at  Basil  in 
1515,  at  Frankfort  in  1507,  and  other  places,  with 
some  alterations,  to  bring  it  nearer  the  Hebrew. 
The  most  commodious  is  that  of  Frankfort,  there 
being  added  to  this  little  scholia,  which  show  the 
different  interpretations  of  the  old  Greek  trans- 
lators. The  author  of  this  collection  has  not  added 
his  name,  but  it  is  commonly  ascribed  to  Ju- 
nius. The  third  Greek  Bible  is  that  of  Rome, 
or  the  Vatican,  in  1587,  with  Greek  scholia, 
collected  from  the  manuscripts  in  the  Roman 
libraries  by  Peter  Morin.  It  was  first  set  on  foot 
by  Cardinal  Montalbo,  afterwards  pope  Sixtus  V. 
This  fine  edition  has  been  reprinted  at  Paris  in 
1628,  by  J.  Morin,  priest  of  the  Oratory,  who  has 
added  the  Latin  translation,  which  in  the  Roman 
was  printed  separately  with  scholia.  The  Greek 
edition  of  Rome  has  been  printed  in  the  Polyglot 
Bible  of  London,  to  which  are  added  at  the  bot- 
tom the  various  readings  of  the  Alexandrian  ma- 
nuscript. T  his  has  been  also  reprinted  in  England, 
in  4to.  and  12mo.  with  some  alterations.  It  was 
again  published  at  Franeker,  in  1709,  by  Bos,  who 
has  added  all  the  various  readings  he  could  find. 
The  fourtn  Greek  Bible  is  that  done  from  the  Alex- 
andrian manuscript,  begun  at  Oxford  by  Grabe  in 
1707.  In  this  the  Alexandrian  manuscript  is 
not  printed  such  as  it  is,  but  such  as  it  was  thought 
it  should  be,  i.  e.  it  is  altered  wherever  there  ap- 
peared any  fault  of  the  copyists,  or  any  word  in- 
serted from  any  particular  dialect :  this  some  think 
an  excellence,  but.  others  a  fault,  urging  that  the 
manuscript  should  have  been  given  absolutely 
and  entirely  of  itself,  and  all  conjectures  as  to  the 
readings  should  have  been  thrown  into  the  notes. 
We  have  many  editions  of  the  Greek  Testament 
by  Erasmus,  Stephens,  Beza ;  that  in  the  Com- 
plutensian  Polyglot,  the  Elzevirs,  &c.:  and  with 
various  readings  by  Mill,  Bengelius,  Wetstein, 
&c.  Those  of  Wetstein  and  Griesbach  are 
thought  by  some  to  exceed  all  the  rest. 

30.  Bibles,  Hebrew,  are  either  manuscript  or 
printed.  The  best  manuscript  Bibles  are  those 
jopied  by  the  Jews  of  Spain :  those  copied  by  the 
Jews  of  Germany  are  less  exact,  but  more  com- 
mon. The  two  kinds  are  easily  distinguished 
from  each  other ;  the  former  being  in  beautiful 
characters,  like  the  Hebrew  Bibles  of  Bomberg, 
Stevens,  and  Plantin:  the  latter  in  characters 
like  those  of  Minister  and  Grypheus.  F.  Simon 
observes,  that  the  oldest  manuscript  Hebrew  Bi- 
bles are  not  above  six  or  seven  hundred  years 
old ;  nor  does  Rabbi  Menahem,  who  quotes  a 
vast  number  of  them,  pretend  that  anyone  of  them 
exceeds  600  years.  Dr.  Kennicott,  in  his  Disser- 
tatio  Generaiis,  prefixed  to  his  Hebrew  Bible,  p. 
21,  observes,  that  the  most  ancient  manuscripts 
were  written  between  the  years  900  and  1100; 
but  though  those  that  are  the  most  ancient  are 
not  more  than  800  or  900  years  old,  they  were 
transcribed  from  others  of  a  much  more  ancient 
date.  The  manuscript  preserved  in  the  Bodleian 
Library  is  not  less  than  800  years  old.  Another 
manuscript  not  less  ancient  is  preserved  in  the 
Caesarian  Library  at  Vienna.  The  most  ancient 

Jrinted  Hebrew  Bibles  are  those  published  by  the 
ews  of  Italy,  especially  of  Pesaro  and  Bresse. 
Those  of  Portugal  also  printed  some  parts  of  the 
Bible  at  Lisbon  before  their  expulsion.  This  may 
be  observed  in  general,  that  the  best  Hebrew  Bi- 
bles are  those  printed  under  the  inspection  of  the 
Jews ;  there  being  so  many  minutias  to  be  ob- 
47 


BIBLE 

served  in  the  Hebrew  language,  that  it  is  scarcely 
possible  for  any  other  to  succeed  in  it.  In  the 
beginning  of  the  16th  century,  Dan.  Bomberg 
printed  several  Hebrew  Bibles  in  folio  and  quarto 
at  Venice,  most  of  which  were  esteemed  both  by 
the  Jews  and  Christians:  the  first  in  1517.  which 
is  the  least  exact,  and  generally  goes  by  the  name 
of  Felix  Pratensis,  the  person  who  revised  it : 
this  edition  contains  the  Hebrew  text,  the  Tar- 
gum,  and  the  commentaries  of  several  rabbins.  In 
1528,  Bomberg  printed  the  folio  Bible  of  Rabbi 
Benchajim,  with  his  preface,  the  rnasoretical  di- 
visions, a  preface  of  Aben  Ezra,  a  double  masora, 
and  several  various  readings.  The  third  edition 
was  printed  in  1618,  the  same  with  the  second,  but 
much  more  correct.  From  the  former  editions, 
Buxtorf,  the  father,  printed  his  rabbinical  He- 
brew Bible  at  Basil,  in  1618  ;  which,  though  there 
are  many  faults  in  it,  is  more  correct  than  any  of 
the  former.  In  1623,  appeared  at  Venice  a  new 
edition  of  the  rabbinical  Bible,  by  Leo,  of  Mode- 
na,  a  rabbin  of  that  city,  who  pretended  to  have 
corrected  a  great  number  of  faults  in  the  former 
edition ;  but,  besides  that  it  is  much  inferior  to 
the  other  Hebrew  Bibles  of  Venice,  with  regard 
to  paper  and  print,  it  has  passed  through  the 
hands  of  the  inquisitors,  who  have  altered  many 
passages  in  the  commentaries  of  the  rabbins.  Of 
Hebrew  Bibles  in  quarto,  that  of  R.  Stevens  is 
esteemed  for  the  beauty  of  the  characters ;  but  it 
is  very  incorrect.  Plantin  also  printed  several 
beautiful  Hebrew  Bibles  at  Antwerp ;  one  in 
eight  columns,  with  a  preface  by  Arias  Montanus, 
in  1571,  which  far  exceeds  the  Complutensian  in 
paper,  print,  and  contents :  this  is  called  the  Royal 
Bible,  because  it  was  printed  at  the  expence  of 
Philip  II.  king  of  Spain :  another  at  Geneva,  1619, 
besides  many  more  of  different  sizes,  with  and 
without  points.  Manasseh  Ben  Israel,  a  learned 
Portuguese  Jew,  published  two  editions  of  the 
Hebrew  Bible  at  Amsterdam ;  one  in  quarto,  in 
1635 ;  the  other  in  octavo,  in  1639  :  the  first  has 
two  columns,  and  for  that  reason  is  more  commo- 
dious for  the  reader.  In  1639,  R.  Jac.  Lombroso 
published  a  new  edition  in  quarto  at  Venice,  with 
small  literal  notes  at  the  bottom  of  each  page, 
where  he  explains  the  Hebrew  words  by  Spanish 
words.  This  Bible  is  much  esteemed  by  the  Jews 
at  Constantinople  ;  in  the  text  they  have  distin- 
guished between  words  where  the  point  camets 
is  to  be  read  with  a  camets  catuph ;  that  is,  by  o, 
and  not  an  a.  Of  all  the  editions  of  the  Hebrew 
Bible  in  octavo,  the  most  beautiful  and  correct 
are  the  two  of  J.  Athias,  a  Jew  of  Amsterdam. 
The  first,  of  1661,  is  the  best  paper;  but  that  of 
1667  is  the  most  exact.  That,  however,  published 
since  at  Amsterdam,  by  Vander  Hooght,  in  1705, 
is  preferable  to  both.  After  Athias,  three  He  ■ 
braizing  Protestants  engaged  in  revising  and  pub- 
lishing the  Hebrew  Bible,  viz.  Clodius,  Jablonski, 
and  Opitius.  Clodius's  edition  was  published  at 
Frankfort,  in  1677,  in  quarto  :  at  the  bottom  of 
the  pages  it  has  the  various  readings  of  the  former 
editions;  but  the  author  does  not  appear  suffi- 
ciently versed  in  the  accenting,  especially  in  the 
poetical  books ;  besides,  as  it  was  not  published 
under  his  eye,  many  faults  have  crept  in.  That 
of  Jablonski,  in  1699,  in  quarto,  at  Berlin,  is  very 
beautiful  as  to  letter  and  print ;  but,  though  the 
editor  pretends  he  made  use  of  the  editions  of 
Athias  and  Clodius,  some  critics  find  it  scarcely 
in  any  tiling  different  from  the  -juano  edition  oi 


BIBLE 
Romberg.  That  of  Opitius  is  also  in  quarto,  at 
Kril,  in  170f) :  the  character  is  large  and  good,  hut 
the  paper  had :  it  is  done  with  a  great  deal  of 
rare:  hut  the  editor  made  use  of  no  manuscripts 
hut  those  of  the  German  libraries,  neglecting  the 
French  ones,  which  is  an  omission  common  to  all 
the  three.  They  have  this  advantage,  however, 
that,  besides  the  divisions  used  by  the  Jews,  both 
general  and  particular,  into  parages  arid  pesukim, 
tliev  have  also  those  of  the  Christians,  or  of  the 
Latin  Bibles,  into  chapters  and  verses;  the  keri 
ketib,  or  various  readings,  Latin  summaries,  &.c. 
which  made  them  of  considerable  use  with  re- 
spect to  tin-  Latin  editions  and  the  concordances. 
The  little  Bible  of  R.  Stevens,  in  lGmo.,  is  very 
much  prized  for  the  beauty  of  the  character. 
Care,  however,  must  he  taken,  there  being  an- 
other edition  of  Geneva  exceedingly  like  it,  ex- 
cepting that  the  print  is  worse,  and  the  text  less 
correct.  To  these  may  be  added  some  other  He- 
brew Bibles  without  points,  in  8vo.  and  24mo., 
which  are  much  coveted  by  the  Jews  :  not  that 
they  are  more  exact,  but  more  portable  than  the 
rest,  and  are  used  in  their  synagogues  and  schools. 
Of  these  there  are  two  beautiful  editions;  the  one 
of  Plantin,  in  8vo.  with  two  columns,  and  the 
other  in  24mo.  reprinted  by  Raphalengius,  at 
Leyden,  in  1G10.  There  is  also  an  edition  of 
them  by  Laurens,  at  Amsterdam,  in  103 1,  in  a 
larger  character ;  and  another  in  l'2mo.  at  Frank- 
fort, in  16'.)  1,  full  of  faults,  with  a  preface  of  Mr. 
Leusden  at  the  head  of  it.  Houbigant  published 
an  elegant  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible  at  Paris, 
in  1753,  in  4  vols,  folio :  the  text  is  that  of  Van- 
der  Hooght,  without  points ;  to  which  he  has 
added  marginal  notes,  supplying  the  variations  of 
the  Samaritan  copy.  Dr.  Kennicott,  after  almost 
twenty  years'  laborious  collation  of  near  GOO  co- 
pies, manuscripts  and  printed,  either  of  the  whole 
or  particular  parts  of  the  Bible,  published  the  He- 
brew Bible  in  2  vols,  folio :  the  text  is  that  of 
Everard  Vander  Hooght,  already  mentioned, 
differing  from  it  only  in  the  disposition  of  the 
poetical  parts,  which  Dr.  Kennicott  has  printed 
in  hemistiehs.  into  which  they  naturally  divide 
themselves :  however,  the  words  follow  one  ano- 
ther in  the  same  order  as  they  do  in  the  edition  of 
Vander  Hooght.  This  edition  is  printed  in  an 
excellent  type :  the  Samaritan  text,  according  to 
the  copy  in  the  London  Polyglot,  is  exhibited  in 
a  column  parallel  with  the  Hebrew  text ;  those 

Siarts  of  it  only  being  introduced  in  which  it  dif- 
ers  from  the  Hebrew.  The  numerous  variations, 
both  of  the  Samaritan  manuscript  from  the  print- 
ed copy  of  the  Samaritan  texts,  and  of  the  He- 
brew manuscripts  from  the  printed  text  of  Vander 
Hooght,  are  placed  separately  at  the  bottom  of 
the  page,  and  marked  with  numbers  referring  to 
the  copies  from  which  they  are  taken,  hour 
quarto  volumes  of  various  readings  have  also  been 
published  by  De  Rossi,  of  Parma,  from  more  than 
400  manuscripts  (some  of  which  are  said  to  be 
of  the  seventh  or  eighth  century),  as  well  as  from 
a  considerable  number  of  rare  and  unnoticed  edi- 
tions. An  edition  of  Reineccius's  Hebrew  Bible, 
with  readings  from  Kennicott  and  De  Rossi,  has 
been  published  by  Dodderlein,  and  will  be  found 
a  useful  work  to  the  Hebrew  student. 

31.   Bint.K.s,  Italian.     The  first  Italian  Bible 

published  by  thi'   'louianists  is  that  of  Nicholas 

Mali  fine,  a  Benedictine  monk,  printed  at  Venice 

in  1471.     It  was  translated  from  the  Vulgate. 

48 


BIBLE 
The  version  of  Anthony  Rruoioli,  published  at 
Venire  in  1532,  was  prohibited  by  the  council  of 
Trent.  The  Calvinists  likewise  have  their  Ita- 
lian Bibles.  There  is  one  of  John  Diodati  in 
1G07  and  1G41 ;  and  another  of  Maximus  Theo- 
philus,  in  1551,  dedicated  to  Francis  de  Medieis, 
duke  of  Tuscany.  The  Jews  of  Italy  have  no 
entire  version  of  the  Bible  in  Italian;  the  Inqui- 
sition constantly  refusing  to  allow  them  the  liber- 
ty of  printing  one. 

32.  Bibles,  Latin,  however  numerous,  may 
he  all  reduced  to  three  classes ;  the  ancient  Vul- 
gate, called  also  Italics,  translated  from  the  Greek 
Septuagint;  the  modern  Vulgate,  the  greatest 
part  of  which  is  done  from  the  Hebrew  text ;  and 
the  new  Latin  translations,  done  also  frctn  the 
Hebrew  text,  in  the  sixteenth  century.  We  have 
nothing  remaining  of  the  ancient  Vulgate,  used 
in  the  primitive  times  in  the  western  churches, 
but  the  Psalms,  Wisdom,  and  Ecclesiastes.  No- 
bilius  has  endeavoured  to  retrieve  it  from  the 
works  of  the  ancient  Latin  fathers ;  but  it  was 
impossible  to  do  it  exactly,  because  most  of  the 
fathers  did  not  keep  close  to  it  in  their  citations. 
As  to  the  modern  Vulgate,  there  are  a  vast  num 
her  of  editions  very  different  from  each  other 
Cardinal  Ximenes  has  inserted  one  in  the  Bible 
of  Complutum,  corrected  and  altered  in  many 
places.  R.  Stevens,  and  the  doctors  of  Louvain, 
have  taken  great  pains  in  correcting  the  modern 
Vulgate.  The  best  edition  of  Stevens's  Latin 
Bible  is  that  of  1540,  reprinted  1545,  in  which 
are  added  on  the  margin  the  various  readings  of 
several  Latin  manuscripts  which  he  had  consult- 
ed. The  doctors  of  Louvain  revised  the  modern 
Vulgate  after  R.  Stevens,  and  added  the  various 
readings  of  several  Latin  manuscripts.  The  best 
of  the  Louvain  editions  are  those  in  which  are 
added  the  critical  notes  of  Francis  Lucas,  of  Bru- 
ges. All  these  reformations  of  the  Latin  Bible 
were  made  before  the  time  of  pope  Sixtus  V.  and 
Clement  VIII. ;  since  which  people  have  not 
presumed  to  make  any  alterations,  excepting  in 
comments  and  separate  notes.  The  correction  of 
Clement  VIII.  in  1592  is  now  the  standard 
throughout  all  the  Romish  churches ;  that  pontiff 
made  two  reformations ;  but  it  is  the  first  of  them 
that  is  followed.  From  this  the  Bibles  of  Plantin 
were  done,  and  from  those  of  Plantin  all  the  rest; 
so  that  the  common  Bibles  have  none  of  the  after- 
corrections  of  the  same  Clement  VIII.  It  is  a 
heavy  charge  that  lies  on  the  edition  of  pope  Cle- 
ment, viz.  that  they  have  some  new  texts  added, 
and  many  old  ones  altered,  to  countenance  and 
confirm  what  they  call  the  Catholic  doctrine- 
There  are  a  great  number  of  Latin  Bibles  of  the 
third  class,  comprehending  the  versions  from  the 
originals  of  the  sacred  hooks  made  within  these 
200  years.  The  first  is  that  of  Santes  Pagninus, 
a  Dominican,  under  the  patronage  of  Leo  X., 
printed  at  Lyons,  in  quarto,  in  1527,  much  es- 
teemed by  the  Jews.  This  the  author  improved 
in  a  second  edition.  In  1542  there  was  a  beau- 
tiful edition  of  the  same  at  Lyons,  in  folio,  with 
scholia,  published  under  the  name  of  Michael 
Villanovanus,  i.  e.  Michael  Servetus,  author  of 
the  scholia.  Those  of  Zurich  have  likewise  pub- 
lished an  edition  of  Pagninus's  Bible  in  quarto; 
and  R.  Stevens  reprinted  it  in  folio,  with  the  Vul- 
vae, in  1557,  pne tending  to  give  it  more  correct 
than  in  the  former  editions.  There  is  also  ano- 
ther edition  of  1580,  in  four  columns,  under  the 


BIBLE 
name  of  Vatablus;  and  we  fin:l  it  again,  in  inc 
Hamburg  edition  of  the  Bible,  in  four  languages. 
In  the  number  of  Latin  Bibles  is  also  usually 
ranked  the  version  of  the  same  Pagninus,  cor- 
rected, or  rather  rendered  literal,  by  Arias  Mon- 
tanus;  which  correction  being  approved  of  by  the 
doctors  of  Louvain,  &c.  was  inserted  in  the  Poly- 
glot Bible  of  Philip  II.,  and  since  in  that  of  Lon- 
don. There  have  been  various  editions  of  this  in 
folio,  quarto  and  octavo;  to  which  have  been  add- 
ed the  Hebrew  text  of  the  Old  Testament,  and 
the  Greek  of  the  Newv  The  best  of  them  all  is 
the  first,  which  is  in  folio,  1571.  Since  the  Re- 
formation, there  have  been  several  Latin  versions 
of  the  Bible  from  the  originals,  by  Protestants. 
The  mast  esteemed. are  those  of  Munster,  Leo 
Juda,  Castalio,  and  Tremellius;  the  three  lust  of 
which  have  been  reprinted  various  times.  Mun- 
ster published  his  version  at  Basil  in  1531,  which 
he  afterwards  revised :  he  published  a  correct 
edition  in  1616.  Castalio's  fine  Latin  pleases 
most  people ;  but  there  are  some  who  think  it  af- 
fected :  the  best  edition  is  that  of  1573.  Leo  Juda's 
version,  altered  a  little  by  the  divines  of  Sala- 
manca, was  added  to  the  ancient  Latin  edition, 
as  published  by  R.  Stevens,  with  notes,  under  the 
name  of  Vatablus's  Bible,  in  1545.  It  was  con- 
demned by  the  Parisian  divines,  but  printed,  with 
some  alterations,  by  the  Spanish  divines  of  Sala- 
manca. Those  of  Junius,  Tremellius.  and  Beza, 
are  considerably  exact,  and  have  undergone  a 
great  number  of  editions.  We  may  add  a  fourth 
class  of  Latin  Bibles,  comprehending  the  Vulgate 
edition,  corrected  from  the  originals.  The  Bible 
of  Isidorus  Clarus  is  of  this  number;  that  au- 
thor, not  contented  with  restoring  the  ancient 
Latin  copy,  has  corrected  the  translator  in  a  great 
number  of  places  which  he  thought  ill  rendered. 
Some  Protestants  have  followed  the  same  method ; 
and  among  others,  Andrew  and  Luke  Osiander, 
who  have  each  published  a  new  edition  of  the  Vul- 
gate, corrected  from  the  originals. 

33.  Bibles,  Muscovite.    See  Nos.  38,  and  39. 

31.  Bibles,  Oriental.  See  Nos.  12,  13,  15, 
19,  20,  23,  35,  41,  42. 

35.  Bibles,  Persian.  Some  of  the  fathers 
seem  to  say  that  all  the  Scripture  was  formerly 
translated  into  the  language  of  the  Persians;  but 
we  have  nothing  now  remaining  of  the  ancient 
version,  which  was  certainly  done  from  the  Sep- 
tuagint.  The  Persian  Pentateuch,  printed  in  the 
London  Polyglot,  is  without  doubt  the  work  of 
rabbi  Jacob,  a  Persian  Jew.  It  was  published  by 
the  Jews  at  Constantinople,  in  1551.  In  the 
same  Polyglot  we  have  likewise  the  four  evange- 
lists in  Persian,  with  a  Latin  translation;  but 
this  appears  very  modern,  incorrect,  and  of  little 
vise.  Walton  says,  this  version  was  written  above 
four  hundred  years  ago.  Another  version  of  the 
Gospels  was  published  at  Cambridge,  by  Wheloc, 
in  the  seventeenth  century.  There  are  also  two 
Persian  versions  of  the  Psalms  made  from  the 
vulgar  Latin. 

36.  Bibles,  Polish.  The  first  Polish  version 
of  the  Bible,  it  is  said,  was  that  composed  by 
Hadewich,  wife  of  Jagellon,  duke  of  Lithuania, 
who  embraced  Christianity  in  the  year  1390.  In 
1599  there  was  a  Polish  translation  of  the  Bible 
published  at  Cracow,  which  was  the  work  of  se- 
veral divines  of  that  nation,  and  in  which  James 
Weick,  a  Jesuit,  had  a  principal  share.  The 
Protestants,  in  1590,   published  a  Polish  Bible 

49  O 


BIBLE 

tf-om  Luther's  German  version,  and  dedicated  i1 
o  T71adislaus,  fourth  king  of  Poland. 

37.  Bibles,  Polyglot.     See  Nos.  29,  31. 

38.  Bibles,  Russian;  or, 

39.  Bibles,  Sclavonian.  The  Russians  oi 
Muscovites  published  the  Biblein  their language 
n  1581.  It  was  translated  from  the  Greek  by 
it.  Cyril,  the  apostle  of  the  Sclavonians ;  but  this 
ild  version  being  too  obscure,  Ernest  Gliik,  who 
lad  been  carried  prisoner  to  Moscow,  after  the 
aking  of  Narva,  undertook  a  new  translation  of 
he  Bible  into  Sclavonian  ;  who  dying,  in  1705, 

the  Czar  Peter  appointed  some  particular  divines 
to  finish  the  translation ;  but  whether  it  was  ever 
irinted  we  cannot  say. 

40.  Bibles,  Spanish.  The  first  Spanish  Bi- 
ble that  we  hear  of,  is  that  mentioned  by  Cyprian 
le  Valera,  which  he  says  was  published  about 
1590.  The  epistles  and  gospels  were  published 
in  that  language  by  Ambrose  de  Montesian  in 
1512 ;  the  whole  Bible  by  Cassiodore  de  Reyna, 
i  Calvinist,  in  1509;  and  the  New  Testament, 
dedicated  to  the  Emperor  Charles  V.  by  Francis 
Enzina,  otherwise  called  Driander,  in  1543.  The 
first  Bible  which  was  printed  in  Spanish  for  the 
use  of  the  Jews,  was  that  printed  at  Ferara  in 
1553,  in  Gothic  characters,  and  dedicated  to  Her- 
cules D'Este,  duke  of  Ferara.  This  version  is 
very  ancient,  and  was  probably  in  use  among  the 
Jews  of  Spain  before  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  ex- 
pelled them  out  of  their  dominions  in  1492.  After 
very  violent  opposition  from  the  Catholic!  cler- 
gy, the  court  of  Spain  ordered  Spanish  Bibles  to 
be  printed  by  royal  authority  in  1790,  and  put  into 
the  hands  of  people  of  all  ranks,  as  well  as  to  be 
used  in  public  worship. 

41.  Bibles,  Syriac.  There  are  extant  two 
versions  of  the  Old  Testament  in  the  Syriac  lan- 
guage ;  one  from  the  Septuagint,  which  is  ancient, 
and  made  probably  about  the  time  of  Constanii  i  le ; 
the  other  called  antiqua  et  simplex,  made  from 
the  Hebrew,  as  some  suppose,  about  the  time  oft  he 
apostles.  This  version  is  printed  in  the  Polyglots 
of  London  and  Paris.  In  1502,  Wedmanstadius 
printed  the  whole  New  Testament  in  Syriac,  at 
Vienna,  in  a  beautiful  character  ;  and  since  his 
time  there  have  been  several  other  editions.  Ga- 
briel Sionita  published  a  beautiful  Syriac  edition 
of  the  Psalms  at  Paris  in  1520,  with  a  Latin  in- 
terpretation. There  is  a  Syriac  copy  of  the  Bible 
written  in  the  Estrangelo  character,  and  was 
brought  from  the  Christians  of  Travancore,  being 
a  present  from  Mar  Dionysius,  the  resident  bishop 
at  Cadenatte  to  Dr.  Buchanan.  The  size  is 
large  folio  in  parchment :  the  pages  are  written  in 
three  columns,  each  column  containing  60  lines. 
It  is  supposed  to  have  been  written  about,  the  7th 
century.  Dr.  White,  it  is  said,  has  for  sometime 
been  engaged  in  reprinting  the  Syriac  Old  Tes- 
tament. 

42.  Bibles,  Turkish.  In  1666,  a  Turkish 
New  Testament  was  printed  in  London,  to  be 
dispersed  in  the  East.  In  1721,  it  is  said,  the 
Grand  Seignior  ordered  an  impression  of  Bibles 
at  Constantinople,  that  they  might  be  cont  rasted 
with  Mahomet's  oracle,  the  Alcoran.  The  mo- 
dern Greeks  in  Turkey  have  also  a  translation  of 
the  Bible  in  their  language. 

43.  Bibles,  Welsh.  There  was  a  Welsh  trans- 
lation of  the  Bible  made  from  the  original  in  the 
time  of  Clueen  Elizabeth,  in  consequence  of  a  bill 
brought  into  the  House  of  Commons  fortius  pur- 


BIDDING 
[v>*e  in  1363:  it  wis  printed  in  folio,  in  1588. 
Another  version,  which  is  the  standard  transla- 
tion for  t hat  language,  was  printed  in  1620:  i  is 
called  Parrtfa  Bible.  An  impression  of  this 
was  printed  in  1690,  called  Bishop  Lloyd's  Bible. 
these  were  in  folio.  The  fir.t  octavo  impression 
of  the  Welsh  Bible  wis  made  in  1630. 

•11.  BlBLE,  Bengalee.  It  is  with  pleasure  we 
adJ  to  all  the  above  account*,  that  a  translation 
of  the  .New  Testament  into  the  Sanscrit,  and  the 
last  volume  of  the  Bengalee  Bible,  are  now 
completed,  by  the  missionaries  resident  in  that 
»wrt. 

Much  has  been  done  by  the  British  and 
Foreign  Bible  Society,  in  printing  new  edi- 
tions vf  t'.ie  Scriptures  in  various  languages. 
The  reader  will  find  much  pleasing  information 
on  the  subject  in  the  Annual  Reports  of  that 
Society. 

See  Le  Long's  Bibliotheca  Sacra  ;  Wolfii  Bib- 
liothcca  Hebrdca,  vol.  ii.  p.  338 ;  Johnson's  His- 
torical Account  of  English  Translations  of  the 
Bible;  Lewies  History  of  the  Translations  of 
the  Bible  into  English ;  Neiccomc's  Historical 
View  of  English  Translations  ;  Butler's  Horae 
Bihliccc  ;  and  the  article  Bible,  in  the  Encyclo- 
pedia Brilannica  and  Perthensis. 

Biblical,  a  term  applied  to  that  depart- 
ment of  writing  which  treats  of  the  Bible,  con- 
sidered as  the  prominent  subject  of  sacred  litera- 
ture. The  use  of  the  term  has,  of  late  years, 
become  more  common  in  proportion  as  the  study 
of  the  Scriptures  in  the  original  languages, 
and  the  criticism  of  the  sacred  text,  have  been 
more  extensively  cultivated.  See  Herjiexeu- 
tics.—  I). 

BIBL1QMANCY,  a  kind  of  divination  per- 
formed hrineans  of  the  Bible.  It  consisted  in 
taking  passages  of  Scripture  at  hazard,  and  draw- 
ing indications  thence  concerning  things  future. 
It  was  much  used  at  the  consecration  of  bishops. 
F.  J.  Davidius,  a  Jesuit,  has  published  a  biblio- 
mane)' under  the  borrowed  name  of  Veridicus 
Christianus.  It  has  been  affirmed  that  some  well- 
meaning  people  practise  a  kind  of  bibliomancy 
with  respect  to  the  future  state  of  their  souls ; 
and,  when  they  have  happened  to  fix  on  a  text 
of  an  awful  nature,  it  lias  almost  driven  them  to 
despair.  It  certainly  is  not  the  way  to  know  the 
mind  of  God  by  choosing  detached  parts  of  Scrip- 
ture, or  by  drawing  a  card  on  which  a  passage 
may  be  written,  the  sense  of  which  is  to  be  gath- 
ered onlv  from  the  context. 

BIDDELIANS,  so  called  from  John  Biddle, 
who,  in  the  year  1644,  formed  an  independ- 
ent congregation  in  London.  He  taught  that 
Jesus  Christ,  to  the  intent  that  he  might  be  our 
brother,  and  have  a  fellow-feeling  of  our  infirmi- 
ties, and  so  become  the  more  ready  to  help  us, 
hath  00  other  than  a  human  nature;  and  there- 
fore in  this  very  nature  is  not  only  a  person,  since 
none  hut  a  human  person  can  be  our  brother,  but 
also  our  Lord  and  God. 

Biddle,  as  well  as  Socinus  and  other  Unitari- 
ans before  and  since,  made  no  scrapie  of  calling 
Christ  God,  though  he  believed  him  to  be  a  hu- 
man creature  only,  on  account  of  the  divine 
sovereignty  with  which  he  was  invested. 

BIDDING  PRAYER,     It  was  part  of  the 

office  of  the  deacons  in  the  primitive  chnrch,  to 

be  monitors  and  directors  Of  the  people  in  their 

public  devotions  in  the  church.     To  this  end, 

51) 


BIOGRAPHY 
they  made  use  of  rert;iin  known  forms  of  word*, 
to  give  notice  when  cacn  part  of  the  service  uegtiiL 
Agreeable  to  this  ancient  practice,  is  the  form. 
"Let  us  pray,"  repeated  before  several  of  the 
prayers  n  the  English  liturgy.  Bishop  Burnet, 
in  his  History  of  the  Reformation,  vol.  ii.  p.  20. 
has  preserved  the  form'as  it  was  in  use  before  the 
Reformation,  which  was  this  : — After  the  preach- 
er had  named  and  opened  his  text,  lie  called  on  tho 
people  to  go  to  their  prayers,  telling  them  what 
they  were  to  pray  for:  Ye  shall  pray,  says  he,  for 
the  king,  the  pope,  clc.  After  which  all  the  peo- 
ple said  their  beads  in  a  general  silence,  and  tho 
minister  kneeled  down  likewise,  and  said  his: 
they  were  to  say  a  paternoster,  ace  Maria,  &c. 
and  then  the  senium  proceeded. 

BIGOTRY  consists  in  being  obstinately  and 
perversely  attached  to  our  own  opinions  ;  or,  as 
some  have  defined  it,  "  a  tenacious  adherence  to 
a  system  adopted  without  investigation,  and  de- 
fended without  argument,  accompanied  with  a 
malignant,  intolerant  spirit  towards  all  who  dif- 
fer." It  must  be  distinguished  from  love  to 
tr  ifh,  which  influences  a  man  to  embrace  it 
wherever  he  finds  it ;  and  from  trite  zeal,  which 
is  an  ardour  of  mind  exciting  its  possessor  to 
defend  and  propagate  the  principles  he  maintains. 
Bigotry  is  a  kind  of  prejudice  combined  with  a 
certain  degree  of  malignity.  It  is  thus  exempli- 
fied and  distinguished  by  a  sensible  writer. 
"  When  Jesus  preached,  Prejudice  cried,  Can 
any  good  tiling  come  out  of  Nazareth  1  Crucify 
him,  crucify  him,  said  Bigotry.  Why?  what 
evil  hath  he  done?  replied  Candour."  Bigotry 
is  mostly  prevalent  with  those  who  are  ignorant; 
who  have  taken  up  principles  without  due  ex- 
amination ;  and  who  are  naturally  of  a  morose 
and  contracted  disposition.  It  is  often  manifested 
more  in  unimportant  sentiments,  or  the  circum- 
stantials of  religion,  than  the  essentials  of  it. 
Simple  bigotry  is  the  spirit  of  persecution  with- 
out the  power ;  persecution  is  bigotry  armed  with 
power,  and  carrying  its  will  into  act.  As  it  is  the 
effect  of  ignorance,  so  it  is  the  nurse  of  it,  be- 
cause it  precludes  free  inquiry,  and  is  an  enemy 
to  truth :  it  cuts,  also,  the  very  sinews  of  charity, 
and  destroys  moderation  and  mutual  good-will. 
If  we  consider  the  different  make  of  men's  minds, 
our  own  ignorance,  the  liberty  that  all  men  have 
to  think  for  themselves,  the  admirable  example 
our  Lord  has  set  us  of  a  contrary  spirit,  and  the 
baneful  effects  of  this  disposition,  we  must  at 
once  be  convinced  of  its  impropriety.  How  con- 
tradictory is  it  to  sound  reason,  and  how  inimical 
to  the  peaceful  religion  we  profess  to  maintain  as 
Christians ! — See  Persecution,  and  books  under 
that  article. 

BIOGRAPHY,  (Religious,)  or  the  lives  of  il- 
lustrious and  pious  men,  are  well  worthy  of  pe- 
rusing. The  advantages  of  religious  biography, 
are  too  well  known  to  need  a  recital  in  this  place. 
We  shall  only,  therefore,  point  out  some  of  the 
best  pieces,  which  the  reader  may  peruse  at  his 
leisure : — 

Hunter's  Sacred  Biography  ;  Bobinson's 
Scripture  Characters;  Hunter's  History  of 
Christ;  J.  Taylor's  Life  of  Christ;  Care's 
Lives  of  the  Apostles-;  Can's  Lirrs  of  the  fa- 
thers ;  Eo.v's  Lives  of  the  Martyrs;  Melchior 
Adains's  Lites;  Fuller's  and  Clark's  Lives; 
Gilpin's  Lives  of  W'iclif,  Cranmer,  Latimer, 
$•<-.;  Walton's  Lives  by  Zouch;  Baxter's  Aorro- 


BLASPHEMY 
live  of  the  most  remarkable  Passages  of  his  Life 
and  Times,  by  Silvester ;  Palmer's  Noncon- 
formist Memorial ;  Lives  of  P.  and  M.  Henry; 
Jyf1  of  Hah/bur/on  ;  Orton's  Memoirs  of  Dod- 
dridge; Gillies'  Life  of  Whitfield;  Doddridge's 
Lfr  of  Gardiner ;  lAfe  of  Wesley  by  Hampson, 
Coke,  More,  and  Whitehead ;  Middleton's  Bio- 
graphia  Evangelica ;  Edwards's  Life  of  D. 
Brainerd ;  Gibbon's  Life  of  Watts;  Brown's 
Lfe  of  Hcrvey ;  Fawcelt's  Life  of  Hey wood  ; 
Brown's  Lives  in  his  Student  and  Pastor; 
Burnet's  Life  of  Rochester ;  Hayley's  Life  of 
Cowper;  Benson's  Life  of  Fletcher ;  Jay's  Life 
of  Winter  ;  Cecil's  Life  of  yewton  ;  Priestley's 
Chart  of  Biography,  rcilh  a  Book  describing  it, 
1 2 mo.;  Huweis's  Life  of  Romaine ;  Fuller's  Life 
of  Pearce. 

BISHOP,  a  prelate  consecrated  for  the  spi- 
ritual government  of  a  diocese.  The  word  comes 
from  the  Saxon  bischop,  and  that  from  the  Greek 
i^iTtonj,  an  overseer,  or  inspector.  It  is  a  long 
time  since  bishops  have  been  distinguished  from 
mere  priests,  or  presbyters ;  but  whether  that  dis- 
tinction be  of  divine  or  human  right ;  whether  it 
was  settled  in  the  apostolic  age,  or  introduced 
since,  is  much  controverted.  Churchmen  in  gene- 
ral plead  for  the  divine  right ;  while  the  Dis- 
senters suppose  that  the  word  no  where  signifies 
more  than  a  pastor  or  presbyter ;  the  very  same 
persons  being  called  bishops  and  elders,  or  pres- 
byters, Acts  xx.  17,  28.  1  Pet.  v.  1,  3.  Tit.  i. 
5,  7.  Phil.  i.  1.  See  Episcopacy.  All  the 
bishops  of  England  are  peers  of  the  realm,  except 
the  bishop  of  Man ;  and  as  such  sit  and  vote  in 
the  house  of  lords.  Besides  two  archbishops, 
there  are  twenty-four  bishops  in  England,  exclu- 
sive of  the  bishop  of  Sodor  and  Man.  The 
bishops  of  London,  Durham,  and  Winchester, 
take  the  precedence  of  the  other  bishops,  who 
rank  after  them  according  to  their  seniority  of 
consecration.     See  Episcopacy. 

BLASPHEMY,  from^xc.n?^.*,  according  to 
Dr.  Campbell,  properly  denotes  calumny,  detrac- 
tion, reproachful  or4 abusive  language,  against 
whomsoever  it  be  vented.  It  is  in  Scripture  ap- 
plied to  reproaches  not  aimed  against  God  only 
but  man  also,  Rom.  iii.  8.  xiv.  10.  1  Pet.  iv.  4. 
Gr.  It  is,  however,  more  peculiarly  restrained  to 
evil  or  reproachful  words  offered  to  God.  Ac- 
cording to  Lindwood,  blasphemy  is  an  injury 
offered  to  Go  1,  by  denying  that  which  is  due  and 
belonging  to  him,  or  attributing  to  him  what  is 
not  agreeable  to  his  nature.  "  Three  things," 
says  a  divine,  "  are  essential  to  this  crime ;  1. 
God  must  be  the  object. — 2.  The  words  spoken 
or  written,  independent  of  consequences  which 
others  may  derive  from  them,  must  be  injurious 
in  their  nature. — And,  3.  He  who  commits  the 
crims  must  do  it  knowingly.  This  is  real  blas- 
phemy :  but  there  is  a  relative  blasphemy,  as 
when  a  man  may  be  guilty  ignorantiy,  by  pro- 
pagating opinions  which  dishonour  God,  theten- 
aency  of  which  he  docs  not  perceive.  A  man 
tnay  be  guiity  of  this  constructively:  for  if  he 
.speak  freely  against  received  errors,  it  will  be  con- 
strued into  blasphemy."  By  the  English  laws, 
blasphemies  of  God,  as  denying  his  being  or  pro- 
vidence, and  all  contumelious  reproaches  of  Jesus 
Christ,  &c.  are  offences  by  the  common  law,  and 
punishab'e  by  fine,  imprisonment,  and  pillory ; 
and,  by  the  statute  law,  he  that  denies  one  of  the 
persons  in  the  Trinity,  or  asserts  that  there  are 
51 


BORRELLISTS 
more  than  one  God,  or  denies  Christianity  to  !>e 
true,  for  the  first  offence  is  rendered  incapable  of 
any  office  ;  for  the  second,  adjudged  incapable  of 
suing,  being  executor  or  guardian,  receiving  any 
gift  or  legacy,  and  to  be  imprisoned  for  years. 
According  to  the  law  of  Scotland,  blasphemy  is 
punished  with  death :  these  laws,  however,  in 
the  present  age,  are  not  enforced  :  the  legislature 
thinking,  perhaps,  that  spiritual  offences  should 
be  left  to  be  punished  by  the  Deity  rather  than  by 
human  statutes.  Campbell's  Prcl.  Diss.  vol.  i. 
p.  395  ;  Robinson's  Script.  Plea.,  p.  58. 

BLASPHEMY  AGAINST  THE  HOLY 
GHOST.     Sec  Unpardonable  Sin. 

BODY  OF  DIVINITY.     See  Theology. 

BOGOMILI,  or  Bogarmitje,  a  sect  of  here- 
tics which  arose  about  the  year  1179.  They  held 
that  the  use  of  churches,  of  the  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  and  all  prayer  except  the  Lord's 
prayer,  ought  to  be  abolished ;  that  the  baptism 
of  Catholics  is  imperfect ;  that  the  persons  of  the 
Trinity  are  unequal,  and  that  they  often  made 
themselves  visible  to  those  of  their  sect. 

BOHEMIAN  BRETHREN,  a  sect  of  Chris- 
tian reformers  which  sprung  up  in  Bohemia  in 
the  year  1467.  They  treated  the  pope  and 
cardinals  as  Antichrist,  and  the  church  of  Rome 
as  the  whore  spoken  of  in  the  Revelations.  They 
rejected  the  sacraments  of  the  Romish  church, 
and  chose  laymen  for  their  ministers.  They  held 
the  Scriptures  to  be  the  only  rule  of  faith,  and  re- 
jected the  popish  ceremonies  in  the  celebration  of 
the  mass;  nor  did  they  make  use  of  any  other 
prayer  than  the  Lord's  prayer.  They  consecrated 
leavened  bread.  They  allowed  no  adoration  but 
of  Jesus  Christ  in  the  communion.  They  rebap- 
tized  all  such  as  joined  themselves  to  their  con- 
gregation. They  abhorred  the  worship  of  saints 
and  images,  prayers  for  the  dead,  celibacies,  vows, 
and  fasts ;  and  kept  none,  of  the  festivals  but 
Christmas,  Easter,  and  Whitsuntide. 

In  1503  they  were  accused  by  the  Catholics  to 
king  Ladislaus  II.,  who  published  an  edict  against 
them,  fcrbidding  them  to  hold  any  meetings, 
cither  privately  or  publicly.  When  Luther  de- 
clared himself  against  the  church  of  Rome,  the 
Bohemian  brethren  endeavoured  to  join  his  party. 
At  first,  that  reformer  showed  a  great  aversion  to 
them ;  but,  the  Bohemians  sending  their  depu- 
ties to  him  in  1535,  with  a  full  account  of  their 
doctrines,  he  acknowledged  that  they  were  a  so- 
ciety of  Christians  whose  doctrines  came  nearest 
to  the  purity  of  the  Gospel.  This  sect  published 
artother  confession  of  faith  in  1535,  in  which  they 
renounced  anabaptism,  which  they  at  first  prac- 
tised :  upon  which  a  union  was  concluded  with 
the  Lutherans,  and  afterwards  with  the  Zuing- 
lians,  whose  opinions  from  thenceforth  they  con- 
tinued to  follow. 

BOOK  OF  SPORTS.     See  Sports. 

BORRELLISTS,  a  Christian  sect  in  Hol- 
land, so  named  from  their  founder  Borrel,  a  man 
of  great  learning  in  the  Hebrew,  Greek,  and  La- 
tin tongues.  They  reject  the  use  of  the  sacra- 
ments, public  prayer,  and  all  other  external  acts 
of  worship.  They  assert  that  all  the  Christian 
churches  of  the  world  have  degenerated  from  the 
pure  apostolic  doctrines,  because  they  have  suf- 
fered the  word  of  God,  which  is  infallible,  to  be 
expounded,  or  rather  corrupted,  by  doctors  who 
are  fallible;  They  lead  a  very  austere  life,  ajki 
employ  a  great  part  of  their  goods  in  alms. 


BRETHREN 

BOURIGNONISTS,  the  foUowerB  of  Antoi- 
nette Bourignon,  a  lady  in  France,  who  pre- 
tended to  particular  inspirations.  She  was  born 
at  Lisle,  in  1616.  At  her  birth  she  was  so  de- 
formed, that  it  was  delated  some  days  in  the 
family  whether  it  was  not  proper  to  stifle  her  as  a 
monster;  but  her  deformity  diminishing,  she  was 
spared;  and  afterwards  obtained  such  a  decree 
or  beauty,  that  she  had  her  admirers,  from  her 
childhood  to  her  old  aLre  she  had  an  extraordinary 
turn  of  mind.  She  set  up  for  a  reformer,  and 
published  a  great  number  of  books  filled  with 
very  singular  notions;  the  most  remarkable  of 
which  are  entitled  The  Light  of  the  World,  and 
The  Testimony  of  Truth.  In  her  confession  of 
faith,  she  professes  her  belief  in  the  Scriptures, 
the  divinity  and  atonement  of  Christ.  She  be- 
lieved also  that  man  is  perfectly  free  to  resist  or 
receive  divine  grace;  that  God  is  ever  unchange- 
iihle  love  towards  all  his  creatures,  and  does  not 
inflict  any  arbitrary  punishment ;  but  that  the 
evils  they  sutler  are  the  natural  consequence  of 
Kin ;  that  religion  consists  not  in  outward  forms 
of  worship  nor  systems  of  faith,  but  in  an  entire 
resignation  to  the  will  of  God.  She  held  many 
extravagant  notions,  among  which,  it  is  said,  she 
asserted  that  Adam,  before  the  fall,  possessed  the 
principles  of  both  sexes  ;  that  in  an  ecstaey,  God 
represented  Adam  to  her  mind  in  his  original 
state;  as  also  the  beauty  of  the  first  world,  and 
how  he  had  drawn  from  it  the  chaos ;  and  that 
every  thing  was  bright,  transparent,  and  darted 
forth  life  and  ineffable  glory,  with  a  number  of 
other  wild  ideas.  She  dressed  like  a  hermit,  and 
travelled  through  France,  Holland,  England,  and 
S  oilind.  She  died  at  Fanekir,  in  the  province 
of  Prise,  October  30,  1680.  Her  works  have 
been  printed  in  18  vols.  8vo. 

BOYLE'S  LECTURES  ;  a  course  of  eight 
sermons,  preached  annually  ;  set  on  foot  by  the 
honourable  R.  Boyle,  by  a  codicil  annexed  to  his 
will,  in  1691,  whose  design,  as  expressed  by  the 
institutor,  is  to  prove  the  truth  of  the  Christian 
religion  against  infidels,  without  descending  to 
any  controversies  among  Christians,  and  to  an- 
swer new  difficulties,  scruples,  &c.  For  the  sup- 
port of  this  lecture  he  assigned  the  rent  of  his 
house  m  Crooked  Lane  to  some  learned  divine 
within  the  bills  of  mortality,  to  be  elected  for  a 
term  not  exceeding  three  years.  But,  the  fund 
proving  precarious,  the  salary  was  ill  paid ;  to 
remedy  which  inconvenience,  archbishop  Tenni- 
son  procured  a  yearly  stipend  of  50/.  forever,  to 
be  paid  quarterly,  charged  on  a  farm  in  the  parish 
of  Brill,  in  the  county  of  Bucks.  To  this  ap- 
pointment we  are  indebted  for  many  excellent  de- 
fences of  natural  and  revealed  religion,  among 
which  may  be  mentioned  those  at  Clarke,  Kid- 
der, Bentley,  Burnet,  Berri  man,  Whiston,4v. 

BRANDENBURG,  CONFESSION  OF. 
A  formulary  or  confession  of  faith,  drawn  up  in  the 
city  of  Brandenburg  bv  order  of  the  elector,  with 
a  view  to  reconcile  the  teneis  of  Luther  with 
those  of"  Calvin,  and  to  put  an  end  to  the  disputes 

occasioned  by  the  Confession  of  Augsburg.    See 

AUGSBlfttG  (  lONFESSION. 

^  BRETHREN  AND  SISTERS  Ob  1  HE 
FREE  SPIRIT,  an  appellation  assumed  by  a 
sect  which  sprung  up  towards  the  close  of  the 
thirteenth  century,  and  gaLied  many  adherents  in 

Italy,  France,  and  Germany.  They  took  their 
denomination  from  the  words  of  St.  Paul,  Rom. 


BROWN  ISTS 

viii.  2,  14,  and -maintained  that  the  true  children 
of  God  were  invested  with  perfect  freedom  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  law.  They  held  that  all 
things  flowed  by  emanation  from  God  ;  that  ra- 
tional souls  were  portions  of  the  Deity,  that  tze 
universe  was  God;  and  that  by  the  power  of 
contemplation  they  were  united  to  the  Deity,  and 
acquired  hereby  a  glorious  and  sublime  liberty, 
both  from  the  sinful  lusts  and  the  common  in- 
stincts of  nature,  with  a  variety  of  other  enthu- 
siastic notions.  Many  edicts  were  published 
against  them  ;  but  they  continued  till  about  the 
middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

BRETHREN  AND  CLERKS  OF  THE 
COMMON  LIFE,  a  denomination  assume!  by 
a  religious  fraternity  towards  the  end  of  the  fif- 
teenth century.  They  lived  under  the  rule  of 
St.  Augustine,  and  were  said  to  be  eminently 
useful  in  promoting  the  cause  of  religion  and 
learning. 

BRETHREN,  WHITE,  were  the  followers 
of  a  priest  from  the  Alps,  about  the  beginning  of 
the  fifteenth  century.  They  and  their  leader  were 
arrayed  in  white  garments.  Their  leader  carried 
about  a  cross  like  a  standard.  His  apparent  sanc- 
tity and  devotion  drew  together  a  number  of  fol- 
lowers. This  deluded  enthusiast  practised  many 
acts  of  mortification  and  penance,  and  endeavour- 
ed to  persuade  the  Europeans  to  renew  the  holy 
war.  Boniface  IX.  ordered  him  to  be  appre- 
hended, and  committed  to  the  flames;  upon  which 
his  followers  dispersed. 

BRETHREN,  UNITED.  See  Moravians, 

BREVIARY,  the  book  containing  the  daily 
service  of  the  church  of  Rome. 

BRIDGETINS,  or  Brigittins,  an  order  de- 
nominated from  St.  Bridget,  or  Brigit,  a  Swedish 
lady,  in  the  fourteenth  century.  Their  rule  is 
nearly  that  of  St.  Augustine.  The  Brigittins 
profess  great  mortification,  poverty,  and  self-de- 
nial ;  and  they  are  not  to  possess  any  thing  they 
can  call  their  own,  not  so  much  as  an  half-penny  ; 
nor  even  to  touch  money  on  any  account.  1  his 
order  spread  much  through  Sweden,  Germany, 
and  the  Netherlands.  In  England  we  read  of 
but  one  monastery  of  Brigittins,  and  this  built  by 
Henry  V.  in  1415,  opposite  to  Richmond,  now 
called  Sion  House ;  the  ancient  inhabitants  of 
which,  since  the  dissolution,  are  settled  at  Lisbon. 

BRIEFS  (Apostolical)  are  letters  which  the 
pope  dispatches  to  princes  and  other  magistrates 
concerning  anv  public  affair. 

BROTHERS,  LAY,  among  the  Romanists, 
are  illiterate  persons,  who  devote  themselves  rn 
some  convent  to  the  service  of  the  religious. 

BROWN1STS,  a  sect  that  arose  among  the 
puritans  towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury;  so  named  from  their  leader,  Robert  Brown. 
He  was  educated  at  Cambridge,  and  was  a  man 
of  good  parts  and  some  learning.  He  began  to 
inveigh  openly  against  the  ceremonies  of  the 
church,  at  Norwich,  in  1580:  but  being  much 
opposed  by  the  bishops,  he,  with  hi>  congrega- 
tion, left  England,  and  settled  at  MiddlebuTgh,  in 
Zealand,  where  they  obtained  leave  to  worship 
God  in  their  own  way,  ami  form  a  church  ac- 
cording to  their  own  model.  They  soon,  how- 
ever, began  to  differ  among  themselves;  so  that 
Brown,  growing  weary  of  his  office,  returned  to 
England,  in  1689,  renounced  his  principles  of 
separation,  and  was  preferred  to  the  rectory  of 
a  church  in  Northamptonshire.     He  died  in  pa- 


BROWNISTS 
son.  in  16.30.  The  revolt  of  Brown  was  attended 
with  the  dissolution  of  the  church  at  Middle- 
burgh  ;  but  the  seeds  of  Brownism  which  he  had 
sown  in  England  were  so  far  from  being  destroy- 
ed, that  Sir  Walter  Raleigh,  in  a  speech  in  1592, 
computes  no  less  than  '20,000  of  this  sect. 

The  articles  of  their  faith  seem  to  be  nearly  the 
same  as  those  of  the  church  of  England.  The 
occasion  of  their  separation  was  not,  therefore, 
any  fault  they  found  with  the  faith,  but  only  with 
the  discipline  and  form  of  government  of  the 
churches  in  England.  They  equally  charged 
corruption  on  the  episcopal  and  presbyterian 
forms;  nor  would  they  join  with  any  other  re- 
formed church,  because  they  were  not  assured  of 
the  sanctity  and  regeneration  of  the  members  that 
composed  it.  They  condemned  the  solemn  cele- 
bration of  marriages  in  the  church,  maintaining 
that  matrimony  being  a  political  contract,  the  con- 
firmation thereof  ought  to  come  from  the  civil 
magistrate  ;  an  opinion  in  which  they  are  not  sin- 
gular. They  would  not  allow  the  children  of 
such  as  were  not  memlters  of  the  church  to  be 
baptized.  They  rejected  all  forms  of  prayer,  and 
held  that  the  Lord's  prayer  was  not  to  be  recited 
as  a  prayer,  being  only  given  for  a  rule  or  model 
whereon  all  our  prayers  are  to  be  formed.  Their 
form  of  church  government  was  nearly  as  follows : 
When  a  church  was  to  be  gathered,  such  as  de- 
sired to  be  members  of  it  made  a  confession  of  their 
faith  in  the  presence  of  each  other,  and  signed  a 
covenant,  by  which  they  obliged  themselves  to 
walk  together  in  the  order  of  the  Gospel.  The 
whole  power  of  admitting  and  excluding  mem- 
bers, with  the  decision  of  all  controversies,  was 
lodged  in  the  brotherhood.  Their  church  officers 
were  chosen  from  among  themselves,  and  sepa- 
rated to  their  several  offices  by  fasting,  prayer, 
and  imposition  of  hands.  But  they  did  not  allow 
the  priesthood  to  be  any  distinct  order.  As  the 
vote  of  the  brethren  made  a  man  a  minister,  so 
the  same  power  could  discharge  him  from  his 
office,  and  reduce  him  to  a  mere  layman  again  ; 
and  as  they  maintained  the  bounds  of  a  church 
to  be  no  greater  than  what  could  meet  together  in 
one  place,  and  join  in  one  communion,  so  the 
power  of  these  officers  was  prescribed  within  the 
s.i me  limits. — The  minister  of  one  church  could 
not  administer  the  Lord'*  Supper  to  another,  nor 
baptize  the  children  of  any  but  those  of  his  own 
society.  Any  lav  brother  was  allowed  the  liberty 
of  giving  a  word  of  exhortation  to  the  people ;  and 
il  was  usual  for  some  of  them  after  sermon  to  ask 
questions,  and  reason  upon  the  doctrines  that 
had  been  preached.  In  a  word,  every  church  on 
their  model  is  a  body  corporate,  having  full  power 
to  do  every  thing  in  themselves,  without  being 
accountable  to  any  class,  syncd,  convocation,  or 
other  jurisdiction  whatever.  The  reader  will 
jinh'e  how  near  the  Independent  churches  are 
allied  to  this  form  of  government.  See  INDE- 
PENDENTS.— The  laws  were  executed  with  great 
severity  on  the  Brownists  ;  their  books  were  pro- 
hibited by  queen  Elizabeth,  their  persons  impri- 
soned, and  some  hanged.  Brown  himself  de- 
clared on  his  death-bed  that  he  had  been  in 
thirtv-two  different  prisons,  in  some  of  which  he 
could  not  see  his  hand  at  noon-day.  They  were 
so  much  persecuted,  that  they  resolved  at  last  to 
qui*  the  country.  Accordingly  many  retired  and 
sen  led  at  Amsterdam,  where  they  formed  a 
church,  and  chose  Mr.  Johnson  their  pastor,  and 
53 


EURIAL 

after  him,  Mr.  Ainsworth,  author  of  the  learned 
Commentary  on  the  Pentateuch.  Their  church 
flourished  near  100  years.  Among  the  Brownists, 
too,  were  the  famous  John  Robinson,  a  part  of 
whose  congregation  from  Leyden,  in  Holland, 
made  the  iirst  permanent  settlement  in  North 
America ;  and  the  laborious  Canne,  the  author 
of  the  marginal  references  to  the  Bible.-  Fuller's 
Church  History  of  England,  B.'.l.p.  166;  Strype's 
Life  of  Parker,  p.  326 ;  Neale's  History  of  the 
Puritans,  vol.  i.  p.  375;  Mosheim's  Eccl.  History, 
vol.  iv.  p.  !)8  ;  Hornbeck's  History  of  Brownism. 

BUCHAN1TES,  a  set  of  enthusiasts  who 
sprung  up  in  the  west  of  Scotland  about  1783, 
and  took  their  name  from  a  Mrs.  Buchan  of 
Glasgow,  who  gave  herself  out  to  be  the  woman 
spoken  of  in  the  Revelations ;  and  that  all  who 
believed  in  her  should  be  taken  up  to  heaven 
without  tasting  death,  as  the  end  of  the  world  was 
near.  They  never  increased  much;  and  the  death 
of  their  leader,  within  a  year  or  two  afterwards, 
occasioned  their  dispersion,  by  putting  an  end  to 
their  hopes  of  reaching  the  New  Jerusalem  with- 
out death. 

BUDNiEANS,  a  sect  in  Poland,  who  dis- 
claimed the  worship  of  Christ,  and  ran  into  many 
wild  hypotheses.  Budnseus,  the  founder,  was 
publicly  excommunicated  in  15S4,  with  all  his 
disciples,  but  afterwards  he  was  admitted  to  the 
communion  of  the  Socinian  sect. 

BULLS,  (Popish,)  are  letters  called  apostolic 
by  the  Canonists,  strengthened  with  a  leaden  seal, 
and  containing  in  them  the  decrees  and  com- 
mandments of  the  pope. 

BURGHER  SECEDERS,  a  numerous  and 
respectable  class  of  dissenters  from  the  church  of 
Scotland,  who  were  originally  connected  with  the 
associate  presbytery  ;  but,  some  diilerence  of  sen- 
timent arising  about  the  lawfulness  of  taking  the 
Burgess  oath,  a  separation  ensued  in  173!);  in 
consequence  of  which,  those  who  pleaded  lor  the 
affirmative  obtained  the  appellation  of  Burgher, 
and  their  opponents  that  of  Anti-burgher  Sece- 
ders.     See  Skcedkhs. 

BURIAL,  the  interment  of  a  deceased  person. 
The  rites  of  burial  have  been  looked  upon  in  all 
countries  as  a  debt  so  sacred,  that  such  as  neglect- 
ed to  discharge  them  were  thought  accursed. 
Among  the  Jews,  the  privilege  of  burial  was  de- 
nied only  to  self-murderers,  who  were  thrown  out 
to  putrefy  upon  the  ground.  In  the  (  hristian 
church,  though  good  men  always  desired  the  pri- 
vilege of  interment,  yet  they  were  not,  hive  the 
heathen^  so  concerned  for  their  bodies,  as  to  think 
it  any  detriment  to  them  if  either  the  barbarity  of 
an  enemy,  or  some  other  accident,  deprived  them 
of  this  privilege.  The  primitive  church  denied 
the  more  solemn  rites  of  burial  only  to  unbaptized 
persons,  self-murderers,  ami  excommunicated 
persons,  who  continued  obstinate  and  impenitent 
in  a  manifest  contempt  of  the  church's  censures. 
The  place  of  burial  among  the  Jews  was  never 
particularly  determined.  We  find  they  ha<! 
graves  in  the  town  and  country,  upon  the  high- 
way or  in  gardens,  and  upon  mountains.  Among 
the  Greeks,  the  temples  were  made  repositories  tor 
the  dead,  in  the  primitive  ages:  yet,  in  the  latter 
ages,  the  Greeks  as  well  as  the  Romans  buried  the 
dead  without  the  cities,  and  chiefly  by  the  high- 
ways. Among  the  primitive  Christians,  burying 
in  cities  was  not  allowed  for  the  lirst  three  hun- 
dred years,  nor  in  churches  for  many  ages  after-, 


CAINITES 
the  drad  bodies  being  first  dep6sited  in  the  atrium 
or  churchyard,  and  porches  and  porticos  of  the 
church :  hereditary  burying-places  were  forbidden 
till  the  twelfth  century.  See  FUNERAL  RlTES. 
A»  to  burying  in  churches,  we  find  a  difference 
of  opinion  :  some  have  thought  it  improper  that 
dead  bodies  should  be  interred  in  the  church. 
Sir  Matthew  Hale  used  to  say  that  churches 
were  for  the  living,  and  churchyards  for  the  dead. 


CALL 

Tn  the  famous  bishop  Hall's  will  we  find  thin 
passage;  after  desiring  a  private  funeral,  he  --'ays, 
"  I  do  not  hold  (  rod's  house  a  meet  repository  tor 
the  dead  bodies  of  the  greatest  saints."  Mr. 
Hcrvey,  on  the  contrary,  defends  if,  and  supposes 
that  it  tends  to  .^nder  our  assemblies  more 
awful :  and  that,  as  the  bodies  of  the  saints  are  the 
Lord's  property,  they  should  be  reposed  in  his 
house. 


c. 


CABBALA,  a  Hebrew  word,  signifying  tradi- 
tion :  it  is  used  for  a  mysterious  kind  of  science 
pretended  to  have  been  delivered  by  revelation  to 
the  ancient  Jews,  and  transmitted  by  oral  tradi- 
tion to  those  of  our  times:  serving  for  interpreta- 
tion of  the  books  both  of  nature  and  Scripture. 

CABBALISTS,  the  Jewish  doctors  who  pro- 
fess the  study  of  the  cabbala.  They  study  princi- 
pally the  combination  of  particular  words,  letters, 
and  numbers;  and  by  this,  they  say,  they  see 
clearly  into  the  sense  of  Scripture.  In  their 
opinion,  there  is  not  a  word,  letter,  number,  or 
accent,  in  the  law,  without  some  mystery  in  it ; 
and  they  even  pretend  to  discover  what  is  future 
by  this  vain  study. 

Dr.  Smith  has  given  us  the  following  descrip- 
tion of  the  Cabbalistic  rabbies. 

They  have  employed  the  above  methods  of  in- 
terpretation, which  have  rendered  the  Scripture  a 
convenient  instrument  of  subserviency  to  any 
purpose  which  they  might  choose.  Disregarding 
the  continuity  of  subject,  and  the  harmony  of 
parts,  in  any  Scriptural  composition,  they  select- 
ed sentences,  and  broken  pieces  of  sentences, 
and  even  single  words  and  detached  letters  ;  and 
these  they  proposed  to  the  ignorant  and  abused 
multitude  as  the  annunciations  of  truth  and  au- 
thority. To  ascertain  the  native  sense  of  the  sa- 
cred writers,  however  momentous  and  valuable, 
was  no  object  of  their  desire.  Attention  to  the 
just  import  of  words,  to  the  scope  of  argument, 
and  to  the  connexion  of  parts,  was  a  labour  from 
which  they  were  utterly  averse,  and  which  they 
impiously  despised.  Instead  of  such  faithful  and 
honest  endeavours  to  know  the  will  of  God,  they 
stimulated  a  sportive  fancy,  a  corrupt  and  often 
absurd  ingenuity,  to  the  invention  of  meanings 
the  most  remote  from  the  design  of  the  inspired 
writer,  and  the  most  foreign  from  the  dictates  of 
an  unsophisticated  understanding.  No  part  of 
the  Scriptures  was  safe  from  this  profanation. 
The  plainest  narrative,  the  most  solemn  com- 
mand, the  most  clear  and  interesting  declaration 
of  doctrine,  were  made  to  bend  beneath  this  ir- 
reverent violence.  History  the  most  true,  the 
most  ancient,  and  the  most  important  in  the 
world,  was  considered  merely  as  the  vehicle  of 
mystic  allegory.  The  rule  of  faith,  and  the 
standard  of  indissoluble  duty,  were  made  flexible 
and  weak  as  the  spider's  web,  and  the  command- 
ments of  God  were  rendered  void.  See  Dr. 
Smith's  Sermon  on  the  Apostolic  Ministry  com- 
pared villi  Ike  Pretensions  oj"  spurious  Re- 
ligion and  false  Philosophy. 

CAINITES,  a  Beet  who  sprung  up  about  the 
year  130;  so  called,  because  they  esteemed  Cain 
worthy  of  the  greatest  honours.  They  honoured 
those   who  carry  in  Scripture   the  most  visible 


marks  of  reprobation  ;  as  the  inhabitants  of  So- 
dom, Esau,  Korah,  Dathan,  and  Abiram.  They 
had,  in  particular,  great  veneration  for  Judas, 
under  the  pretence  that  the  death  of  Christ  had 
saved  mankind. 

CALIXTINS,  a  branch  of  the  Hussites  in 
Bohemia  and  Moravia,  in  the  fifteenth  century. 
The  principal  point  in  which  they  differed  from 
the  church  of  Rome  was  the  use  of  the  chalice 
(calix),  or  communicating  in  both  kinds.  Ca- 
lixtins  was  also  a  name  given  to  those  among  the 
Lutherans  who  followed  the  opinions  of  George 
Calixtus,  a  celebrated  divine  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  who  endeavoured  to  unite  the  Romish, 
Lutheran,  and  Calvinistic  churches  in  the  bonds 
of  charity  and  mutual  benevolence.  He  main- 
tained, 1.  That  the  fundamental  doctrines  of 
Christianity,  by  which  he  meant  those  elemen- 
tary principles  whence  all  its  truths  flow,  were 
preserved  pure  in  all  three  communions,  and  were 
contained  in  that  ancient  form  of  doctrine  that  is 
vulgarly  known  by  the  name  of  the  apostles' 
creed. — 2.  That  the  tenets  and  opinions  which 
had  been  constantly  received  by  the  ancient  doc- 
tors, during  the  first  five  centuries,  were  to  be  con- 
sidered as  of  equal  truth  and  authority  with  the 
express  declarations  and  doctrines  of  Scripture. 

CALL,  CALLING,  generally  denotes  God's 
invitation  to  man  to  participate  the  blessings  of 
salvation:  it  is  termed  effectual,  to  distinguish  it 
from  that  external  or  conunon  call  of  the  ligl  t  of 
nature,  but  especially  of  the  Gospel,  in  w  Inch 
men  are  invited  to  come  to  God,  but  which  has 
no  saving  effect  upon  the  heart:  thus  it  is  said, 
"Many  are  called,  but  few  chosen.''  Matt,  xxii. 
14.  Effectual  calling  has  been  more  particularly 
defined  to  be  '  the  work  of  God's  Spirit,  whereby 
convincing  us  of  our  sin  and  misery,  enlightening 
our  minds  with  the  knowledge  of  Christ,  and  re- 
newing our  wills,  he  doth  persuade  and  enable 
us  to  embrace  Jesus  Christ,  freely  offered  to  us 
in  the  Gospel.  This  may  further  lie  considered 
as  a  call  from  darkness  to  light,  1  Pet.  ii.  'J  ;  from 
bondage  to  liberty,  Gal.  ii.  13;  from  the  fellow- 
ship ofthe  world  to  the  fellowship  of  Christ,  1  Cor. 
i.  (J ;  from  misery  to  happiness,  1  Cor.  vii.  15;  from 
sin  to  holiness,  1  Thess.  iv.  7;  finally,  from  ail 
created  good  to  the  enjoyment  of  eternal  felicity, 
1  Pet.  v.  10.  it  is  considered  in  the  Script 
a  holy  calling,  "3  Tim.  i.  I);  a  high  calling,  Phil. 
hi.  11;  a  heavenly  calling,  Heb.  iii.  1;  and  icith- 
out  repentance,  as  God  will  never  cast  off  any 
who  are  once  drawn  to  him,  Rom.  xi.  -J!). 

It  has  been  a  matter  of  dispute  whether  the 
Gospel  call  should  be  generci,  i.e.  preached  to  all 
men  indiscriminately.  Sqrnc  suppose  that,  as  the 
elect  only  will  be  saved,  it  is  ii>  lie  preached  only 
to  them ;  and,  therefore,  cannot  invite  all  to  come 


CALVINISTS 
to  Christ  Eut  to  this  it  is  answered,  that  an  un- 
known decree  can  be  no  rule  of  action,  Deut. 
xxix.  29.  Prov.  ii.  13 ;  that,  as  we  know  not  who 
are  the  elect,  we  cannot  tell  but  he  may  succeed 
our  endeavours  by  enabling  those  who  are  ad- 
dressed to  comply  with  the  call,  and  believe;  that 
it  is  the  Christian  minister's  commission  to 
preach  the  Gospel  to  every  creature,  Mark  xvi. 
15  ;  that  the  inspired  writers  never  confined  them- 
selves to  preach  to  saints  only,  but  reasoned  with 
and  persuaded  sinners,  2  Cor.  v.  1 1 : — and,  lastly, 
that  a  general  address  to  men's  consciences  has 
been  greatly  successful  in  promoting  their  con- 
version, Acts  ii.  23,  41.  But  it  has  been  asked,  if 
none  but  the  elect  can  believe,  and  no  man  has 
any  ability  in  himself  to  comply  with  the  call, 
snd  as  the  Almighty  knows  that  none  but  those 
•o  whom  he  gives  grace  can  be  effectually  called, 
y{  what  use  is  it  to  insist  on  a  general  and  external 
call  ?  To  this  it  is  answered,  that,  by  the  exter- 
nal call,  gross  enormous  crimes  are  often  avoided; 
habits  of  vice  have  been  partly  conquered  ;  and 
much  moral  good  at  least  has  been  produced.  It 
is  also  observed,  that  though  a  man  cannot  con- 
vert liimself,  yet  he  has  a  powe;  to  do  some  things 
that  are  materially  good,  though  not  good  in  all 
those  circumstances  that  accompany  or  flow  from 
"egeneration :  such  were  Ahnb's  humility,  1 
Kings  xxi.  29 ;  Nineveh's  repentance,  Jer.  iii.  5 ; 
and  Herod's  hearing  of  John,  Mark  vi.  20.  On 
the  whol<",  the  design  of  God  in  giving  this  com- 
mon call  in  the  Gospel  is  the  salvation  of  his 
people,  the  restraining  of  many  from  wicked 
practices,  and  the  setting  forth  of  the  glorious 
work  of  redemption  by  Jesus  Christ.  See  Gill 
and  Ridgleifs  Body  of  Div.  ;  Witsius  on  the 
Cov.  ;  and  Beimel's  Essay  on  the  Gospel  Dis- 
pensation. 

CALVINISTS,  those  who  embrace  the  doc- 
trine and  sentiments  of  Calvin,  the  celebrated 
reformer  of  the  Christian  church  from  Romish 
superstition  and  doctrinal  errors. 

John  Calvin  was  born  at  Nogen,  in  Picardy,  in 
the  year  150'.>.  He  first  studied  the  civil  law,  and 
was  afterwards  made  professor  of  divinity  at 
Geneva,  in  the  year  1536.  His  genius,  learning, 
eloquence,  and  piety,  rendered  him  respectable 
even  in  the  eyes  of  his  enemies. 

The  name  of  Calvinists  seems  to  have  been 
given  at  first  to  those  who  embraced  not  merely 
the  doctrine,  but  the  church  government  and  dis- 
cipline established  at  Geneva,  and  to  distinguish 
them  from  the  Lutherans.  But  since  the  meeting 
of  the  Synod  of  Dort,  the  name  has  been  chiefly 
applied  to  those  who  embrace  his  leading  views  of 
the  Gospel,  to  distinguish  them  from  the  Ar- 
menians. 

The  leading  principles  taught  by  Calvin  were 
the  same  as  those  of  Augustine.  The  main  doc- 
trines by  which  those  who  are  called  after  his 
name  are  distinguished  from  the  Arminians,  are 
reduced  to  five  articles;  and  which,  from  their 
being  the  principal  points  discussed  at  the  Synod 
of  Dort,  have  since  been  denominated  the  Jirc 
points.  These  arc,  predestination,  particular  re- 
demption, total  depravity,  effectual  calling,  and 
the  certain  perseverance  of  the  saints. 

The  following  statement  is  taken  principally 
from  the  writings  of  Calvin  and  the  decisions  at 
I  Sort,  compressed  in  as  few  words  as  possible. 

I.  They  maintain  that  God  hath  chosen  a  cer- 
tain number  of  the  fallen  race  of  Adam  in  Christ 


CALVLN1STS 
before  the  foundation  of  the  world,  unto  eternal 
glory,  according  to  his  immutable  purpose,  and 
of  his  free  grace  and  love,  without  the  least  fore- 
sight of  faith,  good  works,  or  any  conditions  per- 
formed by  the  creature;  and  that  the  rest  of  man- 
kind he  was  pleased  to  pass  by,  and  ordain  to 
dishonour  and  wrath,  for  their  sins,  to  the  praise 
of  his  vindictive  justice. 

In  proof  of  this  they  allege,  among  many  other 
Scripture  passages,  the  following:  "According 
as  he  hath  chosen  us  in  him  before  the  foundation 
of  the  world,  that  we  should  be  holy  and  without 
Llame  before  him  in  love. — For  he  saith  to  Mo- 
ses, 1  will  have  mercy  on  whom  I.  will  have  mer- 
cy, and  I  will  have  compassion  on  whom  I  will 
have  compassion.  So  then,  it  is  not  of  him  that 
willeth,  nor  of  him  that  runneth,  but  of  God,  that 
showeth  mercy.  Thou  wilt  say,  then,  Why  doth 
he. yet  find  fault;  for  who  hath  resisted  his" will? 
Nay,  but  O  man!  who  art  thou  that  repliest 
against  God  ?  Shall  the  thing  formed  say  to  him 
that  formed  it,  Why  hast  thou  made  me  thus? 
Hath  not  the  potter  power  over  the  clay,  of  the 
same  lump  to  make  one  vessel  unto  honour  and 
another  unto  dishonour? — Hath  God  cast  away 
his  people  whom  he  foreknew  ?  Wot  ye  not 
what  the  Scripture  saith  of  Elias  ?  Even  so  at 
this  present  time,  also,  there  is  a  remnant  accord- 
ing to  the  election  of  grace.  And  if  by  grace, 
then  it  is  no  more  of  works.  What  then?  Isra- 
el hath  not  obtained  that  which  he  seeketh  for, 
but  the  election  hath  obtained  it,  and  the  rest  are 
blinded. — Whom  he  did  predestinate,  them  he 
also  called.  We  give  thanks  to  God  always  for 
you  brethren  beloved  of  the  Lord,  because  God 
hath  from  the  beginning  chosen  you  to  salvation, 
through  sanetification  of  the  Spirit  and  belief  of 
the  truth. — As  many  as  were  ordained  to  eternal 
life,  believed."  Eph.  i.  4.  Rom.  ix.  xi.  f — 6. 
yiii.  29.  30.  2  Thcss.  ii.  13.  Acts  xiik  48. 
They  think  also  that  the  greater  part  of  these 
passages,  being  found  in  the  epistolary  writings, 
after  the  pouring  out  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  who  was 
promised  to  guide  the  apostles  into  all-truth,  is  an 
argument  in  favour  of  the  doctrine. 

They  do  not  consider  predestination,  however, 
as  affecting  the  agency  or  accountableness  of 
creatures,  or  as  being  to  them  any  rule  of  coiiduct. 
On  the  contrary,  they  suppose  them  to  act  as 
freely,  and  to  be  as  much  the  proper  subjects  of 
calls,  warnings,  exhortations,  promises,  and 
threatenings,  as  if  no  decree  existed.  The  con- 
nection in  which  the  doctrine  is  introduced  by 
the  divines  at  Dort,  is  to  account  for  one  sinner's 
believing  and  being  saved  rather  than  another; 
and  such  the  Calvinists  say,  is  the  connection 
which  it  occupies  in  the  Scriptures.  • 

With  respect  to  the  conditional  predestination 
admitted  by  the  Arminians,  they  say  that  an 
election  upon  faith  or  good  works  foreseen,  is  not 
that  of  the  Scriptures ;  for  that  election  is  there 
made  the  cause  of  faith  and  holiness,  and  cannot, 
for  this  reason,  be  the  effect  of  them.  With  re- 
gard to  predestination  to  death,  they  say,  if  the 
question  be,  Wherefore  did  God  decree  to  punish 
those  who  are  punished?  the  answer  is,  On  ac- 
count of  their  sins.  But  if  it  be,  Wherefore  did 
he  decree  to  punish  them  rather  than  others? 
there  is  no  other  reason  to  be  assigned,  but  that 
so  it  seemed  good  in  his  sight.  Eph.  i.  3,  4. 
John  vi.  37.  Rom.  viii.  29,  30.  Acts  xiii.  46. 
1  Pet.  i.  ].     Rom.  ix.  L5:  Id.  xl  5,  G. 


CALVIN1STS 
2.  They  maintain  that  though  the  death  of 
rfhrist  be  a  most  perfect  sacrifice,  and  satisfaction 

for  sins,  of  infinite  value,  abundantly  sufficient  to 
expiate  the  sins  of  the  whole  world  ;  and  though 
on  this  ground  the  Gospel  is  to  be  preached  to 
all  mankind  indiscriminately  ;  yet  it  was  the  will 
of  God  that  Christ,  by  the  blood  of  the  cross, 
should  efficaciously  redeem  all  those,  and  those 
only,  who  were  from  eternity  elected  to  salva- 
tion, and  given  to  him  by  the  Father. 

<  'alvin  does  not  appear  to  have  written  on  this 
subject  as  a  controversy,  but  his  comments  on 
Scripture  agree  with  the  above  statement.  The 
following  positions  arc  contained  in  the  resolu- 
tions of  the  synod  of  Dort,  under  this  head  of 
doctrine  : — "  The  death  of  the  Son  of  God  is  the 
onlv  and  most  perfect  sacrifice  and  satisfaction 
for  sins,  of  infinite  value  and  price,  abundantly 
sufficient  to  expiate  the  sins  of  the  whole  world. 
— The  promise  of  the  Gospel  is,  that  whosoever 
believeth  in  Christ  crucified  shall  not  perish,  but 
have  everlasting  life ;  which  promise,  together 
with  the  command  to  repelit  and  believe,  ought 
promiscuously  and  indiscriminately  to  be  publish- 
ed and  proposed  to  all  people  and  individuals,  to 
whom  God  in  his  good  pleasure  sends  the  Gos- 
pel.— Whereas,  many  who  are  called  by  the  Gos- 
pel do  not  repent  nor  believe  in  Christ,  but  perish 
ia  unbelief;  this  proceeds  not  from  any  defect  or 
insufficiency  in  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  offered  on 
the  cross,  but  from  their  own  fault.  As  many 
us  truly  believe,  and  are  saved  by  the  death  of 
Christ  from  their  sins,  and  from  destruction, 
have,  to  ascribe  it  to  the  mere  favour  of  God, 
which  he  owes  to  none,  given  them  in  Christ  from 
eternity.  For  it  was  the  most  free  counsel,  and 
gracious  will  and  intention  of  God  the  Father, 
th  I  the  quickening  and  saving  efficacy  of  the 
most  precious  death  of  his  Son  should  exert  itseli 
i;i  ill  the  elect,  to  give  unto  them  only  justifying 
faith,  and  by  it  to  conduct  them  infallibly  to  sal- 
vation  !  that  is,  it  was  the  will  of  God  that  Christ 
by  the  blood  of  the  cross,  whereby  he  confirmed 
the  new  covenant,  should  efficaciously  redeem 
out  of  every  people,  tribe,  nation  and  language, 
ull  those,  and  those  only,  who  were  from  eternity 
elected  to  salvation,  and  given  to  him  by  the  Fa- 
ther." 

These  positions  they  apnear  to  have  considered 
a-  not  only  a  declaration  of  the  truth,  but  an  an- 
swer to  the  arguments  of  the  Remonstrants. 

In  proof  of  the  doctrine,  they  allege  among 
others  the  following  Scripture  passages  :  "  Thou 
h  ist  given  him  power  over  all  flesh,  that  he 
should  give  eternal  life  to  as  many  as  thou  heist 
given  him. — The  good  shepherd  giveth  his  life 
for  the  sheep. — I  lay  down  my  life  for  the  sheep. 
—  He  died  not  for  {hat  nation  only,  but  that  he 
rtligKt  gather  together  in  one  the  children  of 
0  id  that  are  scattered  abroad. — He  gave  himself 
for  us,  thai  lie  might  redeem  us  from  all  iniqui- 
t  .  /mi!  purify  unto  himself  a  peculiar  people, 
"•'  °f  good  works.  He  loved  the  church 
and  gave  himxclffur  it,  that  he  might  sanctity 
and  cleanse  it,  and  present  it  to  himself,  &c — 
.A  nd  they  sang  a  new  song,  saying  Thou  art  wor- 
thy; for  thou  wast  slain,  and  hast  redeemed  us  to 
God  by  thy  blood,  out  nf  every  kindred,  and  tongue, 
and  people,  and  nation."  Johnxvii.2.  x.  11,15. 
\i.  52.  Tit.  ii.  1  I.   Eph.  v.  •>">— \!7.  Rev.  v.  i). 

:'».  They  maintain  that  mankind  are  "totally  de- 
praved, in  consequence  of  the  fall  of  the  first  man, 
5G 


CALV1NISTS 

who,  being  their  public  head,  his  sin  invol- 
ved the  corruption  of  all  his  posterity,  and  which 
corruption  extends  over  the  whole  soul,  and  ren- 
ders it  unable  to  turn  to  God,  or  to  do  */iy  thing 
truly  good,  and  exposes  it  to  his  righteous  dis- 
pleasure, both  in  tins  world  and  that  which  is  to 
come. 

The  explanation  of  original  sin,  as  given  by 
Calvin,  is  as  follows  : — "  Original  sin  seems  to  Iw 
the  inheritable  descending  perverseness  and  cor- 
ruption of  our  nature,  poured  abroad  into  all  the 
partsofthe  soul,  which  first  maketh  us  deserving 
of  God's  wrath,  and  then  also  bringeth  forth  those 
works  in  us,  called,  in  Scripture,  the  works  of  the 
flesh.  These  two  things  are  distinctly  to  be  noted, 
that  is,  that,  being  thus  in  all  parts  of  our  nature 
corrupted  and  perverted,  we  arc  now,  even  for 
such  corruption,  only  holden  worthy  of  damnation, 
and  stand  convicted  before  God,  to  whom  nothing 
is  acceptable  but  righteousness,  innocence,  and 
purity.  And  yet  we  are  not  bound  in  respect  of 
another's  fault;  for  where  it  is  said  that  by  the 
sin  of  Adam  we  are  made  subject  to  the  judg- 
ment of  God,  Rom.  v.  18.  it  is  not  to  be  so  taken, 
as  if  we,  innocent  and  undeserving,  did  bear  the 
blame  of  his  fault ;  but,  as  in  consequence  of  his 
offence,  we  are  ultimately  clothed  with  the  curse, 
therefore  it  is  said  that  he  hath  bound  us.  Never- 
theless, from  him  not  the  punishment  only  came 
upon  us,  but  also  the  infection  distilled  from  him 
abideth  in  us,  to  the  which  the  punishment  is 
justly  due.'' 

The  resolutions  of  the  divines  at  Dort  on  this 
head,  contain,  the  following  positions.  "  Such  as 
man  was  after  the  fall,  such  children  did  he  beget 
— corruption,  by  the  righteous  judgment  of  God, 
being  derived  from  Adam  to  his  posterity — not 
by  imitation,  but  by  the  propagation  of  a  vicious 
nature.  Wherefore,  all  men  are  conceived  in  sin, 
and  are  born  the  children  of  wrath,  unfit  for 
every  good  connected  with  salvation,  prone  to  evil, 
dead  in  sins,  and  the  servants  of  sin ;  and  with- 
out the  Holy  Spirit  regenerating  them,  they  nei- 
ther will  nor  can  return  to  God,  amend  their  de- 
praved nature,  nor  dispose  themselves  for  its 
amendment." 

In  proof  of  this  doctrine,  the  Calvinists  allege, 
among  other  Scripture  passages,  the  following  : 
"  By  one  man  sin  entered  into  the  world,  aiid 
death  by  sin  :  and  so  death  passed  upon  all  men, 
for  that  all  have  sinned. — By  one  man's  disobe- 
dience many  were  made  sinners.  1  was  born  in 
sin,  and  shapen  in  iniquity. — God  saw  that  the 
wickedness  of  man  was  great  upon  the  earth,  and 
that  every  imagination  of  his  heart  was  only  eul 
continually. — God  looked  down  from  heaven  upon 
the  children  of  men,  to  see  if  there  were  any  that 
did  understand,  that  did  seek  God.  Every  one  of 
them  is  gone  back  ;  they  are  altogether  become 
filthy  ;  there  is  none  that  doth  good,  no  not  one. 
— And  you  hath  he  quickened  who  were  dead  in 
trespasses  and  sins.  Wherein  in  time  past  ye 
walked  according  to  the  course  of  this  world, 
among  whom  also  we  all  had  our  conveisation  in 
times  past,  in  t'te  his!  ofourfesh,  fulfilling  the 
desires  of  the  flesh  and  of  the  mind;  and  wire  by 
nature  the  children  of  wrallu,cren  as  others."  - 
Rom.  v.  12—19.  1's.  ii.  5.  Gen.  \i.  5.  Ps.  liil  2,3. 
Rom.  iii.  Eph.  ii.  1 — 3. 

4.  They  maintain  that  all  whom  God  hath  pre- 
destinated onto  life,  he  is  pleased,  in  his  appointed 
time,  effectually  to  call   by  his  word  and  Spirit 


CALVLN13TS 
out  of  that  state  of  sin  and  death  in  which  thev  are 
by  nature,  tograce  and  salvation  by  Jesus  Christ. 

They  admit  that  the  Holy  Spirit,  as  calling  men 
by  the  ministry  of  the  Gospel,  may  be  resisted ; 
and  that  where  this  is  the  ease,  "  the  fault  is  not 
in  the  Gospel,  nor  in  Christ  offered  by  the  Gos- 
pel, nor  in  God  calling  by  the  Gospel,  and  also 
conferring  various  gifts  upon  them ;  but  in  the 
called  themselves.  They  contend,  however,  that 
where  men  come  at  the  divine  call,  and  are  con- 
verted, it  is  not  to  be  ascribed  to  themselves,  as 
though  by  their  own  free  will  they  made  them- 
selves to  differ,  but  merely  to  him  who  delivers 
them  from  the  power  of  darkness,  and  translates 
them  into  the  kingdom  of  his  dear  Son,  and 
whose  regenerating  influence  is  certain  and  effi- 
cacious." 

In  proof  of  this  doctrine  the  Calvinists  allege, 
among  others,  the  following  Scripture  passages  : 
— "  Whom  he  did  predestinate,  them  he  also  call- 
ed ;  and  whom  he  called,  them  he  also  glorified. 
That  ye  may  know  what  is  the  exceeding  great- 
ness of  his  power,  to  us-ward  who  believe,  accord- 
ing to  the  working  of  his  mighty  power,  which 
he  wrought  in  Christ  when  he  raised  him 
from  the  dead. — Not  of  works  lest  any  man 
should  boast.  For  we  are  his  workmanship,  cre- 
ated in  Christ  Jesus  unto  good  works. — God,  that 
commanded  the  light  to  shine  out  of  darkness, 
hath  shined  into  our  hearts,  &c. — I  will  take 
away  the  stony  heart  out  of  thfeir  flesh,  and  will 
give  them  hearts  of  flesh." — Rom.  viii.  29.  Eph.  i. 
19,  90.  2  Cor.  iv.  6.  Ezck.  xxxvi.  26. 

5.  Lastly :  They  maintain  that  those  whom 
God  has  effectually  called,  and  sanctified  by  his 
Spirit,  shall  never  finally  fall  from  a  state  of  grace. 
They  admit  that  true  believers  may  fall  partially, 
and  would  fill  totally  and  finally  but  for  the  mer- 
cy and  faithfulness  of  God,  who  keepeth  the  feet 
of  his  saints;  also,  that  he  who  brstoweth  the 
grace  of  perseverance,  bestoweth  it  by  means  of 
reading  and  hearing  the  word,  meditation,  exhor- 
tations, threatening?,  and  promises  ;  but  that  none 
of  these  tilings  imply  the  possibility  of  a  believer's 
falling  from  a  state  of  justification. 

In  proof  of  this  doctrine,  they  allege  the  follow- 
ing among  other  Scripture  passages  : — "  I  will  put 
my  fear  in  their  hearts,  and  they  shall  not  depart 
from  me. — He  that  believcth,  and  is  baptized, 
shall  be  saved. — The  water  that  I  shall  give  him 
shall  be  in  him  a  well  of  water,  springing  up 
into  everlasting  life. — This  is  the  Father's  will, 
that  of  all  which  he  hath  given  me  I  siiould  lose 
nothing. — This  is  life  eternal,  to  know  thee  the 
only  true  God,  and  Jesus  Christ,  whom  thou 
hast  sent.  Whosoever  is  born  of  God  doth  not 
commit  sin,  for  his  seed  remaineth  in  him ;  and 
he  cannot  sin  because  he  is  born  of  God.  They 
went  out  from  us,  but  they  were  not  of  us;  for 
if  they  hail  been  of  us,  they  would  tiave  continued 
with  us:  but  they  went  out,  that  they  might  be 
made  manifest  that  they  were  not  all  of  us. — Now 
unto  him  that  is  able  to  keep  you  from  falling, 
and  to  present  you  faultless  before  the  presence 
of  his  glory  with  exceeding  joy,  to  the  only  wise 
God  our  Saviour,  be  glory  and  majesty,  dominion 
and  power,  both  now  and  ever,  Amen." — Jer. 
xxxii.  10.  Mark  xvi.  lb".  John  iv.  14.  vi.  40.  xvii. 
3.  1  John  iii.  9.  ii.  19.  Jude  21,  25. 

Such  were  the  doctrines  of  the  old  Calvinists, 
and  such  in  substance  are  those  of  the  ]  resent 
times.     In  this,  however,  as  in  every  other  deno- 
57  // 


CALVINISTS 

mination,  there  are  considerable  shades  of  differ- 
ence. 

Some  think  that  Calvin,  though  right  in  the 
main,  yet  carried  tilings  too  far:  these  are  com- 
monly known  by  the  name  of  Moderate  Calcin- 
isls.  Others  think  he  did  not  go  far  enough  ;  and 
these  are  known  by  the  name  of  High  Calvinists. 

It  is  proper  to  add,  that  the  Calvinistic  system 
includes  in  it  the  doctrine  of  three  co-ordinate  per- 
sons in  the  Godhead,  in  one  nature,  and  of  two 
natures  in  Jesus  Christ,  forming  one  person. 
Justification  by  faith  alone,  or  justification  by 
the  imputed  righteousness  of  Christ,  forms  also 
an  essential  part  of  this  system.  They  suppose 
that,  on  the  one  hand,  our  sins  are  imputed  to 
Christ,  and  on  the  other,  that  we  are  justified  by 
the  imputation  of  Christ's  righteousness  to  us; 
that  is,  Christ,  the  innocent,  was  treated  by  God 
as  if  he  were  guilty,  that  we,  the  guilty,  might, 
out  of  regard  to  what  he  did  and  suffered,  be 
treated  as  if  we  were  innocent  and  righteous. 

Calvinism  originally  subsisted  in  its  greatest 
purity  in  the  city  of  Geneva  ;  from  which  place  it 
was  first  propagated  into  Germany,  France,  the 
United  Provinces,  and  Britain.  In  France  it  was 
abolished  by  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantz. 
It  has  been  the  prevailing  religion  in  the  United 
Provinces  ever  since  1571.  The  theological  sys- 
tem of  Calvin  was  adopted  and  made  the  public 
rule  of  faith  in  England  under  the  reign  of  Ed- 
ward VI.  The  Church  of  Scotland  also  was 
modelled  by  John  Knox,  agreeably  to  the  doc- 
trine, rites,  and  form  of  ecclesiastical  government 
established  at  Geneva.  In  England,  Calvinism 
had  been  on  the  decline  from  the  time  of  queen 
Elizabeth  until  about  sixty  years  ago,  when  it  was 
again  revived,  and  has  been  on  the  increase  ever 
since.  The  major  part  of  the  clergy,  indeed,  are 
not  Calvinists,  though  the  articles  of  the  church 
of  England  are  Calvinistical.  It  deserves  to  be 
remarked,  however,  that  Calvinism  is  preached 
in  a  considerable  number  of  the  churches  in  Lon 
don  :  in  nearly  all  the  dissenting  meetings  of  the 
Presbyterians,  Baptists,  and  Independents;  and 
in  all  the  chapels  of  Whitfield,  Lady  Huntingdon, 
and  others  of  that  class.  In  Scotlaim  it  continues 
also  to  exist  as  the  established  religion  ;  and  with- 
in a  few  years  it  has  much  revived  in  that  country, 
through  the  influence  of  Mr.  Haldane  and  others ; 
but  as  those  among  whom  this  revival  has  taken 
place  are  not  of  the  established  church,  they  have 
been  treated  with  inuirierenee  by  the  clergy,  and 
called  Haldanists. 

Calvin  considered  every  church  as  a  separate 
and  independent  boilv,  invested  with  the  power 
of  legislation  for  itself.  He  proposed  that  it  should 
be  governed  by  presbyteries  ami  synods  composed 
of  clergy  and  laity,  without  bishops  or  any  cleri- 
cal subordination  ;  and  maintained  that  the  pro- 
vince of  the  civil  magistrate  extended  onlv  to  its 
protection  and  outward  accommodation.  He  ac- 
knowledged a  real  though  spiritual  presence  of 
Christ  in  the  eucharist ;  and  he  confined  the  pri- 
vilege of  communion  to  pious  and  regenerate  be- 
lievers. These  sentiments,  however,  are  not  im- 
bibed by  all  who  are  called  Calvinists.  See 
< 'alriu's  Institutes;  Life  of  Calvin;  Brine'i 
Tracts;  Jonathan  Edwards's  Works;  Gill's 
Causi  if  God  and  Truth  ;  Toplady's  Historic 
Proof  and  Works  at  large;  Assembly's  Cate- 
chism ;  Fuller's  Calvinistic  and  Socinian  Sys- 
tems Compared. 


CANDOUR 

CAMALDOLITES,  an  order  founded  by 
St.  Romuald,  an  Italian  fanatic,  in  the  eleventh 
century.  The  manner  of  life  he  enjoined  his 
disciples  to  observe  was  this: — They  dwelt  in  se- 
parate cells,  and  met.  together  only  at  the  time  of 
prayer.  Some  of  them,  during  the  two  Lerrts  in 
the  year,  observed  an  inviolable  silence,  and  others 
for  the  space  of  a  hundred  days.  On  Sundays  and 
Thursdays  they  fed  on  herbs,  and  the  rest  of  the 
week  only  on  bread  and  water. 

CAMBRIDGE  MANUSCRIPT,  a  copy  of 
the  Gospels  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  in  Greek 
and  Latin.  Beza  found  it  in  the  monastery  of 
Irenams,  at  Lyons,  in  1562,  and  gave  it  to  the 
University  of  Cambridge  in  1582.  It  is  a  quarto, 
ami  written  on  vellum:  sixty-six  leaves  of  it  are 
much  torn  and  mutilated  ;  and  ten  of  these  are 
supplied  by  a  later  transcriber.  From  this  and 
the  Clermont  copy  of  St.  Paul's  epistles,  Beza 
published  his  larger  annotations  in  1582.  See 
Dr.  Kipling's  edition  of  it. 

CAMERONIANS,  a  sect  in  Scotland,  who 
separated  from  the  Presbyterians  in  1666,  and 
continued  long  to  hold  their  religious  assemblies 
in  the  fields.  They  took  their  name  from  Rich- 
ard Cameron,  a  famous  field  preacher,  who,  re- 
fusing to  accept  the  indulgence  to  tender  con- 
sciences, granted  by  king  Charles  II.,  thinking 
such  an  acceptance  an  acknowledgment  ef  the 
king's  supremac}',  made  a  defection  from  his  bre- 
thren, and  even  headed  a  rebellion,  in  which  he 
was  killed.  Tne  Cameronians  adhere  rigidly  to 
the  form  of  government  established  in  1648. 
There  are  not,  it  is  said,  above  fourteen  or  fifteen 
congregations  among  th*m,  and  these  not  large. 

CAMERONIANS,  or  Cameromtes,  the 
denomination  of  a  party  of  Calvinists  in  France, 
who  asserted  that  the  will  of  man  is  only  deter- 
mined by  the  practical  judgment  of  the  mind ; 
that  the  cause  of  men's  doing  good  or  evil  pro- 
ceeds from  the  knowledge  which  God  infuses  into 
them ;  and  that  God  does  not  move  the  will  phy- 
sically, but  only  morally,  in  virtue  of  its  depend- 
ence on  the  judgment,  They  had  this  name  from 
John  Cameron,  who  was  born  at  Glasgow  in 
1580,  and  who  was  professor  there,  and  after- 
wards at  Bordeaux,  Sedan,  and  Saumur.  The 
synod  of  Dort  was  severe  upon  them ;  yet  it  seems 
the  only  difference  was  this  : — The  synod  had 
defined  that  God  not  only  illuminates  the  under- 
standing, but  gives  motion  to  the  will,  by  making 
an  internal  change  therein.  Cameron  only  admit- 
ted the  illumination  whereby  the  mind  is  morally 
moved;  and  explained  the  sentiment  of  the  synod 
of  Dort  so  as  to  make  the  two  opinions  consistent. 

CANDOUR  is  a  disposition  to  form  a  fair  and 
impartial  judgment  on  the  opinions  and  actions 
of  others  ;  or  a  temper  of  mind  unsoured  by  envy, 
unruffled  by  malice,  and  unseduced  by  prejudice, 
sweet  without  weakness,  and  impartial  without 
rigour.  Candour  is  a  w  >rd  which,  in  the  present 
day,  is  found  exceedingly  convenient.  To  the 
infidel  it  is  a  shelter  for  his  scepticism,  to  the  ig- 
norant for  his  ignoranee,  to  the  lukewarm  for  his 
indifference,  and  to  the  irreligious  for  their  error. 
"True  candour  is  different  from  that  gnarled, 
inoffensive  language,  and  that  studied  openness 
of  behaviour,  which  we  so  frequently  meet  with 
among  men  of  the  world.  It  consists  not  in  fair- 
ness of  speech  onlv,  but  in  fairness  of  heurt.  It 
is  not  bund  attachment,  external  courtesv,  or  a 
lime-serving  principle.  Exempt,  on  the  one  hand, 
53 


CANON 
from  the  dark  jealousy  of  a  suspicious  mind,  it  is 
no  less  removed,  on  the  other,  from  that  easy  cre- 
dulity wliich  is  imposed  on  by  every  specious 
pretence.  Its  manners  are  unaffected,  and  its 
professions  sincere.  'It  conceals  faults,  but  it 
does  not  invent  virtues.'  In  fine,  it  is  the  happy 
medium  between  undistinguishing  credulity  and 
universal  suspicion."     See  Liberality; 

CANON,  a  word  used  to  denote  the  authoriz- 
ed catalogue  of  the  sacred  writings.  "  The  Greek 
word  XXV  jov,"  says  Dr.  Owen,  "which  gives  rise  to 
the  term  canonical,  seems  to  be  derived  from  the 
Hebrew  JfJp  kaneh,  which  in  general  signifies 
any  reed  whatever,  1  Kings  xiv.  15.  Isa.  xliii.  3, 
and  particularly  a  reed  made  into  an  instrument, 
wherewith  they  measured  their  buildings,  contain- 
ing six  cubits  in  length,  Ezek.  xl.  7.  xliii.  16 ;  and 
hence  indefinitely  it  is  taken  for  a  rule  or  mea- 
sure. Besides,  it  signifies  the  beam  and  tongue  of 
a  balance,  Isa.  xlvi.  6.  'They  weighed  silver 
on  the  cane;'  that  is,  saith  the  Targum,  'in  the 
balance.'  This  also  is  the  primary  and  proper 
signification  of  the  Greek  word.  Hence  its  me- 
taphorical use,  which  is  most  common,  wherein 
it  signifies  a  moral  rule.  Aristotle  calls  the  law 
Kxi'ovxtms  5Tc*.iTsi»,-,  the  rule  of  the  administration; 
and  hence  it  is  that  the  written  word  of  God  be- 
ing in  itself  absolutely  right,  and  appointed  to  be 
the  rule  of  faith  and  obedience,  is  eminently  call- 
ed '  canonical.'  " 

The  ancient  canon  of  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament,  ordinarily  attributed  to  Ezra,  was  di- 
vided into  the  law,  the  prophets,  and  the  hagio- 
graphia,  to  which  our  Saviour  refers,  Luke  xxiv. 
45.  The  same  division  is  also  mentioned  by  Jo- 
sephus.  This  is  the  canon  allowed  to  have  been 
followed  by  the  primitive  church  till  the  council 
of  Carthage  ;  and,  according  to  Jerome,  this  con- 
sisted of  no  more  than  twenty-two  books,  answer- 
ing to  the  number  of  the  Hebrew  alphabet,  though 
at  present  they  are  classed  into  twenty-four  di- 
visions. That  council  enlarged  the  canon  very 
considerably,  taking  into  it  the  apocryphal  books; 
which  the  council  of  Trent  further  enforced,  en- 
joining them  to  be  received  as  books  of  holy  Scrip- 
ture, upon  pain  of  anathema.  The  Romanists,  in 
defence  of  this  canon,  say,  that  it  is  the  same  with 
that  of  the  council  of  Hippo,  held  in  393;  and 
with  that  of  the  third  council  of  Carthage  in  397, 
at  which  were  present  forty-six  bishops,  and 
among  the  rest  St.  Augustine.  Their  canon  of 
the  New  Testament,  however,  perfectly  agrees 
with  ours.  It  consists  of  books  that  are  well 
known,  some  of  which  have  been  universally 
acknowledged :  such  are  the  four  Gospels,  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  thirteen  epistles  of  St. 
Paul,  first  of  St.  Peter,  and  first  of  St.  John ; 
and  others,  concerning  which  doubts  were  en- 
tertained, but  which  were  afterwards  received 
as  genuine ;  such  are  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews, that  of  James,  the  second  of  Peter,  the 
second  and  third  of  John,  that  of  Jude,  and  the 
Revelation.  These  books  were  written  at  dif- 
ferent times;  and  they  are  authenticated,  not  by 
the  decrees  of  councils,  or  infallible  authority,  but 
by  such  evidence  as  is  thought  sufficient  in  the 
case  of  any  Other  ancient  writings.  They  were 
extensively  diffused,  and  read  in  every  Christian 
society ;  thev  were  valued  and  preserved  with 
care  by  the  first  Christians:  they  were  cited  by 
Christian  writers  of  the  second,  third,  and  fourth 
centuries,  as  Irenaeus,  Clement  the  Alexandrian 


CANONIZATION 
Tcrtullian,  Origen,  Eusebius  &c. ;  and  their 
genuineness  is  proved  by  the  testimony  of  those 
who  were  contemporary  with  the  apostles  them- 
selves. The  lour  Go&pels,  and  most  of  the  other 
books  of  the  New  Testament,  were  collected 
either  by  one  of  the  apostles,  or  some  of  their  dis- 
ciples and  successors,  before  the  end  of  the  first 
century.  The  catalogue  of  canonical  books  fur- 
nished by  the  more  ancient  Christian  writers,  as 
Crimen,  about  A.  D.  210,  Eusebius  and  Athana- 
sius  in  315,  Epiphanius  in  370,  Jerome  in  38'2, 
Austin  in  31)4,  and  many  others,  agrees  with  that 
which  is  now  received  among  Christians. 

See  articles  Bible,  Christianity,  Scrip- 
tures; Blair's  Canon  of  Scripture  ;  Jones's  Ca- 
nonical Authority  of  the  New  Test.  ;  Michaelis's 
Lcct.  on  the  New  Test.;  Du  Pin's  Canon  of 
Script,  v.  i. ;  Prideaux's  Connexions,  v.  i. ;  Dr. 
Owen  on  the  Hebrews,  Inlrod. ;  Alexander  on  the 
Canon. 

CANON,  a  person  who  possesses  a  prebend 
or  revenue  allotted  for  the  performance  of  divine 
service  in  a  cathedral  or  collegiate  church.  Ca- 
nons are  of  no  great  antiquity.  Pachier  observes, 
that  the  name  was  not  known  before  Charle- 
magne ;  at  least,  the  first  we  hear  of  are  in  Gre- 
gory de  Tours,  who  mentions  a  college  of  canons 
instituted  by  Baldwin  XVI.  archbishop  of  that 
city,  in  the  time  of  Clotharius  I.  The  common 
opinion  attributes  the  institution  of  this  order  to 
Chrodegangus,  bishop  of  Mentz,  about  the  mid- 
dle of  the  eighth  century. 

CANON,  in  an  ecclesiastical  sense,  is  a  nlz 
either  of  doctrine  or  discipline,  enacted  especially 
by  a  council,  and  confirmed  by  the  authority  of 
the  sovereign.  Canons  are  properly  decisions  of 
matters  of  religion,  or  regulations  of  the  policy  and 
discipline  of  a  church  made  by  councils,  either 
general,  national,  or  provincial ;  such  are  the 
canons  of  the  council  of  Nice,  of  Trent,  &c. 

CANONICAL  HOURS  are  certain  stated 
times  of  the  day  consigned  more  especially  by  the 
Romish  church  to  the  offices  of  prayer  and  devo- 
tion ;  such  are  matins,  lauds,  &c.  In  England 
the  canonical  hours  are  from  eight  to  twelve.in 
the  forenoon ;  before  or  after  which  marriage 
cannot  be  legally  performed  in  any  church. 

CANONICAL  LETTERS,  in  the  ancient 
church,  were  testimonies  of  the  orthodox  faith, 
which  the  bishops  and  clergy  sent  each  other  to 
keep  up  the  catholic  communion,  and  distinguish 
orthodox  Christians  from  heretics. 

CANONICAL  LIFE,  the  rule  of  living 
prescribed  by  the  ancient  clergy  who  lived  in 
community.  The  canonical  life  was  a  kind 
of  medium  between  the  monastic  and  clerical 
lives. 

CANONICAL  OBEDIENCE  is  that  sub- 
mission which,  by  the  ecclesiastical  laws,  the  in- 
ferior clergy  are  to  pay  to  their  bishops,  and  the 
religious  to  their  superiors. 

CANONIZATION,  a  ceremony  in  the  Ro- 
mish church,  by  which  persons  deceased  are 
ranked  in  the  catalogue  of  the  saints.  It  suc- 
ceeds beatification.  Before  a  beatified  person  is 
canonized,  the  qualifications  of  the  candidate  are 
strictly  examine;!  into,  in  some  consistories  held 
for  that  purpose,  after  which  one  of  the  consislo- 
rial  advocates,  in  the  presence  of  the  pope  and 
cardinals,  makes  the  panegyric  of  the  person  who 
is  to  be  proclaimed  a  saint,  and  ^ives  a  particular 
detail  of  bus  life  and  miracles ;  vs  liicb  being  done, 
5'J 


CARE 

the  holy  father  decrees  his  canonization,  and  ap- 
points the  day. 

On  the  day  of  canonization,  the  pope  officiates 
in  white,  and  their  eminences  are  dressed  in  the 
same  colour.  St.  Peter's  church  is  hung  with 
rich  tapestry,  upon  which  the  arms  of  the  pope, 
and  of  the  prince  or  state  requiring  the  canoniza- 
tion, are  embroidered  in  gold  and  silver.  A  great 
number  of  lights  blaze  all  round  the  church, 
which  is  crowded  with  pious  souls,  who  wait  with 
devout  impatience  till  the  new  saint  has  made  his 
public  entry,  as  it  were,  into  paradise,  that  they 
may  offer  up  their  petitions  to  him  without  danger 
of  being  rejected. 

The  following  maxim  with  regard  to  canoniza- 
tion is  now  observed,  though  it  has  not  been  fol- 
lowed above  a  century,  viz.  not  to  enter  into  the 
inquiries  prior  to  canonization  till  fifty  years,  at 
least,  after  the  death  of  the  person  to  be  canon- 
ized. By  the  ceremony  of  canonization,  it  ap- 
pears that  this  rite  of  the  modern  Romans  has 
something  in  it  very  like  the  apotheosis  or  deifica- 
tion of  the  ancient  Romans,  and  in  all  probability 
takes  its  rise  from  it ;  at  least,  several  ceremonies 
of  the  same  nature  are  conspicuous  in  both. 

CAPUCHINS,  religious  of  the  order  of  St. 
Francis.  They  are  clothed  with  brown  or  grey  ; 
always  barefooted ;  never  go  in  a  coach,  nor  ever 
shave  their  beards. 

CAPUTIATI,  a  denomination  which  ap- 
peared in  the  twelfth  century,  so  called  from  a 
singular  kind  of  cap  which  distinguished  their 
party.  They  wore  upon  their  caps  a  leaden 
image  of  the'Virgin  Mary,  and  declared  publicly 
that  their  purpose  was  to  level  all  distinctions,  to 
abrogate  magistracy,  and  to  remove  all  subordina- 
tion among  mankind,  and  to  restore  that  primi- 
tive liberty,  that  natural  equality,  which  were  the 
inestimable  privilege  of  the  first  mortals. 

CARAITES,  a  Jewish  sect,  which  adheres 
closely  to  the  text  and  letter  of  the  Scriptures, 
rejecting  the  rabbinical  interpretations  and  the 
cabbala.  The  Talmud  appearing  in  the  begin- 
ning of  the  sixth  century,  those  of  the  best  sense 
among  the  Jews  were  disgusted  at  the  ridieidous 
fables°with  which  it  abounded.  But  about  the 
year  750,  Anan,  a  Babylonish  Jew,  declared 
openly  for  the  written  word  of  God  alone,  ex- 
clusive of  all  tradition ;  and  this  declaration  pro- 
duced a  schism.  Those  who  maintained  the 
Talmud,  being  almost  all  rabbins,  were  called 
rabbinists;  and  the  others,  who  rejected  tradi- 
tions, were  called  Caraites,  or  Scripturists,  from 
the  word  cara,  which  in  the  Babylonish  language 
signifies  Scripture. 

CARDINAL,  one  of  the  chief  governors  of 
the  Romish  church,  by  whom  the  pope  is  elected 
out  of  their  own  number,  which  contains  six 
bishops,  fifty  priest*,  and  fourteen  deacons  :  these 
constitute  the  sacred  college,  and  are  chosen  by 
the  pope.     See  PoeE. 

CARDINAL  VIRTUES :  justice,  prudence, 
temperance,  and'  fortitude,  are  called  the  four  car- 
dinal virtues,  as  being  the  basis  of  all  the  rest. 
See  Justice,  &c. 

CARE,  concern,  or  anxiety  of  mind  arising 
i»;oin  the  uncertainty  of  something  future,  or  the 
oppression  of  the  present  calamity.  Caution, 
attention  to  a  particular  subject;  regard  and  sup- 
port, when  followed  with  the  particle  of.  Pro- 
dence  signifies  wisdom  applied  to  practice;  dis- 
cretion is  the  ellbct  of  prudence,  and  means  a 


CARTHUSIANS 

knowledge  to  govern  or  direct  one's  self:  by 
care  we  undersl  ind  heed  in  order  to  preser- 
vation ;  caution  implies  a  greater  degree  of  wari- 
ness. 

CARE  OF  THE  SOUL,  a  term  used  for 
religion,  or  that  serious  attention  we  ought  to  pay 
to  our  best  interests.  It  imports  repentance,  faith, 
devotion,  and  obedience.  "  It  is  considered  as  the 
one  thing  needful:  as  1.  It  is  matter  of  universal 
concern.  2.  Of  the  highest  importance.  3.  In- 
ludes  every  tiling  worthy  of  our  regard."  4. 
Essential  to  our  peace  here.  5.  Without  it.  we 
cannot  obtain  everlasting  life.  Luke  x.  42.  Jer. 
vi.  l(i.  Heb.  xii.  14. 

CARE  OF  GOD,  is  his  attention  to  and  con- 
cern for  the  promotion  of  the  welfare  of  his  crea- 
tures, 1  Pet.  v.  7.  1.  That  God  does  manifest 
this  care  is  evident  from  the  blessings  we  enjoy, 
the.  ordinances  he  has  instituted,  the  promises  he 
has  given,  and  the  provision  he  has  made.  Ps. 
/xxxiv.  11.  Matt  vii.  1:2.  2.  This  care  is  en- 
tirely free  and  unmerited  on  our  part-  Gen.  xxxii. 
10.  Deut.  vii.  (J.  Rom.  iii.  23.  3.  It  is  every 
Way  extensive,  reaching  to  all  its  creatures  and 
to  all  cases.  Ps.  cxlv.  4.  It  is  superior  to  all 
human  care  and  attention.  He  cares  for  us  when 
others  cannot;  when  others  will  not  care  for  us; 
or  when  we  cannot  or  will  not  care  for  ourselves. 
Ps.  cxlii.  4,  5.  Jer.  xlix.  11.  Ps.  xli.  3.  5.  It  is 
not  only  groat,  but  perpetual.  Through  all  the 
scenes  of  life,  in  death,  and  for  ever.  Hcb.  xiii.  5. 
John  xvii.  9.     See  Providence. 

I  1ARMATHITES,  the  followers  of  a  noted 
impostor  in  the  ninth  century,  who  endeavoured 
to  overthrow  all  the  foundations  of  Mussulman- 
ism.  Carmath  their  prophet  was  a  person  of 
great  austerity  of  life;  and  said  that  God  had 
commanded  him  to  pray  not  Jive  times,  with  the 
Mussulmans,  but  fifty  times  a-day.  To  comply 
with  this,  they  often  neglected  their  business; 
they  ate  many  things  forbidden  by  the  law  of 
Mahomet,  and  believed  that  angels  were  their 
guides  in  all  their  actions,  and  that  the  demons 
or  ghosts  are  their  enemies. 

CARMELITES,  one  of  the  four  tribes  of 
Mendicants,  or  begging  friars;  so  named  from 
Mount  Carmel,  formerly  inhabited  by  Elias,  Eli- 
sha,  and  the  children  of  the  prophets;  from  whom 
this  order  pretends  to  descend  in  uninterrupted 
succession.  Their  habit  was  at  first  white;  but 
pope  Honorius  IV.  commanded  them  to  change 
it  for  that  of  the  Minims.  They  wear  no  linen 
shirts,  but,  instead  of  them,  linsey-wolsey. 

CARPOCRATIANS,  a  branch  of  the  an- 
cient.  Gnostics,  so  called  from  Carpocrates,  who 
in  the  second  century  revived  and  improved  upon 
the  errors  of  Simon  Magus,  Menender,  Saturni- 
n us,  ami  other  <  fnostics.     See  Gnostics. 

( JARTHUSIANS,  a  religious  order,  founded 
A.  D.  1080,  by  one  Bruno;  so  called  from  the 
desert  Chartreu.r,  the  place  of  their  institution. 
Their  rule  is  extremely  severe.  They  must  not 
go  out  of  their  cells,  except  to  church,  without 
leave  of  their  superior;  nor  speak  to  any  person 
without  leave.  They  must  not  keep  any  meat 
or  drink  till  next  day:  their  beds  are  of  straw 
covered  w  itli  a  felt ;  their  clothing,  two  hair  cloths, 
two  cowls,  two  pair  of  hose,  and  a  cloak:  all 
coarse.  In  the  refectory  they  must  keep  their 
Cyea  on  the  dish,  their   hands  on  the  table,  their 

attention  to  the  reader,  ami  their  hearts  lived  on 
God.  Women  must  not  come  into  their  churches. 
CO 


CATECHISING 

CASUALTY,  an  event  that  is  not  foreseen 
or  intended.     See  CONTINGENCY. 

CASUIST,  one  that  studies  and  settles  cases 
of  conscience.  It  is  said  that  Escobar  has  made 
a  collection  of  the  opinions  of  all  the  casuists  be- 
fore him.  M.  Le  Fevre,  preceptor  of  Louis  XIII. 
called  the  books  of  the  casuists  the  art  of  quib- 
bling with  God;  which  does  not  seem  far  from 
truth,  by  reason  of  the  multitude  of  distinctions 
and  subtleties  they  abound  with.  Mayer  has 
published  a  bibliotheea  of  casuists,  containing  an 
account  of  all  the  writers  on  cases  of  conscience, 
ranged  under  three  heads;  the  first  comprehend- 
ing the  Lutheran,  the  second  the  Calvinist,  and 
the  third  the  Romish  casuists. 

CASUISTRY,  the  doctrine  and  science  of 
conscience  and  its  cases,  with  the  rules  and  prin- 
ciples of  resolving  the  same;  drawn  partly  from 
natural  reason  or  equity,  and  partly  from  the  au- 
thority of  Scripture,  the  canon  law,  councils,  fa- 
thers, &c.  To  casuistry  belongs  the  decision  of 
all  difficulties  arising  about  what  a  man  may 
lawfully  do  or  not  ilo ;  what  is  sin  or  not  sin ; 
what  things  a  man  is  obliged  to  do  in  order  to 
discharge  his  duty,  and  what  he  may  let  alone 
without  breach  of  it. 

Some  suppose  that  all  books  of  casuistry  are 
as  useless  as  they  are  tiresome.  One  who  is 
really  anxious  to  do  his  duty  must  be  very  weak, 
it  is  said,  if  he  can  imagine  that  he  has  much  oc- 
casion for  them;  and  with  regard  to  one  who  is 
negligent  of  it,  the  style  of  those  writings  is  not 
such  as  is  likely  to  awaken  him  to  more  attention. 
The  frivolous  accuracy  which  casuists  attempt  to 
introduce  into  subjects  which  do  not  admit  of  it, 
almost  necessarily  betray  them  into  dangerous 
errors;  and  at  the  same  time  render  their  works 
dry  and  disagreeable,  abounding  in  abstruse  and 
metaphysical  distinctions,  but  incapable  of  ex- 
citing in  the  heart  any  of  those  emotions  which 
it  is  the  principal  use  of  books  of  morality  to 
produce. 

On  the  other  hand,  I  think  it  may  be  observed, 
that,  though  these  remarks  may  apply  to  some 
they  cannot  apply  to  all  books  of  casuistry.  It 
must  be  acknowledged  that  nice  distinctions, 
metaphysical  reasonings,  and  abstruse  terms,  can- 
not be  of  much  service  to  the  generality,  because 
there  are  so  few  who  can  enter  into  them;  yei, 
when  we  consider  how  much  light  is  thrown 
upon  a  subject  by  the  force  of  good  reasoning,  by 
viewing  a  case  in  all  its  bearings,  by  properly 
considering  all  the  objections  that  may  be  made 
to  it,  and  by  examining  it  in  every  point  of  view; 
if  we  consider  also  low  little  some  men  are  accus- 
tomed to  think,  and  yet  at  the  same  time  possess 
that  tenderness  of  conscience  which  makes  them 
fearful  of  doing  wrong ;  we  must  conclude  that 
such  works  as  these,  when  properly  executed, 
may  certainly  be  of  consi  lerable  advantage.  The 
reader  may  consult  Amei  s  Power  and  Cases  of 
Conscience;  Bishop  '1'uytor's  Ductor  Dubitan- 
tium ;  Dr.  Saundcr sort's  lie  Obligatione  Con- 
sricntia: ;  Pike  and  Ilayirard's  (  'oses  ;  and  Sau- 
rin's  Christian  Casuistry,  in  the  4th  vol.  of  his 
Sermons,  y.  •J(i.">.  English  edition. 

CATECHISING,  instructing  by  asking 
questions  and  correcting  the  answers.  L'ate- 
chising  is  an  excellent  mean  of  informing  the 
mind,  engaging  the  attention,  and  affecting  the 
heart,  and  is  an  important  duty,  incumbent  on  all 
who  have  children  under  their  care.     Children 


CATECHISM 

•hould  not  be  suffered  to  grow  up  without  in- 
struction, under  the  pretence  that  the  choice  of 
religion  ought  to  be  perfectly  free,  and  not  biassed 
by  the  influence  and  authority  of  parents,  or  the 
power  of  education.  As  they  have  capacities, 
and  are  more  capable  of  knowledge  by  instruc- 
tion than  by  the  exercise  of  their  own  reasoning 
powers,  they  should  certainly  be  taught.  This 
agrees  both  with  the  voice  of  nature  and  the  dic- 
tates of  revelation,  Deut.  vL  7.  Prov.  xxii.  6. 
Eph.  vi.  4.  The  propriety  of  this  being  granted, 
it  may  next  be  observed,  that,  in  order  to  facilitate 
their  knowledge,  short  summaries  of  religion  ex- 
tracted from  the  Bible,  in  the  way  of  question  and 
answer,  may  be  of  considerable  use. — 1.  Hereby, 
says  Dr.  Watts,  the  principles  of  Christianity  are 
reduced  into  short  sentences,  and  easier  to  be 
understood  by  children. — 2.  Hereby  these  princi- 
ples are  not  only  thrown  into  a  just  and  easy  me- 
thod, but  every  part  is  naturally  introduced  by  a 
proper  question  ;  and  the  rehearsal  of  the  answer 
is  made  far  easier  to  a  child  than  it  would  be  if 
the  child  wert>  required  to  repeat  the  whole 
scheme  of  religion. — 3.  This  way  of  teaching 
hath  something  familiar  and  delightful  in  it,  be- 
cause it  looks  more  like  conversation  and  dia- 
logue.— 4.  The  very  curiosity  of  the  young  mind 
is  awakened  by  the  question  to  know  what  the 
answer  will  be ;  and  the  child  will  take  pleasure 
in  learning  the  answer  by  heart,  to  improve  its 
own  knowledge.     See  next  article. 

CATECHISM,  a  form  of  instruction  by 
means  of  questions  and  answers.  There  have 
been  various  catechisms  published  by  different 
authors,  but  many  of  them  have  been  but  ill 
suited  to  convey  instruction  to  juvenile  minds. 
Catechisms  for  children  should  be  so  framed  as 
not  to  puzzle  and  confound,  but  to  let  the  beams 
of  divine  light  into  their  minds  by  degrees.  They 
should  be  accommodated  as  far  as  possible,  to  the 
weakness  of  their  understandings;  for  mere 
learning  sentences  by  rote,  without  comprehend- 
ing the  meaning,  will  be  of  but  little  use.  In  thi , 
way  they  will  know  nothing  but  words  :  it  will 
prove  a  laborious  task,  and  not  a  pleasure  ;  con- 
firm them  in  a  bad  habit  of  dealing  in  sounds  in- 
stead of  ideas ;  and,  after  all,  perhaps  create  in 
them  an  aversion  to  religion  itself.  Dr.  Watts 
tfdvises  that  different  catechisms  should  be  com- 
posed for  different  ages  and  capacities  ;  the  ques- 
tions and  answers  should  be  short,  plain,  and 
easy ;  scholastic  terms,  and  logical  distinctions, 
should  be  avoided ;  the  most  practical  points  of 
religion  should  be  inserted ;  and  one  or  more 
well-chosen  texts  of  Scripture  should  be  added  to 
support  almost  every  answer,  and  to  prove  the 
several  parts  of  it  The  doctor  has  admirably 
exemplified  his  own  rules  in  the  catechism  he  has 
composed  for  children  at  three  or  four  years  old ; 
that  for  children  at  seven  or  eight;  his  assem- 
bly's catechism,  proper  for  youth  at  twelve  or 
fourteen ;  his  preservative  from  the  sins  and  fol- 
lies of  childhood;  his  catechism  of  Scripture 
names ;  and  his  historical  catechism.  These  are 
superior  to  any  I  know,  and  which  I  cannot  but 
ardently  recommend  to  parents  and  all  those  who 
have  the  care,  and  instruction  of  children. 

CATECHIST,  one  whose  charge  is  to  in- 
struct by  questions,  or  to  question  the  uninstruet- 
cd  concerning  religion. 

The  calecfusts  of  the  ancient  churches  were 
usually  ministers,  and  distinct  from  the  bishops 
61 


CATHEDRAL 
and  presbyters;  and  had  their  catechumena,  ©I 
auditories,  apart.  But  they  did  not  constitute  any 
distinct  order  of  the  clergy,  being  chosen  out  of 
any  order.  The  bishop  himself  sometimes  per- 
formed the  office ;  at  other  times,  presbyters, 
readers,  or  deacons.  It  was  his  business  to  ex- 
pose the  folly  of  the  pagan  superstition;  tore- 
move  prejudices,  and  answer  objections ;  to  dis- 
course on  behalf  of  the  Christian  doctrines  ;  and 
to  give  instruction  to  those  who  had  not  sufficient 
knowledge  to  quality  them  for  baptism. 

CATECHUMENS,  the  lowest  order  of 
Christians  in  the  primitive  church.  They  had 
some  title  to  the  common  name  of  Christians,  be- 
ing a  degree  above  pagans  and  heretics,  though 
not  consummated  by  baptism.  They  were  ad- 
mitted to  the  state  of  catechumens  by  the  imposi- 
tion of  hands,  and  the  sign  of  the  cross.  The 
children  of  believing  parents  were  admitted  cate- 
chumens as  soon  as  ever  they  were  capable  of 
instruction ;  but  at  what  age  those  of  heathen  pa- 
rents might  be  admitted  is  not  so  clear.  As  to 
the  time  of  their  continuance  in  this  state,  there 
were  no  general  rules  iixed  about  it ;  but  the  prac- 
tice varied  according  to  the  difference  of  times 
and  places,  and  the  readiness  and  proficiency  of 
the  catechumens  themselves.  There  were  four 
orders  or  degrees  of  catechumens.  The  first  were 
those  instructed  privately  without  the  church,  and 
kept  at  a  distance,  for  some  time,  from  the  privi- 
lege of  entering  the  church,  to  make  them  the 
more  eager  and  desirous  of  it.  The  next  degree 
were  the  audicntes,  so  called  from  their  being  ad- 
mitted to  hear  sermons  and  the  Scriptures  read 
in  the  church,  but  were  not  allowed  to  partake 
of  the  prayers.  The  third  soit  of  catechumens 
were  the  genu  Jlectcntes,  so  called  because  they 
received  imposition  of  hands  kneeling.  The 
fourth  order  was  the  compete ntes  ct  elccti ;  de- 
noting the  immediate  candidates  for  baptism,  or 
such  as  were  appointed  to  be  baptized  the  next 
approaching  festival ;  before  which,  strict  exami- 
nation was  made  into  their  proficiency,  under  the 
several  stages  of  catechetical  exercises. 

After  examination,  they  were  exercised  for 
twenty  days  together,  and  were  obliged  to  fasting 
and  confession.  Some  days  before  baptism  they 
went  veiled  ;  and  it  was  customary  to  touch  their 
ears,  saying,  Ephphatha,  i.  e.  Be  opened ;  as  also 
to  anoint  their  eyes  with  clay  :  both  ceremonies 
being  in  imitation  of  our  Saviour's  practice,  and 
intended  to  signify  to  the  catechumens  their  con- 
dition both  before  and  after  their  admission  into 
the  Christian  church. 

CATHARISTS,  a  sect  that  spread  much  in 
the  Latin  church  in  the  twelfth  century.  Their 
religion  resembled  the  doctrine  of  the  Mani- 
clweans  and  Qnostics  [see  those  articles].  They 
supposed  that  matter  was  the  source  of  evil ;  that 
Christ  was  not  clothed  with  a  real  body;  that 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  were  useless  in- 
stitutions; with  a  variety  of  other  strange  no- 
tions. 

CATHEDRAL,  the  chief  church  of  a  diocese : 
a  church  wherein  is  a  bishop's  see.  The  word 
comes  from  xxltSpx,  chair:  the  name  seems  to 
have  taken  its  rise  from  the  manner  of  sitting  in 
the  ancient  churches  or  assemblies  of  private 
Christians.  In  these  the  council,  i.  e.  the  elders 
and  priests,  were  called  Presbyterium;  at  their 
head  was  the  bishop,  who  held  the  place  of  chair- 
man, Calhcdralis  or  Cuthedraticus ;  and  the 
F 


CELIBACY 

presbyters,  who  sat  on  either  aide,  also  called  by 
the  ancient  fathers  Assessores  Episcoporum. 
The  episcopal  authority  did  not  reside  in  the  1  »I— 
shop  alone,  but  in  all  the  presbyters,  whereof  the 
bishop  was  president.  A  cathedral,  therefore, 
originally  was  different  from  what  it  is  now ;  the 
<  Christians,  till  the  time  of  Constantine,  having  no 
liberty  to  build  any  temple.  By  their  churches 
they  only  meant  assemblies;  and  hy  cathedrals 
nothing  more  than  consistories. 

CAT  I  tOLIC,  denotes  any  thing  that  is  uni- 
versal or  general.  The  rise  of  heresies  induced 
the  primitive  Christian  church  to  assume  to  itself 
the  appellation  of  catholic,  being  a  characteristic 
to  distinguish  itself  from  all  sects,  who,  though 
they  had  party  names,  sometimes  sheltered  them- 
selves under  the  name  of  Christians.  The  Rom- 
ish church  now  distinguishes  itself  by  catholic 
in  opposition  to  all  who  have  separated  from  her 
communion,  and  whom  she  considers  as  heretics 
and  schismatics,  and  herself  only  as  the  true  and 
Christian  church.  In  the  strict  sense  of  the  word, 
there  is  no  catholic,  church  in  being  ;  that  is,  no 
universal  Christian  communion. 

CELESTINS,  a  religious  order  in  the  thir- 
teenth century;  so  called  from  their  founder,  Pe- 
ter De  Meuron,  afterwards  raised  to  the  pontifi- 
cate under  the  name  of  Celestine  V.  The  Ce- 
lesiius  rose  two  hours  after  midnight  to  say 
matins  ;  ate  no  flesh,  except  when  sick  ;  and  often 
fasted.  Their  habit  consisted  of  a  white  gown,  a 
capuche,  a  black  scapulary,  and  shirts  of  serge. 

CELIBACY,  the  state  of  unmarried  persons. 
Celibate,  or  celibacy,  is  a  word  chiefly  used  in 
speaking  of  the  single  life  of  the  popish  clergy,  or 
the  obligation  they  are  under  to  abstain  from 
marriage.  The  church  of  Rome  imposes  an  uni- 
versal celibacy  on  all  her  clergy,  from  the  pope  to 
the  lowest  deacon  and  subdeacon.  The  advocates 
for  this  usage  pretend  that  a  vow  of  perpetual 
celibacy  was  required  in  the  ancient  church  as  a 
condition  of  ordination,  even  from  the  earliest 
apostolic  ages.  But  the  contrary  is  evident  from 
numerous  examples  of  bishops  and  archbishops 
who  lived  in  a  state  of  matrimony,  without  any 

Erejudice  to  their  ordination  or  their  function. 
feither  our  Lord  nor  his  apostles  laid  the  least 
restraint  upon  the  connubial  union  :  on  the  con- 
trary, the  Scriptures  speak  of  it  as  honourable  in 
all,  without  the  least  restriction  as  to  persons. 
Heb.  xiii.  4.  Matt.  xix.  10,  13.  1  Cor.  vii.  2,  9. 
St.  Paul  even  assigns  forbidding  to  marry  as 
characteristic  of  the  apostaey  of  the  latter  times, 
1  Tim.  iv.  3.  The  fathers,  without  making  any 
distinction  between  clergy  and  laity,  asserted  the 
lawfulness  of  the  marriage  of  all  Christians. 
Marriage  was  not  forbidden  to  bishops  in  the 
Eastern  church  till  the  close  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury. Celibacy  was  not  imposed  on  the  Western 
clergy  in  general  till  the  end  of  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury, though  attempts  had  been  made  long  before. 
Superstitious  zeal  1'ora  sanctimonious  appearance 
in  the  clergy  seems  to  have  promoted  it  at  iirst ; 
and  crafty  policy,  armed  with  power,  no  doubt 
rivetted  this  clog  on  the  sacerdotal  order  in  later 
periods  of  the  church.  Pope  Gregory  VII.  ap- 
pears in  this  business  to  have  had  a  view  to  sepa- 
rate the  clergy  as  much  as  possible  from  all  other 
interests,  and  to  bring  them  into  a  total  depend- 
ence upon  his  authority;  to  the  end,  that  all  tem- 
poral power  might,  in  a  high  degree,  be  subju- 
gated to  the  papal  jurisdiction  Forbidding  to 
G-2 


CEREMONY 

marry,  therefore,  has  evidently  the  mark  c."  tho 
beast  upon  it.     See  MARRIAGE. 

CEMETERY,  a  place  set  apart  for  the  burial 
of  the  dead.  Anciently,  none  were  buried  in 
churches  or  church-yards:  it  was  even  unlawful 
to  inter  in  cities,  and  the  cemeteries  were  with- 
out the  walls.  Among  the  primitive  Christians 
these  were  held  in  great  veneration.  It  even  ap- 
pears from  Eusehiua  and  Tertullian,  that  in  the 
early  ages  they  assembled  for  divine  worship  in 
the  cemeteries.  Valerian  seems  to  have  confis- 
cated the  cemeteries  and  other  places  of  divine 
worship;  but  they  were  restored  again  by  Gal- 
lienua  As  the  martyrs  were  buried  in  these 
places,  the  Christians  chose  them  for  building 
churches  on,  when  Constantine  established  their 
religion  ;  and  hence  some  derive  the  rule  which 
stili  obtains  in  the  church  of  Rome,  never  to  con- 
secrate an  altar  without  putting  under  it  the  relics 
of  some  saint. 

CENSURE,  the  act  of  judging  and  blaming 
others  for  their  faults.  Faithfulness m  reproving 
another  differs  from  cemoriousness :  the  former 
arises  from  love  to  truth,  and  respect  tor  the  person; 
the  latter  is  a  disposition  that  loves  to  find  fault. 
However  just  censure  may  be  where  t  here  lshlame, 
yet  a  censorious  spirit  or  rash  judging  must  be 
avoided.  It  is  usurping  the  authority  and  judg- 
ment of  God.  It  is  unjust,  uncharitable,  mis- 
chievous, productive  of  unhappiness  to  ourselves, 
and  often  the  cause  of  disorder  and  confusion  in 
society.    See  Rash  Judging. 

CERDONIANS,  asect  in  t  he  first  century,  who 
espoused  most  of  the  opinions  of  Simon  Magus 
and  the  Manichamns.  They  asserted  two  prin- 
ciples, good  and  bad.  The  first  they  calied  the 
Father  of  Jesus  Christ ;  the  latter  the  Creator  of 
the  world.  They  denied  the  incarnation  and  the 
resurrection,  and  rejected  the  books  of  the  Old 
Testament. 

CEREMONY,  an  assemblage  of  several  ac- 
tions, forms,  and  circumstances,  serving  to  render 
a  thing  magnificent  and  solemn.  Applied  to  re- 
ligious services,  it  signifies  the  external  rites  and 
manner  wherein  the  ministers  of  religion  perform 
their  sacred  functions.  In  1646,  M.  Ponce  pub- 
lished a  history  of  ancient  ceremonies,  tracing  the  , 
rise,  growth,  and  introduction  of  each  rite  into 
the  church,  and  its  gradual  advancement  to  su- 
perstition. Many  of  them  were  borrowed  from 
Judaism,  but  more  from  paganism.  Dr.  Middle- 
ton  has  given  a  fine  discourse  on  the  conformity 
between  the  pagan  and  popish  ceremonies,  which 
he  exemplifies  m  the  use  of  incense,  holy  water, 
lamps  and  candles  before  the  shrines  of  saints,  vo- 
tive gifts  round  the  shrines  of  the  deceased,  &c. 
In  fact,  the  altars,  images,  crosses,  processions, 
miracles,  and  legends,,  nay,  even  the  very  hier- 
archy, pontificate,  religious  orders,  &c.  of  the  pre- 
sent Romans,  he  shows,  are  all  copied  from  their 
heathen  ancestors.  An  ample  and  magnificent  re- 
presentation in  figures  of  the  religious  ceremonies 
and  customs  of  all  nations  in  the  world,  designed 
by  Picart,  is  added  with  historical  explanations, 
and  many  curious  dissertations. 

It  has' been  a  question,  whether  we  ought  U. 
use  such  rites  and  ceremonies  which  are  merely 
of  human  appointment.  On  one  side  it  has  been 
observed  that  we  ought  not.  Christ  alone  is 
King  in  his  church;  he  hath  instituted  such  or- 
dinances and  forms  of  worship  as  he  hath  judged 
fit  and  necessary  j  and  to  add  to  them  seems,  at 


CERINTHIANS 
feast,  to  carry  in  it  an  imputation  on  his  wisdom 
and  authority,  and  hath  this  unanswerable  objec- 
tion to  it,  that  it  opens  the  door  to  a  thousand  in- 
novations (as  the  history  of  the  church  of  Rome 
hath  sufficiently  shown),  which  are  not  only  in- 
different  in  themselves,  but  highly  absurd,  and 
extremely  detrimental  to  religion.  That  the 
ceremonies  were  numerous  under  the  Old  Testa- 
ment dispensation  is  no  argument ;  for,  say  they, 
1.  We  respect  Jewish  ceremonies,  because  they 
were  appointed  of  God ;  and  we  reject  human 
ceremonies,  because  God  hath  not  appointed 
them. — 2.  The  Jewish  ceremonies  were  esta- 
blished by  the  universal  consent  of  the  nation: 
human  ceremonies  are  not  so. — 3.  The  former 
were  fit  and  proper  for  the  purposes  for  which 
they  were  appointed ;  but  the  latter  are  often  the 
contrary. — 1.  The  institutor  of  the  Jewish  cere- 
monies provide**  for  the  expence  of  it;  but  no 
provision  is  made  by  God  to  support  human  cere- 
monies, or  what  he  has  not  appointed. 

These  arguments  seem  very  powerful ;  but,  on 
the  other  side,  it  has  been  observed,  that  the  de- 
sire of  reducing  religious  worship  to  the  greatest 
possible  simplicity,  however  rational  it  may  ap- 
pear in  itself,  and  abstractedly  considered,  will  be 
considerably  moderated  in  such  as  bestow  a  mo- 
ment's attention  upon  the  imperfection  and  in- 
firmities of  human  nature  in  its  present  state. 
Mankind,  generally  speaking,  have  too  little  ele- 
vation of  mind  to  be  much  affected  with  those 
forms  and  methods  of  worship  in  which  there  is 
nothing  striking  to  the  outward  senses.  The 
great  difficulty  here  lies  in  determining  the  length 
which  it  is  prudent  to  go  in  the  accommodation 
of  religious  ceremonies  to  human  infirmity  ;  and 
the  grand  point  is,  to  fix  a  medium  in  which  a 
due  regard  may  be  shown  to  the  senses  and  ima- 
gination, without  violating  the  dictates  of  right 
reason,  or  tarnishing  the  purity  of  true  religion. 
It  has  been  said,  that  the  Romish  church  has 
gone  too  far  in  its  condescension  to  the  infirmi- 
ties of  mankind ;  and  this  is  what  the  ablest  de- 
fenders of  its  motley  worship  have  alleged  in  its 
behalf.  But  this  observation  is  not  just;  the 
church  of  Rome  has  not  so  much  accommodated 
itself  to  huvxan  weakness,  as  it  has  abused  that 
weakness,  b\T  taking  occasion  from  it  to  establish 
an  endless  variety  of  ridiculous  ceremonies,  de- 
structive of  true  religion,  and  only  adapted  to 
promote  the  riches  and  despotism  of  the  clergy, 
and  to  keep  the  multitude  still  hood-winked  in 
their  ignorance  and  superstition.  How  far  a  just 
antipathy  to  the  church  puppet-shows  of  the 
Papists  has  unjustly  driven  some  Protestant 
churches  into  the  opposite  extreme,  is  a  matter 
that  certainly  deserves  a  serious  consideration. 
See  Dr.  SlenneWs  Ser.  on  Conformity  to  the 
World;  Robinson's  Sermon  on  Ceremonies; 
Booth's  Essay  on  the  Kingdom  of  Christ ; 
Mosheim's  Ecclesiastical  History ;  with  Mac 
Ijaine's  Note,  vol.  i.  p.  203,  quarto  edition.  Jon&s's 
Works;  vol.  iv.  p.  267  Condcr's  Protestant  Non- 
conformity. 

CERINTHIANS,  ancient  heretics,  who  de- 
nied tne  deity  of  Jesus  Christ ;  so  named  from 
Cerinthus.  They  believed  that  he  was  a  mere 
man,  the  son  of  Joseph  and  Mary  ;  but  that  in 
his  baptism  a  celestial  virtue  descended  on  him  in 
the  form  of  a  dove ;  by  means  whereof  he  was 
consecrated  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  made  Christ,  and 
wrought  so  many  miracles;  that,  as  he  re;eived 
63 


CHAOS 
it  from  heaven,  it  quitted  him  after  his  passion, 
and  returned  to  the  place  whence  it  came  ;  so  that 
Jesus,  whom  they  called  a  -pure  man,  really  died, 
and  rose  again  ;  but  that  Christ,  who  was  distin- 
guished from  Jesus,  did  not  suffer  at  all.  It  was 
partly  to  refute  this  sect  that  St.  John  wrote  his 
Gospel.  They  received  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mat- 
thew, to  countenance  their  doctrine  of  circum- 
cision ;  but  they  omitted  the  genealogy.  They 
discarded  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  because  that 
apostle  held  circumcision  abolished. 

CHALDEE  PARAPHRASE,  in  the  rab- 
binical style,  is  called  Targum.  There  are  tnree 
Chaldee  paraphrases  in  Walton's  Polyglot: 
viz.  1.  of  Onkelos; — 2.  of  Jonathan,  son  of 
Uziel ; — 3.  of  Jerusalem.  See  Bible,  sect.  19,  and 
Targum. 

CHALICE,  the  cup  used  to  administer  the 
wine  in  the  sacrament,  and  by  the  Roman  Ca- 
tholics in  the  mass.  The  use  of  the  chalice,  or 
communicating  in  both  kinds,  is  by  the  church  of 
Rome  denied  to  the  laity,  who  communicate  only 
in  one  kind,  the  clergy  alone  being  allowed  the 
privilege  of  communicating  in  both  kinds;  in 
direct  opposition  to  our  Saviour's  words — "  Drink 
ye  all  of  it." 

CHANCE,  a  term  we  apply  to  events  to  de- 
note that  they  happen  without  any  necessary  or 
foreknown  cause.  When  we  say  a  thing  hap- 
pens by  chance,  we  mean  no  more  than  that  its 
cause  is  unknown  to  us,  and  not  as  some  vainly 
imagine,  that  chance  itself  can  be  the  cause  of 
any  thing.  "  The  case  of  the  painter,"  says 
Chambers,  "who,  unable  to  express  the  foam  at 
the  mouth  of  the  horse  he  had  painted,  threw  his 
sponge  in  despair  at  the  piece,  and  by  chance  did 
that  which  he  could  not  do  before  by  design,  is  an 
eminent  instance  of  what  is  called  chance.  Yet  it 
is  obvious  all  we  here  mean  by  chance,  is,  that 
the  painter  wa  3  not  aware  of  the  effect,  or  that  he 
did  not  throw  the  sponge  with  such  a  view :  not 
but  that  he  actually  did  every  thing  necessary  to 
produce  the  effect ;  insomuch  that,  considering 
the  direction  wherein  he  threw  the  sponge,  to- 
gether with  its  form  and  specific  gravity,  the 
colours  wherewith  it  was  smeared,  and  the  dis- 
tance of  the  hand  from  the  piece,  it  was  impossi*- 
ble,  on  the  present  system  of  tilings,  that  the  ef- 
fect should  not  follow." — The  word,  as  it  is  often 
used  by  the  unthinking,  is  vague  and  indetermi- 
nate— a  mere  name  for  nothing. 

CHANCELLOR,  a  lay  officer  under  a 
bishop,  who  is  judge  of  his  court.  In  the  first 
ages  of  the  church  the  bishops  had  those  officers, 
who  were  called  church  lawyers,  and  were  bred 
up  in  the  knowledge  of  the  civil  and  canon  law : 
their  business  was  to  assist  the  bishop  in  his 
diocese. — We  read  of  no  chancellors  till  Henry 
the  Second's  time ;  but  that  king  requiring  the 
attendance  of  the  bishops  in  his  councils,  it  was 
thought  necessary  to  substitute  chancellors  in 
their  room  for  the  dispatch  of  business. 

CHANT  is  used  for  the  vocal  music  of 
churches.  In  church  history  we  meet  with  divers 
kinds  of  these;  as,  1.  Chant  Amhrosian,  esta- 
blished by  St.  Ambrose; — 2.  Chant  Gregorian, 
introduced  by  pope  Gregory  the  Great,  who  esta- 
blished schools  of  chanters,  and  corrected  the 
church  music.  This,  at  first,  was  called  the  Ro- 
man song ;  afterwards  the  plain  song  ;  as  tbt 
choir  and  people  sing  in  unison. 

CHAOS,  the  mass  of  matter  supposed  to  he 


CHAPLET 
!n  confusion  before  it  was  divided  by  the  Almighty 
into  it-s  proper  classes  and  elements.  It  dees  not 
appear  who  first  asserted  tlie  notion  of  a  chaos. 
Moses,  the  earliest  of  all  writers,  derives  the  origin 
of  this  world  from  a  confusion  of  matter,  dark, 
void,  deep,  without  form,  which  he  calls  TOHU 
BOHU;  which  is  precisely  the  chaos  of  the 
Greek  and  barbarian  philosophers.  Moses  goes 
no  further  than  the  chaos,  nor  tells  us  whence  it 
took  its  origin,  or  whence  its  confused  state;  arid 
where  Moses  stops,  there  precisely  do  all  the 
rest. 

CHAPEL,  a  place  of  worship.  There  are 
various  kinds  of  chapels  in  Britain.  1.  Domes- 
tic chapels,  built  by  noblemen  or  gentlemen  for 
private  worship  in  their  families.  2.  Free  chapels, 
such  as  are  founded  by  kings  of  England.  They 
are  free  from  all  episcopal  jurisdiction,  and  only 
to  be  visited  by  the  founder  and  his  successors, 
which  is  done  by  the  lord  chancellor:  yet  the  king 
may  licence  any  subject  to  build  and  endow  a 
chapel,  and  by  letters  patent  exempt  it  from  the 
visitation  of  the  ordinary.  3.  Chapels  in  uni- 
rersities,  belonging  to  part'.cular  universities.  4. 
Chapels  of  case,  built  for  the  ease  of  one  or  more 
parishioners  that  dwell  too  far  from  the  church, 
and  are  served  by  inferior  curates,  provided  for  at 
the  charge  of  the  rector,  or  of  such  as  have  bene- 
fit by  it,  as  the  composition  or  custom  is.  5. 
Parochial  chapels,  which  differ  from  parish 
churches  only  in  name  :  they  are  generally  small, 
and  the  inhabitants  within  the  district  few.  If 
there  be  a  presentation  ad  ecclcsiam  instead  of 
capcllam,  and  an  admission  and  institution  upon 
it,  it  is  no  longer  a  chapel,  hut  a  church  for  them- 
selves and  families.  (>.  Chapels  which  adjoin  to 
and  are  part  of  the  church :  such  were  formerly 
built  by  honourable  persons  as  burying-places. 
7.  The  places  of  worship  belonging  to  the  Cal- 
vinistic  and  Arminian  Methodists  are  also  gene- 
rally called  chapels,  though  they  are  licensed  in 
no  other  way  than  the  meetings  of  the  Protestant 
Dissenters. 

CHAPLAIN,  a  person  who  performs  divine 
service  in  a  chapel,  or  is  retained  in  the  service  of 
some  family  to  perform  divine  service. 

As  to  the  origin  of  chaplains,  some  say  the 
shrines  of  relics  were  anciently  covered  with  a 
kind  of  tent,  cape,  or  capella,  i.  c.  little  cape;  and 
that  hence  the  priests  who  had  the  care  of  them 
were  called  chaplains.  In  time,  these  relics  were 
reposited  in  a  little  church,  either  contiguous  to  a 
larger,  or  separate  from  it;  and  the  name  capella, 
which  was  given  to  the  cover,  was  also  given  to 
the  place  where  it  was  lodged;  and  hence  the 
priest  who  superintended  it  came  to  be  called  ca- 
pcllanus,  or  chaplain. 

In  England  there  are  forty-eight  chaplains  to 
the  king,  who  wait  four  each  month,  preach  in 
the  chapel,  read  the  service  to  the  family,  and  to 
the  king  in  his  private  oratory,  and  say  grace  in 
the  absence  of  the  clerk  of  the  closet.  While  in 
waiting,  they  have  a  table  and  attendance,  but 
no  salary.  In  Scotland,  the  king  has  six  chap- 
1  lins  with  a  salary  of  50/.  each ;  three  of  them 
)  aving  in  addition  the  deanery  of  the  chapel  roval 
divided  between  them,  making  ui>  above  100/.  to 
each.  Their  onlv  duty  at  present  is  to  say  prayers 
at  the  election  of  peers  for  Scotland,  to  sit  in  par- 
liament. 

CHAPLET,  a   certain   instrument  of  piety 
made  use  of  by  the  papists.  It  is  a  string  of  beads, 
04 


CHARITY 
by  which  they  measure  or  count  the  number  of 
their  prayers. 

CHAPTER,  a  community  of  ecclesiastics, 
belonging  to  a  cathedral  or  collegiate  churclv. 
The  chief  or  head  of  the  chapter  is  the  dean; 
the  body  consists  of  canons  or  prebendaries. 
The  chapter  has  now  no  longer  a  place  in  the 
administration  of  the  diocese  during  the  life  of  the 
bishop;  but  succeeds  to  the  whole  episcopal  juris- 
diction during  the  vacancy  of  the  see. 

CHARGE:  1.  A  sermon  preached  by  the 
bishop  to  his  clergy; — 2.  Among  the  Dissenters, 
it  is  a  sermon  preached  to  a  minister  at  his  ordi- 
nation, generally  by  some  aged  or  respectable 
preacher. 

CHARITY,  one  of  the  three  grand  theologi- 
cal graces,  consisting  in  the  love  of  God  and  our 
neighbour,  or  the  habit  or  disposition  of  loving 
God  with  all  our  heart,  and  our  neighbour  as  our- 
selves. "  Charity,"  says  an  able  writer,  "  consists 
not  in  speculative  ideas  of  general  benevolence 
floating  in  the  head,  and  leaving  the  heart,  as 
speculations  often  do,  untouched  and  cold,  neither 
is  it  confined  to  that  indolent  good-nature  which 
makes  us  rest  satisfied  with  being  free  from  in- 
veterate malice,  or  ill-will  to  our  fellow-creatures 
without  prompting  us  to  be  of  service  to  any 
True  charity  is  an  active  principle.  It  is  not 
properly  a  single  virtue ;  but  a  disposition  residing 
in  the  heart  as  a  fountain ;  whence  all  the  virtues 
of  benignity,  candour,  forbearance,  generosity, 
compassion,  and  liberality  flow,  as  so  many  native 
stieams.  From  general  good  will  to  all,  it  ex 
tends  its  influence,  particularly  to  those  with 
whom  we  stand  in  nparest  connexion,  i>nd  who 
are  directly  within  the  sphere  of  our  good  offices. 
From  the  country  or  conununity  to  which  we  be- 
long, it  descends  to  the  smaller  associates  of 
neighbourhood,  relations,  and  friends ;  and  spreads 
itself  over  the  whole  circle  of  social  and  domestic 
life.  I  mean  not  that  it  imports  a  promiscuous 
undistinguishing  affection,  which  gives  every  man 
an  equal  title  to  our  love.  Charity,  if  we  should 
endeavour  to  carry  it  so  far,  would  be  rendered  an 
impracticable  virtue,  and  would  resolve  itself  into 
mere  words,  without  affecting  the  heart.  True 
charity  attempts  not  to  shut  our  eyes  to  the  dis- 
tinction between  good  and  bad  men;  nor  to  warm 
our  hearts  equally  to  those  who  befriend  and  those 
who  injure  us.  It  reserves  our  esteem  for  good  men, 
and  our  complacency  for  our  friends.  Towards  our 
enemies,  it  inspires  forgiveness  and  humanity.  It 
breathes  universal  candour  and  liberality  of  senti- 
ment. It  forms  gentleness  of  temper,  and  dictates 
affability  of  manners.  It  prompts  corresponding 
sympathies  with  them  who  rejoice  and  them  who 
weep.  It  teaches  us  to  slight  and  despise  no  man. 
Charity  is  the  comforter  of  the  afflicted,  the  pro- 
tector of  the  oppressed,  the  reconciler  of  differ- 
ences, the  intercessor  for  offenders.  It  is  faithful- 
ness in  the  friend,  public  spirit  in  the  magistrate, 
equity  and  patience  in  the  judge,  moderation  in 
the  sovereign,  and  loyalty  in  the  subject.  In  pa- 
rents it  is  care  and  attention ;  in  children  it  w 
reverence  and  submission.  In  a  word,  it  is  the 
soul  of  social  life.  It  is  the  sun  that  enlivens  and 
cheers  the  abodes  of  men;  not  a  meteor  which  oc- 
casionally glares,  but  a  luminary,  which  in  its 
orderly  and  regular  course  dispenses  a  benignant 
influence."  Sec  Barrow's  Works,  vol.  i.  ser. 
27,  28;  Blair's  Ser.  vol.  iv.  ser.  2;  ScolCs  Scr. 
ser.  14;    Tillolson's  Scr.  ser.  153;  Paley's  Alvr. 


CHILDREN 
Phil.,  vol.  i.  p.  2*31;  and  articles  Benevolence, 
Love. 

CHARM,  a  kind  of  spell,  supposed  by  the  ig- 
norant to  have  an  irresistible  influence,  by  means 
of  the  concurrence  of  some  infernal  power,  both 
on  the  minds,  lives,  and  properties  of  those  whom 
't  has  for  its  object. 

"Certain  vain  ceremonies,"  says  Dr.  Dod- 
dridge, "which  are  commonly  called  charvis, 
and  seem  to  have  no  efficacy  at  all  for  producing 
the  effects  proposed  by  them,  are  to  be  avoided ; 
seeing  if  there  be  indeed  any  real  efficacy  in  them, 
it  is  generally  probable  they  owe  it  to  some  bad 
cause ;  for  one  can  hardly  imagine  that  God 
should  permit  good  angels  in  any  extraordinary 
manner  to  interpose,  or  should  immediately  exert 
his  own  miraculous  power  on  trifling  occasions, 
and  upon  the  performance  of  such  idle  tricks  as 
are  generally  made  the  condition  of  receiving  such 
benefits." 

CHASTITY,  purity  from  fleshly  lust.  In 
men  it  is  termed  continence.  See  Continence. 
There  is  a  chastity  of  speech,  behaviour,  and 
imagination,  as  well  as  of  body.  Grove  gives  us 
the  following  rules  for  the  conservation  of  chas- 
tity:— 1.  To  keep  ourselves  fully  employed  in 
labours  either  of  the  body  or  the  mind :  idleness 
is  frequently  the  introduction  to  sensuality. — 2. 
To  guard  the  senses,  and  avoid  every  thing  which 
may  be  an  incentive  to  lust.  Does  the  free  use 
of  some  meats  and  drinks  make  the  body  ungo- 
vernable 1  Does  reading  certain  books  debauch 
the  imagination  and  inflame  the  passions  1  Do 
temptations  often  enter  by  the  sight  ?  Have  pub- 
lic plays,  dancings,  efl'eminate  music,  idle  songs, 
loose  habits,  and  the  like,  the  same  effect  1  He 
who  resolves  upon  chastity  cannot  be  ignorant 
what  his  duty  is  in  all  these  and  such  like 
cases. — 3.  To  implore  the  Divine  Spirit,  which 
is  a  spirit  of  purity ;  and  by  the  utmost  regard  to 
his  presence  and  operations,  to  endeavour  to  re- 
tain him  with  us.  Grove's  Moral  Philos.  p.  2. 
sec.  6. 

CHEATS  are  deceitful  practices,  in  defraud- 
ing, or  endeavouring  to  defraud,  another  of  his 
own  right,  by  means  of  some  artful  device  con- 
trary to  honesty.     See  Honesty,  Justice. 

CHEERFULNESS,  a  disposition  of  mind 
free  from  dejection.  Opposed  to  gloominess.  If 
we  consider  cheerfulness,  says  Addison,  in  three 
lights,  with  regard  to  ourselves,  to  those  we  con- 
verse with,  and  to  the  Great  Author  of  our  being, 
it  will  not  a*  little  recommend  itself  on  each  of 
these  accounts.  The  man  who  is  possessed  of 
this  excellent  frame  of  mind  is  not  only  easy  in 
his  thoughts,  but  a  perfect  master  of  all  the 
powers  and  faculties  of  his  soul ;  his  imagination 
is  always  clear,  and  his  judgment  undisturbed; 
his  temper  is  even  and  unruffled,  whether  in  ac- 
tion or  in  solitude.  He  comes  with  a  relish  to  all 
those  goods  which  Nature  has  provided  for  him, 
t;istes  all  the  pleasures  of  the  creation  which  are 
poured  about  him,  and  does  not  feel  the  full 
weight  of  those  evils  which  may  befal  him.  See 
Happiness,  Joy. 

CHILDREN,  duties  of,  to  parents.  Dr. 
Doddridge  observes,  "  1.  That  as  children  have 
received  important  favours  from  their  parents, 
gratitude,  and  therefore  virtue,  requires  that  they 
should  love  them. — 2.  Considering  the  superi- 
ority of  age,  and  the  probable  superiority  of  wis- 
dom, which  there  is  on  the  side  of  parents,  and 
G5  / 


CHRISTIAN 

also  how  much  the  satisfaction  and  comfort  of  a 
parent  depend  on  the  respect  shown  him  by  his 
children,  it  is  fit  that  children  should  reverence 
their  parents. — 3.  It  is  fit  that,  while  the  parents 
are  living,  and  the  use  of  their  understanding 
continued,  their  children  should  not  ordinarily 
undertake  any  matter  of  great  importance,  with- 
out advising  with  them,  or  without  very  cogent 
reasons  pursue  it  contrary  to  their  consent. — 4. 
As  young  people  need  some  guidance  and  go- 
vernment in  their  minority,  and  as  there  is  some 
peculiar  reason  to  trust  the  prudence,  care,  and 
affection  of  a  parent,  preferable  to  any  other  per- 
son, it  is  reasonable  that  children,  especially  while 
in  their  minority,  should  obey  their  parents, 
without  which  neither  the  order  of  families,  nor 
the  happiness  of  the  rising  generation  could  be 
secured :  nevertheless,  still  supposing  that  the 
commands  of  the  parent  are  not  inconsistent  with 
the  will  of  God. — 5.  Virtue  requires,  that  if  pa- 
rents come  to  want,  children  should  take  care  to 
furnish  them  with  the  necessaries  of  life,  and,  so 
far  as  their  ability  will  permit,  with  the  conve- 
niences of  it."  Doddridge's  Lectures,  p.  241. 
vol.  i.  Pale-t/s  Moral  Philosophy,  p.  372. 
vol.  i. 

CHILIASTS,  the  same  with  Millennarians, 
a  name  given  to  those  who  hold  the  peculiar 
views  relative  to  the  Millennium,  which  the 
reader  will  find  detailed  under  that  article. — B. 

CHOREPISCOPI  (r«  *«,>»«  miM,  bi- 
shops of  the  country.)  In  the  ancient  church, 
when  the  dioceses  became  enlarged  by  the  con- 
versions of  pagans  in  the  country  and  villages  at 
a  great  distance  from  the  city  church,  the  bishops 
appointed  themselves  certain  assistants,  whom 
they  called  Chorepiscopi,  because  by  their  office 
they  were  bishops  of  the  country.  There  have 
been  great  disputes  among  the  learned  concerning 
this  order,  some  thinking  that  they  were  mere 
presbyters;  others  that  there  were  two  sorts,  some 
that  had  received  episcopal  ordination,  and  some 
that  were  presbyters  only ;  others  think  that  they 
were  all  bishops. 

CHRISM,  oil  consecrated  by  the  bishop,  and 
used  in  the  Romish  and  Greek  churches  in  tho 
administration  of  baptism,  confirmation,  ordina- 
tion, and  extreme  unction. 

CHRIST,  the  Lord  and  Saviour  of  mankind. 
He  is  called  Christ,  or  Messiah,  because  he  is 
anointed,  sent,  -and  furnished  by  God  to  execute 
his  mediatorial  office.     See  Jesus  Christ. 

CHRISTIAN,  by  Dr.  Johnson  is  defined 
"a  professor  of  the  religion  of  Christ;"  but  in 
reality  a  Christian  is  more  than  a  professor  of 
Christianity.  He  is  one  who  imbibes  the  spirit, 
participates  the  grace,  and  is  obedient  to  the  will 
of  Christ. 

The  disciples  and  followers  of  Christ  were  first 
denominated  Christians  at  Antioch,  A.  D.  42. 
The  first  Christians  distinguished  themselves,  in 
the  most  remarkable  manner,  by  their  conduct 
and  their  virtues.  The  faithful,  whom  the 
preaching  of  St.  Peter  had  converted,  hearkened 
attentively  to  the  exhortations  of  the  apostles, 
who  failed  not  carefully  to  instruct  them  as  per- 
sons who  were  entering  upon  an  entire  new  life. 
They  attended  the  temple  daily,  doing  nothing 
different  from  the  other  Jews,  because  it  was  yet 
not  time  to  separate  from  them.  But  they  made 
a  still  greater  progress  in  virtue ;  for  they  sold  all 
that  they  possessed,  and  distributed  their  goods 
F  2 


CHRISTIANS 
to  the  wants  of  their  brethren.  The  primitive 
Christians  were  not  only  remarkable  for  the  con- 
sistency of  their  conduct,  but  were  also  very  emi- 
nently distinguished  by  the  many  miraculous 
gifts  and  graces  bestowed  by  God  upon  them. 

The  Jews  were  the  first  and  the  most  invete- 
rate enemies  the  Ckristians  had.  They  put  them 
to  death  as  often  as  they  had  it  in  their  power  ; 
and  when  they  revolted  against  the  Romans,  in 
the  time  of  the  emperor  Adrian,  Barcochebas, 
who  was  at  the  head  of  that  revolt,  employed 
against  the  Christians  the  most  rigorous  punish- 
ments, to  compel  them  to  blaspheme  and  renounce 
Jesus  Christ.  And  we  find  that  even  in  the  third 
century  they  endeavoured  to  get  into  their  hands 
Christian  women,  in  order  to  scourge  and  stone 
them  in  their  synagogues.  They  cursed  the 
Christians  three  times  a  day  in  their  synagogues ; 
and  their  rabbins  would  not  suffer  them  to  con- 
verse with  Christians  upon  any  occasion;  nor 
were  they  contented  to  hate  and  detest  them,  but 
they  dispatched  emissaries  all  over  the  world  to 
defame  the  Christians,  and  spread  all  sorts  of  ca- 
lumnies against  them.  They  accused  them, 
among  other  things,  of  worshipping  the  sun,  and 
the  head  of  an  ass;  they  reproached  them  with 
idleness,  and  being  a  useless  set  of  people.  They 
charged  them  with  treason,  and  endeavouring  to 
erect  a  new  monarchy  against  that  of  the  Ro- 
mans. They  affirmed  that  in  celebrating  their 
mysteries,  they  used  to  kill  a  child  and  eat  his 
flesh.  They  accused  them  of  the  most  shocking 
incests,  and  of  intemperance  in  their  feasts  of 
charity.  But  the  lives  and  behaviour  of  the  first 
Christians  were  sufficient  to  refute  all  that  was 
said  against  them,  and  evidently  demonstrated 
th;it  these  accusations  were  mere  calumny,  and 
the  effect  of  inveterate  malice.  Pliny  the  Younger, 
who  was  governor  of  Pontus  and  Bithynia  be- 
tween the  years  103  and  105,  gives  a  very  par- 
ticular account  of  the  Christians  in  that  province, 
in  a  letter  which  he  wrote  to  the  emperor  Tra- 
jan, of  which  the  following  is  an  extract:  "I 
take  the  liberty,  Sir,  to  give  you  an  account  of 
every  difficulty  which  arises  to  me ;  I  had  never 
been  present  at  the  examinations  of  the  Chris- 
tians ;  for  which  reason  I  know  not  what  ques- 
tions have  been  put  to  them,  nor  in  what  manner 
they  have  been  punished.  My  behaviour  towards 
those  who  have  been  accused  to  me  has  been 
this:  I  have  interrogated  them,  in  order  to  know 
whether  they  were  really  Christians.  "When 
they  have  confessed  it,  I  have  repeated  the  same 
question  two  or  three  times,  threatening  them 
with  death  if  they  did  not  renounce  this  religion. 
Those  who  have  persisted  in  their  confession 
have  been  by  my  order  led  to  punishment.  I 
have  even  met  with  some  Roman  citizens  guilty 
of  this  frenzy,  whom,  in  regard  of  their  quality,  I 
have  set  apart  from  the  rest,  in  order  to  send 
them  to  Rome.  These  persons  declare  that  their 
whole  crime,  if  they  are  guilty,  consists  in  this  : 
That  on  certain  days  they  assemble  before  sun- 
rise to  sing  alternately  the  praises  of  Christ,  as  of 
God;  and  to  oblige  themselves,  by  the  perform- 
anee  of  their  religious  rites,  not  to  be  guilty  of 
theft  or  adultery,  to  observe  inviolably  their  word, 
and  to  he  true  to  their  trust.  This  disposition 
has  olili<red  me  to  endeavour  to  inform  myself 
still  further  of  this  matter,  by  putting  to  the  tor- 
ture two  of  their  women-servants,  whom  they 
culled  deaconesses;  but  I  could  learn  nothing 
CG 


CHRISTIANS 
more  from  them  than  that  the  superstition  of  thew 
people  is  as  ridiculous  as  their  attachment  to  it  is 
astonishing." 

It  is  easy  to  discover  the  cause  of  the  many 
persecutions  to  which  the  Christians  were  expos- 
ed during  the  first  three  centuries.  The  purity 
of  the  Christian  morality,  directly  opposite  to  the 
corruption  of  the  pagans,  was  doubtless  one  of 
the  most  powerful  motives  of  the  public  aversion. 
To  this  may  be  added  the  many  calumnies  un- 
justly spread  about  concerning  them  by  their 
enemies,  particularly  the  Jews;  and  this  occasion- 
ed so  strong  a  prejudice  against  them,  that  the 
pagans  condemned  them  w  ithout  inquiring  into 
their  doctrine,  or  permitting  them  to  defend  them- 
selves. Besides,  their  worshipping  Jesus  Christ 
as  God,  was  contrary  to  one  of  the  most  ancient 
laws  of  the  Roman  empire,  which  expressly  for- 
bade the  acknowledging  of  any  God  which  had 
not  been  approved  of  by  the  senate.  But,  not- 
withstanding the  violent  opposition  made  to  the 
establishment  of  the  Christian  religion,  it  gained 
ground  daily,  and  very  soon  made  surprising  pro- 
gress in  the  Roman  empire.  In  the  third  century 
there  were  Christians  in  the  senate,  in  the  camp, 
in  the  palace;  in  short  every  where  but  in  the 
temple  and  the  theatres ;  they  filled  the  towns, 
the  country,  the  islands.  Men  and  women  of  all 
ages  and  conditions,  and  even  those  of  the  first 
dignities,  embraced  the  faith ;  insomuch  that  the 
pagans  complained  that  the  revenues  of  their 
temples  were  ruined.  They  were  in  such  great 
numbers  in  the  empire,  that  (as  Tertullian  ex- 
presses it)  were  they  to  have  retired  into  another 
country,  they  would  have  left  the  Romans  only  a 
frightful  solitude.  For  persecutions  of  the  Chris- 
tians, see  article  Persecutions. 

Christians  may  be  considered  as  nominal  and 
real.  There  are  vast  numbers  who  are  called 
Christians,  not  because  tney  possess  any  love  for 
Christ,  but  because  they  happen  to  be  born  in  a 
Christian  country,  educated  by  Christian  parents, 
and  sometimes  attend  Christian  worship.  There 
are  also  many  whose  minds  are  well  informed  re- 
specting the  Christian  system,  who  prefer  it  to 
every  other,  and  who  make  an  open  profession  of 
it;  and  yet,  after  all,  feel  but  little  of  the  real 
power  of  Christianity.  A  real  Christian  is  one 
whose  understanding  is  enlightened  by  the  influ- 
ences of  divine  grace,  who  is  convinced  of  the 
depravity  of  his  nature,  who  sees  his  own  inabili- 
ty to  help  himself,  who  is  taught  to  behold  God 
as  the  chief  good,  the  Lord  Jesus  as  the  only 
way  to  obtain  felicity,  and  that  the  Holy  Spirit 
is  the  grand  agent  in  applying  the  blessings  of 
the  Gospel  to  his  soul.  His  heart  is  renovated, 
and  inclined  to  revere,  honour,  worship,  trust  in, 
and  live  to  God.  His  affections  are  elevated 
above  the  world,  and  centre  in  God  alone.  He 
embraces  him  as  his  portion,  loves  him  supreme- 
ly, and  is  zealous  in  the  defence  and  support  of 
his  cause.  His  temper  is  regulated,  his  powers 
roused  to  vigorous  action,  his  thoughts  spiritual, 
and  his  general  deportment  amiable  and  uniform. 
In  fine,  the  true  Christian  character  exceeds  all 
others  as  much  as  the  blaze  of  the  meridian  sun 
outshines  the  feeble  light  of  the  glow-worm. 

CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  JOHN,  a  sect  of 
Christians  very  numerous  in  Baliara,  and  the 
neighbouring  towns:  they  formerly  inhabited 
along  the  river  Jordan,  where  St.  John  baptized, 
and  it  was  from  thence  they  had  their  name. 


CHRISTIANITY 
They  hold  an  anniversary  feast  of  five  days, 
during  which  they  all  go  to  the  bishop,  who  bap- 
tizes them  with  the  baptism  of  St.  John.  Their 
baptism  is  also  performed  in  rivers,  and  that  only 
on  Sundays;  they  have  no  notion  of  the  third 
person  in  the  Trinity ;  nor  have  they  any  canoni- 
cal book,  but  abundance  full  of  charms,  &c. 
Their  bishoprics  descend  by  inheritance  as  our 
estates  do,  though  they  have  the  ceremony  of  an 
election. 

CHRISTIANS  OF  ST.  THOMAS,  a  sort 
of  Christians  m  a  peninsula  of  India  on  this  side 
the  Gulf;  they  inhabit  chiefly  at  Cranganor.  and 
the  neighbouring  country;  these  admit  of  no 
images,  and  receive  only  the  cross,  to  which  they 
pay  a  great  veneration.  They  affirm,  that  the 
souls  ot  the  saints  do  not  see  God  till  after  the 
day  of  judgment;  they  acknowledge  but  three 
sacraments,  viz.  baptism,  orders,  and  the  eucha- 
rist :  they  make  no  use  of  holy  oils  in  the  admi- 
nistration of  baptism,  but,  after  the  ceremony, 
anoint  the  infant  with  an  unction  composed  of 
oil  and  walnuts,  without  any  benediction.  In  the 
eucharist  they  consecrate  with  little  cakes  made 
of  oil  and  salt,  and  instead  of  wine  make  use  of 
water  in  which  raisins  have  been  infused. 

In  the  Asiatic  Researches  of  the  Society  insti- 
tuted in  Bengal,  may  be  found  an  enlarged  ac- 
count of  the  Christians  of  St.  Thomas,  which 
was  laid  before  that  society  by  F.  Wrede,  Esq. 
See  also  Monthly  Magazine  for  1804,  p.  GO,  and 
Dr.  Kerr's  Report  to  Lord  Bentinck,  on  the  state 
of  the  Christians  inhabiting  the  kingdom  of  Co- 
chin and  Travancore.  Evang.  Mag.  1807,  p.  473. 

CHRISTIANS,  a  name  assumed  by  a  reli- 
gious sect  formed  in  different  parts  of  the  United 
States,  though  not  in  great  numbers,  nor  of  a  uni- 
form faith,  differing  but  little  from  the  general 
body  of  Unitarians.  They  deny  in  the  main  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity  and  that  of  a  vicarious 
atonement.  They  are  professedly  anti-sectarian 
in  their  views,  holding  that  Christians  should 
know  no  names  nor  parties,  and  that  the  insisting 
on  certain  points  called  fundamentals,  has  ever 
been  the  bane  of  true  charity  among  the  profess- 
ed disciples  of  Jesus.  They,  therefore,  discard 
all  creeds  or  confessions  of  faith,  maintaining, 
that  the  Scriptures  contain  a  perfect  rule  of  faith 
and  practice,  and  that  in  order  to  communion,  no 
man  or  body  of  men  ^have  a  right  to  require  any 
more  than  an  avowed  belief  in  the  Word  of  God, 
and  an  irreproachable  life  and  conduct.  In  their 
mode  of  church  government  they  are  Independ- 
ents; in  their  preaching  usually  loud  and  vehe- 
ment; and  in  their  meetings,  frequently  giving 
way  to  such  excesses  of  zeal  as  render  them  scenes 
of  great  tumult  and  disorder. — B. 

CHRISTIANITY,  the  religion  of  Christians. 

I.  Christianity,  foundation  of.  Most,  if 
not  all  Christians,  whatever  their  particular 
tenets  may  be,  acknowledge  the  Scriptures  of 
the  Old  and  New  Testaments  as  the  sole  foun- 
dation of  their  faith  and  practice.  But  as  these 
books,  or  at  least  particular  passages  in  them, 
have  from  the  ambiguity  if  language  been  vari- 
ously ii.terpreted  by  different  commentators,  these 
diversities  have  given  birth  to  a  multiplicity  of 
different  sects.  These,  however,  or  at  least  the 
greatest  number  of  them,  appeal  to  the  Scriptures 
of  the  Old  and  New  Testaments  as  the  ultimate 
standard,  the  only  infallible  rule  of  faith  and 
manners.   If  asked  by  what  authority  these  books 

a 


CHRISTIANITY 
claim  an  absolute  right  to  determine  the  con- 
sciences and  understandings  of  men  with  regard 
to  what  they  should  believe  and  what  they  should 
do,  they  answer,  that  all  Scripture,  whether  for 
doctrine,  correction,  or  reproof,  was  given  by  im- 
mediate inspiration  from  God.  If  again  interro- 
gated how  those  books  which  they  call  Scripture 
are  authenticated,  they  reply,  that  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments  are  proved  to  be  the  word  of 
God,  by  evidences  both  external  and  internal. 
See  §  2,  and  article  Revei.atiox. 

II.  Christianity,  evidences  of  the  truth  of 
The  external  evidences  of  the  authenticity  and 
divine  authority  of  the  Scriptures  have  been  di- 
vided into  direct  and  collateral.  The  direct  evi- 
dences are  such  as  arise  from  the  nature,  consist- 
ency, and  probability  of  the  facts ;  and  from  the 
simplicity,  uniformity,  competency,  and  fidelity 
of  the  testimonies  by  which  they  are  supported 
The  collateral  evidences  are  either  the  same  oc- 
currences supported  by  heathen  testimonies,  or 
others  which  concur  with  and  corroborate  the 
history  of  Christianity.  Its  internal  evidences 
arise  either  from  its  exact  conformity  with  the 
character  of  God,  from  its  aptitude  to  the  frame 
and  circumstances  of  man,  or  from  those  super- 
natural convictions  and  assistances  which  are  im- 
pressed on  the  mind  by  the  immediate  operation 
of  the  Divine  Spirit.  We  shall  here  chiefly  fol- 
low Dr.  Doddridge,  and  endeavour  to  give  some 
of  the  chief  evidences  which  have  been  brought 
forward,  and  which  every  unprejudiced  mind 
must  confess  are  unanswerable. 

First.  Taking  the  matter  merely  in  theory,  it 
will  appear  highly  probable  that  such  a  system  as 
the  Gospel  should  be,  indeed,  a' divine  revelation. 

1.  The  case  of  mankind  is  naturally  such  as 
to  need  a  divine  revelation,  1  John  v.  19.  Rom.  i. 
Eph.  iv. — 2.  There  is  from  the  light  of  nature 
considerable  encouragement  to  hope  that  God 
would  favour  his  creatures  with  so  needful,  a 
blessing  as  a  revelation  appears. — 3.  We  may 
easily  conclude,  that  if  a  revelation  were  given,  it 
would  be  introduced  and  transmitted  in  such  a 
manner  as  Christianity  is  said  to  have  been. — 1. 
That  the  main  doctrines  of  the  Gospel  are  of  such 
a  nature  as  we  might  in  general  suppose  those  of 
a  divine  revelation  would  be ;  rational,  practical, 
and  sublime.  Heb.  xi.  6.  Mark  xii.  20.  1  Tim. 
ii.  5.  Matt.  v.  48.  x.  29,  30.  Pliilip.  iv.  fc. 
Rom.  ii.  6,  40. 

Secondly.  It  is,  in  fact,  certain,  that  Chris- 
tianity is,  indeed,  a  divine  revelation;  for,  I.  The 
books  of  the  New  Testament,  now  in  our  hands, 
were  written  by  the  first  preachers  and  publish- 
ers of  Christianity.  In  proof  of  this,  observe, 
1.  That  it  is  certain  that  Christianity  is  not  a 
new  religion,  but  that  it  was  maintained  by  great 
multitudes  quickly  after  the  time  in  which  Jesus 
is  said  to  have  appeared. — 2.  That  there  was 
certainly  such  a  person  as  Jesus  of  Nazareth, 
who  was  crucified  at  Jerusalem,  when  Pontius 
Pilate  was  governor  there. — 3.  The  first  publish- 
ers of  this  religion  wrote  books  which  contained 
an  account  of  the  life  and  doctrine  of  Jesus  theii 
master,  and  which  went  by  the  name  of  those 
that  now  make  up  our  New  Testament. — 4. 
That  the  books  of  the  New  Testament  have  been 
preserved,  in  the  main,  uncorrupted  to  the  present 
time,  in  the  original  language  in  which  they 
were  written.  -5.  That  the  translation  of  them 
now  in  our  hands  may  be  depended  upon  as  in 


CHRISTIANITY 
all  things  most  material,  agreeable  to  the  original. 
Now,  II.  Prom  allowing  the  .Veio  Testament 
to  be  genuine,  according  to  the  above  proof,  il 
v/Ui  certainly  follow  that  Christianity  is  a  citrine 
revelation ;  for,  in  the  first  place,  it  is  exceedingly 
evident  that  the  writers  of  the  New  Testament 
certainly  knew  whether  the  tacts  were  true  or 
false.  John  i.  3.  xix.  27,  35.   Acts  xxvii.  7,  9. — 
2.  That  the  character  of  these  writers,  so  far  as 
we  can  judge  by  their  works,  seems  to  rentier 
them  worthy  of  regard,  and  leaves  no  room  to 
imagine  they  intended  to  deceive  us.     The  man- 
ner in  which  they  tell  their  story  is  most  happily 
adapted  to  gain  our  belief.     There  is  no  air  of 
declamation  and  harangue;  nothing  that  looks 
like  artifice  and  design :  no  apologies,  no  encomi- 
ums, no  characters,  no  reflections,  no  digressions  ; 
but  the  facts  are  recounted  with  great  simplicity, 
just  as  they  seem  to  have  happened;  and  those 
facts  are  left  to  speak  for  themselves.     Their  in- 
tegrity likewise  evidently  appears  in  the  freedom 
with  which  they  mention  those  circumstances 
which  might   have   exposed   their  Master  and 
themselves  to  the  greatest  contempt  amongst  pre- 
judiced  and   inconsiderate   men,  such   as   they 
knew  they  must  generally  expect  to  meet  with. 
John  i.  4o,  46.     vii.  52.     Luke  ii.  4,  7.     Mark 
vi.  3.    Matt.  viii.  20.    John  vii.  48.    It  is  certain 
that  there  are  in  their  writings  the  most  genuine 
traces  not  only  of  a  plain  and  honest,  but  a  most 
pious  and  devout,  a  most  benevolent  ami  generous 
disposition,  as  every  one  must  acknowledge  who 
reads  their  writings.—  3.  The  apostles  were  un- 
der no  temptation  to  forge  a  story  of  this  kind, 
or  to  publish  it  to  the  world  knowing  it  to  be 
false. — 1.  Had  they  done  so.  humanly  speaking, 
they  must  quickly  have  perished  in  it,  and  their 
foolish  cause  must  have  died  with  them,  without 
ever  gaining  any  credit  in  the  world.     Reflect 
more  particularly  on  the  nature  of  those  grand 
facts,  the  death,  resurrection,  and  exaltation  of 
Christ,  which  formed  the  great  foundation  of  the 
Christian  scheme,  as  first  exhibited  to  the  apos- 
tles.    The  resurrection  of  a  dead  man,  and  his 
ascension  into  an  abode  in  the  upper  world,  were 
such  strange  things,  that  a  thousand  objections 
would  immediately  have  been  raised  against  them ; 
and  some  extraordinary  proof  would  have  been 
justly  required  as  a  balance  to  them.     Consider 
the  manner  in  which  the  apostles  undertook  to 
prove  the  truth  of  their  testimony  to  these  facts; 
and  it  will  evidently  appear,  that,  instead  of  con- 
firming their  scheme,  it  must  have  been  sufficient 
utterly  to  have  overthrown  it,  had  it  been  itself 
the  most  probable  imposture  that  the  wit  of  man 
could  ever  have  contrived.     See  Acts  hi.  ix.  xiv. 
\i\.  &<•.     They  did  not  merely  assert  that  they 
had  seen  miracles  wrought  by  Jesus,  but  that  he 
had  endowed  them  with  a  variety  of  miraculous 
powers;  and  these  they  undertook  to  display,  not 
'.i  such  idle  and  useless  tricks  as  sleight  of  "hand 
might  perform,  but  in  such  solid  and  important 
works  as  appeared  worthy  of  divine  interposition, 
and    entirely  superior   to   human   power.     Nor 
were  these  things  undertaken   in  a  corner,  in  a 
circle  of  friends  or  dependants;  nor  were  they 
said  to  be  wrought,  as  might  be  suspected,  by  any 
confederates  in  the  fraud;  but  they  were'donc 
often  in  the  most  public  manner.  "  Would  im- 
postors hd\c  made  such  pretensions  as  these  ?  or, 
if  they  had,  must  they  not  immediately  have  been 
exposed  and  ruined?     Now.  if  the  New  Testa- 
OS 


CHRISTIANITY 
ment  bo  genuine,  then  it  is  certain  that  the  apo«»- 
ties  pretend  to  have  wrought  miracles  in  the  very 
presence  of  those  to  whom  their  writings  were 
addressed ;  nay,  more,  they  profess  likewise  to 
have  conferred  those  miraculous  gifts  in  some 
considerable  degrees  on  others,  even  on  the  very 
persons  to  whom  they  write,  and  they  appeal  to 
their  consciences  as  to  the  truth  of  it.  And  could 
there  possibly  be  room  for  delusion  here  ? — 5.  It 
is  likewise  certain  that  the  apostles  did  gain  cariy 
credit,  and  succeeded  in  a  most  wonderful  man- 
ner. This  is  abundantly  proved  by  the  vast  num- 
ber of  churches  established  in  early  ages  at  Rome, 
Corinth,  Ephesus.  Colosse,  &c  &c  Sue, — (>.  That, 
admitting  the  facts  which  they  testified  concern- 
ing Christ  to  be  true,  then  it  was  reasonable  for 
their  contemporaries,  and  is  reasonable  for  us,  to 
receive  the  Gospel  which  they  have  transmitted 
to  us  as  a  divine  revelation.  The  great  thing 
they  asserted  was,  that  Jesus  was  the  Christ,  and 
that  he  was  proved  to  be  so  by  prophecies  accom- 
plished in  him,  and  by  miracles  wrought  by  him, 
and  by  others  in  his  name.  If  we  attend  to  these, 
we  shall  find  them  to  be  no  contemptible  argu- 
ments ;  but  must  be  forced  to  acknowledge  that, 
the  premises  being  established,  the  conclusion 
most  easily  and  necessarily  follows ;  and  this  con- 
clusion, that  Jesus  is  the  Christ,  taken  in  all  its 
extent,  is  an  abstract  of  the  Gospel  revelation, 
and  therefore  is  sometimes  put  for  the  whole  of  it, 
Acts  viii.  37.  xvii.  18.  See  articles  Miracle  and 
Prophecy. — 7.  The  truth  of  the  Gospel  lias  also 
received  further  and  very  considerable  confirma- 
tion from  what  has  happened  in  the  world  since 
it  was  first  published.  And  here  we  must  desire 
every  one  to  consider  what  God  has  been  doing 
to  confirm  the  Gospel  since  its  first  publication, 
and  he  will  find  it  a  further  evidence  of  its  Di- 
vine original.  We  might  argue  at  large  from  its 
surprising  propagation  in  the  world ;  from  the 
miraculous  powers  with  which  not  only  the  apos- 
tles, but  succeeding  preachers  of  the  Gospel,  and 
other  converts,  were  endowed ;  from  the  accom 
plishment  of  prophecies  recorded  in  the  New 
Testament;  and  from  the  preservation  of  the 
Jews  as  a  distinct  people,  notwithstanding  the 
various  difficulties  and  persecutions  through 
which  they  have  passed.  We  must  not,  how- 
ever, forget  to  mention  the  confirmation  it  re- 
ceives from  the  methods  which  its  enemies  have 
taken  to  destroy  it ;  and  these  have  generally  been 
either  persecution  or  falsehood,  or  cavilling  at 
some  particulars  in  revelation,  without  entering 
into  the  grand  argument  on  which  it  is  built,  and 
fairly  debating  what  is  offered  in  its  defence.  The 
cause  has  gained  considerably  by  the  opposition 
made  to  it:  the  more  it  has  been  tried,  the  more 
it  has  been  approved;  and  we  are  bold  to  say  no 
honest  man,  unfettered  by  prejudice,  can  examine 
this  system  in  all  its  parts,  without  being  con- 
vinced that  its  origin  is  divine. 

III.  Christianity,  general  doctrines  of.  "It 
must  be  obvious,"  says  an  ingenious  author,  "to 
every  reflecting  mind,  that,  whether  we  attempt  to 
form  the  idea  of  any  religion  d  priori,  or  contem 
plate  those  which  have  already  been  exhibited, 
certain  facts,  principles,  or  data,  must  be  pre-es 
tablished ;  from  whence  will  result  a  particulai 
frame  of  mind  and  course  of  action  suitable  toth« 
character  and  dignity  of  that  Being  by  whom  th« 
religion  is  enjoined,  and  adapted  to  the  natur* 
and  situation  of  those  agents  who  are  comma*]- 


CHRISTIANITY 

ed  to  observe  it.  Hence  Christianity  may  be  di- 
vided into  credenda  or  doctrines,  and  agenda  or 
precepts.  As  the  great  foundation  of  his  religion, 
therefore,  the  Christian  believes  the  existence  and 
government  of  one  eternal  and  infinite  Essence, 
which  for  ever  retains  in  itself  the  cause  of  its 
own  existence,  and  inherently  possesses  all  those 
perfections  which  are  compatible  with  its  nature ; 
such  ire  its  almighty  power,  omniscient  wisdom, 
infinite  justice,  boundless  goodness,  and  universal 
presence.  In  this  indivisible  essence  the  Chris- 
tian recognizes  three  distinct  subsistences,  yet 
distinguished  in  such  a  manner  as  not  to  be  in- 
compatible either  with  essential  unity,  or  sim- 
plicity of  being,  or  with  their  personal  distinction ; 
each  of  them  possesses  the  same  nature  and 
properties  to  the  same  extent.  This  infinite  Be- 
ing was  graciously  pleased  to  create  an  universe 
replete  with  intelligences,  who  might  enjoy  his 
glory,  participate  his  happiness,  and  imitate  his 
perfections.  But  as  these  beings  were  not  immu- 
table, but  left  to  the  freedom  of  their  own  will, 
degeneracy  took  place,  and  that  in  a  rank  of  in- 
telligence superior  to  man.  But  guilt  is  never  sta- 
tionary. Impatient  of  itself,  and  cursed  with  its 
own  feelings,  it  proceeds  from  bad  to  worse, 
whilst  the  poignancy  of  its  torments  increases 
with  the  number  of  its  perpetrations.  Such  was 
the  situation  of  Satan  and  his  apostate  angels. 
They  attempted  to  transfer  their  turpitude  and 
misery  to  man,  and  were,  alas,  but  too  success- 
ful !  Hence  the  heterogeneous  and  irreconcilable 
principles  which  operate  in  his  nature ;  hence 
that  inexplicable  medley  of  wisdom  and  folly,  of 
rectitude  and  error,  of  benevolence  and  malignity, 
of  sincerity  and  fraud,  exhibited  through  his 
whole  conduct ;  hence  the  darkness  of  his  under- 
standing, the  depravity  of  his  will,  the  pollution 
of  his  heart,  the  irregularity  of  his  affections,  and 
the  absolute  subversion  of  his  whole  internal 
economy.  The  seeds  of  perdition  soon  ripened 
into  overt  acts  of  guilt  and  horror.  All  the  hos- 
tilities of  nature  were  confronted,  and  the  whole 
sublunary  creation  became  a  theatre  of  disorder 
and  mischief.  Here  the  Christian  once  more  ap- 
peals to  fact  and  experience.  If  these  things  are 
so ;  if  man  be  the  vessel  of  guilt,  and  the  victim 
of  misery,  he  demands  how  this  constitution  of 
tilings  can  be  accounted  for?  how  can  it  be  sui>- 
posed  that  a  being  so  wicked  and  unhappy  should 
be  the  production  of  an  infinitely  good  and  infi- 
nitely perfect  Creator  1  He  therefore  insists  that 
human  nature  must  have  been  disarranged  and 
contaminated  by  some  violent  shock ;  and  that,  of 
consequence,  without  the  light  diffused  over  the 
tiice  of  things  by  Christianity,  all  nature  must  re- 
main in  inscrutable  and  inexplicable  mystery. 
To  redress  these  evils,  to  re-establish  the  empire 
of  rectitude  and  happiness,  to  restore  the  nature 
of  man  to  its  primitive  dignity,  to  satisfy  the  re- 
monstrances of  infinite  justice,  to  purify  every 
original  or  contracted  stain,  to  expiate  the  guik 
and  destroy  the  power  of  vice,  the  eternal  Son 
of  God,  from  whom  Christianity  takes  its  name, 
and  to  whom  it  owes  its  origin,  descended  from 
the  bosom  of  his  Father,  assumed  the  human  na- 
ture, became  the  representative  of  man  ;  endured 
a  severe  probation  in  that  character;  exhibited  a 
pattern  of  perfect  righteousness,  and  at  last  rati- 
fied his  doctrine,  and  fully  accomplished  all  the 
ends  of  his  mission,  by  a  cruel,  unmerited,  and  ig- 
nominious death.  Before  he  left  the  world,  he 
69 


CHRISTIANITY 

delivered  the  doctrines  of  salvation,  and  the  rules 
of  human  conduct,  to  his  apostles,  whom  he  em- 
powered to  instruct  the  world  in  all  that  concern 
ed  their  eternal  felicity,  and  whom  he  invested 
with  miraculous  gifts,  to  ascertain  the  reality  of 
what  they  taught.  To  them  he  likewise  promised 
another  comforter,  even  the  Divine  Spirit,  who 
should  remove  the  darkness,  console  the  woes, 
and  purify  the  stains  of  human  nature.  Having 
remained  for  a  part  of  three  days  under  the  power 
of  death,  he  rose  again  from  the  grave ;  appeared 
to  his  disciples,  and  many  others;  conversed  with 
them  for  some  time,  then  re-ascended  to  heaven  ; 
from  whence  the  Christian  expects  him,  accord- 
ing to  his  promise,  to  appear  as  the  Sovereign 
Judge  of  the  living  and  the  dead,  from  whose 
awards  there  is  no  appeal,  and  by  whose  sentence 
the  destiny  of  the  righteous  and  the  wicked  shall 
be  eternally  fixed.  Soon  after  his  departure  to 
the  right  hand  of  his  Father  (where  in  his  human 
nature  he  sits  supreme  of  all  created  beings,  and 
invested  with  the  absolute  administration  of  hea- 
ven and  earth,)  the  Spirit  of  grace  and  consola- 
tion descended  on  his  apostles  with  visible  signa- 
tures of  divine  power  and  presence.  Nor  were 
his  salutary  operations  confined  to  them,  but  ex- 
tended to  all  who  did  not  by  obstinate  guilt  repel 
his  influences.  These,  indeed,  were  less  con- 
spicuous than  at  the  glorious  sra  when  they  were 
visibly  exhibited  in  the  persons  of  the  apostles. 
But,  though  his  energy  be  less  observable,  it  is  by 
no  means  less  effectual  to  all  the  purposes  of  grace 
and  mercy.  The  Christian  is  convinced  that 
there  is  and  shall  continue  to  be  a  society  upon 
earth,  who  worship  God  as  revealed  in  Jesus 
Christ,  who  believe  his  doctrines,  who  observe  his 
precepts,  and  shall  be  saved  by  the  merits  of  his 
death,  in  the  use  of  these  external  means  of  salva- 
tion which  he  hath  appointed.  He  also  believes 
that  the  sacraments  of  baptism  and  the  Lord's 
Supper,  the  interpretation  and  application  of 
Scripture,  the  habitual  exercise  of  public  and 
private  devotion,  are  obviously  calculated  to  dif- 
fuse and  promote  the  interests  of  truth  and  re- 
ligion, by  superinducing  the  salutary  habits  of 
faith,  love,  and  repentance.  He  is  firmly  per- 
suaded, that  at  the  consummation  of  all  things, 
when  the  purposes  of  Providence  in  the  various 
revolutions  of  progressive  nature  are  accomplish- 
ed, the  whole  human  race  shall  once  more  issue 
from  their  graves;  some  to  immortal  felicity  in  the 
actual  perception  and  enjoyment  of  their  Crea- 
tor's presence,  and  others  to  everlasting  shame 
and  misery." 

IV.  Christianity,  morality  and  superiority 
of.  It  has  been  well  observed,  "that  the  two 
grand  principles  of  action,  according  to  the  Chris- 
tian, are  the  love  of  God,  which  is  the  sovereign 
passion  in  every  gracious  mind ;  and  the  love  of 
man,  which  regulates  our  actions  according  to  the' 
various  relations  in  which  we  stand,  whether  to 
communities  or  individuals.  This  sacred  con- 
nexion ought  never  to  be  totally  extinguished  by 
any  temporary  injury.  It  ought  to  subsist  m 
some  degree  even  amongst  enemies.  It  requires 
that  we  should  pardon  the  oii'ences  of  others,  as 
we  expect  pardon  for  our  own ;  and  that  we 
should  no  further  resist  evil  than  is  necessary  for 
the  preservation  of  personal  rights  and  socia. 
happiness,  it  dictates  every  relative  and  recipro- 
cal duty  between  parents  and  children,  masters 
and  servants,  governors  and  subjects,  friends  and 


CHRISTIANITY 

friends,  men  and  men :  nor  docs  it  merely  c.  join 
the  observation  of  equity,  but  likewise  inspires 
the  most  sublime  and  extensive  charity  :  abound- 
less  and  disinterested  effusion  of  tenderness  for 
the  whole  species,  which  feels  their  distress,  and 
operates  for  their  relief  and  improvement.'' 

"  Christianity,"  it  has  also  been  observed  (and 
with  the  greatest  propriety,)  "is  superior  to  all 
other  religions.  The  disciple  of  Jesus  not  only 
contends  that  no  system  of  religion  has  ever  yet 
been  exhibited  so  consistent  with  itself,  so  con- 
gruous to  philosophy  and  the  common  sense  of 
mankind,  as  Christianity;  he  likewise  avers  that 
it  is  infinitely  more  productive  of  real  consolation 
than  all  other  religious  or  philosophical  tenets 
which  have  ever  entered  into  the  soul,  or  been 
applied  to  the  heart  of  man.  For  what  is  death 
to  that  mind  which  considers  eternity  as  the  career 
of  its  existence  ?  What  are  the  frowns  of  men  to 
him  who  claims  an  eternal  world  as  his  inherit- 
ance? What  is  the  loss  of  friends  to  that  heart 
which  feels,  with  more  than  natural  conviction, 
that  it  shall  quickly  rejoin  them  in  a  more  tender, 
intimate,  and  permanent  intercourse,  than  any  of 
which  the  present  life  is  susceptible  ?  What  are 
the  vicissitudes  of  external  things  to  a  mind 
which  strongly  and  uniformly  anticipates  a  state 
of  endless  and  immutable  felicity?  What  are 
mortifications,  disappointments,  and  insults,  to  a 
spirit  wliich  is  conscious  of  being  the  original 
offspring  and  adopted  child  of  God;  which 
knows  that  its  omnipotent  Father  will  in  proper 
time  effectually  assert  the  dignity  and  privileges 
of  its  nature  ?  In  a  word,  as  this  earth  is  but  a 
speck  in  the  creation,  as  time  is  not  an  instant  in 
proportion  to  eternity,  such  are  the  hopes  and 
prospects  of  the  Christian  in  comparison  of  every 
sublunary  misfortune  or  difficulty.  It  is  there- 
fore, in  his  judgment,  the  eternal  wonder  of  an- 
gels, and  indelible  opprobrium  of  man,  that  a  re- 
ligion so  worthy  of  God,  so  suitable  to  the  frame 
and  circumstances  of  our  nature,  so  consonant  to 
all  the  dictates  of  reason,  so  friendly  to  the  dig- 
nity and  improvement  of  intelligent  beings,  so 
pregnant  with  genuine  comfort  and  delight, 
should  be  rejected  and  despised  by  any  of  the 
human  race." 

V.  Christianity,  propagation  and  success 
of.  Despised  as  Christianity  has  been  by  many, 
yet  it  has  had  an  extensive  progress  through  the 
world,  and  still  continues  to  be  professed  by  great 
numbers  of  mankind  ;  though  it  is  to  be  lamented 
many  are  unacquainted  with  its  genuine  in- 
fluence. It  was  early  and  rapidly  propagated 
through  the  whole  Roman  empire,  which  then 
contained  almost  the  whole  known  world ;  and 
herein  we  cannot  but  admire  both  the  wisdom 
and  the  power  of  God.  "  Destitute  of  all  human 
advantages,"  says  a  good  writer,  "protected  by 
no  authority,  assisted  by  no  art;  not  recommend- 
ed by  the  reputation  of  its  author,  not  enforced  by 
eloquence  in  its  advocates,  t/te  word  of  God  grew 
miglUlly  and  prevailed.  Twelve  men,  poor, 
artless,  and  illiterate,  we  behold  triumphing  over 
the  fiercest  and  most  determined  opposition;  over 
the  tyranny  of  the  magistrate,  and  the  subtleties 
of  the  philosopher;  over  the  prejudices  of  the 
Gentile,  and  tin'  bigotry  of  the  Jew.  They  esta- 
blished a  religion  which  held  forth  high  and 
venerable  mysteries,  such  as  the  pride  of  man 
would  induce  him  to  :uspect,  because  he  could 
not  perfectly  comprehend  them  ;  which  preached 
a) 


CHRISTIANITY 

doctrines  pure  and  spiritual,  such  as  corrupt  na- 
ture was  prone  to  oppose,  because  it  shrunk  from 
the  severity  of  their  discipline  ;  which  required  to 
followers  to  renounce  almost  every  opinion  they 
had  embraced  as  sacred,  and  every  interest  they 
had  pursued  as  important ;  which  even  exposed 
them  to  every  species  of  danger  and  infamy  ;  to 
persecution  unmerited  and  unpitied  ;  to  the  gloom 
of  a  prison,  and  to  the  pangs  of  death. '  Hopeless 
as  thk  prospect  might  appear  to  the  view  of  short- 
sighted man,  the  Gospel  yet  emerged  from  the 
obscurity  in  which  it  was  likely  to  he  overwhelm- 
ed by  the  complicated  distresses  of  its  friends,  and 
the.  unrelenting  cruelty-  of  its  foes.  It  succeeded 
in  a  peculiar  degree,  and  in  a  peculiar  manner ;  it 
derived  that  success  from  truth,  and  obtained  it 
under  circumstances  where  falsehood  must  have 
been  detected  and  crushed." 

"Although,"  says  the  elegant  Porteus,  "Chris- 
tianity has  not  always  been  so  well  understood, 
or  so  honestly  practised,  as  it  ought  to  have  been, 
although  its  spirit  has  been  often  mistaken,  and 
its  precepts  misapplied,  yet,  under  all  these  dis- 
advantages, it  has  gradually  produced  a  visible 
change  in  those  points  whicli  most  materially 
concern  the  peace  and  quiet  of  the  world.  Its 
beneficent  spirit  has  spread  itself  through  all  the 
different  relations  and  modifications  of  life,  and 
communicated  its  kindly  influence  to  almost 
every  public  and  private  concern  of  mankind. 
It  has  insensibly  worked  itself  into  the  inmost 
frame  and  constitution  of  civil  states.  It  has 
given  a  tinge  to  the  complexion  of  their  govern- 
ments, to  the  temper  and  administration  of  theil 
laws.  It  has  restrained  the  spirit  of  the  prince 
and  the  madness  of  the  people.  It  has  softened 
the  rigour  of  despotism,  and  tamed  the  insolence 
of  conquest.  It  has  in  some  degree  taken  away 
the  edge  of  the  sword,  and  thrown  even  over  the 
horrors  of  war  a  veil  of  mercy.  It  has  descended 
into  families,  has  diminished  the  pressure  of  pri- 
vate tyranny ;  improved  every  domestic  endear- 
ment; given  tenderness  to  the  parent,  humanity 
to  the  master,  respect  to  superiors,  to  inferiors 
ease ;  so  that  mankind  are,  upon  the  whole,  even 
in  a  temporal  view,  under  infinite  obligations  to 
the  mild  and  pacific  temper  of  the  Gospel,  and 
have  reaped  from  it  more  substantial  worldly  bene- 
fits than  from  any  otlrer  institution  upon  earth. 
As  one  proof  of  this  (among  many  others,)  con- 
sider only  the  shocking  carnage  made  in  the 
human  species  by  the  exposure  of  infants,  the 
gladiatorial  shows,  whicli  sometimes  cost  Europe 
twenty  or  thirty  thousand  lives  in  a  month ;  and 
the  exceedingly  cruel  usage  of  slaves,  allowed  and 
practised  by  the  arc  ient  pagans.  These  were  not 
the  accidental  and  temporary  excesses  of  a  sud- 
den fury,  but  were  legal,  and  established,  and 
constant  methods  of  murdering  and  tormenting 
mankind.  Had  Christianity  done  nothing  more 
than  brought  into  disuse  (as  it  confessedly  has 
done)  the  two  former  of  these  human  customs, 
entirely,  and  the  latter  to  a  very  great  degree,  it 
had  justly  merited  the  title  of  the  benevolent  r<  !i- 
gion:  but  this  is  far  from  being  all.  Throughout 
the  more  enlightened  parts  of  Christendom,  there 
prevails  a  gentleness  of  manners  widely  different 
from  the  ferocity  of  the  most  civilized  nations  of 
antiquity;  and  that  liberality  with  which  every 
species  of  distress  is  relieved,  is  a  virtue  peculiar 
to  the  Christian  name." 

But  wc  may  ask,  further,  what  success  has  it 


CHRONOLOGY 
had  on  the  mind  of  man,  as  it  respects  his  eter- 
nal welfare  ?  How  many  thousands  have  felt  its 
power,  and  rejoiced  in  its  benign  influence,  and 
under  its  dictates  been  constrained  to  devote 
themselves  to  the  glory  and  praise  of  God?  Bur- 
dened with  guilt,  incapable  of  finding  relief  from 
human  resources,  the  mind  has  here  found  peace 
unspeakable,  in  beholding  that  sacrifice  which 
alone  could  atone  for  transgression.  Here  the 
hard  and  impenitent  heart  has  been  softened,  the 
impetuous  passions  restrained,  the  ferocious  tem- 
per subdued,  powerful  prejudices  conquered,  igno- 
rance dispelled,  and  the  obstacles  to  real  happiness 
removed.  Here  the  Christian,  looking  round  on 
the  glories  and  blandishments  of  this  world,  has 
been  enabled,  with  a  noble  contempt,  to  despise 
all.  Here  death  itself  the  king  of  terrors,  has 
lost  its  sting ;  and  the  soul,  with  a  holy  magna- 
nimity, has  borne  up  in  the  agonies  of  a  dying  hour, 
and  sweetly  sung  itself  away  to  everlasting  bliss. 

In  respect  to  its  future  spread,  we  have  reason 
to  believe  that  all  nations  shall  feel  its  happy 
effects.  The  prophecies  are  pregnant  with  mat- 
ter as  to  this  belief  It  seems  that  not  only  a  na- 
tion or  a  country,  but  the  whole  habitable  globe, 
shall  become  the  kingdom  of  our  Lord  and  of 
his  Christ ;  and  who  is  there  that  has  ever  known 
the  excellency  of  this  system ;  who  is  there  that 
has  ever  experienced  its  happy  efficacy ;  who  is 
there  that  has  ever  been  convinced  of  its  divine 
origin,  its  delightful  nature,  and  peaceful  tendency, 
but  what  must  join  the  benevolent  and  royal  poet 
in  saying,  "  Let  the  whole  earth  be  filled  with  its 
glory,  amen,  and  amen." 

See  article  Christianity  in  Enc.  Brit.;  Pa- 
*ey's  Evidences  of  Christianity  ;  Lardner's  and 
Macknight's  Credibility  of  the  Gospel  History  ; 
Lord  Hailes  on  the  Influence  of  Gibbon's  five 
Causes  ;  FawceWs  Evidences  of  Christianity ; 
Doddridge's  ditto;  Fell's  and  Hunter's  Lec- 
tures on  ditto  ;  Beattie's  Evidences  of  the  Chris- 
tian Religion;  Soame  Jcnyns's  Evidences  of 
ditto ;  White's  Sermo7i's ;  Bp.  Purteus's  Ser- 
mon?, vol.  i.  ser.  12,  13 ;  and  his  Essay  on  the 
Beneficial  Effects  of  Christianity  on  the  Tem- 
poral Concerns  of  Mankind  ;  Alexander's  Evi- 
dences. 

CHRISTMAS,  the  day  on  which  the  nati- 
vity of  our  blessed  Saviour  is  celebrated. 

The  first  footsteps  we  find  of  the  observation 
of  tins  day  are  in  the  second  century,  about  the 
time  of  the  emperor  Commodus.  The  decretal 
epistles,  indeed,  carry  it  up  a  little  higher,  and 
say  that  Telesphorus,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of 
Antoninus  Pius,  ordered  divine  service  to  be 
celebrated,  and  an  angelic  hymn  to  be  sung  the 
night  before  the  nativity  of  our  Saviour.  That 
it  was  kept  before  the  time  of  Constantine  we 
have  a  melancholy  proof;  for  whilst  the  persecu- 
tion raged  under  Dioclesian,  who  then  kept  his 
court  at  Nicomedia,  that  tyrant,  among  other  acts 
of  cruelty,  finding  multitudes  of  Christians  as- 
sembled together  to  celebrate  Christ's  nativity, 
commanded  the  church  doors  where  they  were 
met  to  be  shut,  and  fire,  to  be  put  to  it,  which 
soon  reduced  them  and  the  church  to  ashes.  See 
Holyday. 

CHRONOLOGY,  the  science  of  computing 
end  adjusting  the  periods  of  time,  referring  each 
event  to  the  proper  year.  We  have  not  room  here 
to  present  the  reader  with  a  system  of  chronology ; 
but  should  he  be  desirous  of  studying  this  science, 


CHURCH 
he  may  consult  the  systems  of  Cluvier,   Cairo 
sius,  Usher,  Simson,  Bedford,  Marshman,  Blair 
Playfair,  and  Dr.  Hales. 

CHURCH.  The  English  word  church,  like 
the  Scotch  kirk,  is  supposed  to  be  derived  from 
the  Greek  01x05  xvp<*xo;,  the  Lord's  house,  and  is 
usually  employed  in  our  version  of  the  Scrip- 
tures as  a  translation  of  ixxxrimx,  an  assembly. 
The  original  term,  derived  from  =x,  out  of,  and 
xxKeai,  to  call,  denoted  any  kind  of  convocation  or 
assembly  of  men  called  out  from  among  other 
men.  In  this  general  sense  it  is  applied  in  the 
Scriptures  not  only  to  a  lawful  court  of  judica- 
ture, Acts  xix.  39,  but  also  to  a  disorderly  multi- 
tude brought  together  by  Demetrius,  v.  32,  and 
making  an  uproar  in  the  theatre.  But  its  pre- 
dominant import,  as  used  by  the  sacred  writers, 
is  to  denote  a  religious  society  or  congregation, 
and  in  this  sense  its  leading  applications  are  the 
two  following.     It  stands 

1.  For  the  whole  collective  body  of  the  saints 
or  peculiar  people  of  God,  redeemed  out  of  every 
nation,  kindred,  and  tongue,  and  usually  denomi- 
nated the  Church  Catholic  or  Universal. 

2.  For  a  particular  society  of  Christians  pro- 
fessedly devoted  to  God  according  to  the  rules  of 
the  Gospel,  believing  in  Christ  as  their  Saviour, 
subjecting  themselves  to  him  as  their  spiritual 
Lord  and  Ruler,  voluntarily  agreeing  together  to 
partake  of  the  privileges,  discharge  the  duties,  and 
support  the  means  of  Christian  faith,  fellowship, 
worship,  and  discipline,  and  usually  meeting  to- 
gether in  one  place  for  public  religious  exercises. 
Such  a  society  may  be  called  a  particular  visible 
Gospel  church,  of  which  there  is  frequent  men- 
tion in  the  New  Testament. 

Another  sense  of  the  word  occurs  in  popular 
use,  and  among  ecclesiastical  writers,  viz.  that  of 
a  particular  denomination  of  Christians,  distin- 
guished by  peculiar  doctrines,  ceremonies,  modes 
of  government,  &c:  as  the  Romish  church,  the 
Greek  church,  the  Episcopal  church,  the  Presby- 
terian church.  It  is  strenuously  contended,  how- 
ever, by  many,  that  there  is  no  foundation  in  the 
Scriptures  for  this  latter  application  of  the  term, 
inasmuch  as  the  thing  to  which  it  k  applied  is 
not  recognized  as  having  an  existence.  "  Pro- 
perly there  are,"  says  Campbell,  "  in  the  New 
Testament  but  two  original  senses  of  the  word 
ixx\>|o-i(»  which  can  be  called  different,  though  re- 
lated. One  is,  when  it  denotes  a  number  of  peo- 
ple actually  assembled,  or  accustomed  to  assemble 
together,  and  is  then  properly  rendered  by  the 
English  terms,  congregation,  convention,  assem- 
bly, and  even  sometimes,  crowd,  as  in  Acts  xix. 
32,  40.  The  other  sense  is  to  denote  a  society 
united  together  by  some  common  tie,  though  not 
convened,  perhaps  not  convenable,  in  one  place. 
And  in  this  acceptation,  as  well  as  in  the  former, 
it  sometimes  occurs  in  classical  writers,  as  signi- 
fying a  state,  or  commonwealth,  and  nearly  cor- 
responding to  the  Latin  civitas.  When  the 
word  is  limited  or  appropriated,  as  it  generally  is 
in  the  New  Testament,  by  its  regimen,  as  church 
of  God — of  the  Lord — of  Christ,  or  by  the  scope 
of  the  place,  it  is  always  to  be  explained  in  one  or 
other  of  the  two  senses  following,  corresponding 
to  the  two  general  senses  above  mentioned.  It 
denotes  either  a  single  congregation  of  Christians, 
in  correspondence  to  the  first,  or  the  whole  Chris- 
tian community,  in  correspondence  to  the  second. 
But  in  any  intermediate  sense,  between  a  single 


cnuRcri 

congregation  anil  the  whole  community  of  Chris- 1 
nans,  not  one  instance  can  be  brought  of  the  ap- 
plication of  the  word  in  sacred  writ.  We  speak  j 
now  indeed  (and  this  has  been  the  manner  for  j 
ages,)  of  the  Gallican  church,  the  church  of 
England,  the  church  of  Scotland,  as  of  societies 
independent  and  complete  in  themselves.  Such 
phraseology  was  never  adopted  in  the  clays  of  the 
Apostles.  They  did  not  say,  the  church  of  Asia, 
the  church  of  Macedonia,  or  the  church  ofAchaia, 
hut  the  churches  of  God  in  Asia,  the  churches  in 
Macedonia,  the  churches  in  Achaia.  The  plural 
number  is  invariably  used  when  more  congrega- 
tions than  one  are  spoken  of,  unless  the  subject 
be  of  the  whole  commonwealth  of  Christ.  Nor 
is  this  the  manner  of  the  penmen  of  sacred  writ 
only.  It  is  the  constant  usage  of  the  term  in  the 
writings  of  ecclesiastic  authors  for  the  two  first 
centuries.  The  only  instance  to  the  contrary  that 
I  remember  to  have  observed  is  in  the  epistles  of 
Ignatius,  on  which  1  have  already  remarked.  It 
adds  considerable  strength  to  our  argument  that 
this  is  exactly  conformable  to  the  usage  in  regard 
to  this  term  which  had  always  obtained  among 
the  Jews.  The  whole  nation  cr  commonwealth 
of  Israel,  was  often  denominated  n-«<r»  ',  ixxx*<rt* 
irpxi\,  the  whole  congregation  of  Israel.  This 
is  the  large  or  comprehensive  use  of  the  word,  as 
observed  above.  In  regard,  to  the  more  confined 
application,  the  same  term,  txx^o-i*,  was  also  em- 
ployed to  denote  a  number  of  people,  either 
actually  assembled,  or  wont  to  assemble  in  the 
same  place.  Thus  all  belonging  to  the  same 
synagogue  were  called  indifferently,  axxxifra,  or 
cui/cey^u,  as  these  words,  in  the  Jewish  use,  were 
nearly  synonymous.  But  never  did  they  call  the 
people  belonging  to  several  neighbouring  syna- 
gogues, .xxxno-i*,  or  oT/vaymyii,  in  the  singular 
number,  but  kk%jis-«m<,  and  c-wxy^yat,  in  the  plu- 
ral. Any  other  use,  therefore,  in  the  Apostles, 
must  have  been  as  unprecedented  and  unnatural 
as  it  would  have  been  improper,  and  what  could 
not  fail  to  lead  their  hearers  or  readers  into  mis- 
takes." 

Certain  other  distinctions  in  respect  to  the  term 
church,  may  here  be  noted  as  having  from  dif- 
ferent causes  become  current,  though  not  ex- 
pressly recognized  in  the  Scripture.  These  are 
the  church  triumphant,  including  that  portion  of 
the  redeemed,  who  have  accomplished  their  suf- 
ferings and  services  on  earth,  and  are  now  enter- 
ed into  their  rest;  and  the  church  militant,  con- 
sisting of  those  who  are  yet  in  a  state  of  warfare, 
in  the  ficsh,  patiently  awaiting  the  time  of  their 
discharge.  We  incel  also  with  the  distinction  of 
the  church  into  risible  and  ii: risible;  the  former 
implying  the  a^regate  of  all  particular  visible 
churches,  and  the  latter  all  the  true  and  real  peo- 
ple of  God  as  distinguished  from  those  who  are 
such  merely  in  outward  appearance. 

A  particular  visible  church  of  Christ,  therefore, 
is  a  body  distinguished  from  the  civil  societies  of 
the  world,  bj  the  spiritual  nature  ami  design  of 
its  government;  for  though  Christ  would  have 
order  kept  in  his  church,  vet  without  any  coer- 
civa  force;  a  thing  inconsistent  with  the  very 
nature  of  such  asmitty,  whose  end  is  instruction 
and  a  practice  suitable  to  it,  which  can  never  in 
the  nature  of  things  be  accomplished  b\  penal 
laws,  or  external  coercion.  Such  societies  ne- 
cessarily sustain  a  sisterly  relation  to  cacti  other, 
Itcing    built    upon   the  same  foundation   of   the 


CHURCH 

apostles  and  prophets,  being  united  by  a  spiritual 
bond  to  Christ  the  common  Head,  so  that  the 
supposition  of  a  visible  head,  with  whom  all  the 
members  are  to  hold  communion,  is  repugnant  to 
the  true  idea  of  that  unity  which  is  essential  to 
the  church  of  Christ.  If  the  several  societies  of 
Christians  are  guided  by  the  same  rule,  the  infal- 
lible  word  of  God,  they  will  of  course  have  the 
same  end  in  view,  and  will  be  virtually  united, 
and  prepared  to  co-operate  in  promoting  the  great 
ends  of  their  institution.  Love  alone  can  pro- 
duce useful  co-operation  in  the  kingdom  of  Christ, 
and  considering  the  relation  in  which  they  stand 
to  each  other,  it  is  highly  important  that  by  mu- 
tual good  offices,  they  should  cultivate  this  senti- 
ment. This  may  be  done  by  their  giving  and 
receiving  advice;  by  their  praying  for  each  other, 
especially  when  any  thing  difficult  or  important 
occurs ;  by  their  joining  to  promote  the  spread  of  the 
Gospel ;  by  their  sending  messengersto  each  other, 
as  we  find  the  apostolic  churches  did ;  by  their 
communicating  to  each  other's  necessities,  and 
by  many  things  similar.  Such  correspondence  is 
calculated  to  have  the  happiest  effects,  while  it 
allows  the  most  perfect  Christian  liberty  to  each 
church.  The  other  essential  characters  and  ob- 
jects pertaining  to  such  an  institution  are, 

1.  Church  members,  or  those  of  whom  the 
churches  of  Christ  arc  composed  ;  persons  who  in 
the  judgment  of  charity,  have  been  horn  of  the 
spirit,  by  the  incorruptible  seed  of  the  word, 
called  with  a  holy  calling,  and  renouncing  the 
sinful  practices  and  maxims  of  the  world,  have 
professedly  devoted  themselves  to  God  through 
Christ,  to  walk  before  liim  in  the  observance  of " 
all  his  instituted  ordinances.  As  to  the  visible 
church,  it  may  be  observed,  that  real  saintship  is 
not  the  distinguishing  criterion  of  the  members  of 
it.  None,  indeed,  can  without  it  honestly  oiler 
themselves  to  church  fellowship;  but  they  cannot 
be  refused  admission  for  the  mere  want  of  it;  for 
1.  God  alone  can  judge  the  heart.  Deceivers  can 
counterfeit  saintship,  1  Sam.  xvi.  1.  7. — 2.  God 
himself  admitted  many  members  of  the  Jewish 
church  whose  hearts  were  unsanetified,  Deut. 
xxix.  3,  4,  13.  John  vi.  70.— 3.  John  the  Baptist 
and  the  apostles  required  no  more  than  outward 
appearances  of  faith  and  repentance  in  orfler  to 
baptism,  Matt.  iii.  5,  7.  Acts  ii.  28.  viii.  13,  23.— 
4.  Many  that  were  admitted  members  in  the 
churches  of  Judea,  Corinth,  Philippi,  Laodicea, 
Sardis,  &c,  were  unrcgenerated,  Acts  v.  1,  It), 
viii.  13,  23.  1  Cor.  i.  If.  v.  11.  Phil.  iii.  18,  1!». 
Rev.  iii.  5,  15,  17. — 5.  Christ  compares  the  Gospel 
church  to  a  floor  on  which  corn  and  chaff  arc 
mingled  together ;  to  a  net  in  which  good  and 
bad  arc  gathered,  &C.     See  Matt.  xiii. 

As  to  the  real  church,  1.  The  true  members  of 
it  are  such  as  are  born  again. — 2.  They  come  cut 
from  the  world,  1  Cor.  vi.  17. — 3.  They  openly 
profess  love  to  Christ,  James  ii.  1 1,  26.  Mark  viii. 
34,  &c. — 1.  They  walk  in  all  the  ordinances  of 
the  Lord  blameless.  None  but  such  are  proper 
members  of  the  true  church;  nor  should  any  be 
admitted  to  any  particular  church  without  some 
appearance  of  these,  at  least. 

2.  Church  fellowship  is  the  communion  that 
the  members  enjoy  one  with  another. 

The  end  of  church  fellowship  is,  1.  The. 
in  dntenance  and  exhibition  of  a  sy sti  m  of  s;  und 
principles,  2  Tim.  i.  13.  1  Tim.  vi.  3,  4.  1  Cor. 
viii.  5  G.     Heb.  ii.  1.     Eph.  iv.  21.— 2.  The  sup- 


CHURCH 
port  of  the  ordinances  of  Gospel  worship  in  their 
purity  and  simplicity,  Deut.   xii.  31,   32.     Rom. 
Xv.  6. — 3.  The  impartial  exercise  of  church  go- 
vernment and  discipline,  Heh.  xii.  15.     Gal.  vi. 

1,  2  Tim.  ii.  21,  2f..  Tit.  iii.  10.  1  Cor.  v. 
James  iii.  17. — 4.  The  promotion  of  holiness  in  all 
manner  of  conversation,  Phil.  i.  27.  ii.  15,  10.  2 
Pet.  iii.  11.     Phil.  iv.  3. 

The  more  'particular  duties  are,  1.  Earnest 
study  to  keep  peace  and  unity,  Eph.  iv.  3.  Phil. 
ii.  2,  3.  iii.  15,  16. — 2.  Bearing  of  one  another's 
burthens,  Gal.  vi.  1,  2. — 3.  Earnest  endea- 
vours to  prevent  each  other's  stumbling,   1  Cor.  x. 

2,  3.  tleb.  x.  21,  27.  Rom.  xiv.  13;— 4.  Sted- 
fast  continuance  in  the  faith  and  worship  of  the 
Gospel,  Acts  ii.  42. — 5.  Praying  for  and  sympa- 
thizing with  each  other,  1  Sam.  xii.  23.  Eph.  vi.  18. 

The  advantages  are,  1.  Peculiar  incitements 
to  holiness,  Eccl.  iv.  11. — 2.  There  are  some 
promises  applicable  to  none  but  those  who  attend 
the  ordinances  of  God,  and  hold  communion  with 
the  saints,  Ps.  xcii.  13.  Is.  xxv.  6.  Ps.  exxxii. 
13,  16.  xxxvi.  8.  Jer.  xxxi.  12. — 3.  Such 
are  under  the  watchful  eye  and  care  of  their 
pastor,  Heb.  xiii.  7. — 4.  Subject  to  the  friendly 
reproof  or  kind  advice  of  the  saints,  1  Cor.  xii. 
25. — 5.  Their  zeal  and  love  arc  animated  by  re- 
ciprocal conversation,  Mai.  iii.  16.  Prov.  xxvii. 
17. — 6.  They  may  restore  each  other  if  they  fall, 
Eccl.  iv.  10.  Gal.  vi.  1. — 7.  More  easily  promote 
the  cause,  and  spread  the  Gospel  elsewhere. 

3.  Church  ordinances  are,  1.  Reading  of  the 
Scriptures,  Neh.  ix.  3.     Acts  xvii.  11.    Neh.  viii. 

3,  4.  Luke  iv.  16. — 2.  Preaching  and  expound- 
ing, 1  Tim.  iii.  2.  2  Tim.  ii.  21.  Eph.  iv.  8. 
Rom.  x.  15.  Heb.  v.  4. — 3.  Hearing,  Is.  Iv.  1. 
James  i.  21.  1  Pet.  ii.  2.  1  Tim.  iv.  13.— 4.  Pray- 
e.,  Ps.  v.  1,  2.  xcv.  6.  exxi.  1.  xxviii.  2.  Acts 
xii.  12.  i.  14. — 5.  Singing  of  psalms,  Ps.  xlvii.  1  to 
6.  Col.  iii.  16.     I  Cor.  xiv.  15.     Eph.  v.  19. — 

6.  Thanksgiving,  Ps.  L  14.  c.     James  v.  13. — 

7.  The  Lord's  Supper,  1  Cor.  xi.  23,  &c.  Acts. 
xx.  7. 

Baptism  is  not  properly  a  church  ordinance, 
since  it  ought  to  be  administered  before  a  person  be 
admitted  into  church  fellowship.     See  Baptism. 

4.  Church  officers  are  those  appointed  by 
Christ  for  preaching  the  word,  and  the  superin- 
tendence of  church  affairs :  such  are  bishops  and 
deacons,  to  which  some  add,  elders.  See  these 
articles. — See  Campbell's  Lectures  on  Eccl.  His- 
tory ;  Essays  on  the  Church,  in  the  Christian. 
Magazine,  vol.  i ;  Turner's  Compendium  of 
Social  Religion;  Glas's  Works,  vol.  i. ;  Walts's 
National  Foundation  of  a  Christian  Church; 
Goodwin's  Works,  vol.  iv.  ;  Fawcctt's  Constitu- 
tion and  Order  of  a  Gospel  Church. 

CHURCH  OF  ENGLAND,  is  the  church 
established  by  law  in  this  kingdom. 

When  and  by  whom  Christianity  was  first  in- 
troduced into  Britain  cannot  perhaps  be  exactly 
ascertained.  Eusebius,  indeed,  positively  declares 
that  it  was  by  the  apostles  and  their  disciples.  It 
is  also  said  that  numbers  of  persons  professed  the 
Christian  faith  here  about  the  year  150;  and  ac- 
cording to  Usher,  there  was  in  the  year  182  a 
school  of  learning,  to  provide  the  British  churches 
with  proper  teachers.  Popery,  however,  was  es- 
tablished in  England  by  Austin  the  monk ;  and 
the  errors  of  it  we  find  every  where  prevalent, 
until  Wiekliilb  was  raised  up  by  Divine  Provi- 
dence to  refute  them.  The  church  of  England 
73  A' 


CHURCH 
remained  in  subjection  to  the  pope  until  the  timo 
of  Henry  VIII.  Henry,  indeed,  in  ca.'ly  life, 
and  during  the  former  part  of  his  reign,  was  a 
bigoted  papist :  he  burnt  the  famous  Tyndal 
(who  made  one  of  the  first  and  best  translations 
of  the  New  Testament);  and  wrote  in  defence  of 
the  seven  sacraments  against  Luther,  for  which 
the  pope  gave  him  the  title  of  "  The  Defender  of 
the  Faith."  But,  falling  out  with  the  pope  about 
his  marriage,  he  took  the  government  of  ecclesias- 
tical affairs  into  his  own  hand ;  and,  having  re- 
formed many  abuses,  intituled  himself  supreme 
head  of  the  church.     See  Reformation. 

The  doctrines  of  the  church  of  England, 
which  are  contained  in  the  thirty-nine  articles, 
are  certainly  Calvinistical,  though  this  has  been 
denied  by  some  modern  writers,  especially  by  Dr. 
Kipling,  in  a  tract  intituled  "  The  Articles  of  the 
Church  of  England  proved  not  to  be  Calvi- 
nistic."  These  articles  were  founded,  for  the 
most  part,  upon  a  body  of  articles  compiled  and 
published  in  the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  They 
were  first  passed  in  the  convocation,  and  confirm- 
ed by  royal  authority  in  1562.  They  were  after- 
wards ratified  anew  in  the  year  1571,  and  again 
by  Charles  I.  The  law  requires  a  subscription  to 
these  articles  of  all  persons  who  are  admitted  into 
holy  orders.  In  the  course  of  the  last  century 
disputes  arose  among  the  clergy  respecting  the 
propriety  of  subscribing  to  any  human  formulary 
of  religious  sentiments.  An  application  for  its 
removal  was  made  to  parliament,  in  1772,  by  the 
petitioning  clergy;  and  received  the  most  public 
discussion  in  the  house  of  commons,  but  was  re- 
jected in  the  house  of  lords. 

The  government  of  the  church  of  England  is 
episcopal.  The  king  is  the  supreme  head.  There 
are  two  archbishops,  and  twenty-four  bishops. 
The  benefices  of  the  bishops  were  converted  by 
William  the  Conqueror  into  temporal  baronies ; 
so  that  every  prelate  has  a  scat  and  a  vote  in  the 
house  of  peers.  Dr.  Hoadley,  however,  in  a  ser- 
mon preached  from  this  text — "  My  kingdom  is 
not  of  this  world,"  insisted  that  the  clergy  had 
no  pretensions  to  temporal  jurisdiction;  which 
gave  rise  to  various  publications,  termed  by  way 
of  eminence,  the  Bangorian  Controversy,  because 
Hoadley  was  then  bishop  of  Bangor.  Dr.  Wake, 
archbishop  of  Canterbury,  formed  a  project  of 
peace  and  union  between  the  English  and  Galli- 
can  churches,  founded  upon  this  condition,  that 
each  of  the  two  communities  should  retain  the 
greatest  part  of  their  respective  and  peculiar  doc- 
trines ;  but  this  project  came  to  nothing.  In  the 
church  of  England  there  are  deans,  archdeacons, 
rectors,  vicars,  &c. ;  for  an  account  of  which,  see 
the  respective  articles. 

The  church  of  England  has  a  public  form  read, 
called  a  Liturgy.  It  was  composed  in  1547,  and 
has  undergone  several  alterations,  the  last  of  which 
was  in  1661.  Since  that  time,  several  attempts 
have  been  made  to  amend  the  liturgy,  articles, 
and  some  other  things  relating  to  the  internal 
government,  but  without  effect.  There  are  many 
excellences  in  the  liturgy ;  and,  in  thp  opinion  of 
the  most  impartial  Grotius  (who  was  no  member 
of  this  church),  "  it  comes  so  near  the  primitive 
pattern,  that  none  of  the  reformed  churches  can 
compare  with  it."     See  Liturgy. 

The  greatest  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  England 
are  professedly  members  of  this  church  ;  but,  per- 
haps, very  few  either  of  her  ministers  or  meinhci* 
G 


CHURCH 
strictly  adhere  to  the  articles  in  their  true  sense. 
Those  who  are  called  methodistic  or  evangelical 
preachers    in   the  establishment  are  allowed  to 
■eme  the  nearest. 

See  Mr.  Overtoil's  True  Churchman;  Bishop 
JnocWa  Apology  for  the  Church  of  England  ; 
Ahp.  Potter's  Treatise  on  Church  Government ; 
Tucker's  ditto  ;  Hooker's  Ecclesiastical  Polity  ; 
Pearson  on  the  Creed ;  Burnet  on  the  Thirty- 
nine  Articles;  BUhop  Pretyman's  Elements  of 
Theology ;  and  Mrs.  H.  More's  Hints  on  forming 
Hie  Character  of  a  young  Princess,  vol.  ii.  eh. 
37.  On  the  subject  of  the  first  introduction  of 
Christianity  into  Britain,  see  the  1st  vol.  of  Hen- 
ry's History  of  Gnat  Britain. 

CHURCH,  GALLICAN,  denotes  the  ci-de- 
vant church  of  France  under  the  government  of 
its  respective  bishops  and  pastors.  This  church 
alwavs  enjoyed  certain  franchises  and  immunities, 
not  as  grants  from  the  popes,  but  as  derived  to 
her  from  her  first  original,  and  wliich  she  took 
care  never  to  relinquish.  These  liberties  depend- 
ed upon  two  maxims :  the  first,  that  the  pope  had 
no  right  to  order  any  thing  in^vhich  the  tempo- 
ralities and  civil  rights  of  the  kingdom  were  con- 
cerned ;  the  second,  that,  notwithstanding  the 
pope's  supremacy  was  admitted  in  cases  purely 
spiritual,  yet,  in  France,  his  power  was  limited  by 
the  decrees  of  ancient  councils  received  in  that 
reilm. 

In  the  established  church  the  Jansenists  were 
very  numerous.  The  bishoprics  and  prebends 
were  entirely  in  the  gift  of  the  king ;  and  no 
other  Catholic  state  except  Italy,  had  so  numerous 
a  clergy  as  France.  There  were  in  this  kingdom 
eighteen  archbishops,  one  hundred  and  eleven 
bishops,  one  hundred  and  sixty-six  thousand 
clergymen,  and  three  thousand  four  hundred 
convents,  containing  two  hundred  thousand  per- 
sons devoted  to  a  monastic  life. 

Since  the  repeal  of  the  edict  of  Nantz,  the 
Protestants  have  suffered  much  from  persecution. 
A  solemn  law,  which  did  much  honour  to  Louis 
XVI.,  late  king  of  France,  gave  to  his  non-Ro- 
man Catholic  subjects,  as  they  were  called,  all  the 
civil  advantages  and  privileges  of  their  Roman 
Catholic  brethren. 

The  above  statement  was  made  previously  to 
the  French  revolution;  great  alterations  have 
taken  place  since  that  period.  And  it  may  be  in- 
teresting to  those  who  have  not.  the  means  of  fuller 
information,  to  give  a  sketch  of  the  causes  which 
gave  rise  to  those  important  events. 

It  has  been  asserted,  that  about  the  middle  of 
the  last  century  a  conspiracy  was  formed  to  over- 
throw Christianity,  without  distinction  of  wor- 
ship, whether  Protestant  or  Catholic.  Voltaire, 
D'Alembert,  Frederic  II.  king  of  Prussia,  and 
Diderot,  were  at  the  head  of  tliis  conspiracy.  Nu- 
merous other  adepts  and  secondary  agents  were 
induced  to  join  them.    These  pretended  philoso- 

Chers  used  every  artifice  that  impiety  could  invent, 
V  urriin  and  secret  correspondence,  to  attack,  to 
debase,  and  annihilate  Christianity.  They  not 
only  acted  iti  concert,  sparing  no  political  or  im- 
pious :irt  to  efibct  the  destruction  of  the  Christian 
religion,  but  they  were  the  instigators  and  con- 
ductors of  those  secondary  agenia  whom  they 
had  seduced,  and  pursued  their  plan  with  all  the 
ardour  and  constancy  which  denotes  the  most 
finished  conspirators. 

The  French  clergy  amounted  to  one  hundred 


CHURCH 
and  thirty  thousand,  the  higher  oilers  of  whom 
enjoyed  immense  revenues;  but  the  cures,  or 
great  body  of  acting  clergy,  seldom  possessed 
more  than  twenty-eight  pounds  sterling  a-year, 
and  the  vicars  about  half  that  sum.  The  clergy, 
as  a  body,  independent  of  their  tvthes,  possessed 
a  revenue  arising  from  their  property  in  land, 
amounting  to  five  millions  sterling  annually ;  at 
the  same  time  they  were  exempt  from  taxation. 
Before  the  levelling  system  had  taken  place,  the 
clergy  signified  to  the  commons  the  instructions 
of  their  constituents,  to  contribute  to  the  exigen- 
cies of  the  state  in  equal  proportion  with  the 
other  citizens.  Not  contented  with  this  offer,  the 
tythes  and  revenues  of  the  clergy  were  taken 
away  :  in  lieu  of  which,  it  was  proposed  to  grant 
a  certain  stipend  to  the  different  ministers  of  re- 
ligion, to  be  payable  by  the  nation.  The  posses- 
sions of  the  church  were  then  considered  as 
national  property  by  a  decree  of  the  constituent 
assembly.  The  religious  orders,  viz.  the  commu- 
nities of  monks  and  nuns,  possessed  immense 
landed  estates ;  and,  after  having  abolished  the 
orders,  the  assembly  seized  the  estates  for  the  use 
of  the  nation  :  the  gates  of  the  cloisters  were  now 
thrown  open.  The  next  step  of  the  assembly 
was  to  establish  what  is  called  the  civil  constitw- 
tion  of  the  clergy.  This,  the  Roman  Catholics 
assert,  was  in  direct  opposition  to  their  religion. 
But  though  opposed  with  energetic  eloquence,  the 
decree  passed,  and  was  soon  after  followed  by 
another,  obliging  the  clergy  to  swear  to  maintain 
their  civil  constitution.  Every  artifice  which 
cunning,  and  every  menace  which  cruelty  could 
invent,  were  used  to  induce  them  to  take  the 
oath;  great  numbers,  however,  refused.  One 
hundred  and  thirty-eight  bishops  and  arch- 
bishops, sixty-eight  curates  or  vicars,  were  on 
this  account  driven  from  their  sees  and  parishes. 
Three  hundred  of  the  priests  were  massacred  in 
one  day  in  one  city.  All  the  other  pastors  who 
adhered  to  their  religion  were  either  sacrificed  or 
banished  from  their  country ;  seeking  through  a 
thousand  dangers  a  refuge  among  foreign  nations. 
A  perusal  of  the  horrid  massacres  of  the  priests 
who  refused  to  take  the  oaths,  and  the  various 
forms  of  persecution  employed  by  those  who  were 
attached  to  the  Catholic  religion,  must  deeply 
wound  the  feelings  of  humanity.  Those  readers 
who  are  desirous  of  further  information,  are  re- 
ferred to  Abbe  Barruel's  History  of  the  Clergy. 
Some  think  that  there  was  another  cause  of  the 
revolution,  and  which  may  be  traced  as  far  back 
at  least  as  the  revocation  of  the  edict  of  Nantz  in 
the  seventeenth  century,  when  the  great  body  of 
French  Protestants,  who  were  men  of  principle, 
were  either  murdered  or  banished,  and  the  rest  in 
a  manner  silenced.  The  effect  of  this  sanguinary 
measure  (say  they)  must  needs  be  the  general 
prevalence  of  infidelity.  Let  the  religious  part 
of  any  nation  be  banished,  and  a  general  spread 
of  irreligion  must  necessarily  follow:  such  were 
the  effects  in  France.  Through  the  whole  of  the 
eighteenth  century  infidelity  has  been  the  fashion, 
and  that  not  only  among  the  princes  and  noblesse, 
but  even  among  the  greater  part  of  the  bishops 
and  clergy.  And  as  they  had  united  their  in- 
fluence in  banishing  true  religion,  and  cherishing 
the  monster  which  succeeded  it,  so  have  they 
been  united  in  sustaining  the  calamitous  effects 
which  that  monster  has  produced.  However  un- 
principled and  cruel  the  French  revolutionists 


CHURCHWARDENS 
have  been,  and  however  much  the  sufferers,  as 
fellow-creatures,  are  entitled  to  our  pity;  yet, 
considering  the  event  as  the  just  retribution  of 
God,  we  are  constrained  to  say,  "  Thou  art 
righteous,  O  Lord,  who  art,  and  wast,  and  shalt 
be,  because  thou  hast  judged  thus  :  for  they  have 
shed  the  blood  of  saints  and  prophets,  and  thou 
hast  given  them  blood  to  drink:  for  they  are 
worthy." 

The  Catholic  religion  is  now  again  established, 
but  with  a  toleration  of  the  Protestants,  under 
some  restriction. — See  the  Concordat,  or  religious 
establishment  of  the  French  Republic,  ratified 
September  10th,  1801. 

CHURCH,  GREEK,  or  EASTERN,  com- 
prehends the  churches  of  all  the  countries  an- 
ciently subject  to  the  Greek  or  Eastern  empire, 
and  through  which  their  language  was  carried ; 
that  is,  all  the  space  extending  from  Greece  to 
Mesopotamia  and  Persia,  and  thence  into  Egypt. 
This  church  has  been  divided  from  the  Roman 
ever  since  the  time  of  the  emperor  Phocas.  See 
article  Greek  Church. 

CHURCH,  HIGH.    See  High  Church. 

CHURCH  OF  IRELAND  is  the  same  as 
the  church  of  England,  and  is  governed  by  four 
archbishops  and  eighteen  bishops. 

CHURCH,  LATIN,  or  WESTERN,  com- 
prehends all  the  churches  of  Italy,  Portugal, 
Spain,  Africa,  the  north,  and  all  other  countries 
whither  the  Romans  carried  their  language. 
Great  Britain,  part  of  the  Netherlands  of  Ger- 
many, and  of  the  north  of  Europe,  have  been  se- 
parated from  it  almost  ever  since  the  Reformation. 

CHURCH,  (or  Churches,)  REFORMED, 
comprehends  the  whole  Protestant  Churches  in 
Europe  and  America,  whether  Lutheran,  Cal- 
vinistic,  Independent,  Quaker,  Baptist,  or  of  any 
other  denomination  who  dissent  from  the  church 
of  Rome.  The  principal  churches  in  the  United 
States,  distinguished  by  this  title,  are 

The  Reformed  Dutch  Church,  composed  ori- 
ginally of  emigrants  from  Holland,  who  settled 
chiefly  in  the  city  and  state  of  New  York,  and  in 
the  neighbouring  state  of  New  Jersey. 

Their  doctrines  are  Calvinistic,  and  their  eccle- 
siastical polity  r  resbyterian,  excepting  that  their 
highest  court  of  judicature  is  termed  a  Synod, 
and  their  presbyteries  are  denominated  Classes. — 
See  Christian  Magazine,  vol  i. 

The  German  Reformed  Church,  a  reform- 
ing branch  of  the  Lutherans,  the.  members  of 
which,  in  this  country,  are  found  principally  in 
the  states  of  Pennsylvania  and  Maryland.  Their 
form  of  government  is  essentially  presbyterian, 
but  their  doctrines,  m  great  measure,  Arminian. 

CHURCH,  ROMAN  CATHOLIC,  claims 
the  title  of  being  the  mother  church,  and  is  un- 
doubtedly the  most  ancient  of  all  the  established 
churches  in  Christendom,  if  antiquity  be  held  as 
a  proof  of  primitive  purity.    See  Popery. 

CHURCH,  LUTHERAN.  See  Lutherans. 

CHURCH  OF  SCOTLAND,  established 
by  law  in  that  kingdom,  is  presbyterian,  which 
has  existed  (with  some  interruptions  during  the 
reign  of  the.  Stuarts)  ever  since  the  time  of  John 
Knox,  when  the  voice  of  the  people  prevailed 
against  the  influence  of  the  crown  in  getting  it 
estaliiished.  Its  doctrines  are  Calviihstic.  See 
article  Presbyterians. 

CHURCHWARDENS.officerschosen  year- 
ly, cither  by  the  consent  of  the  minister,  or  of  the 


CIRCONCELLIONES 

parishioners,  or  of  both.  Their  business  is  to  look 
to  the  church,  the  church-yard,  and  to  observe 
the  behaviour  of  the  parishioners  ;  to  levy  a  shil- 
ling forfeiture  on  all  such  as  do  not  go  to  church 
on  Sundays,  and  to  keep  persons  orderly  in 
church-time,  &c. 

CHURCH-YARD,  a  piece  of  ground  adjoin- 
ing to  the  church,  set  apart  for  the  interment  oi 
the  dead.  In  the  church  of  Rome,  church-yards 
are  consecrated  with  great  solemnity.  If  a  church- 
yard which  has  thus  been  consecrated  shall  after- 
wards be  polluted  by  any  indecent  action,  or  pro- 
faned by  the  burial  of  an  infidel,  an  heretic,  an 
excommunicated  or  unbaptized  person,  it  must 
be  reconciled;  and  the  ceremony  of  the  recon- 
ciliation is  performed  with  the  same  solemnity  as 
that  of  the  consecration  !    See  Consecration. 

CIRCONCELLIONES,  a  species  of  fanat- 
ics, so  called  because  they  were  continually 
rambling  round  the  houses  in  the  country.  They 
took  their  rise  among  the  Donatists,  in  the  reign 
of  the  Emperor  Constantine.  It  is  incredible 
what  ravages  and  cruelties  they  committed  in 
Africa,  through  a  long  series  of  years.  They 
were  illiterate,  savage  peasants,  who  understood 
only  the  Punic  language.  Intoxicated  with  a 
barltarous  zeal,  they  renounced  agriculture,  pro- 
fessed continence,  and  assumed  the  title  of  "  Vindi- 
cators of  justice,  and  protectors  of  the  oppressed." 
To  accomplish  their  mission,  they  enfranchized 
slaves,  scoured  the  roads,  forced  masters  to  alight 
from  their  chariots,  and  run  before  their  slaves, 
whom  they  obliged  to  mount  in  their  place ;  and 
discharged  debtors,  killing  the  creditors  if  they 
refused  to  cancel  their  bonds.  But  the  chief  ob- 
jects of  their  cruelty  were  the  Catholics,  and  es- 
pecially those  who  had  renounced  Donatism.  A  t 
first,  they  used  no  swords,  because  God  had  for- 
bidden the  use  of  one  to  Peter ;  but  they  were 
armed  with  clubs,  which  they  called  the  clubs  of 
Israel,  and  which  they  handled  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  break  a  man's  bones  without  killing  him 
immediately,  so  that  he  languished  a  long  time, 
and  then  died.  When  they  took  away  a  man's 
life  at  once,  they  looked  upon  it  as  a  favour. 
They  became  less  scrupulous  afterwards,  and 
made  use  of  all  sorts  of  arms.  Their  shout  was 
Praise  be  to  God.  These  words  in  their  mouths 
were  the  signal  of  slaughter,  more  terrible  than 
the  roaring  of  a  lion.  They  had  invented  an  un- 
heard-of punishment,  which  was,  to  cover  with 
lime,  diluted  with  vinegar,  the  eyes  of  those  un- 
happy wretches  whom  they  had  crushed  with 
blows  and  covered  with  wounds,  and  to  abandon 
them  in  that  condition.  Never  was  a  stronger 
proof  what  horrors  superstition  can  beget  in 
minds  destitute  of  knowledge  and  humanity. 
These  brutes,  who  had  made  a  vow  of  chastity, 
gave  themselves  up  to  wine,  and  all  sorts  of  im- 
purities; running  about  with  women  and  young 
girls  as  drunk  as  themselves,  whom  they  called 
sacred  virgins,  and  who  often  carried  proofs  of 
their  incontinence.  Their  chief  took  the  name 
of  chief  of  the  saint?.  After  having  glutted 
themselves  with  blood,  they  turned  their  rage 
upon  themselves,  and  sought  death  with  the  same 
fury  with  wliich  they  gave  it  to  others.  Some 
scrambled  up  to  the  tops  of  rocks,  and  cast 
themselves  down  headlong  in  multitude* ;  others 
burned  themselves,  or  threw  themselves  into  the 
sea.  Those  who  proposed  to  acquire  the  title  ol 
martyrs,  published  it  long  before ;  upon  which 


CLERGY 
they  were  feasted  arnl  fattened  like  oxen  for  the 
■laughter;  after  these  preparations,  they  set  out 
to  be  destroyed.  Sometimes  they  j^ave  money  to 
those  whom  they  met,  and  threatened  to  murder 
them  if  they  did  not  make  them  martyrs.  The- 
odoret  gives  an  sccount  of  a  stout  young  man, 
v  lio,  meeting  with  a  troop  of  these  fanatics,  con- 
sented to  kill  them,  provided  lie  might  bind  them 
first;  and  having  by  this  means  put  it  out  of  their 
power  to  defend  themselves,  whipped  ihem  as 
long  SB  he  was  able,  and  then  left  them  tied  in 
that  manlier.  Their  bishops  pretended  to  blame 
them,  but  in  reality  made  use  of  them  to  intimid- 
a'e  such  as  might  be  tempted  to  forsake  their 
sect;  they  even  honoured  them  as  saints.  They 
were  not,  however,  able  to  govern  these  furious 
monsters;  and  more  than  once  found  themselves 
under  the  necessity  of  abandoning  them,  and 
even  of  imploring  the  assistance  of  the  secular 
power  against  them.  The  counts  Ursacius  and 
Taurinus  were  employed  to  quell  them ;  they 
destroyed  a  great  number  of  them,  of  whom  the 
Donatists  made  as  many  martyrs.  Ursacius,  who 
was  a  Catholic,  and  a  religious  man,  having  lost 
Ins  life  in  an  engagement  with  the  barbarians, 
the  Donatists  did  not  fail  to  triumph  in  his  death, 
as  an  effect  of  the  vengeance  of  heaven.  Africa 
was  the  theatre  of  these  bloody  scenes  during  a 
great  part  of  Constantine's  life. 

CISTERCIANS,  a  religious  order  founded 
by  St.  Robert,  a  Bened;ctine,  in  the  eleventh 
century.  They  became  so  powerful,  that  they 
governed  almost  all  Europe  both  in  spirituals  and 
temporals.  Cardinal  de  Vitri,  describing  their 
observances,  says,  they  neither  wore  skins  nor 
shirts,  nor  ever  ate  flesh,  except  in  sickness;  and 
abstained  from  fish,  eg^s,  milk,  and  cheese:  they 
lay  upon  straw  beds,  in  tunics  and  cowls;  they 
rose  at  midnight  to  prayers;  they  spent  the  day 
in  labour,  reading,  and  prayer .-  and  in  all  their 
exercises  observed  a  continual  silence: 

CLEMENCY  denotes  much  the  same  as 
mercy.  It  is  most  generally  used  in  speaking  of 
the  forgiveness  exercised  by  princes.  It  is  the 
result,  indeed,  of  a  disposition  which  ought  to  be 
cultivated  by  all  ranks,  though  its  effects  cannot 
be  equally  conspicuous. 

Clemency  is  not  only  the  privilege,  the  honour, 
and  the  duty  of  a  prince,  but  it  is  also  his  se- 
curity, and  better  than  all  his  garrisons,  forts,  and 
guards,  to  preserve  himself  and  his  dominions  in 
safety.  That  prince  is  truly  royal  who  masters 
himself,  looks  upon  all  injuries  as  below  him, 
and  governs  by  equity  and  reason,  not  by  passion 
or  caprice.  David,  king  of  Israel,  appears  in  no 
instance  greater,  or  more  amiable,  than  in  sparing 
the  life  of  his  persecutor,  Saul,  when  it  was  in 
his  power. 

CLERGY  (from  the  Greek  word  x^pos,  herit- 
age) in  t!i«>  general  smse  of  the  word,  as  used  by 
us  signifies  the  body  of  ecclesiastics  of  the  Chris- 
tian church,  in  contradistinction  to  the  laity  ;  but 
strictly  Bpeaking,  and  according  to  Scripture,  it 
means  the  church. — "  When  Joshua,"  as  one  ob- 
serves, "divided  the  Holy  Land  by  lot  among  the 
Israelites,  it  pleased  (ind  to  provide" for  a  thirteenth 

1  urt  of  them,  called  Levites,  by  assigning  them  a 

personal  estate  equivalent  t.)  that  provision  made 
l>y  real  estate  which  was  allotted  to  each  of  the 
twelve  parts.  In  conformity  to  the  style 
of  the  transection,  the  Levites  were  called  God's 
lot,  inheritance,  or  dcigy.     This  style,  however, 


CLERGY 
is  not  always  used  by  the  Old  Testament  writers. 
Sometimes  they  call  all  the  nation  God's  lot, 
Deut.  xxxii.  9.  Ps.  lxxviii.  71.  xxviii.  9,  &c 
The  New  Testament  writers  adopt  this  term, 
and  apply  it  to  the  whole  Christian  church,  1  Pet. 
v.  3.  Thus  it  is  the  church  distinguished  from 
the  world,  and  not  one  part  of  the  church  as  dis- 
tinguished from  another  part."  The  word  clergy, 
however,  among  us,  always  refers  to  ecclesiastics. 

The  clergy  originally  consisted  of  bishops, 
priests,  and  deacons;  but  in  the  third  century 
many  inferior  orders  were  appointed;  such  as 
sub-deacons,  acoluthists,  readers,  &c.  The  clergy 
of  the  church  of  Rome  are  divided  into  regular 
and  secular.  The  regular  consists  of  those  monks 
or  religious  who  have  taken  upon  them  holy  or- 
ders of  the  priesthood  in  their  respective  monas- 
teries. The  secular  clergy  are  those  who  are  not 
of  any  religious  order,  and  have  the  care  and  di- 
rection of  parishes.  The  Protestant  clergy  are 
all  secular.  For  archbishops,  bishops,  deans,  &c. 
&.C  see  those  articles. 

The  clergy  have  large  privileges  allowed  fhern 
by  our  municipal  laws,  and  had  formerly  much 
greater,  which  were  abridged  at  the  Reformation, 
on  account  of  the  ill  use  which  the  popish  clergy 
had  endeavoured  to  make  of  them ;  for  the  laws 
having  exempted  them  from  almost  every  personal 
duty,  they  attempted  a  total  exemption  from  every 
secular  tie.  The  personal  exemptions,  indeed,  for 
the  most  part,  continue.  A  clergyman  cannot 
be  compelled  to  serve  on  a  jury,  nor  to  appear  at 
a  court  leet,  which  almost  every  other  person  is 
obliged  to  do ;  but  if  a  layman  be  summoned  on 
a  jury,  and  before  the  trial  takes  orders,  he  shall 
notwithstanding  appear,  and  be  sworn.  Neither 
can  he  be  chosen  to  any  temporal  office ;  as  bai- 
liilj  reeve,  constable,  or  the  like,  in  regard  of  his 
own  continual  attendance  on  the  sacred  function. 
During  his  attendance  on  divine  service,  he  is 
privileged  from  arrests  in  civil  suits.  In  cases  of 
felony,  also,  a  clerk  in  orders  shall  have  the  bene- 
fit of  clergy,  without  being  branded  in  the  hand, 
and  may  likewise  have  it  more  than  once ;  in  both 
which  cases  he  is  distinguished  from  a  layman. 

Benefit  of  clergy  was  a  privilege  whereby  a 
clergyman  claimed  to  be  delivered  to  his  ordinary 
to  purge  himself  of  felony,  and  which  anciently 
was  allowed  only  to  those  who  were  in  orders; 
but,  by  the  statute  of  18th  Eliz.,  every  man  to 
whom  the  benefit  of  clergy  is  granted,  though 
not  in  orders,  is  put  to  read  at  the  bar,  after  he  is 
found  guilty,  and  convicted  of  felony,  and  so 
burnt  in  the  hand  ;  and  set  free  for  the  first  time, 
if  the  ordinary  or  deputy  standing  by  do  say, 
Legit  utclericu8:  otherwise  he  shall  suffer  death. 
As  the  clergy  have  their  privileges,  so  they  have 
also  their  disabilities,  on  account  of  their  spiritual 
avocations.  Clergymen  arc  incapable  of  sitting 
in  the  house  of  commons;  and  by  statute  21 
Henry  VII 1.  C.  13,  are  not  in  general  allowed  to 
take  any  lands  or  tenements  to  farm,  upon  pain 
of  10/.  per  month,  and  total  avoidance  of  the  lease  ; 
nor,  upon  like  pain,  to  keep  any  tap-house,  or 
brewhouse;  nor  en^-  ge  in  any  trade,  nor  sell  any 
merchandise,  under  forfeiture  of  the  treble  value; 
which  prohibition  is  consonant  to  the  canon  law. 

The  nuinbcr  of  clergy  in  England  and  Wales 
amount,    according    to    the    best    calculation,    to 
18,000. — The  revenues  of  the  clergy  were  form- 
erly considerable,  but  since  the  Reformation  they 
i  are  comparatively  smtJ.1,  at  least  those  of  the  in- 


CCENOBITE 
ferior  clergy.  See  the  Bishop  of  Llandqf's 
Valuation  of  the  Church  and  University  Re- 
venues ;  or  Cove  on  the  Revenues  of  the  Church, 
17!)7,  2d  edition ;  Burnett's  Hist,  of  his  own 
Times,  conclusion.     See  article  Minister. 

CLERK:  1.  A  word  originally  used  to  denote 
a  learned  man,  or  man  of  letters ;  but  now  is  the 
common  appellation  by  which  clergymen  distin- 
guish themselves  in  signing  any  deed  or  instru- 
ment.— 2.  Also  the  person  who  reads  the  re- 
sponses of  the  congregation  in  the  church,  or 
gives  out  the  hymns  at  a  meeting. 

COCCEIANS,  a  denomination  which  arose 
in  the  seventeenth  century  ;  so  called  from  John 
Cocceius,  professor  of  divinity  in  the  university 
of  Leyden.  He  represented  the  whole  history 
of  the  Old  Testament  as  a  mirror,  which  held 
forth  an  accurate  view  of  the.  transactions  and 
events  that  were  to  happen  in  the  church  under 
the  dispensation  of  the  New  Testament,  and 
unto  the  end  of  the  world.  He  maintained  that 
by  far  the  greatest  part  of  the  ancient  prophecies 
foretold  Christ's  ministry  and  mediation,  and  the 
rise,  progress,  and  revolutions  of  the  church,  not 
only  under  the  figure  of  persons  and  transac- 
tions, but  in  a  literal  manner,  and  by  the  very 
sense  of  the  words  used  in  these  predictions;  and 
laid  it  down  as  a  fundamental  rule  of  interpreta- 
tion, that  the  words  and  phrases  of  Scripture  are 
to  be  understood  in  every  sense  of  which  they 
are  susceptible,  or,  in  other  words,  that  they  sig- 
nify in  effect  every  thing  that  they  can  possible 
signify.  _ 

Cocceius  also  taught,  that  the  covenant  made 
between  God  and  the  Jewish  nation,  by  the  mi- 
nistry of  Moses,  was  of  the  same  nature  a->  the 
new  covenant,  obtained  by  the  mediation  of  Jtwus 
Christ.  In  consequence  of  this  general  principle, 
he  maintained  that  the  ten  commandments  were 
promulgated  by  Moses,  not  as  a  rule  of  obedience, 
but  as  a  representation  of  the  covenant  of  grace — 
that  when  the  Jews  had  provoked  the  Deity  by 
their  various  transgressions,  particularly  by  the 
worship  of  the  golden  calf,  the  severe  and  servile 
yoke  of  the  ceremonial  law  was  added  to  the  de- 
calogue, as  a  punishment  inflicted  on  them  by 
the  Supreme  Being  in  his  righteous  displeasure — 
that  this  yoke,  which  was  painful  in  itself,  be- 
came doubly  so  on  account  of  its  typical  signifi- 
cation ;  since  it  admonished  the  Israelites  from 
day  to  day  of  the  imperfection  and  uncertainty 
of  their  state,  filled  them  with  anxiety,  and  was 
a  perpetual  proof  that  they  had  merited  the  right- 
eous displeasure  of  God,  and  could  not  expect, 
before  the  coming  of  the  Messiah,  the  entire  re- 
mission of  their  iniquities — that  indeed  good  men, 
even  under  the  Mosaic  dispensation,  were  imme- 
diately after  death  made  partakers  of  everlasting 
glory;  but  that  they  were  nevertheless,  during 
tne  whole  course  of  their  lives,  far  removed  from 
that  firm  hope  and  assurance  of  salvation,  which 
rejoices  the  faithful  under  the  dispensation  of  the 
Gospel— and  that  tlreir  anxiety  flowed  naturally 
from  this  consideration,  that  their  sins,  though 
they  remained  unpunished,  were  not  pardoned ; 
because  Christ  had  not  as  yet  offered  himself  up  a 
sacrifice  to  the  Father,  to  make  an  entire  atone- 
ment for  them. 

CCENOBITE,  one  who  lives  in  a  convent,  or 

in  community  under  a  certain  rule ;  in  opposition 

to  a  hermit,  who  lives  in  solitude.  Cassiun  makes 

this  difference  between  a  convent  and  a  monastery, 

77 


COMMENTARY 

that  the  latter  may  be  applied  to  the  resilience  of 
a  single  religious  or  recluse ;  whereas  the  convent 
implies  coenobites,  or  numbers  of  religious  living 
in  common.  Fleury  speaks  of  three  kinds  of 
monks  in  Egypt;  anachorcis,  who  live  in  sob- 
tude  ;  ceenobites,  who  continue  to  live  in  commu- 
nity ;  and  sarabailcn,  who  are  a  kind  of  monks- 
errant,  that  stroll  from  place  to  place.  He  refers 
the  institution  of  coenobites  to  the  time  of  the 
apostles,  and  makes  it  a  kind  of  imitation  of  the 
ordinary  lives  of  the  faithful  at  Jerusalem;  though 
St.  Pachomius  is  ordinarily  owned  to  be  the  in- 
stitutor  of  the  coenobite  life,  as  being  the  first 
who  gave  rule  to  any  community. 

COLLECT,  a  short  prayer.  In  the  liturgy 
of  the  church  of  England,  and  the  mass  of  the 
Romanists,  it  denotes  a  prayer  accommodated  to 
any  particular  day,  occasion,  or  the  like.  In  ge- 
neral, all  the  prayers  in  each  office  are  called  col- 
lects, either  because  the  priest  speaks  in  the  name 
of  the  whole  assembly,  whose  sentiments  and  de- 
sires he  sums  up  by  the  word  "  Oremus,"  "  Let 
us  pray,"  or  because  those  prayers  are  offered 
when  the  people  are  assembled  together.  The 
popes  Gelasius  and  Gregory  are  said  to  have  been 
the  first  who  established  collects.  Dr.  Despence, 
of  Paris,  wrote  a  treatise  on  collects,  their  origin, 
antiquity,  &c. 

COLLEGIANS,  or  Collegiants,  a  sect 
formed  among  the  Arminians  and  Anabaptists 
in  Holland,  about  the  beginning  of  the  seven- 
teenth century :  so  called  because  of  their  col- 
leges or  meetings  twice,  every  week,  where  every 
one,  females  excepted,  has  the  same  liberty  of 
expounding  the  Scriptures,  praying,  &c.  They 
are  said  to  be  all  either  Arians  or  Socinians :  they 
never  communicate  in  the  college,  but  meet  twice 
a  year,  from  all  parts  of<  Holland,  at  Rhinsbergli, 
(whence  they  are  also  called  Rhinsbcrghcrs)  a 
village  two  miles  from  Leyden,  where  they  com- 
mumcate  together ;  admitting  every  one  that  pre- 
sents himself,  professing  his  faith  in  the  divinity 
of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  resolution  to  live 
suitably  to  their  precepts  and  doctrines,  without 
regard  to  his  sect  or  opinion.  They  have  no 
particular  ministers,  but  each  officiates  as  he  is 
disposed.     They  baptize  by  immersion. 

COMMENTARY,  as  applied  to  the  Scrip- 
tures, an  exposition,  book  of  annotations  or  re- 
marks, designed  to  elucidate  the  sacred  volume 
by  illustrating  obscure  passages,  interpreting  am- 
biguous phrases,  reconciling  apparent  contrailic- 
tions,  exhibiting  the  relation  or  parallelism  of  the 
different  parts,— in  fine,  by  furnishing  every 
facility  to  the  biblical  reader  towards  the  attain- 
ment of  the  genuine  sense  of  the  inspired  writ- 
ings. It  is  unquestionable,  that  there  are  many 
passages  in  the  sacred  Scriptures  both  difficult 
and  obscure,  in  consequence  of  the  various  times 
when  the  different  books  were  written,  the  diver- 
sified topics  of  which  they  treat,  their  allusion  to 
ancient  customs,  and  the  languages  in  which 
they  were  originally  composed.  So  far,  indeed, 
as  relates  to  the  way  of  salvation,  "  he  that  runs 
may  read ;"  but  there  are  many  important  poirjts 
which,  to  common  and  unlettered  readers,  require 
explanation,  and  in  which  we  may  profitably 
avail  ourselves  of  the  labours  of  inquirers  win: 
have  preceded  us,  especially  of  those  who  have 
been  deeply  versed  in  the  original  languages, 
Who  have  collated  the  different  parts,  the  Mew 
Testament  and  the  Old,  the  prophetic  with  the- 


COMMENTARY 

historical  books,  and  have  brought  forward  the 
testimonies  of  profane  antiquity  to  confirm  or 
illustrate  th<'  word  of  God.  To  reject  their  assist- 
ance in  the  interpretation  of  the  Scriptures,  is  to 
throw  away  the  labours  of  many  ages.  As  well 
might  we  reject  all  our  historians,  and  insist  on 
believing  nothing  but  what  we  derive  immedi- 
ately*from  state  papers,  original  records,  and  other 
documents  on  which  all  history  is  founded.  "  The 
Bible,"  says  a  sensible  writer,  '•'  is  intended  as  a 
directory  of  our  faith  and  practice.  Now,  to  have 
an  experienced  friend,  who  has  long  been  in  the 
habit  of  perusing  it  with  patient  study  and  hum- 
ble prayer,  to  have  such  a  friend  at  hand  to  point 
out  in  every  chapter  what  may  be  useful  or  import- 
ant, and  especially  to  disclose  its  latent  beauties, 
may  be  no  less  desirable  and  useful,  than  it  is, 
when  travelling  in  a  foreign  country,  to  have  with 
us  a  companion  who  has  passed  the  same  route, 
an  1  is  acquainted  both  with  the  road,  and  with 
the  objects  most  worthy  of  notice."  Yet  widely 
different  opinions  are,  and  ever  have  been,  enter- 
tained respecting  the  utility  and  advantage  of 
commentaries,  annotations,  and  other  expositions 
of  the  sacred  writings.  By  some,  who  can  ad- 
mire nothing  but  their  own  meditations,  and  who 
hold  all  human  helps  in  contempt,  commentaries 
are  despised  altogether,  as  tending  to  found  our 
faith  on  the  opinions  of  men,  rather  than  on  the 
divine  oracles ;  while  others,  on  the  contrary, 
trusting  exclusively  to  the  expositions  of  some  fa- 
vourite commentators,  receive  as  infallible  what- 
ever views  or  opinions  they  may  choose  to  de- 
liver, as  their  expositions  cf  the  Bible.  The  safest 
way  in  this  case,  is,  to  take  the  middle  path,  and 
occasionally  to  avail  ourselves  of  the  labours  of 
commentators  and  expositors,  while  we  diligently 
investigate  the  Scriptures  for  ourselves,  without 
relying  exclusively  on  our  own  wisdom,  or  being 
fascinated  with  the  authority  of  an  eminent 
name. 

In  order  to  derive  the  utmost  advantage  from 
the  labours  of  expositors,  the  following  suggestions 
may  be  profitably  carried  along  with  us  in  our 
reading.  1.  We  should  take  care  that  the  pe- 
rusal of  commentators  does  not  draw  us  away 
Croon  Studying  the  Scriptures  themselves;  from 
investigating  their  real  meaning,  and  meditating 
on  their  important  contents.  2.  We  should  not 
inconsiderately  assent  to  the  interpretation  of  any 
expositor  or  commentator,  or  yield  a  blind  and 
servile  obedience  to  his  authority.  3.  The  best 
commentators  and  interpreters  only  are  to  be 
read  4.  Where  it  does  not  appear  that  either 
ancient  or  modern  interpreters  had  more  know- 
I  idge  than  ourselves,  respecting  particular  pas- 
sages, and  when  they  offer  only  conjectures,  their 
expositions  ought  to  be  subjected  to  a  very  strict 
examination  before  they  are  adopted.  5.  As  there 
are  some  commentaries  which  are  either  wholly 
compiled  from  the  previous  labours  of  others,  or 
contai  n  obecn  at  ions  extracted  from  their  writings, 
if  any  tiling  appear  confused  or  perplexed  in  such 
commentaries,  the  original  sources  must  be  refcr- 
re  I  to.  and  diligently  consulted. 

To  these  remarks  and  directions  relative  to  the 
use  of  commentaries,  we  shail  subjoin  the  advice 
of  Dr.  Campbell,  in  his  Lectures  on  Systematic 
Theology,  as  to  the  study  of  the  Bible  : — "  Begin 
with  studying  the  Scriptures  in  the  original  lan- 
guages; attend  carefully  to  the  distinction  that 
should  always  be  made  between  classical  or  pure 
7d 


COMMENTARY 
Greek,  and  the  Greek,  of  the  Septuagint  and 
Testament,  where  the  words  taken  separately  are 
pure  Greek,  but  where  the  idiom  of  the  language, 
and  even  the  acceptation  of  many  words,  are  de- 
rived from  the  Hebrew,  the  Chaldaic,orthe  Syriac, 
Be  acquainted  with  the  civil  history,  the  manners 
and  customs  of  ancient  times  and  nations,  espe- 
cially with  that  of  the  Jews,  where  the  reading 
of  Josephus  will  be  often  useful.  But  whatever 
books  you  read  occasionally,  read  the  Scriptures 
frequently.  Mark  the  different  passages  which 
you  do  not  understand ;  read  them  with  patience, 
not  being  too  anxious  to  understand  every  thing 
at  the  first  reading.  But  persevere,  and  read  the 
Scriptures  in  the  original  a  second  and  a  third 
time  ;  and,  without  consulting  any  commentator, 
those  difficult  passages  will  always  become  fewer 
as  your  knowledge  increases.  Read  the  Scrip- 
tures, also,  with  modesty,  without  being  too  full 
of  yourself,  nor  supposing  that  human  reason  can 
always  comprehend  divine  mysteries  :  and  read 
them  always  with  fervent  prayer  to  God,  the 
source  of  wisdom  and  light,  that  he  would  assist 
and  direct  you  in  your  researches  after  truth.  Do 
not  complain  that  you  want  books,  when  you 
have  the  Scriptures  themselves  in  the  original 
languages.  If  you  have  a  Hebrew  Bible,  a  Sep- 
tuagint, and  a  Greek  New  Testament,  you  have 
the  most  necessary  and  the  most  useful  of  all 
books  to  a  Christian  divine.  Read  carefully  all 
the  versions  which  are  given  of  disputed  pas- 
sages ;  make  much  use  of  versions,  and  compare 
them  all  carefully  with  the  original.  Read  the 
Vulgate,  though  a  translation  authorised  by  the 
Romish  church,  as  well  as  the  versions  of  indi- 
viduals, such  as  Castalio,  Beza,  Junius,  and  Tre- 
mellius,  and  also  Houbigant,  if  you  have  access 
to  his  translation.  You  cannot  be  hurt  by  read- 
ing versions,  and  comparing  them  with  the  ori- 
ginal. Consult  commentators  sparingly:  never 
use  them  till  the  last ;  and  then  use  them  only  as 
dictionaries.  In  this  viewr,  however,  read  com- 
mentators of  all  parties ;  and  judge  of  them  more 
from  their  freedom  of  thought,  abilities,  and  erudi- 
tion, than  from  considering  to  what  party  they  be- 
long. In  comparing  the  dilferent  kinds  of  commen- 
tators, remember  that  paraphrasts  are  the  Worst, 
because  they  undertake  too  much,  or  promise 
most ;  while  scholiasts  are  the  best,  because  they 
undertake  and  promise  least.  Be  on  your  guard 
against  too  much  ingenuity  in  commentators;  for 
genius,  in  this  case,  has  often  led  them  astray, 
when  humble  piety  and  plain  common-sense, 
would  have  kept  them  in  a  right  path.  Beware, 
particularly,  of  any  attachment  to  a  preconceived 
system,  and  do  not  think  you  will  be  (always) 
safe,  if  you  use  what  you  call  an  approved  com- 
mentator. Sec  always  with  your  own  eyes,  and 
not  through  the  spectacles  of  glossarists,  com- 
mentators, or  paraphrasts.  Remember  that  your 
errors  will  be  much  more  pardonable,  when  you 
use  your  own  eyes,  and  when  you  come  short  of 
the  truth  after  making  the  best  use  of  your  o%vn 
reason,  than  when  you  are  led  implicitly  by  pas- 
sion or  by  prejudice.  When  you  have  formed  a 
religious  system  in  early  life,  be  still  correcting  it 
as  you  acquire  more  knowledge,  not  contending 
for  the  opinions  of  men,  but  inquiring  after  the 
mind  of  the  Spirit." 

To  the  present  article  we  shall  append  a  co- 
pious list  of  the  most  valuable  commentaries,  both 
'n  our  own  and  other  languages,  particularly  the 


COMMENTARY 
Latin,  which  is  a  repository  of  many  of  the  most 
valuable  treasures  of  biblical  exposition. 

English  Commentators  on  the  whole  Bible. 

1.  He.vrv. — An  Exposition  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament ;  by  the  Rev.  Matthew  Henry, 
folio,  5  vols.    4to.  6  vols.    8vo.  6  vols. 

In  the  former  editions  of  the  Theological  Diction- 
ary, Mr.  Buck,  in  speaking  of  commentaries,  gives  the 
following  testimony  to  the  great  value  of  Henry.  "  In 
my  opinion,  Henry  takes  the  lead  for  common  utility. 
The  sprightly  notes,  the  just  inferences,  the  original 
thoughts,  and  the  warm  applications  to  the  conscience, 
make  this  work  justly  admired.  It  is  true  that  there 
are  some  expressions  which  do  not  agree  with  the 
evangelic  system;  but,  as  the  late  Mr.  Ryland  ob- 
serves, '  'tis  impossible  for  a  person  of  piety  and  taste 
*o  read  him  without  wishing  to  be  shut  out  from  all 
the  world  to  read  him  through  without  one  moment's 
interruption.'  Mr.  Henry  did  not  live  to  complete  the 
work.  He  went  as  far  as  the  e»d  of  Acts."  The  re- 
mainder was  finished  by  fifteen  different  hands,  pious 
and  able  ministers,  contemporary  with  Mr.  Henry, 
whose  names  will  be  found  affixed  to  their  several  por- 
tions. The  estimate  in  which  the  work  is  held  in  the 
United  States  is  sensibly  growing,  and  the  religious 
public  are  to  be  congratulated  on  the  recent  ediiion 
published  in  Philadelphia,  with  a  valuable  preface  by 
the  Rev.  A.  Alexander,  of  Princeton,  New  Jersey. 

2.  Scott. — The  Holy  Bible,  containing  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments ;  with  original  notes, 
practical  observations,  and  copious  marginal  re- 
ferences. By  Thomas  Scott,  Rector  of  Aston 
Sandford,  5  vols.  4to.     6  vols.  8vo. 

"The  capital  excellency  of  this  valuable  and  im- 
mense undertaking,  perhaps  consists  in  following  more 
closely  than  any  other,  the  fair  and  adequate  meaning 
of  every  part  of  Scripture,  without  regard  to  the  nice- 
ties of  human  systems  :  it  is  in  every  sense  of  the  ex- 
pression, a  scriptural  comment.  It  has  a  further  and 
a  strong  recommendation  in  its  originality.  Every 
part  of  it  is  thought  out  by  the  author  for  himself,  not 
borrowed  from  others.  The  later  editions,  indeed,  are 
enriched  with  brief  and  valuable  quotations  from  seve- 
ral writers  of  credit ;  but  the  substance  of  the  work  is 
entirely  his  own.  It  is  not  a  compilation,  it  is  an  ori- 
ginal production,  in  which  you  have  the  deliberate 
judgment  of  a  masculine  and  independent  mind  on  all 
the  parts  of  Holy  Scripture.  Every  student  will  un- 
derstand the  value  of  such  a  work.  Accordingly  the 
success  of  the  work  has  been  steadily  and  rapidly  in- 
creasing from  the  first,  not  only  in  our  own  country, 
but  wherever  the  English  language  is  known.  Nor  is 
the  time  distant,  when,  the  passing  controversies  of 
the  day  having  been  forgotten,  this  prodigious  work 
will  generally  be  confessed  in  the  Protestant  churches, 
to  be  one  of  the  most  sound  and  instructive  commenta- 
ries produced  in  our  own  or  any  other  age." — Wilson's 
Funeral  Sermon. 

3.  Poole. — Annotations  upon  the  Holy  Bible ; 
by  the  Rev.  Matthew  Poole,  folio,  London,  2  vols. 
1683.    Edinburgh,  1803,  4  vols.  4to. 

This  is  an  extremely  valuable  work,  by  the  author 
ef  the  celebrated  Synopsis.  It  was  published  subse- 
quently to  that  work,  and  may  be  supposed  to  contain 
the  results  of  the  immense  collection  and  comparison  of 
interpretations  contained  in  the  Synopsis.  The  anno- 
tations are  mingled  with  the  text,  and  for  the  most 
part  are  eminently  judicious.  The  author  wrote  them 
only  as  far  as  the  58th  chapter  of  Isaiah ;  the  remain- 
der being  executed  by  several  distinguished  dissenting 
ministers. 

4.  Assembly's  Annotations. — Annotations 
upon  all  the  Books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments ;  by  the  labour  of  several  learned  divines 
thereunto  appointed.  London,  1657,  2  vols,  folio. 

This  valuable  work  was  composed  by  the  members 
of  the  Westminster  .assembly  of  divines.  See  Calamy'n 
life  of  Baitfr,  p.  66. 

5.  Clarke. — The  Old  ami  New  Testaments, 

79 


COMMENTARY 
with  Annotations  and  parallel   Scriptures ;  lijr 
Samuel  Clarke,  A.  M.  London,  1690,  folio. 

"  The  selection,  of  parallel  texts  is  admirable  ;  and  the 
notes,  though  very  brief,  are  written  with  great  judg- 
ment. The  work  was  commended  in  very  high  terms 
by  Drs.  Owen  and  Bates,  as  well  as  by  Mr.  Baxter  and 
Mr.  Howe." — Borne. 

6.  Gill. — An  Exposition  of  the  Old  and  New 
Testaments,  illustrated  by  notes  from  the  most  an- 
cient Jewish  writings;  by  John  Gill,  D.  D.London, 
1748—1763, 9  vols,  folio.  London,  1809, 9  vols.  4to. 

In  rabbinical  literature,  Dr.  Gill  had  no  equal,  and 
he  has  been  enabled  to  illustrate  many  important  pas- 
sages of  Scripture. — Home. 

7.  Brown. — Brown's  Self-Interpreting  Bible, 
2  vols.  4to. 

"  Its  chief  excellencies  are  the  marginal  references 
which  are  exceedingly  useful  to  preachers,  and  tht 
close,  plain,  and  practical  improvement  to  each  chap- 
ter."— Buck. 

8.  A.  Clarke.— The  Holy  Bible,  with  a 
Commentary  and  Critical  Notes ;  by  Adam 
Clarke,  LL.  D.     5  vols.  4to.     6  vols.  8vo. 

Latin  Commentators  on  the  whole  Bible. 

1.  Critici  Sacri. — Sive  Annotata  doctissi- 
morum  Virorum  in  Vetus  ac  Novum  Testamen- 
tum;  quibus  accedunt  tractatus  varii,  Theologico- 
Philologici,  9  tomis  in  12  volmninibus,  Amster- 
dam, 1698. 

"  This  great  work,  first  published  at  London  in  166C, 
in  9  vols,  folio,  under  the  direction  of  Bishop  Pearson, 
John  Pearson,  Anthony  Scattergood,  and  Francis 
Gouldman,  is  considerably  augmented  in  the  above  se- 
cond and  best  edition.  The  notes  of  Grotius,  Vatablus, 
Drusius,  Munster,  Castalio,  Clarius,  Junius,  and  Tre- 
mellius,  are  to  be  found  in  this  collection,  besides  a 
multitude  of  commentators  on  particular  books,  and 
numerous  valuable  disquisitions  on  particular  subjects, 
which  are  enumerated  by  Dr.  A.  Clarke  in  the  general 
preface  to  his  Commentary.  To  complete  this  great 
work  there  were  published  at  Amsterdam,  in  1701, 
Thesaurus  Theologico-Philologicus,  in  two  vols,  folio, 
and  in  1732,  in  two  folio  volumes  also,  Thesaurus  No- 
vus  Theologico-Philologicus — two  valuable  collections 
of  critical  and  philological  dissertations  by  the  most 
eminent  biblical  critics  of  that  day.  These  are  neces- 
sary to  complete  the  Critici  Sacri." — Home. 

The  great  defect  of  this  work  is  the  want  of  due  se- 
lection in  the  original  materials.  Several  authors  are 
included  of  very  little  note,  and  who  were  altogether 
unworthy  of  a  place  in  such  a  body  of  critics  as  were 
intended  to  have  been  enrolled  in  this  college  of  com- 
mentators. Many,  too,  of  the  annotations  of  more 
distinguished  authors  are  scarcely  worthy  of  their 
names,  and  as  several  sets  of  notes  are  written  upon 
the  same  books,  the  same  things  are  frequently  re- 
peated. A  reprint  of  the  whole  work,  therefore,  is 
neither  to  be  expected  nor  desired,  although  many  of 
the  disquisitions  richly  deserve  to  be  drawn  out  of 
their  obscurity  and  given  anew  to  the  world. 

2.  Matth^i  Pooi.i,  Synopsis  Criticorum 
Aliorumque  SS.Interpretum. — London,  Utrecht, 
and  Frankfort,  5  vols,  folio. 

On  this  most  elaborate  work  the  learned  author 
spent  ten  years.  Although  not  designed  to  be  a  mere 
abridgment  of  the  Critici  Sacri,  it  contains  all  that  is 
most  valuable  in  their  annotations,  besides  many  im- 
portant additions  from  other  sources,  and  his  own  ju- 
dicious decisions  in  many  places.  Notwithstanding, 
however,  that  the  Synopsis  brings  together  an  immense 
mass  of  valuable  interpretation,  the  work  would  ad- 
mit of  being  greatly  synopsized  itself.  The  vast  accu- 
mulation of  different  senses  crowded  together  to  explain 
a  single  sentence  or  a  single  word,  many  of  them  pal- 
pably false  or  trifling,  many  of  them  without  the 
shadow  of  a  reason  for  their  adoption,  and  apparently 
introduced  merely  to  increase  the  amount  of  matter,  so 
effectually  perplexes  the  mind,  that  the  reader  often 


COMMENTARY 
closes  th"  book  more  unsettled  in  his  opinion  than 
when  he  opened  jt.  it  is  greatly  la  be  desired  thai  a 
work  on  the  plan  of  Poole,  only  more  moderate  in  its 
dimensions,  and  m  ire  select  in  rts  materials,  should  be 
execute  I  at  the  presenl  day.  Hut  the  task  would  be  a 
Herculean  one,  and  arduous  in  proportion  to  the  supe- 
rior advantages  p  iteessed  for  such  a  work  by  the  pre- 
senl generation  of  scholars.  Of  the  different  editions 
of  Poole,  thai  of  Utrecht,  by  Professor  Leusden,  is  the 
best.  Tli"  Frankfort  edition  is  said  to  be  scarcely 
worth  purchasing,  on  account  of  its  incorrectness.  The 
quarto  edition  is  somewhat  better,  but  is  badly  printed 
and  sells  at  a  low  price. — H. 

3.  Joannis  COCCEII  Commentarii  in  Sacras 
Scriptures,  in  ejus  Operibus. — Amsterdam,  10 
vols,  folio. 

Notwithstan  ling  the  character  of  Cocccius,  as  a  com- 
mentator, labours  under  the  imputation  of  excessive 
mysticism,  and  of  having  in  lulgeda  vein  of  t  he  wildest 
fancies  in  spiritualizing  the  Old  Testament,  it  should 
b  •  rem  imb  ired  that  his  grand  object  was  to  oppose  the 
Afiystemof  mere  literal  or  grammatical  exposition  adopt - 
pbd  by  Grotius  an  I  his  followers.  And  when  it  is  said 
of  two  commentators,  as  it  was  of  him  and  Grotius, 
that  "one  finds  Christ  every  where,  and  the  other  no 
Where,"  the  in  liciousand  pious  reader  will  readily  de- 
cide Which  is  the  most  innocent  error.  Buddeus,  the 
great  master  in  historic-theology,  while  he  admits  that 
Cocceius  has  occasionally  refined  loo  much  in  his  in- 
terpretations, still  affirms  that  he  ranks' among  "the 
most  illustrioiisteachersof  the  Reformed  Church,"  that 
he  was  pre-eminently  endowed  with  the  qualifications 
of  a  good  interpreter,  and  that,  turning  away  from  the 
frivolous  miu  it  he  of  th  •  popular  critics  of  the  age,  he 
sedulously  aim  id  to  unfold  the  sense  of  the  Scriptures  in 
such  a  manner  as  toinrrcasc  the  knowledge  of  divine  and 
sowing -truth  among  men.  "His  commentaries,"  says 
Home,  "particularly  on  the  JV>»  Testament,  abound 
with  valuable  illustrations,  and  will  amply  repay  the 
trouble  of  a  p  irusal."  The  critical  reader  of  the  Pro- 
phetical Books  will  seldom  consult  him  in  vain. — B. 

4.  Rossxmulleri  Scholia  in  Vetus  atquc 
Novum  Testamentum,  '23  tomis,  8vo. 

This  work  is  very  much  prized  by  those  who  have  a 
high  opinion  of  the  modern  school  of  German  critics 
an  I  comm  mtators.  B  it  as  the  most  valuable  parts  are 
drawn  from  other  sources,  which  can  be  obtained  at  a 
cheaper  rate,  and  which  are  not  interlarded  with  neo- 
logical  scholia,  we  do  not  esteem  the  want  of  it  a  very 
serious  desideratum  in  a  biblical  library. 

English  Commentators  on  the  New  Tes- 
tament. 

1.  BtJRXITT's  Expository  Notes,  with  Practi- 
cal Observations. — London,  1814,  4to. 

"Burkitt  contains  many  ingenious  observations, 
fine  turns,  natural  plans,  and  pungent  addresses  to  the 


conscience. 


-Buck. 


-London, 


2.  Doddridge's  Family  Expositor.- 
4  vols,  lto.,  and  ti  vols.  8vo. 

"  This  a  Imirahle  commentary  is  in  th?  list  of  books 
recommi  nde  I  by  Bishops  Watson  and  Tomline,  and 
almost  every  other  theological  tutor." — Home. 

3.  Whitby's  Paraphrase  and  Commentary 
on  the  New  Testament,  2  vols,  folio. 

"  Divines  of  every  denomination  concur  in  pro- 
nouncing Dr.  Whitby's  Commentary  to  be,  upon  the 
whole,  the  best  upon  the  New  Testament  that  is  extant 
in  the  English  language.'' — Home. 

I.  Gi  \  bb's  Practical  Expositor  in  the  Form  of 
a  Paraphrase,  with  occasional  Notes. — London, 
3  vols.  4to.     1  vols.  8vo, 

"  Dr.  Guyse  wni  an  emieent  dissenting  divine  of 
the  eighteenth  century,  and  in  hie  religious  principles 
Unlviniatic.  His  Paraphrase  has  never  been  popular, 
Ihoug  i  it  is  said  to  display  sound  judgment,  intimate 
acquaintance  with  the  original,  and  considerable  criti- 
cal powers." — Home. 

D.  Hammond's  Paraphrase  and  Annotations 
60 


COMMENTARY 

on  the  New  Testament. — London.   1702,  folio 
best  edition. 

"  Many  good  criticisms,  but  many  that  are  much 
mistaken." — Borne. 

Latin  Commentators  on  the  New  Testa- 
ment. 

1.  Bencelii  Gnomon  Novi  Testamenti. 

"This  work  contains  an  instructive  preface,  a  per- 
spicuous analysis  of  each  hook,  with  short  notes,  in 
the  true  taste  of  judicious  criticism.  Bengel  excels  in 
shew-ng  the  connexion  and  harmony  of  Scripture,  and 
how  Scripture  is  to  be  interpreted  by  Scripture." 

Home. 

Another  critic  observes,  "his  work  is  an  unknown 
storehouse  of  valuable  matter,  consisting  of  acute  re- 
marks, striking  illustrations  of  the  text  by  the  context, 
just  inferences,  and  practical  observations;  the  whole 
offered  in  a  strain  of  true  piety  and  Christian  simpli- 
city."— Critica  Biblica.  vol.  iv.  p.  100. 

2.  Wetstenii  Novum  Testamentum  Grae 
cum. — Amsterdam,  1752,  2  vols,  folio 

"  Almost  every  peculiar  form  of  speech  in  the  sacred 
text  he  has  illustrated  by  quotations  from  Jewish, 
Greek,  and  Roman  writers." — Dr.  Adam  Clarke. 

3.  Wolfii  Curse  Philologicae  in  Novum  Tes- 
tamentum.— Basil,  1741,  5  vols.  4to. 

"  This  is  a  very  valuable  compilation  ;  as  Wolfius 
does  not  simply  relate  the  opinions  of  others,  but  fre- 
quently animadverts  upon  them  with  great  critical 
discernment." — Home. 

4.  Chemnith  Harmonia  Quatuor  Evangeli- 
starum. — Hamburgh,  1704,  folio. 

"  Deservedly  held  in  the  highest  estimation," — Horn*. 

5.  Koppe  Novum  Testamentum  Graeci. — 
1791,  8vo.  2d  edition. 

Commentators  on  Select  Parts,  or  Single 
Books,  of  the  Old  Testament. 

1.  Ainsworth's  Annotations  on  the  Penta- 
teuch, the  Psaims,  and  the  Song  of  Solomon. — 
London,  1G39,  folio. 

The  collector  of  a  biblical  apparatus  is  advised  by  no 
means  to  let  slip  an  opportunity  of  procuring  this 
work.  In  affording  aid  to  the  attainment  of  the  exact 
meaning  of  the  original,  Ainsworth  is  unrivalled  ;  his 
parallelisms  never  fail  to  cast  lieht  on  the  point  for 
which  they  are  adduced  ;  his  quotations  from  the  Jew- 
ish writers,  in  which  he  discovers  great  judgment, 
form  an  exceedingly  valuable  source  of  illustration 
and  his  translation,  particularly  of  the  Psalms,  is  often 
to  be  preferred  to  the  common  version.  No  more  valua- 
ble service  could  be  performed  to  the  cause  of  Biblical 
Literature  than  the  republication  of  Ainsworth's  An- 
notations in  a  more  convenient  form,  and  somewhat 
modernized  in  orthography  and  style.  In  order  to  be 
duly  appreciated,  it  should  be  used  by  one  who  is  in 
the  habit  of  consulting  the  original.  Such  an  one  will 
discover  in  this  venerable  puritan  an  acquaintance 
with  the  minute  peculiarities  of  the  Greek  and  Hebrew 
forms  of  expression,  and  a  tact  of  illustration,  which 
for  the  age  and  circumstances  of  the  writer,  is  truly 
astonishing. 

2.  Bishop  Patrick's  Commentaries  on  the 
Historical  Parts  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. — Lon- 
don, 3  vols.  4to. 

Well  worth  possessing,  though  not  of  frequent  oc- 
currence. Patrick,  Lowth,  Whitby,  and  Arnold,  are 
embodied  in  one  extensive  and  valuable  work,  pub- 
lished in  8  vols.  4to. 

3.  Not*:  Uberiores  in  Hagiographa. — Halae, 
3  vols.  4to. 

The  student  of  Hebrew  who  makes  use  of  Michaelis's 
Hebrew  Bible,  (and  such  an  one  will  net  feel  the  want 
of  any  other)  should  not  suffer  himself  to  be  without 


COMMENTARY 

this  work  if  it  bo  in  his  power  to  obtain  it.  Ab  the 
notes  are  a  continuation  of  those  in  the  above-men- 
tioned edition  of  the  Bible,  printed  in  a  type  less  try- 
ing to  the  eye,  they  form  a  supplement  indispensable 
to  the  completeness  of  that  work.  The  authors  of 
the  Annotations  are,  J.  H.  Micliaelis,  C.  B.  Michaclis, 
and  J.  J.  iiainbach. 

Genesis. 
Sebastian  Schmidt :  all  the  expository  works 
of  this  learned  and  pious  man  are  extremely  va- 
luable.— Andreas  Rivctus,  ("Opera,  torn.  i.  folio:) 
of  groat  value  to  the  theologian. — Johannes  Mer- 
ccrus  :  prolix,  but  sound  and  judicious. — Light- 
foot,  (Works,  vol.  i.  p.  698 :)  the  very  name  of 
Lightfoot  supersedes  all  commendation. — J.  H. 
Heidegger,  (Historia  Patriarcharum,  2  vols.  4to.) 
— J.  F.  Buddcus,  (Historia  Ecclesiastica  Veteris 
Testament!,  2  vols.  4to.) — Fr.  Junius. — Daw- 
son on  the  First  Seventeen  Chapters  of  Genesis, 
Lond.  3  vols.  4to. — Andrew  Fuller's  Expository 
Discourses  on  Genesis,  2  vols.  8vo. 

Exodus. 

And.  Rivctus,  (Opera,  torn.  i.  folio.) — Chris- 
toph.  Cartwright :  replete  with  rabbinical  learn- 
ing.— Lightfoot,  (ut  supra.) — WMett,  (in  Hcxa- 
pla.) — Braunius  de  Vestitu  Heb.  Sacerdotum : 
this  work,  though  not  professedly  a  commentary, 
is  very  important  in  the  explication  of  many  parts 
of  Exodus. 

Joshua  and  the  other  Historical  Books. 

Andreas  Masius  on  Joshua:  an  author  highly 
commended  by  Poole  in  his  Synopsis. — Lectures 
on  Ruth  by  G.  Lawson. — Chandler's  Life  of 
David:  "a  book  above  all  praise."  Home. — 
Lawson  on  Esther. — Michaelis's  Nota?  Ube- 
riores. — Stackhouse's  History  of  the  Bible. — Bud- 
dcus's  Historia  Ecclesiastica. — Macgowan  on 
Ruth. — Lavater,  Jackson,  and  Sirigelius  on 
Joshua. 

Jon. 

Hugh  Broughton,  (Works,  folio,  pp.  246 — 
294.) foscph  Caryl,  2  vols,  folio  :  "  a  most  ela- 
borate, learned,  and  pious  work,  containing  a  rich 
fund  of  critical  and  practical  divinity."  Williams. 
— Albcrtus  Schulten. — Leonard  Chappeiow. — 
Sebastian  Schmidt. — Pcters's  Critical  Disserta- 
tion on  the  Book  of  Job. — J.  H.  Hottinger. — 
Fred.  Spaiihcim. — Chr.  Scholanus. — Joh.  Mer- 
oerus. 

Psalms. 

Ainmcortn,  (see  above,  on  the  Pentateuch,.) — 
Mollerus. — Hammond's  Paraphrase. —  Gidiel- 
tnus  Ames. — Martinus  Geierus:  extremely  va- 
luable.—  Vencma :  held  in  the  highest  esteem 
among  the  divines  of  Holland. — Zech.  Mudgc. — 
Bp.  Home's  Commentary. — Horsley  on  the 
Psalms. — Fry's  Lyra  Davidis. — Hildcrsham  on 
the  51st  Psalm.— Owen  on  the  130th  Psalm.— 
Greenham  on  the  119th  Psalm. — Manton  on  the 
119th  Psalm. — Luther  on  the  Fifteen  Psalms  of 
Degrees. —  Theodore  Be~a. — John  Calvin. — Da- 
rid  Dickson. — Edward  Leigh. — And.  Rivetus, 
(Op.  vol.  ii.) 

*  Proverbs. 

Martinus  Geierus  :  excellent  as  a  critical  com- 
mentary ;  the  general  character  of  all  Geier's 
works. — Albert  Schullens:  profoundly  learned. — 
Mayer. —  Taylor. —  Trapp:  quaint,  but  striking 
and  pertinent. — llolden. — Lawson. — Hunt. — 
Schleusner. 

til  L 


COMMENTARY 

Ecclesiastes. 
A.  V.  Desvoeux :  a  very  valuable  work. — M. 
Geierus. — Bp.  Reynolds. — R.  Wardlaw — Hugh 
Broughton. — Jcrmyn. — Luther. — Melanctho)\. 
— Cartwright. — Leigh. — -Pcmbcl. —  Trapp. 

Song  of  Solomon. 

Ainsworlh. — Joannes  Marckius. —  Gill  on  the 
Canticles. — J.  Mason  Good. —  Williams. — Per- 
cy.— Davidson. — Durham. — Harmcr. — Dure.ll. 
—  Trapp. 

Isaiah. 

Campegius  Vitringa:  an  immense  and  inva- 
luable storehouse  of  sacred  criticism. — Lowth  on 
Isaiah :  a  work  of  unquestionable  importance  to 
the  biblical  student,  but  evincing  too  great  a  rea- 
diness to  innovate  upon  the  readings  of  the  esta- 
blished text. — Macculloch's  Lectures  on  Isaiah. — 
Bp.  Slock. — J.  C.  Daderlin. — Horsley  on  the 
18th  chapter  of  Isaiah. — J.  Calvin. —  J.  Ailing. 

Jeremiah. 

Benjamin  Blayney  :  an  exceedingly  valuable 
work  on  the  plan  of  Lowth's  Isaiah. —  Vencma. 
— Broughton. — J.  D.  Michaclis. — Spohn. — Pu- 
rcau. — Piscator. — Lavater. 

Ezekiel. 

Bp.  Ncwcom  e. —  Villalpand. —  Venema.— 
Starck. — Greenhill. —  Calvin. — Strigelius. 

Daniel. 

Mart.  Gcierus:  the  Preelections  of  Geicr  on 
Daniel  surpass  any  other  commentary  in  givincr 
the  exact  sense  of  the  prophet. —  Vcnema's  Dis- 
sertations on  Daniel. — H.  Broughton :  this  au- 
thor's English  translation  of  Daniel  is  said  to  be 
the  best  in  the  language. — Sir  Isaac  Newton's 
Observations  on  the  Prophecies. — Bp.  Xewton 
on  the  Prophecies. —  Willett,  (in  Hexapla.) — 
Winllc. — Amner. — Fabcr. — Blayney  on  the  Se- 
venty Weeks. —  Brightman. — Parker. — Pem- 
bel. — Rollock. — Jos.  Mede  :  the  works  of  the  ve- 
nerable Mede  are  indispensable  to  the  student 
of  Prophecy. 

Minor  Prophets. 

Lowth  on  the  Prophets. — Pocockc  on  Hosea, 
Joel,  Micah,  and  Malachi. — Ncwcome  on  the 
Minor  Prophets. — Marck  on  do. — Burkii  Gno- 
mon in  do. —  Tarnovius  in  do. — Merccrus  in  do. 
— Drusius  in  do. — Jcr.  Burroughs  on  Hosea: 
the  work  of  a  mind  most  deeply  imbued  with  the 
spirit  of  piety,  and  with  a  skill  in  making  practi- 
cal the  abstrusest  parts  of  the  scriptures  scarcely 
to  be  paralleled. — Horsley  on  Hosea. — Chandler 
on  Joel :  this  author  is  entitled  to  rank  among 
the  first  biblical  critics  in  the  English  language. — 
Pfeiffer  on  Jonah. — Blayney  on  Zechariah. — 
Stock,  Vencma,  and  Van  Til  on  Malachi. 

Commentators  on  Select  Parts,  or  Single 
Books  of  the  New  Testament. 

1.  Campbell's  Four  Gospels,  1  vol.  4to.  4  vols. 

8vo. 

Particularly  valuable  for  the  dissertations  and  notea, 
which  contain  a  treasure  of  sacred  criticism. 

2.  Macknight's  Harmony  of  the  Four  Gos- 
pels, 2  vols.  8vo. 

A  work  of  the  greatest  utility  to  the  critical  readel 
of  the  New  Testament. 

3.  D.  C.  Thcophili  A~*n n oe/ Oommontarius  in 
Libros  JNTovi  Testament]  Historicos,  4  vols.  8vo 


COMMENTARY. 

Valnnhle  as  a  pliiloloqicnl  commentary,  hut  rontnin- 
i  n(7  sentiments  revolting  to  a  believer  in  the  divine 
authority  anil  plenary  inspiration  of  the  Scriptures. 

4.  Z.  Pearce'a  Commentary  on  the  Evange- 
lists, Act-.,  and  II.  Corinthians,  2  vols.  4to. 

Displaying  deep  learning  and  sound  judgment. 

5.  Macknight  on  the  Epistles,  0  vols.  8vo. 

"  It  is  a  work  of  theological  labour  not  often  paral- 
;  '  id, and  an  ample  >i"r  ihoue  •  ofobs  irvations  to  exer- 
cise not  only  Hi?  student,  but  the  adept  in  divinity.  If 
tvedonot  always  coincide  implicitly  with  the  author 
in  opinion,  which  in  such  various  matter  cannot  rea- 
sonably be  expected,  we  can  always  praise  his  dili- 
•:  nee,  his  learning,  and  his  piety." — British  Critic. 

The  work  is  said  to  have  been  the  unremitting  la- 
hourof  nearly  thirty  years, during  which  period  seldom 
less  than  eleven  hours  a  day  were  employed  upon  it. 

Matthew. 
Bp.  Porteusrs  Lectures  on  Matthew. — Ole.a- 
t'ims. — Eisner. — Parens. 

Mark. 

Heupclius  Commentary. 
Luke. 
Moms' s  Pnelcctiones. — Schleirmachcr. 

John. 
Larnpe:  the  most  valuable  work  on  the  Gospel 
of  John  ever  published. —  Titman.,  Meletemata. 
—Shepherd. — Moras. — Se  mler. — Hildersh  a  m 
on  Johniv. —  Burgess  on  John  xvii. — Manton  on 
John  xvii. 

Acts. 
Biscoc. —  Trapp. — Mayer. — Heinrichs. —  Wil- 
te. — Cradock's  Apostolical  History. — Benson's 
Planting  of  Christianity. — Bcrans's  Life  of  Paul. 
—Buddeus's  Historia  Ecclesia?  Apostolicae. — 
Dick  on  Acts. 

Romans. 
Reimbach. — Morns. — Edwards. —  Welter. — 
Adam. —  Wilson. — Parr. — Sch  midius. — Fry. 
I.  and  II.  Corinthians. 
Storr,  (Opuscula.) — Krause. — Holman. 

Galatians. 
Luther:  an  inestimable  work. — Chandler. — 
Perkins. — Ferguson. — Borger. —  Winer. 

Epiiesians. 

Gnndwin. — Ferguson. —  Tarnovius. — Locke. 
— Chandler. 

CoLOSSIANS. 

hi. — Davcnant. — Elton. — Gisborne. 
Philippians. 
Pierce. —  Tarnovius. 

I.  AND  II.  TlIESSALONIANS. 

Bp.  Jewell. —  Turretin. —  Tarnovius. — Ben- 
son. 

Titus. 
Taylor. 

Hedp.ews. 
Owen. — Pierce. — Schmidius. — Braunius. — 
( "  i  rpioimu. — Sykcs. — Erncsli. — Scyffarth. — 
Maclca  n . — Stuart. 

The  Catholic  Episti.es. 

heighten  on  Peter:  an  incomparable  work. 

Byfield  on  the  first  three  chapters  of  Peter. 

hf       ■■')  on  James. — Stoma  on  James  and  Peter. 
■  -Adam  on  II.  Peter. — Haickinson  John's  Epis- 
i!es. — Hardy  undu. —  Bforueon  do. —  Wi/sius  on 
Jude. — MarJon,  Jcnkiru,  and  Otes  on  do. 
&2 


COMMUNICATING. 
Revelation. 

Daubuz  .  a  work  of  stupendous  erudition,  ri- 
valling any  commentary  ever  published  on  any 
part  of  the  Scriptures.  In  unfolding  the  symbo- 
lical language  not  only  of  John,  but  of  the  inspired 
prophets  generally,  probably  no  exposition  in  the 
world  allbrds  such  invaluable  aids ;  and  the  wri- 
ter's judgment  equals  liis  amazing  learning. — 
Vilringa  on  the  Apocalypse :  a  commentary 
worthy  the  name  of  its  great  author. — Jos.  Mcde: 
the  acknowledged  father  of  Apocalyptic  interpre- 
tation.— Goodwin. —  Waple. Bright  man. — 

Durham. —  Sir  Isaac  Newton. —  I:  p.  Thos.  New- 
ton.— Lowman. —  Whiston. — //.  More. — Forbes. 
— Johnston. —  Glass. — Ben  gel. — Cradock. — 
Reader. — Rudd.  — Ju  rie  u . — Pyle. — Faber. — 
M'Leod.— Fry. 

As  this  article  may  be  consulted  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  information  as  to  the  best  helps 
For  understanding  the  Scriptures,  we  may  add  to 
the  above: — J acobi  Eisner,  Observat.  Sacra;;  Al- 
berti,  Observ.  Philolog. ;  Lamberti  Bos,  Exercitat. 
Philolog. ;  Lamberti  Bos.  Observat.  Miscell.  For- 
tuita  Sacra.  These,  together  with  Wollius  and 
Raphclius,  before  mentioned,  says  Dr.  Doddridge, 
are  books  which  I  cannot  but  recommend  to  my 
young  friends,  as  proper  not  only  to  ascertain  the 
sense  of  a  variety  of  words  and  phrases  which 
occur  in  the  apostolic  writings,  but  also  to  form 
them  to  the  most  useful  method  of  studying  the 
Greek  classics;  those  great  masters  of  solid  sense, 
elegant  expression,  just  and  lively  painting,  and 
masculine  eloquence,  to  the  neglect  of  which  I 
cannot  but  ascribe  that  enervate,  dissolute,  and 
puerile  manner  of  writing,  which  is  growing  so 
much  on  the  present  age,  and  will  probably  con- 
sign so  manv  of  its  productions  to  speedy  oblivion. 
See  also  books  recommended  under  articles  Bi- 
bles, Scriptures. 

COMMINATION,  an  office  in  the  church 
of  England  appointed  to  be  read  on  Ash  Wed- 
nesday. It.  is  substituted  in  the  room  of  that 
godly  discipline  in  the  primitive  church,  by 
which  (as  the  introduction  to  the  office  expresses 
it)  "such  persons  as  stood  convicted  of  notorious 
sins  were  put  to  open  penance,  and  punished  in 
this  world,  that  their  souls  might  be  saved  in  the 
day  of  the  Lord  ;  and  that  others,  admonished  by 
their  example,  might  be  the  more  afraid  to  of- 
fend." This  discipline,  in  after-ages,  degene- 
rated in  the  church  of  Rome  into  a  formal  confes- 
sion of  sins  upon  Ash  Wednesday,  and  the  empty 
ceremony  of  sprinkling  ashes  upon  the  head  of 
the  people.  Our  reformers  wisely  rejected  this 
ceremony  as  mere  shadow  and  show ;  and  sub- 
stituted this  office  in  its  room,  which  is  .4  denun- 
ciation of  God's  anger  and  judgment  against 
sinners  ;  that  the  people,  being  apprised  of  God's 
wrath  and  indignation  against  their  sins,  might 
not,  through  want  of  discipline  to  the  church,  be 
encouraged  to  pursue  them. 

COMMISSARY,  an  officer  of  the  bishop, 
who  exercises  spiritual  jurisdiction  in  places  of  a 
diocese  so  far  from  the  episcopal  see,  that  the 
chancellor  cannot  call  the  people  to  the  bishop's 
principal  consistory  court  without  great  incon- 
venience. 

COMMUNICATING  a  term  made  use  of 
to  denote  the  act  of  receiving  the  Lord's  Supjier. 
Those  of  the  reformed  and  of  the  Greek  church 
communicate  under  both  kinds;  those  of  the  Ro- 
mish only  under  one.     The  oriental  communi 


COMMUNION 

cants  receive  the  species  of  wine  by  a  spoon ;  and 
anciently  they  sucked  it  through  a  pipe,  as  has 
been  observed  by  Beat.  Rheanus  on  Tertullian. 

COMMUNION,  in  its  strict  and  proper  sense, 
signifies  holding  something  in  common  with  ano- 
ther, Acts  ii.  42. — 2.  In  a  more  general  sense,  it 
denotes  conformity  or  agreement,  2  Cor.  vi.  14. 
Eph.  v.  11. — 3.  It  signifies  converse,  or  friendly 
intercourse,  wherein  men  contrive  or  consult  to- 
gether about  matters  of  common  concern,  Luke 
vi.  11.  Ps.  iv.  4. — 4.  Communion  is  also  used  for 
the  Lord's  Supper,  because  we  herein  make  a 
public  profession  of  our  conformity  to  Christ  and 
his  laws  ;  and  of  our  agreement  with  other  Chris- 
tians in  the  spirit  and  faith  of  the  Gospel.  See 
Lord's  Supper. 

The  fourth  council  of  Lateran  decrees,  that 
every  believer  shall  receive  the  communion,  at 
least,  at  Easter  ;  which  seems  to  import  a  tacit  de- 
sire that  they  should  do  it  oftener,  as  in  effect 
they  did  it  much  oftener  in  the  primitive  days. 
Gratian,  and  the  master  of  the  sentences,  pre- 
scribe it  as  a  rule  for  the  laity  to  communicate 
three  times  a  year ;  at  Easter,  Whitsuntide,  and 
Christmas:  but  in  the  thirteenth  century  the 
practice  prevailed  of  never  approaching  the 
eucharist  at  Easter;  and  the  council  thought  fit 
to  enjoin  it  then  by  a  law,  lest  their  coldness  and 
remissness  should  go  farther  still :  and  the  coun- 
cil of  Trent  renewed  the  same  injunction,  and 
recommended  frequent  communion,  without  en- 
forcing it  by  an  express  decree.  In  the  ninth 
century  the  communion  was  still  received  by  the 
laity  in  both  kinds,  or  rather  the  species  of  bread 
was  dipped  in  the  wine,  as  is  owned  by  the  Ro- 
manists themselves.  M.  de  Marca  observes,  that 
they  received  it  at  iirst  in  their  hands ;  and  be- 
lieves the  communion  under  one  kind  alone  to 
have  its  rise  in  the  West,  under  Pope  Urban  II. 
in  1096,  at  the  time  of  the  conquest  of  the  Holy 
Land.  It  was  more  solemnly  enjoined  by  the 
council  of  Constance,  in  1414.  The  twenty-eighth 
canon  of  the  council  of  Clermont  enjoins  the  com- 
munion to  be  received  under  both  kinds  distinctly ; 
adding,  however,  two  exceptions, — the  one  of  ne- 
cessity, the  other  of  caution;  the  first  in  favour 
of  the  sick,  and  the  second  of  the  abstemious,  or 
those  who  had  an  aversion  for  wine.  It  was 
formerly  a  kind  of  canonical  punishment  for 
clerks  guilty  of  any  crime  to  be  reduced  to  lay 
communion;  i.  e.  only  to  receive  it  as  the  laity 
did,  viz.  under  one  kind.  They  had  another 
punishment  of  the  same  nature,  though  under  a 
different  name,  called  foreign  communion,  to 
which  the  canons  frequently  condemned  their 
bishops  and  other  clerks.  This  punishment  was 
not  any  excommunication  or  deposition,  but  a 
kind  of  suspension  from  the  function  of  the  or- 
der, and  a  degradation  from  the  rank  they  held 
in  the  church.  It  had  its  name  because  the  com- 
munion was  not  only  granted  to  the  criminal  on 
the  foot  of  a  foreign  clerk ;  i.  e.  being  reduced  to 
t  he  lowest  of  his  order,  he  took  his  place  after  all 
those  of  his  rank,  as  all  clerks,  &c.  did  in  the 
churches  to  which  they  did  not  belong.  The  se- 
cond council  of  Agda  orders  every  clerk  that  ab- 
sents himself  from  the  church  to  be  reduced  to 
foreign  communion. 

Church,   communion   is   fellowship  with   any 

particular  church.     See  Church   Fellowship. 

It  is   sometimes  applied   to  different   churches 

united   in  doctrne  and  discipline.     The  three 

83 


COMPASSION 

grand  communions  into  which  the  Christian 
church  is  divided,  are  those  of  the  church  of  Rome, 
the  Greek  church,  and  the  Protestant  church ; 
but  originally  all  Christians  were  in  communion 
with  each  other,  having  one  communion,  faith 
and  discipline. 

i-Yee  communion,  a  term  made  use  of  in  relation 
to  the  Lord's  Supper,  by  which  it  is  understood 
that  all  those  who  have  been  baptized,  whether  in 
infancy  or  adult  age,  may,  on  profession  of  their 
faith,  sit  down  at  the  Lord's  table  with  others  of 
different  denominations.  Some  of  the  Baptists 
object  to  free  or  mixed  communion,  and  do  not 
allow  persons  who  have  been  baptized  in  their 
infancy  to  join  in  the  celebration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper  with  them  ;  because  they  look  upon  such 
as  not  having  been  baptized  at  all,  and  conse- 
quently cannot  be  admitted  to  the  table.  Others, 
however,  suppose  that  this  ought  to  be  no  objec- 
tion ;  and  that  such  who  believe  themselves  to  be 
really  baptized  (though  in  infancy),  are  partakers 
of  grace,  belong  to  the  true  church  of  Christ,  and 
are  truly  devoted  to  God,  ought  not  to  be  rejected 
on  account  of  a  different  opinion  about  a  mere 
ordinance.  Mr.  Killingworth  and  Mr.  Booth 
have  written  against  free  communion;  John 
Bunyan,  Dr.  Foster,  Mr.  Bulkely,  Mr.  Wichc, 
Mr.  Robinson,  and  Robert  Hall  for  it. 

COMMUNION,  spiritual  or  divine,  is  that 
delightful  fellowship  and  intercourse  which  a  be- 
liever enjoys  with  God.  It  is  founded  upon  union 
with  him,  and  consists  in  a  communication  of  di- 
vine graces  from  him,  and  a  return  of  devout  af- 
fections to  him.  The  believer  holds  communion 
with  God  in  his  works,  in  his  word,  and  in  his 
ordinances.  There  can  be  no  communion  with- 
out likeness,  nor  without  Christ  as  the  mediator. 
Some  distinguish  communion  with  God  from  the 
sense  and  feeling  of  it ;  that  is,  that  we  may  hold 
communion  with  him  without  raptures  of  joy ; 
and  that  a  saint,  even  under  desertion,  may  have 
communion  with  God,  as  really,  though  not  so 
feelingly,  as  at  any  other  time.  This  commu- 
nion cannot  be  interrupted  by  any  local  muta- 
tions :  it  is  far  superior  to  all  outward  services  and 
ordinances  whatsoever ;  it  concerns  the  whole 
soul,  all  the  affections,  faculties,  and  motions  of  it 
being  under  its  influence  :  it  is  only  imperfect  in 
this  life,  and  will  be  unspeakably  enlarged  in  a 
better  world. — In  order  to  keep  up  communion 
with  God,  we  should  inform  ourselves  of  his  will, 
John  v.  39 ;  be  often  in  prayer,  Luke,  viii.  1 ;  em- 
brace opportunities  of  retirement,  Ps.  iv.  4;  con- 
template on  the  divine  perfections,  providences, 
and  promises,  Ps.  civ.  34 ;  watch  against  a  vain, 
trifling,  and  volatile  spirit,  Eph.  iv.  30;  and  be 
found  in  the  use  of  all  the  means  of  grace,  Ps. 
xxvii.  4.  The  advantages  of  communion  with 
God  arc,  deadness  to  the  world,  Phil.  iii.  8.  pa- 
tience under  trouble,  Job.  i.  22 ;  fortitude  in  dan- 
ger, Ps.  xxvii.  1 ;  gratitude  for  mercies  received, 
Ps.  ciii.  1 ;  direction  under  difficulties,  Prov.  iii.  5, 
G ;  peace  and  joy  in  opposition,  Ps.  xvi.  23 ;  hap- 
piness in  death,  Ps.  xxiiL  4  ;  and  an  earnest  desire 
for  heaven  and  glory,  2  Tim.  iv.  7,  8.  See 
Shaw's  Immanucl ;  Owen  and  Henry  on  C&m- 
munion  ;  and  article  Fellowship 

COMPASSION  is  that  species  of  affection 
which  is  excited  either  by  the  actual  distress  of  its 
object,  or  by  some  impending  calamity  which  ap- 
pears inevitable.  It  is  a  benevolent  sonow  tor  the 
sufferings  or  approacluiig  misery  of  another.  The 


CONCEPTION 
etymology  of  the  word  expresses  this  idea  with 
f.trict  propriety,  as  it  ugolnea  suffering  with  the 
object.  I  Lobbes  makes  this  a  mere  selfish  passion, 
and  defines  it  as  "being  fear  lor  ourselves." 
1  [utcheaon  resolves  it  into  instinct ;  but  Dr.  But- 
ler much  more  properly  considers  it  as  an  original 
distinct  particular  affection  in  human  nature.  It 
may  be  considered  as  a  generic  name,  compre- 
hending several  other  affections;  as  mercy,  com- 
miseration, pity.  This  affection  (as  well  as  every 
•»ther  of  our  nature)  no  doubt  was  wisely  given  us 
by  our  Creator.  "  Ideas  of  fitness,"  as  Saurin 
observes,  "seldom  make  much  impression  on  the 
bulk  of  mankind  ;  it  was  necessary  therefore  to 
make  sensibility  supply  the  want  of  reflection ; 
and  by  a  counterblow  with  which  the  miseries  of 
a  neighbour  strike  our  feelings,  to  produce  a  dis- 
position in  us  to  relieve  him." 

COMPASSION  OF  GOD  is  the  infinite 
greatness  of  his  mercy  and  love,  whereby  he  re- 
lieves the  miseries  of  bos  people.  This  perfection 
of  Jehovah  is  conspicuously  displayed  in  the  gift 
of  his  Son,  John,  iii.  16;  the  revelation  of  his  will, 
Hos.  viii.  12;  the  bounties  of  his  providence,  Ps. 
cxlv.  9;  the  exercise  of  his  patience,  Rom.  ii.  4; 
the  promise  of  his  mercy,  Ps.  Ixxviii.  38;  the  ma- 
nifestation of  his  presence,  Matt,  xviii.  20;  and  the 
provision  of  eternal  <rlorv,  1  Pet.  i.  4.   See  3Iercv. 

COMPLUTENSlAN  BIBLE.  See  Bible, 
No.  29. 

COMPREHENSION,  in  English  church 
history,  denotes  a  scheme  proposed  by  Sir  Orlando 
Bridgman,  in  lb!>7-N.  for  relaxing  the  terms  of 
conformity  on  behalf  of  the  Protestant  Dissenters, 
and  admitting  them  into  the  communion  of  the 
church.  A  bill  for  this  purpose  was  drawn  up  by 
Judge  Hale,  but  disallowed.  The  attempt  was 
renewed  by  Tillotson  and  Stillingrleet,  in  lb74, 
and  the  terms  were  settled,  to  the  satisfaction  of 
the  non-conformists ;  but  the  bishops  refused  their 
assent.  The  scheme  was  likewise  revived  again 
immediately  after  the  revolution.  The  king  and 
queen  expressed  their  desire  of  an  union  :"how- 
ever,  the' design  failed,  after  two  attempts,  and  the 
Act  of  Toleration  was  obtained. 

CONCEPTION  OF  CHRIST,  the  super- 
natural and  miraculous  formation  of  the  human 
nature  of  Jesus  Christ.  "  It  were  not  difficult  to 
show,"  says  a  divine,  "  that  the  miraculous  con- 
ception, once  admitted,  naturally  brings  up  after 
u  the  great  doctrines  of  the  atonement  and  the 
incarnation.  The  miraculous  conception  of  our 
Lord  evidently  implies  some  higher  purpose  of  his 
coming  than  "the  mere  business  of  a  teacher.  The 
business  ofa  teacher  might  have  been  performed  bv 
a  mere  man,  enlightened  by  the  prophetic  spirit. 
tor  whatever  instruction  men  have  the  capacity  to 
receive,  a  man  might  have  been  made  the  instru- 
ment to  convey.  1  Lad  leaching,  therefore,  beenthe 
sole  purpose  of  our  Saviour's  coming,  a  mere  man 
iiiiur|n  have  done  the  whole  business,  and  the  su- 
pernatural conception  had  been  an  unnecessary 
miracle.  1  !■•  therefore,  whocame  in  this  miracu- 
lous way,  came  upon  some  higher  business,  to 
which  a  mere  man  was  unequal  lie  came  to  be 
made  a  sin-offering  for  us,  that  we  might  l>e  made 
the  righteousness  of  I  rod  in  him."  See  L'p.Hurs- 
lry\<   Practs,  and  article  HUMANITY  OF  CHRIST. 

<  !<  >N<  T.I'  I'll  >.\  IMMACULATE,  of  the 
Holij  I7r,".'fi,  is  a  popish  festival  established  in 
honour  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  on  the  supposition  of 
bcr  having  been  conceived,  and  bom  immaculate, 


CONCORDANCE 
i.  e.  without  original  sin :  held  on  the  Bth  of  D*>' 
cembcr.  The  immaculate  conception  is  the  great 
head  of  controversy  between  the  Scotists  and 
Thomists ;  the  former  maintaining,  and  the  latter 
impugning  it.  Peter  D'Alva  has  published 48  huge 
folio  volumes  on  the  mysteries  of  the  conception. 

CONCLAVE,  the  assembly  or  meeting  of  the 
cardinals  shut  up  for  the  election  of  a  Pope,  f 
Conclave  also  signifies  the  place  in  which  the 
cardinals  of  the  Romish  church  meet  for  the  , 
above-mentioned  purpose.  The  conclave  is  a 
range  of  small  cells,  ten  feet  square,  made  of 
wainscot :  these  are  numbered,  and  drawn  by  lot. 
They  stand  in  a  line  along  the  galleries  and  hall 
of  the  Vatican,  with  a  small  space  between  eacli. 
Every  cell  has  the  arms  of  tiie  cardinal  over  it. 
The  conclave  is  not  fixed  to  any  one  determinate 
place,  for  the  constitutions  of  the  church  allow 
the  cardinals  to  make  choice  of  such  a  place  for 
the  conclave  as  they  think  most  convenient :  yet 
it  is  generally  held  in  the  Vatican. — The  con- 
clave is  very  strictly  guarded  by  troops :  neither 
the  cardinals,  nor  any  person  shut  up  in  the  con- 
clave, are  spoken  to,  but  at  the  hours  allowed  of, 
and  then  in  Italian  or  Latin  :  even  the  provisions 
for  the  conclave  are  examined,  that  no  letters  be 
conveyed  by  that  means  from  the  ministers  of 
foreign  powers,  or  other  persons,  who  may  have 
an  interest  in  the  election  of  the  pontiff. 

CONCORD,  form  of— Form  of  concord,  in 
ecclesiastical  history,  a  standard-book  among  the 
Lutherans,  composed  at  Torgaw  in  1576,  and 
thence  called  the  book  of  Torgaw,  and  reviewed 
at  Berg  by  six  Lutheran  doctors  of  Germany,  the 
principal  of  whom  was  James  Andera.  This 
book  contains,  in  two  parts,  a  system  of  doctrine, 
the  subscription  of  which  was  a  condition  of 
communion,  and  a  formal  and  very  severe  con- 
demnation of  all  who  differed  from  the  compilers 
of  it ;  particularly  with  respect  to  the  majesty 
and  omnipresence  of  Christ's  body,  and  the  real 
manducation  of  his  flesh  and  blood  in  the  eucharist. 
It  was  first  imposed  upon  the  Saxons  by  Augustus, 
and  occasioned  great  opposition  and  disturbance. 
The  dispute  about  it  was  revived  in  Switzerland 
in  1718,  when  the  magistrates  of  Bern  published 
an  order  for  adopting  it  as  a  rule  of  faith ;  the 
consequence  of  which  was  a  contest  that  reduced 
its  credit  and  authority. 

CONCORDANCE,  a  dictionary  or  index  to 
the  Bible,  wherein  all  the  leading  words  are 
r-anged  alphabetically,  and  the  books,  chapters, 
and  verses  wherein  they  occur  referred  to,  to  as- 
sist in  finding  out  passages,  and  comparing  with 
the  several  significations  of  the  same  word. 
Cardinal  Hugo  de  St.  Charo  seems  to  have  been 
the  first  who  compiled  a  concordance  to  the  Holy 
Scriptures ;  and  for  carrying  on  this  work,  it  is 
said,  he  employed  500  monks  to  assist  him. 
Rabbi  Mordecai  Nathan  published  a  Hebrew 
concordance,  printed  at  Venice  in  1523,  contain- 
ing all  the  Hebrew  roots,  branched  into  their  va- 
rious significations,  and  under  each  signification 
all  the  places  in  Scripture  wherein  it  occurs;  but 
the  best  and  most  useful  Hebrew  concordance  is 
that  of  Buxtorf,  printed  at  Basil  in  i6'A2.  Cala- 
sius,  an  Italian  cordelier,  has  given  us  concord- 
ances of  the  Hebrew,  Latin,  anil  Creek,  in  two 
columns;  the  first,  which  is  Hebrew,  is  that  of 
Rabbi  Mordecai  Nathan  verbatim,  and  according 
to  the  order  of  the  books  and  chapters:  in  the 
other  column  is  a  Latin  interpretation  of  each 


CONDITION 
passage  of  Scripture  quoted  by  R.  Mordccai :  this 
interpretation  is  Calasius's  own;  but  in  the  mar- 
gin he  adds  that  of  the  LXX.  and  the  Vulgate, 
when  different  from  his.  The  work  is  in  4  vols, 
folio,  printed  at  Rome  in  1621.  A  new  edition  of 
this  work  was  published  by  subscription  in  Lon- 
don, in  1717,  8,  0,  by  Mr.  Romaine,  to  which  he 
obtained  the  signature  of  every  crowned  head  in 
Europe,  his  Holiness  not  excepted.  Dr.  Taylor 
published,  in  1754,  a  Hebrew  concordance,  in  2 
vols,  folio,  adapted  to  the  English  Bible,  and  dis- 
posed after  the  same  manner  as  Buxtorf.  This  is 
perhaps  the  best  for  English  readers. 

The  Greek  concordances  are  only  for  the  New 
Testament,  except  one  by  Conrad  Kircher  on 
the  Old,  containing  all  the  Hebrew  words  in  al- 
phabetical order :  and  underneath,  all  the  inter- 
pretations of  them  in  the  LXX,  and  in  each  in- 
terpretation all  the  places  where  they  occur  in 
that  version.  In  1718,  Trommius  published  his 
Greek  concordance  for  the  LXX,  at  Amsterdam, 
in  2  vols,  folio;  and  Schmidius,  improving  on  a 
similar  work  of  H.  Stephen,  has  given  an  ex- 
cellent Greek  concordance  for  the  New  Testa- 
ment, the  best  edition  of  which  is  that  of  Leipsic, 
anno  1717.  Williams's  concordance  to  the  Greek 
Testament  gives  the  English  version  to  each 
word,  and  points  out  the  principal  Hebrew  roots 
corresponding  to  the  Greek  words  of  the  Septu- 
agint,  4to.  17ti7.  We  have  several  concordances 
in  English,  as  Fisher's,  Butterworth's,  Newman's, 
Brown's;  but  the  best  esteemed  is  that  in  4to.  by 
Alexander  Cruden,  which  no  minister  or  student 
should  be  without,  except  he  have  such  a  prodi- 
gious memory  as  to  supersede  the  necessity  of  it. 
Orutwell's  concordance  of  Parallels  may  also  be 
consulted  with  profit :  Talbot's  complete  Analy- 
sis, and  new  Arrangement  of  the  Bible ;  Dodd 
and  Locke's  Common-place  Books;  with  Clark 
an  the  Promises,  and  Gastrin's  Institutes,  may 
also  be  useful  to  preachers. 

CONCUBINAGE,  the  act  of  living  with  a 
woman  to  whom  the  man  is  not  legally  married. 
It  is  also  used  for  a  marriage  with  a  woman  of 
inferior  condition  (performed  with  less  solemnity 
than  the  formal  marriage.)  and  to  whom  the  hus- 
band does  not  convey  his  rank.  As  polygamy 
was  sometimes  practised  by  the  patriarchs,  it  was 
a  common  thing  to  see  one,  two,  or  many  wives 
in  a  family,  and  besides  these  several  concubines, 
2  Sain.  hi.  3,  &c.  1  Kings,  xi.  2.  2  Chron. 
xi.  21 ;  but  ever  since  the  abrogation  of  polygamy 
by  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  reduction  of  marriage 
to  its  primitive  institution,  concubinage  has  been 
forbid  leu  and  condemned  among  Christians. 

CONDESCENSION  is  that  species  of  be- 
nevolence which  designedly  waves  the  supposed 
advantages  of  birth,  title,  or  station,  in  order  to 
accommodate  ourselves  to  the  state  of  an  inferior, 
and  diminish  that  restraint  which  the  apparent 
distance  is  calculated  to  produce  in  him.  It  is 
enjoined  on  the  Christian,  and  is  peculiarly  orna- 
mental to  the  Christian  character,  Rom.  xii.  16. 
The  condescension  of  God  appears  every  way 
great,  when  we  consider  his  infinite  perfection, 
his  absolute  independence  of  his  creatures,  his 
purposes  of  mercy  toward  them,  and  his  continual 
care  over  them. 

CONDITION,  a   term  of  a  bargain   to  be 

performed.     It  has  been  debated  whether  faith 

should  be  called  the  condition  of  our  salvation. 

If  by  it  we  mean  a  valuable  equivalent  lor  the 

85 


CONFESSION 
benefit  received,  or  something  to  be  performed  in 
our  own  strength,  or  that  will  be  meritorious,  it 
is  certainly  inapplicable;  but  if  by  it  be  meant, 
that  it  is  onlv  a  mean,  without  which  we  cannot 
be  saved,  in  that  sense  it  is  not  improper.  Yet, 
as  the  term  is  often  made  use  of  improperly  by 
those  who  are  mere  legalists,  perhaps  it  would  be 
as  well  to  decline  the  use  of  it. 

CONFERENCE,  the  act  of  discoursing  with 
another  in  order  to  treat  upon  some  subject,  or  to 
settle  some  point  of  dispute.  Conference  Meet- 
ings, iri  a  religious  sense,  are  meetings  assembled 
for  the  purpose  of  relating  experience,  discoursing 
on  some  religious  subject,  or  for  transacting  reli- 
gious business.  "  Religious  conference,"  says  a 
divine,  "is  oneway  of  teaching  religion.  We 
all  have  leisure  time,  and  it  is  well  spent  when  it 
is  employed  in  set  conferences  on  religion.  There 
the  doubting  man  may  open  all  his  suspicions, 
and  confirmed  Christian.*  will  strengthen  his  be- 
lief; there  the  fearful  may  learn  to  be  valiant  for 
the  truth ;  there  the  liberal  may  learn  to  devise 
liberal  things ;  there  the  tongue  of  the  stammerer 
may  learn  to  speak  plainly  ;  there  Paul  may  with- 
stand Peter  to  the  face,  because  he  deserves  to 
be  blamed:  there  the  Gospel  maybe  communi- 
cated severally  to  them  of  reputation ;  there,  in 
one  word,  we  may  all  prophesy  one  by  one,  that 
all  may  learn,  and  all  may  be  comforted.  One 
hour  in  a  week  spent  thus  will  contribute  much 
to  our  edification,  provided  we  abstain  from  the 
disorders  that  have  often  disgraced,  and  some- 
times destroyed,  this  excellent  Christian  practice. 
Time  should  be  kept,  order  should  be  preserved, 
no  idle  questions  should  be  asked;  freedom  of 
inquiry  should  be  nourished ;  immodest  forward- 
ness should  lie  restrained;  practical,  experimental, 
and  substantial  subjects  should  be  examined ; 
Charity  with  all  its  gentle  train  should  be  there,  for 
she  openeth  her  mouth  with  wisdom,  and  in  her 
tongue  is  the  law  of  kindness."  See  Expe- 
rience: Meetings. 

CONFESSION,  the  verbal  acknowledgment 
which  a  Christian  makes  of  his  sins.  Among 
the  Jews,  it  was  the  custom,  on  the  annual  feast 
of  expiation,  for  the  high  priest  to  make  confes- 
sion of  sins  to  God,  in  the  name  of  the  whole 
people:  besides  this  general  confession,  the  Jews 
were  enjoined,  if  their  sins  were  a  breach  of  the 
first  table  of  the  law,  to  make  confession  of  them 
to  God;  but  violations  of  the  second  table  were 
to  be  acknowledged  to  their  brethren.  Confes- 
sion, according  to  Dr.  Watts,  is  the  third  part  of 
prayer,  and  includes,  1.  A  confession  of  the 
meanness  of  our  original,  our  distance  from  God, 
our  subjection  to  him,  and  constant  dependance 
on  him. — 2.  A  confession  of  our  sins,  both  origi- 
nal and  actual,  in  thought,  life,  omission,  and 
commission. — 3.  A  confession  of  our  desert  of 
punishment,  and  our  unworthiness  of  mercy.— 
A  confession  or  humble  representation  of  our 
wants  and  sorrows  of  every  kind.  -  Confession 
also  may  be  considered  as  a  relative  duty,  oi  lie 
acknowledgment  of  any  offence  we  have  been 
guilty  of  against  a  fellow-creature.  The  Romish 
church  requires  confession  not  only  as  a  duty, 
but  has  advanced  it  to  the  dignity  of  a  sacrament. 
These  confessions  are  made  to  the  priest,  and  are 
private  and  auricular;  and  the  priest  is  net  to  re- 
veal them  under  pain  of  the  highest  punishment. 
This,  however,  is  both  unnecessary  and  unscrip- 
tural:  for,  in  the  first  place,  there  is  no  proof  tuat 
H 


CONFESSION 

the  power  of  remitting  and  retaining  sins  (the 
pretended  ground  of  sacramental  confession)  was 
imparted  to  any  bul  the  apostles,  or  at  the  most 
to  those  to  whom  a  discernment  of  spirits  was 
communicated. — 2.  If  our  Saviour  had  designed 
this  to  have  been  a  duty,  he  would  most  probably 
have  delivered  us  an  express  command  to  this 
purpose. — 3.  This  authority  of  pardoning  sins 
immediately  in  relation  to  God,  (the  foundation 
of  the  pretended  duty  of  secret  confession)  with- 
out any  reference  to  church  censures,  was  never 
claimed  for  many  ages  arter  Christ. 

Notwithstanding,  however,  private  auricular 
confession  is  not  of  divine  authority,  yet,  as  one 
observes,  "there  are  many  cases  wherein  men 
under  the  guUt  and  trouble  of  their  sins  can  nei- 
ther appease  their  own  minds,  nor  sufficiently 
direct  themselves,  without  recourse  to  some  pious 
and  prudent  guide  :  in  these  cases  men  certainly 
do  very  well,  and  many  times  prevent  a  great 
deal  of  trouble  and  perplexity  to  themselves  by  a 
timely  discovery  of  their  condition  to  some  faith- 
ful minister;  and  to  this  purpose  a  general  con- 
fession is  for  the  most  part  sufficient:  and  where 
there  is  occasion  for  a  more  particular  discovery, 
there  is  no  need  of  raking  into  the  particular  cir- 
cumstances of  men's  sins  to  give  that  advice 
which  is  necessary  for  the  ease  and  comfort  of 
the  penitent."  See  Ausolutiox;  Watts  on 
Prayer ;  Tillotson's  Scr.  ser.  1G0,  161 ;  Smith's 
Errors  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 

CONFESSION  OF  FAITH,  a  list  of  the 
several  articles  of  the  belief  of  any  church.  There 
is  some  difference  between  creeds  and  confes- 
sions. Creeds  in  their  commencement  were  sim- 
ply expressions  of  faith  in  a  few  of  the  leading 
and  undisputed  doctrines  of  the  Gospel.  Con- 
fessions were,  on  tin-  contrary,  the  result  of  many 
a  hazardous  and  laborious  effort,  at  the  dawn  of 
reviving  literature,  to  recover  these  doctrines,  and 
to  separate  them  from  the  enormous  mass  of  erro- 
neous and  corrupted  tenets,  which  the  negligence 
or  ignorance  of  some,  and  the  artifices  of  avarice 
and  ambition  in  others,  had  conduced  to  accumu- 
late for  a  space  of  1000  years,  under  an  implicit 
obedience  to  the  arrogant  pretensions  of  an  abso- 
lute and  infallible  authority  in  the  church  of 
Rome.  Objections  have  been  formed  against  all 
creeds  or  confessions  of  faith,  as  it  is  said  they  in- 
fringe Christian  liberty,  supersede  the  Scriptures, 
exclude  such  as  ought  not  to  be  excluded,  and  ad- 
mit such  as  ought  not  to  be  admitted;  are  often 
too  particular  and  long;  arc  liable  to  be  abused; 
tempt  men  to  hypocrisy;  preclude  improvement; 
and  have  been  employed  as  means  of  persecution. 
<  >n  the  other  hand,  the  advocates  for  them  ob- 
Bfcrve,  that  all  the  arts  and  sciences  have  been  re- 
duced to  a  system;  and  why  should  not  the  truths 
of  religion,  which  are  of  greater  importance?  that 
tpendiouB  view  of  the  chief  and  most  neces- 
sary p>ints  of  the  Christian  religion,  which  lie 
scattered  lip  and  down  iii  the  Scripture,  must  be 
Useful  to  inform  the  mind,  as  well  also  to  hold 
forth  to  the  world  what  are  in  general  the  senti- 
ments of  such  a  particular  church  or  churches; 
that  they  tend  to  discover  the  common  friends  of 
the  same  faith  to  one  another,  and  to  unite  them; 
that  the  Scriptures  seem  to  authorize  and  coun- 
tenance them;  such  as  the  moral  law,  the  Lord's 
E raver,  the  form  of  doctrine  mentioned  by  Paul, 
lom.  vi.  17;  and  again,  "the  fonn  ef  sound 
words,"  in  2  Tim.  i.  K'..  &c ;  that  tlieir  becoming 


CONFIRMATION 
the  occasion  of  hypocrisy  is  no  fault  of  fjho  arti- 
cles, but  of  those  who  subscribe  them  ;  that  per- 
secution has  been  raised  more  by  the  turbulent 
tempers'  of  men,  than  from  the  nature  ot  confes- 
sions. Some  think  that  all  articles  and  confessions 
of  faith  should  he  expressed  in  the  hare,  words  of  y 
Scripture;  but  it  is  replied,  that  this  would  de- 
stroy all  exposition  and  interpretation  of  Scrip- 
ture ;  that  it  would  have  a  tendency  to  make  the 
ministry  of  the  word  useless ;  in  a  great  measure 
cramp  all  religious  conversation ;  and  that  the 
sentiments  of  one  man  could  not  be  distinguished 
from  another  in  some  points  of  importance.  Some 
of  the  most  noted  confessions  are,  the  39  Articles, 
and  the  Constitutions  and  Canons  of  the  Church 
of  England ;  the  Westminster  Assembly's  Con- 
fession of  Faith ;  the  Savoy  Confession,  or  a 
declaration  of  the  faith  a?id  order  oirned  and 
practised  in  the  congregational  churches  in 
England.  See  also  Corpus  et  Syntagma  con- 
fessionum  fidci,  quce  in  divcrsisregnis  el  nation- 
ibus  ecclesiarum  nomine,  fucrunt  aidhentice 
cditcs,  which  exhibits  a  body  of  numerous  con- 
fessions. See  likewise,  An  Harmony  of  the 
Confessions  of  Faith  of  the  Christian  and  Tie- 
formed  Churches;  Watts's  Rational  Foundation 
of  a  Christian  Church,  qu,  8;  Graham  on  Esta- 
blishments, p.  2G5,  &c. ;  Bishop  Cleaver's  Ser- 
mon on  the  Formation  of  the  Articles  of  the 
Church  of  England ;  Foley's  Phil.  vol.  ii.  p.  321. 

CONFESSOR,  a  Christian  who  has  made  a 
solemn  and  resolute  profession  of  the  faith,  and 
has  endured  torments  in  its  defence.  A  mere 
saint  is  called  a  confessor,  to  distinguish  him  from 
the  roll  of  dignified  saints,  such  as  apostles,  mar- 
tyrs, &c.  In  ecclesiastical  history,  the  word  con- 
fessor is  sometimes  used  for  martyr ;  in  aftertimes 
it  was  confined  to  those  who,  after  having  been 
tormented  by  the  tyrants,  were  permitted  to  live 
and  die  in  peace  :  and  at  last  it  was  also  used  for 
those  who,  after  having  lived  a  good  life,  died  un- 
der an  opinion  of  sanctity.  According  to  St.  Cy- 
prian, he  who  presented  himself  to  torture,  or 
even  to  martyrdom,  without  being  called  to  it, 
was  not  called  a  confessor,  but  a.  professor;  and 
if  any  out  of  want  of  courage  abandoned  his  coun- 
try, and  became  a  voluntary  exile  for  the  sake  of 
the  faith,  he  was  called  ex  terris. 

Confessor  is  also  a  priest  in  the  Romish  church, 
who  has  a  power  to  hear  sinners  in  the  sacrament 
of  penance,  and  to  give  them  absolution.  The 
confessors  of  the  kings  of  France,  from  the  time 
of  Henry  IV.  have  been  constantly  Jesuits;  be- 
fore him,  the  Dominicans  and  Cordeliers  shared 
the  office  between  them.  The  confessors  of  the 
house  of  A  ustria  have  also  ordinarily  been  Do- 
minicans and  Cordeliers,  but  the  latter  emperors 
have  all  taken  Jesuits. 

CONFIRMATION,  the  act  of  establishing 
any  thing  or  person, — 1.  Divine  confirmation  is 
a  work  of  the  spirit  of  God,  strengthening,  com- 
forting, and  establishing  believers  in  faith  and 
obedience.  1  Pet.  v.  10.  1  Cor.  i.  8.— 2.  Eccle- 
siastical confirmation,  is  a  rite  whereby  a  person 
arrived  at  years  of  discretion,  undertakes  the  per- 
formance of  every  part  of  the  baptismal  vow  made 
for  him  by  his  godfathers  and  godmothers. 

In  the  primitive  church  it  was  done  immedi- 
ately utter  baptism,  if  the  bishop  happened  to  be 
present  at  the  solemnity.  Throughout  the  Fast 
it  still  accompanies  baptism;  but  the  Romanists 
make  it  a  distinct  independent  sacrament.  Seven 


CONFLAGRATION 

years  is  the  stated  time  for  confirmation ;  how- 
ever, they  are  sometimes  after  that  age.  The 
person  to  be  confirmed  has  a  godfather  and  god- 
mother appointed  him,  as  in  baptism.  In  the 
church  of  England,  the  age  of  the  persons  to  be 
confirmed  is  not  fixed.  Clarke's  Essay  on  Con- 
firmation; Wood  on  ditto;  How'' s  Episcopacy ; 
p.  107,  174. 

CONFLAGRATION,  GENERAL,  a  term 
used  to  denote  that  grand  period  or  catastrophe 
of  our  world,  when  the  face  of  nature  is  to  be 
changed  by  lire,  as  formerly  it  was  by  water. 

1.  Scripture  assures  us  in  the  general,  that  this 
earth  in  its  present  form  will  not  be  perpetual,  but 
shall  come  to  an  end. — 2.  It  further  tells  us,  that 
this  dissolution  of  the  world  shall  be  by  a  general 
conflagration,  in  which  all  things  upon  the  face 
of  the  earth  shall  be  destroyed,  by  which  the  at- 
mosphere shall  also  be  sensibly  affected,  as  in 
such  a  case  it  necessarily  must  be,  2  Pet.  iii.  5,  7, 
10,  12;  where,  from  the  connexion  of  the  words, 
the  opposition  between  the  conflagration  and  the 
deluge,  as  well  as  the  most  literal  and  apparent 
import  of  the  phrases  themselves,  it  is  plain  they 
cannot,  as  Dr.  Hammond  strangely  supposes, 
refer  to  the  desolation  brought  on  Judea  when 
destroyed  by  the  Romans,  but  must  refer  to  the 
dissolution  of  the  whole  earth. — 3.  The  Scrip- 
ture represents  this  great  burning  as  a  circum- 
stance nearly  connected  with  the  day  of  judg- 
ment, 2  Pet.  iii.  7,  compared  with  2  Thess.  i.  7,  8. 
Heb.  x.  37.  1  Cor.  iii.  12,  13 ;  and  it  is  probable 
there  may  be  an  allusion  to  this  in  several  passages 
of  the  Old  Testament,  such  as  Ps.  xi.  0.  1.  3. 
xcvi.  3.  Isa.  xxxiv.  4,  8,  10.  lxvi.  15.  Dan.  vii. 
9,  10.  Mai.  iv.  1.  Zeph.  iii.  8  Deut.  xxxii. 
22;  to  which  many  parallel  expressions  might  be 
added,  from  the  canonical  and  apocrypha!  books. — 
4.  It  is  not  expressly  declared  how  this  burning 
shall  be  kindled,  nor  how  it  shall  end :  which  has 
given  occasion  to  various  conjectures  about  it, 
which  see  below. 

The  ancient  Pythagoreans,  Platonists,  Epicu- 
reans, and  Stoics,  appear  to  have  had  a  notion  of 
the  conflagration ;  though  whence  they  should 
derive  it,  unless  from  the  sacred  books,  is  diffi- 
cult to  conceive  ;  except,  perhaps,  from  the  Phoe- 
nicians, who  themselves  had  it  from  the  Jews. 
Mention  of  the  conflagration  is  made  in  the  books 
of  the  Sibyls,  Sophocles,  Hystaspes,  Ovid,  Lucan, 
&c.  Dr.  Burnet,  after  J.  Tachard  and  others, 
relates  that  the  Siamese  believe  that  the  earth  will 
at  last  be  parched  up  with  heat,  the  mountains 
melted  down,  the  earth's  whole  surface  reduced 
to  a  level,  and  then  consumed  with  fire.  And 
the  Bramins  of  Siam  do  not  only  hold  that  the 
world  shall  be  destroyed  by  fire,  but  also  that  a  new 
earth  shall  be  made  out  of  the  cinders  of  the  old. 
Divines  ordinarily  account  for  the  conflagration 
metaphysically,  and  will  have  it  take  its  rise  from 
a  miracle,  as  a  fire  from  heaven.  Philosophers 
contend  for  its  being  produced  from  natural 
causes,  and  will  have  it  effected  according  to  the 
laws  of  mechanics.  Some  think  an  eruption  of 
the  central  fire  sufficient  for  the  puri>ose ;  and, 
add,  that  this  may  be  occasioned  several  ways, 
viz.  either  by  having  its  intension  increased, 
which  again  may  beellccted  either  by  being  driven 
into  less  space  by  the  encroachments  of  the  super- 
ficial cold,  or  by  an  increase  of  the  inflammability 
of  the  fuel  whereon  it  is  fed;  or  by  having  the 
resistance  of  the  imprisoning  earth  weakened, 
67 


CONFLAGRATION 
which  may  happen  either  from  the  diminution  of 
its  matter,  by  the  consumption  of  its  central  parts, 
or  by  weakening  the  cohesion  of  the  constituent 
parts  of  the  mass  by  the  excess  or  the  defect  of 
moisture.  Others  look  for  the  cause  of  the  con- 
flagration in  the  atmosphere,  and  suppose  that 
some  of  the  meteors  there  engendered  in  unusual 
quantities,  and  exploded  with  unusual  vehemence 
from  the  concurrence  of  various  circumstances, 
may  effect  it  without  seeking  any  farther. — Last- 
ly, others  have  recourse  to  a  still  more  effectual 
and  flaming  machine,  and  conclude  the  world  is 
to  undergo  its  conflagration  from  the  near  ap- 
proach of  a  comet  in  its  return  from  the  sun. 

Various  opinions  are  also  entertained  as  to  the 
renovation  of  the  earth  after  the  conflagration. — 
1.  Some  suppose  that  the  earth  will  not  be  entire- 
ly consumed,  but  that  the  matter  of  which  it  con- 
sists will  be.  fixed,  purified,  and  refined,  which 
they  say  will  be  the  natural  consequence  of  the 
action  of  fire  upon  it ;  though  it  is  hard  to  say 
what  such  a  purification  can  do  towards  fitting 
it  for  its  intended  purpose,  for  it  is  certain  a  mass 
of  crystal  or  glass  would  very  ill  answer  the  fol- 
lowing parts  of  this  hypothesis. — 2.  They  sup- 
pose that  from  these  materials  thus  refined,  as 
from  a  second  chaos,  there  will,  by  the  power  of 
God  arise  a  new  creation,  and  then  the  face  of  the 
earth,  and  likewise  the  atmosphere,  will  be  so 
restored,  as  to  resemble  what  it  originally  was  in 
the  paradisaical  state;  and  consequently  to  render 
it  a  more  desirable  abode  for  human  creatures  than 
it  at  present  is:  and  they  urge  for  this  purpose 
the  following  texts,  viz.  2  Pet.  iii.  13.  (compare 
Isa.  lxv.  17.  lxvi.  22.)  Matt.  xix.  28,  29.  (com- 
pare Mark  x.  29,  30.  Luke  xviii.  29,  30.)  Ps. 
cii.  25,  20.  Acts  iii.  21.  1  Cor.  vii.  31.  Rom. 
viii.  21. — 3.  They  agree  in  supposing,  that  in  this 
new  state  of  things  there  will  be  no  sea,  Rev.  xxi.  L 
4.  They  suppose  that  the  earth,  thus  beautified 
and  improved,  shall  be  inhabited  by  those  who 
shall  inherit  the  first  resurrection,  and  shall  here 
enjoy  a  very  considerable  degree  of  happiness, 
though  not  equal  to  that  which  is  to  succeed  the 
general  judgment;  which  judgment  shall,  accord- 
ing to  them,  open  when  those  thousand  years  are 
expired,  mentioned  in  Rev.  xx.  4,  &c.  1  Thess. 
iv.  17,  compare  ver.  15.,  which  passage  is  thought 
by  some  to  contain  an  insinuation  that  Paul  ex- 
pected to  be  alive  at  the  appearance  of  Christ, 
which  must  imply  an  expectation  of  being  thus 
raised  from  the  dead  before  it :  but  it  is  answered 
that  the  expression  we  that  are  alive  may  only 
signify,  "those  of  us  that  are  so,"  speaking  of  all 
Christians  as  one  body,  1st  Cor.  xv.  49 — 52.  Dr. 
Hartley  declared  it  as  his  opinion,  that  the  mil- 
lennium will  consist  of  a  thousand  prophetical 
years,  where  each  day  is  a  year,  i.  e.  300,000; 
pleading,  that  this  is  the  language  used  in  other 
parts  of  the  Revelation.  But  it  seems  an  invin- 
cible objection  against  this  hypothesis,  which 
places  the  millennium  after  the  conflagration, 
that  the  saints  inhabiting  the  earth  after  the  first 
resurrection  are  represented  as  distressed  by  the 
invasion  of  some  wicked  enemies,  Rev.  xx.  7-9. 
Ezek.  xxxviii.  xxxix.     See  Millennium. 

After  all,  Utile  can  be  said  with  certainty  as  to 
this  subject.  It  is  probable  that  the  earth  will 
survive  its  fiery  trial,  and  become  the  everlasting 
abode  of  righteousness,  as  part  of  the  whole  em- 
pire of  God,  but  seeing  the  language  used  in 
Scripture,  and  especially  in  '.he  book  of  Rcvclu* 


CONGREGATIONALISTS 
tion,  is  often  to  be  considered  as  figurative  rather 
than  literal,  it  becomes  us  t'>  Ik>  cautious  in  our 
conclusions.  Burnet's  Theory  of  the  Earth  ; 
Whitby  on  the  Millennium;  Hartley  on  Man, 
vol.  ii.  p.  101);  Firming  on  the  first  Resurrec- 
tion; Ray's  Three  Discourses;  Whiston's  Theory 
of  the  Earth ;  and  article  Dissolution  in  tins 
work. 

CONFUSION  OP  TONGUES,  a  memora- 
ble event  which  happened  in  the-  one  hundred 
and  first  year,  according  to  the  Hebrew  chrono- 
logy, and  the  tour  hundred  anil  first  year  by  the 
Samaritan,  alter  the  flood,  at  the  overthrow  of 
Babel,  Gen.  xi.  Until  this  period  there  had  been 
but  one  common  language,  which  formed  a  bond 
of  union  that  prevented  the  separation  of  man- 
kind into  distinct  nations.  Writers  have  differed 
much  as  to  the  nature  of  this  confusion,  and  the 
manner  in  which  it  was  effected.  Some  think 
that  no  new  languages  were  formed;  but  that  this 
event  was  accomplished  by  creating  a  misunder- 
standing and  variance  among  the  builders  with- 
out any  immediate  influence  on  their  language  ; 
and  that  a  distinction  is  to  be  made  between  con- 
founding a  language  and  forming  new  ones. 
Others  account  for  this  event  by  the  privation  of 
all  language,  and  by  supposing  that  mankind 
were  under  a  necessity  of  associating  together, 
and  of  imposing  new  names  on  things  by  com- 
mon consent.  Some,  again,  ascribe  the  confusion 
to  such  an  indistinct  remembrance  of  the  original 
language  which  they  spoke  before  as  made  them 
speak  it  very  differently  :  but  the  most  common 
opinion  is,  that  God  caused  the  builders  actually  to 
forget  their  former  language,  and  each  family  to 
speak  a  new  tongue;  whence  originated  the  vari- 
ous languages  at  present  in  the  world.  It  is,  how- 
ever, but  of  little  consequence  to  know  precisely 
how  this  was  effected,  as  the  Scriptures  are  silent 
as  to  the  manner  of  it ;  and  alter  all  that  can  be 
said,  it  is  but  conjecture  still.  There  are  some 
truths,  however,  we  may  learn  from  this  part  of 
sacred  writ.  1.  It  teaches  us  God's  sovereignty  and 
power,  by  which  he  can  easily  blast  the  greatest 
attempts  of  men  to  aggrandize  themselves,  Gen. 
xi.  7, 8.  2.  God's  justice,  in  punishing  those  who 
in  idolizing  their  own  fame,  forget  him  to  whom 
praise  is  due,  ver.  4.  3.  God's  wisdom  in  over- 
ruling evil  for  good  :  for  by  this  confusion  he  fa- 
cilitated the  dispersion  of  mankind,  in  order  to 
execute  his  own  purposes,  vcr.  S,  !).  See  Henry 
and  Gill  in  loc;  StUlingfieet's  Grig.  Sac.  1.  iii. 
c.  v.  §  2-4';  Shuc/ford's"  Con.  vol.  i.  p.  12-1-1 40; 
Vi'ringa's  Obs.  vol.  i.  diss.  1.  c.  ix.;  Le  Clerc's 
Diss.  No.  vi.j  Hutchinson  on  the  Confusion  of 
Tongues;  Bishop  Law's  Theory  of  Religion, 
p.  66. 

CONGREGATION,  an  assembly  of  people 
met  together  for  religious  worship.  The  term 
has  been  also  used  for  assemblies  of  cardinals  ap- 
pointed by  the  pope  fur  the  discharge  of  certain 
functions,  after  the  manner  of  our  offices  and 
courts;  such  as  the  congregation  of  the  inquisi- 
tion, the  congregation  of  rites,  of  aims.  &c  &c 

It  also  signifies  a  company  or  society  of  religious 
persons  cantoned  out  oi'  this  or  that  order,' b ml 
making  an  inferior  order,  &C.  Such  am  the  con- 
gregations of  the  I  Oratory  those  of  Cluny,  .<cc. 
among  (lie  Benedictines. 

CONGREGATIONALISTS,  a  denomina- 
tion of  Protestants,  so  called  from  their  main- 
taining that  each  particular  church  or  concreffa- 
68 


CONGREGATIONALISTS 
tion  is  authorized  by  Christ  to  exercise  all  the  acta 
of  ecclesiastical  power  and  privilege  within  itself, 
without  being  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  or  con- 
trol of  any  bishop,  synod,  presbytery,  or  council 
composed  of  delegates  from  different  associated 
churches.  They  not  only  hold  that  there  is  no 
Scriptural  institution  for  any  such  ecclesiastical 
authority,  but  that  such  churches  are  not  free,  by 
a  voluntary  act  of  their  own,  to  resign  to  superior 
courts  those  inherent  rights  of  self-government 
with  which  the  Head  of  the  Church  has  invested 
them  ;  that  they  cannot  do  this  without  betray- 
ing that  "liberty  wherewith  Christ  has  made  his 
people  free,"  and  sanctioning  erroneous  principles 
of  church  polity;  and  that  whatever  apparent  ad- 
vantages may  result  from  an  extended  association 
or  confederation  of  churches,  hound  together  by 
the  bond  of  a  common  creed  or  confession,  they 
are  nevertheless  greatly  outweighed  by  the  evils 
and  dangers  unavoidably  incident  to  such  bodies. 

The  principal  churches,  at  the  present  day,  or- 
ganized on  the  Congregational  plan,  are  to  l>e 
found  among  the  Dissenters  of  Great  Britain,  and 
in  the  New  England  States,  in  America.  They 
originated  from  the  Brownists,  or  Independents, 
(see  Independents)  but  disapproving  of,  and 
disavowing,  the  name  Independent,  they  have,  for 
the  most  part,  since  the  days  of  the  Rev.  John 
Robinson,  whose  congregation  emigrated  from 
Holland  to  Plymouth,  and  became  the  founders 
of  the  New  England  churches,  been  known  by 
the  appellation  of  Congregationalists.  They  de- 
clare themselves  "  abhorrent  from  such  principles 
of  independency  as  would  keep  them  from  giving 
an  account  of  their  matters  to  their  brethren  ot 
neighbouring  societies  who  might  regularly  de- 
mand it  of  them."  As  their  distinguishing  title 
is  predicated  entirely  upon  the  order  and  consti- 
tution of  their  churches,  and  not  upon  any  pecu- 
liar system  of  doctrines  set  forth  in  a  public 
standard,  which  their  ministers  or  members  are 
required  to  subscribe,  they  are  not  properly  to  be 
considered  as  a  religious  sect ;  for  the  principles 
of  Congregational  church-government  are  adopted 
by  different  sects,  especially  the  Baptists.  In- 
deed, the  very  genius  of  the  congregational  policy 
is  to  exclude  separate  sects  and  communions  from 
the  Christian  world,  inasmuch  as  it  disclaims  any 
symbol  or  formula  of  doctrine,  or  order  establish- 
ing an  ecclesiastical  uniformity,  and  admits  tho 
Bible  alone  as  the  great  bond  of  unity  among 
Christians.  Vet  the  mass  of  the  Congregational 
churches  in  New  England  are  Calvinistic  in  sen- 
timent, and  in  the  preface  to  the  Platform  of 
Church  Discipline.,  drawn  up  in  1048,  and  agreed 
upon  by  the  elders  and  messengers  assembled  at 
( 'ambridgo,  (Mass.)  it  is  expressly  declared,  that, 
"having  perused  and  considered  the  Westmin- 
ster Confession  of  Faith,  lately  published  in 
England,  they  judge  it  (with  the  exception  of  the 
parts  on  church  government,)  to  be  very  holy, 
orthodox,  and  judicious,  in  all  matters  of  faith, 
and  do  freely  and  fully  consent  thereunto,  for 
the.  substance  thereof,  and  commend  it  to  the 
churches  of  <  'hrist,  as  worthy  of  their  due  consi- 
deration and  acceptance." 

On  the  subject  of  church  government,  their 
principles  may  be  summarily  stated  in  the  form  of 
the  following  syllogism: 

The  constitution  and  government  of  the  pri- 
mitive churches  established  by  the  Apostles,  as 
far  as  can  be  ascertained   from  the   Scriptures, 


CONGREGATIONALISTS 
were  designed  to  serve  as  a  model  for  all  other 
Christian  societies  in  all  ages. 

But  the  primitive  churches,  founded  by  the 
Apostles,  were  strictly  congregational  or  inde- 
pendent, not  subjected  or  subordinated  to  the 
authority  of  bishops,  synods,  or  councils. 

Ergo,  the  congregational  is  the  only  true  and 
scriptural  scheme  of  ecclesiastical  government. 

The  following  are  the  principal  heads  of  argu- 
ments relied  upon  in  support  of  the  above  con- 
clusion. In  proof  that  the  apostolic  model  of 
Church  polity  is  of  binding  obligation  in  all  ages, 
it  is  alleged, 

1.  That  all  Scripture  is  practical,  and  that  it 
is  our  duty  to  attend  to  every  part  of  the  revealed 
will  of  God. — But  every  one  must  admit  that 
much  is  said  in  the  New  Testament  about  the 
manner  in  which  the  churches  of  Christ  ought  to 
be  regulated.  But  this  part  of  Scripture  is  not 
practical,  if  we  are  not  bound  to  follow  it :  in  that 
case,  it  is  like  any  other  history,  which  affords  us 
matter  of  speculation  rather  than  of  instruction. 
Many  arguments  may  be  suggested  a  priori  in 
favour  of  a  divine  directory  being  contained  in  the 
Scriptures  concerning  the  worship  and  conduct 
of  Christian  societies,  and  the  combined  weight 
of  all  these  arguments  bears  directly  upon  the 
present  question  ;  for  it  is  certain,  that  if  we  are 
not  bound  by  the  example  of  the  apostolic 
churches,  there  is  no  model  whatever  for  the 
constitution  of  a  Christian  church.  2.  Those  to 
whom  the  Apostles  wrote  were,  in  several  in- 
stances, reproved  for  deviating  from  the  precise 
order  established  by  them  in  the  churches,  conse- 
quently we,  the  successors  of  the  first  disciples, 
are  not  at  liberty  to  deviate.  3.  Either  the  Apos- 
tles acted  by  divine  direction,  or  by  their  own 
wisdom,  in  the  constitution  of  churches.  If  the 
latter,  they  would  undoubtedly  have  told  us  so. 
But  if  the  former,  as  is  doubtless  the  fact,  the 
form  of  church  government  they  instituted  can 
never  be  changed  but  by  the  same  authority.  If 
any  form  is  better  than  another,  the  apostolical 
is  best.  It  cannot  then  be.  a  matter  of  indiffer- 
ence whether  we  follow  the  best,  or  adopt  a  worse. 
4.  Paul  expressly  tells  us  he  delivered  the  same 
ordinances  to  every  church.  "  For  this  cause 
have  I  sent  unto  you  Timotheus,  who  shall  bring 
you  into  remembrance  of  my  ways,  which  be  in 
Christ,  as  I  teach  every  where  in  every  church." 
1  Cor.  iv.  17.  He  elsewhere  alludes  to  the  uni- 
formity of  his  practice  in  the  churches.  "As 
God  hath  distributed  to  every  man,  as  the  Lord 
hath  called  every  one,  so  let  him  walk,  and  so 
ordain  I  in  all  churches."   1  Cor.  vii.  17. 

But  after  ages  are  no  where  addressed  but  in 
the  persons,  as  it  were,  of  the  apostolical  churches; 
we  are  not  known  but  as  members  of  them. 
Whatever  is  said  to  them  is  said  to  us.  It  is 
therefore  unreasonable  to  expect  a  formal  didac- 
tic treatise  on  the  subject  of  church  government. 
Every  necessary  instruction  was  doubtless  given 
in  the  original  forming  of  the  churches,  but  as  to 
posterity,  all  that  can  reasonably  he  expected  is  I 
an  incidental  account  of  apostolical  practice,  and  j 
wherever  we  meet  with  that  we  are  to  consider 
ourselves  bound  by  it.  .">.  No  person  who  pleads 
the  authority  of  apostolical  example  for  observ- 
ing the.  first  day  of  the  week  as  the  Christian 
Sabbath  can  consistent!); reject  it  in  this  instance. 
6.  The  general  sense  of  professing  Christians  of 
all  sects  is  on  the  side  of  the  obligation  of  apos- 
89  3/ 


CONGREGATIONALISTS 

tolic  example,  for  they  all  eagerly  catch  at  every 
thing  that  looks  like  approving  their  respective 
churches.  Every  sect  goes  as  far  as  it  can  in 
company  with  the  Apostles  ;  and  it  is  not  till  they 
cannot  follow  any  farther,  that  the  Apostles  are 
acknowledged  as  insufficient  guides.  7.  There 
can  be  no  danger  in  the  closest  imitation  of  the 
apostolical  churches.  On  the  other  hand,  can 
any  man  be  sure  that  he  does  not  displease  God 
by  refusing  to  imitate  them  1  Between  the  cer- 
tainty of  pleasing  on  the  one  side,  and  the  possi- 
bility of  offending  on  the  other,  the  choice  which 
a  Christian  should  make  is  evident. 

As  to  the  second  proposition,  that  the  primitive 
churches  were  strictly  congregational,  and  not 
episcopal  or  presbyterial,  this  it  is  said  is  manifest, 

1.  From  the  prevailing  scriptural  usage  of  the 
term  church,  to  which  it  is  affirmed  only  two  senses 
arc  attached  by  the  sacred  writers.  For  an  ex- 
pansion of  this  argument,  see  the  article  Church. 

2.  From  the  direction  which  Christ  has  given 
relative  to  the  settling  of  private  offences  among 
his  disciples,  Matt,  xviii.  15,  18 ;  "  Moreover,  if 
thy  brother  shall  trespass  against  thee,  go  and 
tell  him  his  fault  between  thee  and  him  alone  : 
if  he  shall  hear  thee,  thou  hast  gained  thy  bro- 
ther. But  if  he  will  not  hear  thee,  then  take 
with  thee  one  or  two  more,  that  in  the  mouth  of 
one  or  two  witnesses  every  word  may  be  esta- 
blished. And  if  he  shall  neglect  to  hear  them, 
tell  it  unto  the  church :  hut  if  he  neglect  to  hear 
the  church,  let  him  be  unto  thee  as  a  heathen 
man  and  a  publican."  Here,  it  is  said,  the  last 
appeal  is  to  the  church.  He  does  not  say,  if  he 
does  not  hear  the  church  take  it  to  the  presbytery, 
and  if  he  does  not  hear  the  presbytery,  take  it  "to 
the  synod,  but  "  if  he  hear  not  the  church,  let 
him  be  unto  thee  as  a  heathen  man  and  a  pub- 
lican." True,  indeed,  a  multiplicity  of  meanings 
has  here  been  affixed  to  the  word  church,  and 
every  sect  has  attempted  to  find  its  own  disci- 
pline in  this  passage.  But  whatever  may  be 
said  about  allusions  to  the  ecclesiastical  tribunals 
among  the  Jews,  whether  of  the  synagogue  or  the 
sanhedrim,  the  safest  and  surest  mode  of  inter- 
pretation is  to  explain  the  term  according  to  its 
predominant  sense  in  other  parts  of  the  New 
Testament,  particularly  the  Epistles,  which  were 
unquestionably  intended,  in  many  reelects,  as  a 
commentary  on  the  Gospels.  As  Moses  is  in 
many  cases  to  be  explained  by  the  prophets  who 
came  after  him,  so  if  any  tiling  is  obscurely  deli- 
vered or  hinted  at  by  Christ,  we  are  to  have  re- 
course to  the  Ap. sties,  who  were  to  finish  the 
revelation  he  had  begun,  and  fully  illustrate 
what  lies  in  embryo  in  his  words.  It  is  no  valid 
objection  to  this  to  say,  that  Christ  could  not  have 
been  understood  by  those  to  whom  he  immediately 
spake.  The  Holy  Ghost  was  ere  long  to  be 
jiourcd  out  upon  the  disciples  to  enlighten  them 
fully.  And  it  is  unquestionable  that  the  Saviour 
uttered  many  things  to  the  Apostles  which  they 
did  not  fully  understand  till  after  his  death  and 
resurrection.  So  Moses  delivered  many  things 
in  the  wilderness  concerning  the  future  govern- 
ment of  the  Jewish  church,  when  they  should  be 
settled  in  cities  and  towns,  which  they  could  not 
so  well  understand  till  they  came  into  the  land  of 
Canaan,  and  though  they  did  not  know  the  pre- 
cise place  which  God  would  choose,  yet  many  of 
the  laws  that  Moses  gave  depended  upon  it.  In 
the  present  case,  it  was  more  important  that  0'ir 

h2 


C0NG11EGATI0NAL1STS 

Lord's  words  should  be  intelligible  to  the  great 
body  of  his  people  in  all  subsequent  ages,  though 
for  a  time  a  little  obscure  to  the  disciples,  than 
that  they  should  be  clear  to  them,  and  yet  blind 
ever  after  to  the  largest,  portion  of  his  followers. 
la  order,  then,  to  understand  what  our  Saviour 
meant  by  the  word  church  in  this  place,  we  must 
institute  an  inquiry  into  apostolic  practice,  and 
ascertain,  from  the  Acts  of  the  Apostles,  and 
from  their  epistles,  what  kind  of  churches  they 
did  actually  form,  and  in  what  manner  they  were 
governed.  But  such  an  examination,  it  is  main- 
tained, will  bring  to  our  view  no  other  churches 
than  those  constituted  on  the  congregational  plan, 
that  is,  purely  independent  churches,  having  the 
power  of  discipline  and  excommunication  vested, 
not  in  a  representative  body,  either  great  or  small, 
but  in  the  whole  society  or  brotherhood.  This 
is  evident, 

3.  From  the  language  of  the  Apostle  in  the  first 
epistle  to  the  Corinthians.  This  epistle  is  ad- 
dressed to  the  church  of  God  at  Corinth,  which 
is  explained  (1  Cor.  i.  2.)  to  consist,  not  of  mi- 
nisters and  elders,  but  of  "  them  that  are  sancti- 
fied in  Christ  Jesus,  called  to  be  saints."  Now 
the  power  of  excommunication  is  expressly  lodged 
in  the  whole  church,  not  in  church  rulers  alone ; — 
"in  the  name  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  wlten  ye 
are  gathered  together,  and  my  spirit  with  the 
power  of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  to  deliver  such 
an  one  to  Satan,"  1  Cor.  v.  4,  5.  Here  even 
the  power  of  an  Apostle  is  not  exercised  tut  in 
concurrence  with  that  of  the  church.  Again,  the 
same  church,  addressed  collectively,  are  com 
nianded  "to  put  away  from  among  themselves 
that  wicked  person,"  (v.  13.)  and  to  purge  out 
the  old  leaven,  (v.  7.)  and  to  examine  and  judge 
whether  a  crime  be  chargeable  upon  an  accused 
member,  is  also  stated  (v.  12.)  to  be  the  business 
of  the  whole  church:  "Do  ye  not  judge  them  that 
are  within  '?"  The  whole  church  is  to  judge  the 
accused  person,  though  the  church  rulers  are  to 
execute  the  judgment.  How  can  these  things 
be  predicated  of  a  society  where  all  the  power  is 
exclusively  in  the  hands  of  the  rulers?  But  a 
church  wliieh  is  not  susceptible  of  an  apostolical 
direction  cannot  be  apostolically  constituted.  In 
the  e.ise,  however,  of  the  Corinthian  church,  we 
find  that  the  incestuous  member  was  not  only  cut 
off  by  the  unanimous  voice  of  the  whole  society, 
it  being  called  "a  punishment  inflicted  by  many" 
(2  (  Vr.  ii.  6,)  but  afterwards,  when  he  exhibited 
sufficient  tokens  of  unfeigned  repentance,  they 
were  commanded  to  restore  the  fallen  brother  and 
to  receive  him  to  their  fellowship  and  affection. 
If  it  be  said,  that  this  language  is  to  be  interpre- 
ted according  to  the  common  and  well-known 
idiom  of  Scripture,  by  which  a  society  is  said  to 
do  that  which  is  done  by  their  representatives,  it 
is  replied,  that  this  takes  for  granted  a  fact  which 
remains  to  be  established,  viz.  that  the  churches 
Were  furnished  with  such  representatives,  who 
bad  all  the  ruling  power  ill  their  hands  to  the  ex- 
clusion of  the  brethren,  and  that  they  are  every 
where  called  the  church,  in  contradistinction  from 
the  rest  of  the  members.  Congregationalists  ad- 
mit that  there  were  officers  and  rulers  in  the 
apostolic  churches,  as  there  ought  to  be  in  all 
others,  but  the  question  to  be  determined  is, 
whether  their  ruling  power  was  to  be  exercised 
otherwise  than  with  the  concurrence  of  the  whole 
liody.  The  eye  is  set  in  the  human  bodv  for  the 
90 


CONGREGATIONALISTS 

purpose  of  seeing,  and  no  other  part  of  the  body 
can  perform  the  office  of  the  eye;  yet  the  eye 
cannot  see  apart  from  and  independent  of  the 
body.  So  in  respect  to  church  rulers.  Indeed 
the  whole  controversy  between  Congregation- 
alists and  others  relative  to  the  ruling  power  in  a 
particular  church,  turns  not  so  much  upon  the 
fact  of  such  a  power,  as  upon  its  nature.  What 
is  precisely  the  nature  of  that  regimen  which 
Christ  has  instituted  in  his  churches  1 

4.  That  the  congregational  mode  of  church  go- 
vernment has  superior  claims  to  any  other  is 
argued  from  the  fact,  that  we  have  no  sufficient 
evidence  in  the  New  Testament  of  the  existence 
of  stated  ecclesiastical  courts  or  judicatures  rising 
one  above  another,  in  regular  gradation;  or  in 
other  words,  that  a  church  representative  is  a 
thing  entirely  unknown  in  the  word  of  God. 
From  all  that  can  be  gathered  of  apostolical  usage, 
and  the  directions  given  in  Scripture  concerning 
discipline,  it  is  evident  that  the  administration  of 
the  laws  of  Christ  is  committed  to  single  churches 
duly  organized.  Therefore  a  particular  visible 
church,  with  its  'elders  or  presbytery,  the  only 
presbytery  known  in  the  Christian  church,  may 
decide  in  all  cases  of  discipline  ;  and  its  decision 
cannot  be  lawfully  reversed  by  any  jurisdiction 
under  heaven.  The  Great  Head  of  the  Church 
makes  no  provision  for  an  appeal  from  the  judg- 
ment of  a  single  church  to  any  authoritative  tri- 
ounal  short  of  the  court  of  heaven.  This  is  a 
plain  and  just  inference  from  the  solemn  declare 
tion  annexed  by  Christ  to  his  directions  concern- 
ing the  several  steps  of  discipline.  "Verily  I 
say  unto  you,  whatsoever  ye  shall  bind  on  earth 
shall  be  bound  in  heaven ;  and  whatsoever  ye 
shall  loose  on  earth  shall  be  loosed  in  heaven." 
Churches  may  err  in  judgment,  yet  they  are  ac- 
countable to  Christ  alone.  Nevertheless,  though 
no  appeal  lies  from  the  judgment  of  a  particular 
church  and  its  presbytery,  to  any  higher  judica- 
ture on  this  side  of  heaven,  yet  in  difficult  cases, 
and  when  doubts,  disunion,  and  dissatisfaction 
prevail  in  a  church,  or  individuals  are  grieved  and 
offended  on  account  of  any  particular  decision, 
Congregationalists  allow  that  it  may  be  prudent 
to  ask  advice ;  as  "  in  the  multitude  of  counsel- 
lors there  is  safety."  Whether  this  is  done  by 
calling  a  council  of  elders  and  delegates  from  the 
neighbouring  churches,  to  hear  and  advise  in  the 
case,  or  by  calling  one  or  more  ministers,  or  pri- 
vate brethren,  or  both,  to  hold  forth  light  from  the 
word  of  God,  and  deliberate  with  the  church, 
since  the  Scriptures  give  no  particular  directions, 
must  be  determined  according  to  circumstances. 
But  that  the  word  of  God  gives  any  intimation 
of  standing  courts  of  this  nature  is  strenuously 
denied  by  the  advocates  of  this  system.  For,  1. 
It  is  held  that  the  Scriptures  contain  nothing  as 
to  the  duties  of  elders  as  members  of  an  eccle- 
siastical assembly,  or  of  the  duties  of  private 
Christians  as  members  of  an  associated  church. 
Now.  if  there  were  such  a  thing  as  an  associated 
church  under  the  same  government,  how  comes 
it  that  we  have  no  rules  with  respect  to  it;  that 
elders  should  have  no  directions  as  to  their  duties 
in  those  assemblies ;  and  private  Christians  as  to 
their  relations  to  them?  The  individual  Mock  is 
often  called  upon  to  obey  their  pastors  or  rulers, 
but  never  is  cither  rlock  or  shepherd  commanded 
to  obey  a  superior  assembly.  In  fact  there  are 
no  appropriate  names  in  Scripture  for  such  courts, 


CONG  REG  ATI0NALIST3 

and  it  is  fair  to  presume  that  the  institutions 
which  have  not  a  name  in  Scripture,  have  not  an 
existence  in  Scripture.  2.  Tt  is  said,  moreover, 
that  when  the  apostles  ordained  elders  in  every 
church,  and  left  them,  they  did  not  commend 
them  to  the  care  of  any  superior  judicature,  or  to 
the  care  of  a  diocesan  bishop,  or  many  bishops 
joined  together,  having  a  common  oversight  and 
jurisdiction  over  them ;  but  commended  them  to 
the  Lord.  So  Paul,  in  taking  leave  of  the  elders 
of  Ephesus,  commends  the  flock  to  their  care, 
and  exhorts  them  "  to  take  heed  to  themselves," 
but  not  a  word  of  a  superior  judicature,  not  an 
insinuation  of  any  advice  to  have  recourse  to  it, 
even  when  he  forewarns  them  of  the  entering  in 
of  "grievous  wolves"  among  them,  and  of  the 
rising  of  men  who  should  "speak  perverse  tilings 
to  draw  away  disciples  after  them" — the  very  oc- 
casions usually  pleaded  as  making  a  subordina- 
tion of  judicatures  absolutely  necessary.  But  to 
this  it  is  objected  that  the  15th  chapter  of  Acts 
contains  a  plain  warrant  for  courts  and  assem- 
blies of  this  kind.  The  matter  of  fact  there  re- 
lated is  briefly  this :  Certain  teachers  had  gone 
down  to  Antioch  from  Judca,  who  had  inculca- 
ted the  necessity  of  the  observance  of  the  Mosaic 
law.  From  verse  24,  it  appears,  that  if  they 
were  not  actually  sent  out  by  the  church  of  J  eru- 
salem  to  preach  the  Gospel,  they  at  least  wished 
to  have  it  understood  that  they  had  apostolical 
authority.  The  church  of  Jerusalem,  in  their 
subsequent  letter,  acknowledge  that  they  went 
out  from  them,  but  affirm  that  they  had  no  such 
doctrine  in  charge  from  them  as  the  circumcision 
of  the  Gentile  converts.  Previous  to  this,  Paul 
and  Barnabas  had  returned  to  Antioch  from  their 
first  missionary  tour.  Of  consequence,  they  opposed 
this  doctrine ;  and  after  they  had  had  much  fruit- 
less discussion  on  the  subject,  it  was  resolved 
that  Paul  and  Barnabas  and  certain  others  should 
go  up  to  Jerusalem  and  consult  the  apostles  and 
the  church  in  that  place  relative  to  the  subject 
matter  of  the  dispute.  The  New  Testament  not 
being  yet  written,  to  which  they  might  have  re- 
course to  decide  the  point ;  the  word  of  God 
having  confessedly  sounded  out  from  Jerusalem, 
the  mother  church;  and  the  apostles  being  still 
there,  to  whom,  in  a  particular  manner,  the  pro- 
mise of  the  Spirit  was  given  to  guide  them  into 
all  truth,  to  whom  could  they  so  properly  apply- 
as  to  that  church,  especially  as  a  matter  of  fact, 
as  well  as  an  abstract  doctrine,  was  to  be  deter- 
mined? On  their  arrival  they  were  received  of 
the  church,  and  of  the  apostles  and  elders.  These 
came  together  to  consider  the  question  of  the  ne- 
cessity of  circumcision  to  salvation.  After  much 
disputing,  similar  to  what  had  taken  place  at 
Antioch,  Peter  and  James  delivered  their  opinion. 
This  was  adopted  unanimously,  (v.  22)  and  letters 
were  written  in  the  name  of  the  apostles  and 
elders,  and  the  whole  church,  declaring  not 
merely  the  opinion  of  a  church  that  the  Gentiles 
should  not  be  circumcised,  but  the  decree  and  de- 
termination of  the  Holy  Ghost.  It  was  there- 
fore an  inspired  decision.  The  question  was  thus 
finally  settled,  and  the  sentence  was  inserted  as  a 
part  of  that  Scripture  which  cannot  be  broken. 
Indeed  this  decision  was  the  very  first  part  of 
the  New  Testament  that  was  committed  to 
■writing.  And  although  the  "  brethren,"  or  the 
whole  church,  are  associated  with  the  apostles  in 
sending  forth  the  decree,  this  fact  derogates  no 


CONGREGATIONALISTS 
more  from  its  inspired  character,  than  it  derogates 
from  the  inspiration  of  Paul's  epistle  to  the  Gaia- 
tians  that  it  is  addressed  to  those  churches  in  the 
name  of  Paul  and  of  "all  the  brethren  which 
were  with  liim." 

From  the  history  of  this  ecclesiastical  pro- 
ceeding, it  has  been  inferred,  that  there  ought  to 
be  such  an  organization  of  churches  as  shall  lay 
a  foundation  for  successive  appeals  to  superior 
courts,  till  they  are  ultimately  brought  before 
some  judicature  which  is  clothed  with  the  power 
of  making  an  authoritative  decision.  But  to  this 
it  is  replied,  1.  That  this  was  not  properly  an 
appeal  to  an  assembly  of  delegates  from  a  num- 
ber of  associated  churches,  but  to  the  decision  of 
a  particular  church.  2.  There  is  no  evidence 
that  they  exercised  a  jurisdiction  over  cases  of 
discipline  occurring  in  churches,  as  they  merely 
decided  upon  a  point  of  doctrine.  3.  Even  if  it 
be  allowed  to  have  been  a  representative  synod,  it 
only  warrants  their  meeting  as  occasion  may  re- 
quire ;  it  gives  no  countenance  to  regular  periodi- 
cal meetings.  4.  This  was  an  appeal  to  inspired 
authority,  which,  in  after  ages,  could  be  imitated 
only  by  an  appeal  to  the  apostolical  writings. 
Our  council  of  Jerusalem  is  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment Scriptures.  Consequently  this  meeting 
cannot  be  pleaded  by  any  body  of  men  to  deter- 
mine in  matters  of  religion  for  others,  unless  they 
can  preface  their  decision  with — "It  seemed  good 
unto  us,  and  to  the  Holy  Ghost."  Otherwise,  if 
it  claim  to  be  authoritative,  it  is  as  invalid  as  an 
act  of  Congress  without  the  signature  of  the 
President.  5.  It  does  not  appear  from  church 
history  that  the  transaction  recorded  in  Acts  xv. 
was  ever  employed  as  a  warrant  for  clerical  con- 
ventions, notwithstanding  the  repeated  occasions 
that  would  seem  to  have  rendered  them  necessary, 
if  of  divine  institution,  till  the  time  of  Victor,  who 
was  bishop  of  Rome  from  A.  D.  192  to  201.  lie 
called  a  synod  to  excommunicate  the  bishops  of 
Asia,  because  they  would  not  celebrate  Easter  on 
the  same  day  with  him.  Under  Constantine  tha 
authority  of  synods  and  councils  came  more  gene- 
rally into  vogue,  and  from  that  period  became 
stated,  and  duly  subordinate,  according  to  tha 
situation  of  the  empire  and  its  provinces.  See 
Dupin  and  Mosheim. 

On  the  subject  of  ordination,  Congregational- 
ists  maintain  that  church  officers,  after  being 
chosen  by  the  church,  are  to  be  ordained  by  the 
imposition  of  hands,  and  with  prayer.  This  or- 
dination is  accounted  nothing  else  than  the  solemn 
putting  a  man  into  that  place  or  office  to  which 
he  previously  had  a  right  by  the  election  of  the 
people,  it  being  like  the  induction  or  installing  a 
magistrate  into  office  in  the  commonwealth.  The 
essence  and  substance  of  the  outward  calling  of 
an  ordinary  officer  in  the  church  does  not  consist 
in  his  ordination,  but  in  his  voluntary  and  free 
election  by  the  church,  and  his  acceptance  of  that 
election ;  ordination  does  not  constitute  an  officer, 
nor  give  him  the  essentials  of  his  office,  any  more 
than  the  mere  ceremony  of  inauguration  consti- 
tutes the  President  of  the  United  States  chief 
magistrate,  apart  from  the  election  of  the  people. 
The  apostles  were  elders  without  imposition  of 
hands  by  men.  Paul  and  Barnabas  were  officers 
before  that  ordination  mentioned,  Acts,  xiii.  2.  The 
posterity  of  Levi  were  priests  and  Levites,  before 
hands  were  laid  on  them  by  the  children  of  lsra<  1. 
In  churches  where  these  are  already  i  lders  appoint- 


CONSCIENCE 

ed,  the  imposition  of  hands  is  to  bo  performed  by 
those  elders;  i>ot  in  churches  where  there  are  no 
eiders,  the  ceremony  may  be  performed  by  some 
of  the  brethren  orderly  chosen  for  that  purpose. 
For  if  the  people  may  elect  their  officers,  which  is 
the  greater,  they  may  doubtless  impose  hands 
upon  them,  which  is  the  less.  At  the  same  time, 
in  churches  where  there  are  no  elders,  and  the 
brethren  so  desire,  it  is  usual  us  a  mailer  of  prac- 
tice, for  the  imposition  of  hands  to  bo  performed 
by  the  elders  of  other  churches,  as  a  sisterly  rela- 
tion in  the  nature  of  the  case  is  held  to  exist 
among  all  the  true  churches  of  Christ, 

The  above  are  the  peculiar  distinguishing  cha- 
racteristics  of  Congregationalism,  especially  as  it 
exists  in  the  United  States.  The  reader  who  is 
desirous  of  seeing  a  more  extended  view  of  the 
arguments  employed  in  support  of  this  peculiar 
polity  of  church  government,  is  referred  to  the  fol- 
lowing works.  Oirca  on  the  Nature  of  a  Gospel 
Church,  and  its  Government ;  Goodwin's  Consti- 
tution, Rights,  Order,  and  Government  of  the 
Churches  of  Christ;  WaWs  Rational  Foundation 
of  a  Christian  Church  ;  Glass's  Works,  vol.  i ; 
Carson's  Letters  in  Answer  to  Brown;  ditto  on 
Independency  ;  Haldane's  View  of  Social  Wor- 
ship; Mather's  Magnolia,  vol.  ii;  Mather  on 
the  Nature,  Grounds,  Antiquity,  and  Advan- 
tages of  Congregational  Churches;  Wise's 
Vindication;  Brysen's  Compendious  View; 
Cot  ten' 8  Power  of  the  Keys  ;  Turner's  Com- 
pendium of  Social  Religion  ;  fuller's  Remarks 
on  Iho  Discipline  of  the  J'rimitire  Churches. 

From  the  most  recent  statistical  documents  it 
appears,  that  the  whole  body  of  orthodox  or  evan- 
gelical Congregationalists  in  the  United  States, 
numbers  about  eight  hundred  ministers,  and  nine 
hundred  and  twenty  thousand  members. 

CONONITES,  a  denomination  which  ap- 
peared in  the  sixth  century.  They  derived  their 
name  from  Conon,  bishop  of  Tarsus.  He  taught 
that  the  body  never  last  its  form;  that  its  matter 
alone  was  subject  to  corruption  and  decay,  and 
was  to  be  restored  when  this  mortal  shall  put  on 
immortality. 

CONSCIENCE  signifies  knowledge  in  con- 
junction ;  that  is,  in  conjunction  with  the  fact  to 
which  it  is  a  witness,  as  the  eye,  is  to  the  action 
done  before  it;  or,  as  South  observes,  it  is  a  double 
or  joint  knowledge,  namely,  one  of  a  divine  law 
or  rule,  and  the  other  of  a  man's  own  action.  It 
may  be  defined  to  be  the  judgment  which  a  man 
passes  on  the  morality  of  his  actions  as  to  their 
purity  or  turpitude ;  or  the  secret  testimony  of 
the  soul,  whereby  it  approves  things  that  are 
good,  and  condemns  those  that  arc  evil.  Some 
object  to  its  being  called  an  act,  habit,  or  faculty. 
An  act,  say  they,  would  be  represented  as  an 
agent,  whereas  conscience  is  a  testimony.  To  say 
it  is  a  habit,  is  to  speak  of  it  as  a  disposition  act- 
uig,  which  is  scarce1  more  accurate  than  ascribing 
one  act  to  another;  and,  besides,  it  would  be 
strange  language  to  say  that  conscience  itself  is  a 
habit.  Against  defining  it  by  the  name  of  a 
power  or  faculty,  it  is  obji  eted,  that  it  occasions  a 
ial-o  notion  of  it,  as  a  distinct  power  from  reason. 

The  rules  of  coi,  teienee.  We  must  distinguish 
Detween  a  rule  that  ot  itself  and  immediately 
oinds  the  conscience,  and  a  rule  that  is  occasion- 
ally of  use  to  direct  and  satisfy  the  conscience. 
Now,  in  the  first  sense,  the  will  of  God  is  the 
only  rule  immediately  binding  Ilia  conscience. 
93 


CONSCIENCE 
No  one  has  authority  over  the  conscience  but 
God.  All  jienal  laws,  therefore,  in  matters  of 
mere  conscience,  or  things  that  do  noc  ?\idently 
affect  the  civil  state,  are  certainly  unlawful ;  yet, 
secondly,  the  commands  of  superiors,  not  only 
natural  parents,  but  civil,  as  magistrates  or  mas- 
ters, and  every  man's  private  engagements,  are 
rules  of  conscience  in  thugs  indifferent. — 3.  The 
examples  of  wise  and  good  men  may  become 
rules  of  conscience;  but  here  it  must  be  observed, 
that  no  example  or  judgment  is  of  any  authority 
against  law  :  where  the  law  is  doubtful,  and  even 
where  there  is  no  doubt,  the  side  of  example 
cannot  be  taken  till  inquiry  has  been  first  madu 
concerning  what  the  law  directs. 

Conscience  has  been  considered  as,  1.  natural, 
or  that  common  principle  which  instructs  men  of 
all  countries  and  religions  in  the  duties  to  which 
they  are  all  alike  obliged.  There  seems  to  be 
something  of  this  in  the  minds  of  all  men.  Even 
in  the  darkest  regior.s  of  the  earth,  and  among 
the  rudest  tribes  of  men,  a  distinction  has  ever 
been  made  between  just  and  unjust,  a  duty  and  a 
crime. 

2.  A  right  conscience  is  that  which  decides 
aright,  or  according  to  the  only  rule  of  rectitude, 
the  law  of  God.  This  is  also  called  a  wcll-in- 
fortned  conscience,  which  in  all  its  decisions  pro- 
ceeds upon  the  most  evident  principles  of  truth. 

3.  A  probable  conscience  is  that  which,  in 
cases  which  admit  of  the  brightest  and  fullest 
light,  contents  itself  with  bare  probabilities.  Tlie 
consciences  of  many  are  of  no  higher  character; 
and  though  we  must  not  say  a  man  cannot  be 
saved  with  such  a  conscience,  yet  such  a  con- 
science is  not  so  perfect  as  it  might  lie. 

4.  An  ignorant  conscience  is  that  which  may 
declare  right,  but,  as  it  were,  by  chance,  and  with- 
out any  just  ground  to  build  on. 

5.  An  erroneous  conscience  is  a  conscience  mis- 
taken in  its  decisions  about  the  nature  of  actions. 

G.  A  doubting  conscicr.ee  is  a  conscience  un- 
resolved about  the  nature  of  actions  ;  on  account 
of  the  equal  or  nearly  equal  probabilities  which 
appear  for  and  against  each  side  of  the  question. 

7.  Of  an  evil  conscience  there  are  several 
kinds.  Conscience,  in  regard  to  actions  in  general, 
is  evil  when  it  has  lost  more  or  less  the  sense  it 
ought  to  have  of  the  natural  distinctions  of  moral 
good  and  evil :  this  is  a  polluted  or  defiled  con- 
science. Conscience  is  evil  in  itself  when  it 
gives  either  none  or  a  false  testimony  as  to  past 
actions  ;  when  reflecting  upon  wickedness  it  feels 
no  pains,  it  is  evil,  and  said  to  be  seared  or  harden- 
ed. 1  Tim.  iv.  2.  It  is  also  evil  when,  during  the 
commission  of  sin,  it  lies  quiet.  In  regard  to 
future  actions,  conscience  is  evil  if  it  does  not 
startle  at  the  proposal  oH  sin,  or  connives  at  the 
commission  of  it. 

For  the  right  management  of  conscience,  we 
should,  1.  Endeavour  to  obtain  acquaintance  with 
the  law  of  God,  and  with  our  own  tempers  and 
lives,  and  frequently  compare  them  together. 

2.  Furnish  conscience  with  general  principles 
of  the  most  extensive  nature  and  strongest  in- 
fluence :  such  as  the  supreme  love  of  God  ;  lov© 
to  our  neighbours  as  ourselves  ;  and  that  the  care 
of  our  souls  is  of  the  greatest  importance. 

3.  Preserve  the  purity  of  conscience. 

4.  Maintain  the  freedom  of  conscience,  particu- 
1  irly  against  interest,  passion,  temper  example, 
and  the  authority  of  great  names. 


CONSECRATION 

5.  We  should  accustom  ourselves  to  cool  re- 
flections on  our  past  actions.  See  Grove's  and 
Paley's  Moral  Philosophy;  South's  Sermons, 
vol.  ii.  sermon  12;  and  books  under  Casuistry. 

CONSCIOUSNESS,  the  perception  of  what 
passes  in  a  man's  own  mind.  We  must  not  con- 
found the  terms  consciousness  and  conscience; 
for  though  the  Latin  he  ignorant  of  any  such  dis- 
tinction, including  both  in  the  word  conscientia, 
yet  there  is  a  great  deal  of  difference  between 
(hem  in  our  language.  Consciousness  is  confined 
to  the  actions  of  the  mind,  being  nothing  else  but 
that  knowledge  of  itself  which  is  inseparable  from 
every  thought  and  voluntary  motion  of  the  soul. 
Conscience  extends  to  all  human  actions,  bodily 
as  well  as  mental.  Consciousness  is  the  know- 
ledge of  the  existence ;  conscience  of  the  moral 
nature  of  actions.  Consciousness  is  a  province 
of  metaphysics;  conscience,  of  morality. 

CONSECRATION,  a  rite  or  ceremony  of 
dedicating  things  or  persons  to  the  service  of  God. 
It  is  used  for  the  benediction  of  the  elements  at 
the  eucharist :  the  ordination  of  bishops  is  also 
called  consecration. 

The  Mosaical  law  ordained  that  all  the  first- 
born, both  of  man  and  beast,  should  be  sanctified 
or  consecrated  to  God.  We  find  also,  that  Joshua 
consecrated  the  Gibeonites,  as  David  and  Solo- 
mon did  the  Nethinims,  to  the  service  of  the 
temple ;  and  that  the  Hebrews  sometimes  conse- 
crated their  fields  and  cattle  to  the  Lord,  after 
which  they  were  no  longer  in  their  power. 
Among  the  ancient  Christians,  the  consecration 
of  churches  was  performed  with  a  great  deal  ot 
pious  solemnity.  In  what  manner  it  was  done  for 
the  first  three  ages  is  uncertain,  the  authentic 
accounts  reaching  no  higher  than  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, when,  in  the  peaceable  reign  of  Constanline, 
churches  were  every  where  built,  and  dedicated 
with  great  solemnity.  The  Romanists  have  a 
great  deal  of  foppery  in  the  ceremonies  of  conse- 
cration, which  they  bestow  on  almost  every  thing; 
as  bells,  candles,  books,  water,  oil,  ashes,  palms, 
swords,  banners,  pictures,  crosses,  agnus  deis, 
roses,  &c.  In  England,  churches,  have  been  al- 
wavs  consecrated  with  particular  ceremonies,  the 
form  of  which  was  left  to  the  discretion  of  the 
bishop.  That  observed  by  Abp.  Laud,  in  conse- 
crating Saint  Catherine  Cree  church,  in  London, 
gave  great  oft'ence,  and  well  it  might.  It  was 
enough,  as  one  observes,  to  have  made  even  a 
popish  cardinal  blush,  and  which  no  protestant 
can  read  but  with  indignant  concern.  "  The 
bishop  came  attended  with  several  of  the  high 
commission,  and  some  civilians.  At  his  approach 
to  the  west  door  of  the  church,  which  was  shut, 
and  guarded  by  halberdiers,  some  that  were  ap- 
pointed for  that  purpose,  cried  with  a  loud  voice — 
Open,  open,  ye  everlasting  doors,  that  the  King 
of  Glory  may  come  in!  Presently  the  doors  were 
opened,  and  the  bishop,  with  some  doctors  and 
principal  men,  entered.  As  soon  as  they  were 
within  the  place,  his  lordship  fell  down  upon  his 
knees;  and,  with  eyes  lifted  up,  and  his  arms 
spread  abroad,  said,  This  place  is  holy;  the 
ground  is  holy  :  in  the  name  of  the  Father,  Son, 
and  Holy  Ghost.  I  pronounce  it  holy.  Then, 
walking  up  the  middle  aisle  towards  the  chancel, 
he  took  up  some  of  the  dust,  and  threw  it  into  the 
air  several  times.  When  he  approached  near  '.he 
rail  of  the  communion-table,  he  bowed  towards  it 
five  or  six  times  :  and,  returning,  went  round  the 
93 


CONSISTORY 
church,  with  his  attendants  in  procession;  say- 
ing first  the  hundredth,  and  then  the  nineteenth 
Psalm,  as  prescribed  in  the  Roman  Pontifica-. 
He  then  read  several  collects,  in  one  of  which  he 
prays  God  to  accept  of  that  beautiful  building, 
and  concludes  thus :  We  consecrate  this  church, 
and  separate  it  unto  thee  as  Holy  Ground,  not  to 
be  profaned  any  more  to  common  use.  In  another 
he  prays — That  ALL  who  should  hereafter  be 
buried  within  the  circuit  of  this  holy  and  sacred 
place,  may  rest  in  their  sepulchres  in  peace,  till 
ChrisVs  coming  to  judgment,  and  may  then  rise 
to  eternal  life  and  happiness.  Then  the  bishop, 
sitting  under  a  cloth  of  state  in  the  aisle  of  the 
chancel,  near  the  communion-table,  took  a  written 
book  in  his  band,  and  pronounced  curses  upon 
those  who  should  hereafter  prolane  that  holy 
place  by  musters  of  soldiers,  or  keeping  profane 
law  courts,  or  carrying  burdens  through  it ;  and 
at  the  end  of  every  curse  he  bowed  to  the  east, 
and  said,  Let  all  the  people  say,  Amen.  When 
the  curses  were  ended,  which  were  about  twenty, 
he  pronounced  a  like  number  of  blessings  upon 
ALL  that  had  any  hand  in  framing  and  building 
that  sacred  and  beautiful  church ;  and  on  those 
that  had  given,  or  should  hereafter  give,  any  cha- 
lices, plate,  ornaments  or  other  utensils;  and,  at 
the  end  of  every  blessing,  he  bowed  to  the  east, 
and  said,  Let  all  the  people  say,  Amen.  After 
this  came  the  sermon,  then  the  sacrament,  which 
the  bishop  consecrated  and  administered  in  the 
following  manner : — As  he  approached  the  altar, 
he  made  five  or  six  low  bows  ;  and  coming  up  to 
the  side  of  it,  where  the  bread  and  wine  were 
covered,  he  bowed  seven  times.  Then,  after 
reading  many  prayers,  he  came  near  the  bread; 
and  gently  lifting  up  the  corner  of  the  napkin, 
beheld  it;  and  immediately  letting  fall  the  nap- 
kin, he  retreated  hastily  a  step  or  two,  and  made 
three  low  obeisances:  his  lordship  then  advanced, 
and,  having  uncovered  the  bread,  bowed  three 
times  as  before.  Then  he  laid  his  hand  on  the 
cup,  which  was  full  of  wine,  with  a  cover  upon 
it;  which  having  let  go,  he  stepped  back,  and 
bowed  three  times  towards  it ;  then  he  came  near 
again,  and  lifting  up  the  cover  of  the  cup,  looked 
in  it ;  and  seeing  the  wine,  let  fall  the  cover  again, 
retired  back,  and  bowed  as  before.  1'hen  the 
elements  were  consecrated;  and  the  bishop,  having 
first  received,  gave  it  to  some  principal  men  in 
their  surplices,  hoods,  and  tippets;  after  which 
many  prayers  being  said,  the  solemnity  of  the 
consecration  ended." 

CONSISTENTES,  a  kind  of  penitents,  who 
were  allowed  to  assist  at  prayers,  but  who  could 
not  be  admitted  to  receive  the  sacrament. 

CONSISTORY,  a  word  commonly  used  for 
a  council-house  of  ecclesiastical  persons,  or  place 
of  justice  in  the  spiritual  court :  a  session  or  as- 
sembly of  prelates.  Every  archbishop  and  bishop 
of  every  diocese  hath  a  consistory  court,  held  be- 
fore his  chancellor  or  commissary,  in  his  cathedral 
church,  or  other  convenient  place  of  his  diocese, 
for  ecclesiastical  causes.  The  bishop's  chancellor 
is  the  judge  of  this  court,  supposed  to  be  skilled 
in  the  civil  and  canon  law  ;  and  in  places  of  the 
diocese  far  remote  from  the  bishop's  consistory, 
the  bishop  appoints  a  commissary  to  judge  in  all 
causes  within  a  certain  district,  and  a  register1  to 
enter  his  decrees,  ecc.  Consistory  at  Rome,  de- 
notes the  college  of  cardinals,  or  the  pope's  senate 
and  council,  before  whom  judiciary  causes  ara. 


CONTENTMENT 
pleaded.     Consistorv  is  also  used  amnn?  the  re- 
formed far  a  council  or  assembly  of  ministers  ami 
elders  to  regulate  their  affairs,  discipline,  && 

CONSTANCY,  in  a  general  sense,  denotes 
immutability,  or  Lnvariableness.  When  applied 
to  the  human  mind,  it  is  a  steady  adherence  to 
those  schemes  and  resolutions  which  have  been 
maturely  formed:  the  effect  of  which  is,  that  a 
man  nriver  drops  a  good  design  out  of  fear,  and  is 
consistent  with  himself  in  all  his  words  and 
actions. 

Constancy  is  more  particularly  required  of  us 
— 1.  In  our  devotions,  Luke  xviii.  1.  1  Tlies.v.  17, 
18.— &  Under  our  sufferings,Matt.v.  10, 13.  1  Pet. 
iv.  12,  13. — 3.  In  our  profession  and  character, 
Heh.  x.  23. — 4.  In  our  beneficence,  Gal.vi.  9. — 
5.  In  our  friendships,  Prov.  xxvii.  10. 

CONSUBSTANTIAL,  a  term  of  like  im- 
port with  co-essential,  denoting  something  of  the 
same  substance  with  another.  Thus,  we  say  that 
Christ  is  consubstantial  with  the  Father.  The 
term  o^oauno?,  consubstantial,  was  first  adopted 
by  the  fathers  of  the  councils  of  Antioch  and 
Nice  to  express  the  orthodox  doctrine  the  more 
precisely,  and  to  serve  as  a  barrier  and  precaution 
against  the  errors  and  subtleties  of  the  Arians, 
who  owned  every  thing  except  the  consubstan- 
tiality.  The  Arians  allowed  that  the  Word  was 
Cod,  as  having  been  made  God  ;  but  they  denied 
that  he  was  the  same  God,  and  of  the  same  sub- 
stance with  the  Father ;  accordingly,  they  exerted 
themselves  to  the  utmost  to  abolish  the  use  of  the 
word.  The  Emperor  Constantino  used  all  his 
authority  with  the  bishops  to  have  it  expunged 
out  of  the  symbols ;  but  it  was  retained,  and  is  at 
this  day,  as  it  was  then,  the  distinguishing  crite- 
rion between  an  Athanasian  and  an  Arian.  See 
articles  Arians  and  Jesus  Christ. 

CONSUBSTANTIATION,  a  tenet  of  the 
Lutheran  church,  with  regard  to  the  manner  of 
the  change  made  in  the  bread  and  wine  in  the 
eucharist.  The  divines  of  that  profession  main- 
tain that,  after  the  consecration,  the  body  and 
blood  of  our  Saviour  are  substantially  present,  to- 
gether with  the  substance  of  the  bread  and  wine, 
which  is  called  consubstantiation,  or  impanation. 
See  Traxsubstanti  at  ion. 

CONTEMPLATION,  studious  thought  on 
any  subject;  continued  attention.  "  Monks  and 
mystics  consider  contemplation  as  the  highest  de- 
gree of  moral  excellence ;  and  with  them  a  silent 
spectator  is  a  divine  man:"  but  it  is  evident  we 
are  not  placed  here  only  to  think.  There  is 
something  to  be  done  as  well  as  to  contemplate. 
There  are  duties  to  be  performed,  offices  to  be 
discharged  ;  and  if  we  wish  to  be  happy  in  our- 
selves, and  useful  to  others,  we  must  be  active  as 
well  as  thoughtful. 

CONTENTMENT  is  a  disposition  of  mind 
in  which  our  desires  are  confined  to  what  we  en- 
joy, without  murmuring  at  our  lot,  or  wishing 
ardently  for  more.  It  stands  opposed  to  envy, 
James  iii.  1G;  to  avarice,  Heb.  xiii.  5;  to  pride 
and  ambition,  Prov.  xiii.  10;  to  anxiety  of  mind, 
Matt.  vL  25.  31  j  to  murmurings  and  repinings, 
1  Cor.  x.  10.  Contentment  does  not  imply  un- 
concern about  our  welfare,  or  that  we  should  not 
have  a  sense  of  any  thing  uneasy  or  distressing; 
nor  docs  it  give  any  countenance  to  idleness,  or 
prevent  diligent  endeavours  to  improve  our  cir- 
cumstances. It  implies,  however,  that  our  desires 
of  worldlv  good  be  moderate  j  that  we  do  not  in- 
ill 


CONVENTICLE 
dulge  unnecessary  care,  or  use  unlawful  efforts  to 
liettcr  ourselves ;  but  that  we  acquiesce  with  and 
make  the  best  of  our  condition,  whatever  it  be. 
Contentment  arises,  not  from  a  man's  outward 
condition,  but  from  his  inward  disposition,  and  is 
the  genuine  offspring  of  humility,  attended  with  a 
fixed  habitual  sense  of  God's  particular  provi- 
dence, the  recollection  of  past  mercies,  and  a  just 
estimate  of  the  true  nature  of  all  earthly  things. 
Motives  to  contentment  arise  from  the  considera- 
tion of  the  rectitude  of  the  Divine  government, 
Ps.  xcvii.  1,  2;  the  benignity  of  the  Divine  provi- 
dence, Ps.  cxlv. ;  the  greatness  of  the  Divine  pro- 
mises, 2  Pet.  i. 4;  our  own  un worthiness,  Gen. 
xxxii.  10;  the  punishments  we  deserve,  Lain.  iii. 
39,  40;  the  reward  which  contentment  itself 
brings  with  it.  1  Tim.  vi.  G;  the  speedy  termina- 
tion of  all  our  troubles  here,  and.  the  prospect  cf 
eternal  felicity  in  a  future  state,  Rom.  v.  2.  Bar- 
roir's  Works,  vol.  iii.  ser.  5,  G,  7,  8,  9;  Burroughs 
on  Contentment ;  Watson's  Art  of  Ditto  ;  Hale's 
Con.  p.  59 ;  Mason's  Christian  Morals,  vol.  i. 
ser.  2. 

CONTINENCY  is  that  moral  virtue  by 
which  we  restrain  concupiscence.  There  is  this 
distinction  between  chastity  and  continence : — 
Chastity  requires  no  effort,  because  it  may  result 
from  constitution  ;  whereas  continency  appears  to 
be  the  consequence  of  a  victory  gained  over  our- 
selves. The  term  is  most  usually  applied  to  men  ; 
as  chastity  is  to  women.     See  Chastity. 

CONTINGENT,  any  thing  that  happens 
without  a  foreknown  cause  ;  commonly  called  ac- 
cidental. An  event  not  come  to  pass  is  said  to  be 
contingent,  which  either  may  or  may  not  be ;  what 
is  already  done,  is  said  to  have  been  contingent. 
if  it  might  or  might  not  have  been.  What  is  con- 
tingent or  casual  to  us,  is  not  so  with  God.  As 
eflects  stand  related  to  a  second  cause,  they  are 
many  times  contingent;  but  as  they  stand  related 
to  the  first  cause,  they  are  acts  of  God's  counsel, 
and  directed  by  his  wisdom. 

CONTRITE:  this  word  signifies  beaten  or 
bruised,  as  with  hard  blows,  or  a  heavy  burden ; 
and  so,  in  Scripture  language,  imports  one  whose 
heart  is  broken  and  wounded  for  sin,  in  opposition 
to  the  heart  of  stone,  Is.  lxvi.  2  Ps.  li.  17.  lvii. 
15. 

The  evidence  of  a  broken  and  contrite  spirit  are; 
1.  Deep  conviction  of  the  evil  of  sin. — 2.  Humi- 
liation under  a  sense  of  it,  Job.  xiii.  5,  6. — 3. 
Pungent  sorrow  for  it.  Zee.  xii.  10. — 4.  Inge- 
nuous confession  of  it.  1  John.  i.  9. — 5.  Prayer 
for  deliverance. from  it,  Ps.  li.  10.  Luke  xvii.  13. 
— 6.  Susceptibility  of  good  impressions,  Ezek. 
xi.  19. 

CONTROVERSIAL  DIVINITY.  See 
Disputation-. 

CONVENT.  See  Abbey,  Monastery, 
Monk. 

CONVENTICLE,  a  diminutive  of  convent, 
denoting  properly  a  cahal,  or  secret  assembly  of  a 
part  of  the  monks  of  a  convent,  to  make  a  party 
in  the  election  of  an  abbot.  The  term  conventicle 
is  said  by  some  to  have  been  first  applied  in  Eng- 
land to  the  schools  of  Wickliile,  and  has  since 
been  used  in  a  way  of  reproach  for  those  assern. 
blies  which  dissent  from  the  established  church. 

In  1GG4,  what  was  called  the  conrenlicle  act 
was  passed,  decreeing  that  if  any  person  above 
sixteen  years  of  age  was  present  at  any  meeting 
for  worship,  different  from  the  church  of  England, 


CONVERSATION 

where  there  should  be  five  persons  more  than  the 
household,  they  should,  for  the  first  offence,  suffer 
three  months'  imprisonment,  or  pay  51.;  for  the 
second  the  punishment,  is  doubled,  and  for  the 
third  they  were  banished  to  America,  or  pay  100/., 
and  if  they  returned,  to  suffer  death.  This  art 
having  expired,  it  was  revived  in  1669  :  for  by  23 
Car.  II.  cap.  1.  it  is  enacted,  That  if  any  persons 
of  the  age  of  sixteen  years,  subjects  of  this  king- 
dom, shall  be  present  at  any  conventicle  where 
there  are  five  or  more  assembled,  they  shall  be 
fined  five  shillings  for  the  first  offence,  and  ten 
shillings  for  the  second :  and  persons  preaching 
incur  a  penalty  of  twenty  pounds.  Also  suffer- 
ing a  meeting  to  be  held  in  a  house  is  twenty 
pounds  penalty  :  justices  of  peace  have  power  to 
enter  such  houses,  and  seize  persons  assembled ; 
and  if  they  neglect  their  duty,  they  forfeit  100/. 
And  if  any  constable,  &c.  know  of  such  proceed- 
ings, and  do  not  inform  a  justice  of  the  peace  or 
chief  magistrate,  he  shall  forfeit  5/.  But  the  first 
of  William  and  Mary,  cap.  18.  ordains  that  Pro- 
testant dissenters  shall  be  exempted  from  these 
penalties :  though  if  they  meet  in  a  house  with 
the  doors  locked,  barred  or  bolted,  such  dissenters 
shall  have  no  benefit  from  the  1st  of  William  and 
Mary.  Officers  of  the  government,  &c,  present 
at  any  conventicle  at  which  there  shall  be  ten 
persons,  if  the  royal  family  be  not  prayed  for  in 
express  words,  shall  forfeit  40/.,  and  be  disabled. 
Stat.  10  Ann.  cap.  2. 

CONVERSATION,  or  discourse,  signifies 
an  interlocution  between  two  or  more  persons, 
with  this  distinction,  that  conversation  is  used  for 
any  general  intercourse  of  sentiments  whatever, 
whereas,  a  discourse  means  a  conversation  limit- 
ed to  some  particular  subject. 

To  render  conversation  at  all  times  agreeable, 
the  following  rules  have  been  laid  down  :  1.  The 
parties  should  meet  together  with  a  determined 
resolution  to  please  and  to  be  pleased. — 2.  No 
one  should  be  eager  to  interrupt  others,  or  be  un- 
easy at  being  interrupted. — 3.  All  should  have 
leave  to  speak  in  turn. — 4.  Inattention  should  be 
carefully  avoided. — 5.  Private  concerns  should 
never  be  mentioned,  unless  particularly  inquired 
into,  and  even  then  as  briefly  as  possible. — 6. 
Each  person  should,  as  far  as  propriety  will  admit, 
be  afforded  an  opportunity  of  discoursing  on  the 
subject  with  which  he  is  best  acquainted. — 7. 
Stories  should  be  avoided,  unless  short,  pointed, 
and  quite  d  propos. — 3.  Each  person  should 
speak  often,  but  not  long.  Haranguing  in  private 
company  is  insupportable. — 9.  If  the  majority  of 
the  company  be  naturally  silent  or  reserved,  the 
conversation  will  flag,  unless  it  be  often  renewed 
by  one  who  can  start  new  subjects. — 10.  It  is 
improper  to  laugh  at  one's  own  wit  and  humour ; 
this  should  be  left  to  the  company. — 11.  When 
the  conversation  is  flowing  in  a  serious  and  useful 
channel,  never  interrupt  it  by  an  ill-timed  jest. — 
12.  It  is  at  all  times  extremely  indelicate  to  whis- 
per to  one's  next  neighbour ;  this  is  in  some  degree 
a  fraud,  conversation  being  a  kind  of  common 
property. — 13.  In  speaking  of  absent  people,  the 
infallible  rule  is,  to  say  no  more  than  we  should 
say  if  they  were  present.  "  I  resolve,"  said  bishop 
Beveridge,  "  never  to  speak  of  a  man's  virtues  to 
his  face,  nor  of  his  faults  behind  his  back."  A 
golden  rule  !  the  observation  of  which  would  at 
once  banish  flattery  and  defamation  from  the 
world. 

95 


CONVICTION 

CONVERSION,  a  change  from  one  state  to 
another.  Conversion  may  be,  1.  Merely  external, 
or  that  which  consists  only  in  an  outward  reforma- 
tion.— 2.  Doctrinal,  or  a  change  of  sentiments. — • 
3.  Saving,  which  consists  in  the  renovation  of 
the  heart  and  life,  or  a  turning  from  the  power 
of  sin  and  Satan  unto  God,  Acts  xxvi.  18,  and  ia 
produced  by  the  influence  of  Divine  grace  on  the 
soul. — 4.  Sometimes  it  is  put  for  restoration,  as  in 
the  case  of  Peter,  Luke  xxii.  32.  The  instru- 
mental cause  of  conversion  is  usually  the  minis- 
try of  the  word ;  though  sometimes  it  is  produced 
by  reading,  by  serious  and  appropriate  conversa- 
tion, sanctified  afflictions,  &c.  "  Conversion,' 
says  the  great  Charnock,  "  is  to  be  distinguished 
from  regeneration  thus  ; — Regeneration  is  aspi- 
ritual  change ;  conversion  is  a  spiritual  motion  . 
in  regeneration  there  is  a  power  conferred  ;  con- 
version is  the  exercise  of  this  power :  in  regene- 
ration there  is  given  us  a  principle  to  turn  ;  con- 
version is  our  actual  turning.  In  the  covenant, 
God's  putting  his  Spirit  into  us  is  distinguished 
from  our  walking  in  his  statutes  from  the  first 
step  we  take  in  the  way  of  God,  and  is  set  down 
as  the  cause  of  our  motion,  Ezck.  xxxvi.  27.  In 
renewing  us,  God  gives  us  a  power ;  in  converting 
us,  he  excites  that  power.  Men  are  naturally 
dead,  and  have  a  stone  upon  them  :  regeneration 
is  a  rolling  away  the  stone  from  the 'heart,  and  a 
raising  to  newness  of  life ;  and  then  conversion 
is  as  natural  to  a  regenerate  man  as  motion  is  to 
a  lively  body.  A  principle  of  activity  will  pro- 
duce action.  In  regeneration,  man  is  wholly 
passive ;  in  conversion,  he  is  active.  The  first 
reviving  us  is  wholly  the  act  of  God  without  any 
concurrence  of  the  creature;  but  after  we  are  re- 
vived we  do  actively  and  voluntarily  live  in  his 
sight.  Regeneration  is  the  motion  of  God  in  the 
creature ;  conversion  is  the  motion  of  the  creature 
to  God,  by  virtue  of  that  first  principle :  from  thia 
principle  all  the  acts  of  believing,  repenting,  mor- 
tifying, quickening,  do  spring.  In  all  these  a  man 
is  active ;  in  the  other  he  is  merely  passive."  Con- 
version evidences  itself  by  ardent  love  to  God,  Ps. 
lxxiii.  25;  delight  in  his  people,  John  xiii.  35; 
attendance  on  his  ordinances,  Ps.  xxvii.  4 ;  confi- 
dence in  his  promises,  Ps  ix.  10;  abhorrence  of 
self,  and  renunciation  of  the  world,  Job.  xlii.  5. 
James  iv.  4:  submission  to  his  authority,  aud 
uniform  obedience  to  his  word,  Matt.  vii.  20.  Sije 
Calling,  Regeneration. 

CONVERT,  a  person  who  is  converted.  In 
a  monastic  sense,  converts  are  lay-friars,  or  bro- 
thers admitted  for  therservice  of  the  house,  with- 
out orders,  and  not  allowed  to  sing  in  the  choir. 

CONVICTION,  in  general,  is  the  assurancj 
of  the  truth  of  any  proposition.  In  a  religious 
sense,  it  is  the  first  degree  of  repentance,  and  im- 
plies an  affecting  sense  that  we  are  guilty  befor  i 
God;  that  we  can  do  nothing  of  ourselves  to  gain 
his  forfeited  favour  ;  that  we  deserve  and  are  ex- 
posed to  the  wrath  of  God  ;  that  sin  is  very  odiouu 
and  hateful,  yea,  the  greatest  of  evils.  There  iis 
a  natural  conviction  which  arises  from  natural 
conscience,  fear  of  punishment,  moral  suasion,  or 
alarming  providences,  but  which  is  not  of  a  per- 
manent nature.  Saving  conviction  is  the  worls 
of  the  Spirit,  as  the  cause;  though  the  law,  the 
conscience,  the  Gospel,  or  affliction,  may  be  the 
means,  John  xvi.  8,  9.  Convictions  of  sin  differ 
very  much  in  their  degree  m  different  persons.  It 
has  been  observed  that  those  who  suffer  the  most 


CONVOCATION 
B<rniii7iTj  sensations  are  such  :is  never  before  en- 
j>  yed  tin'  external  call  of  the  <  lospel,  or  were  not 
favoured  with  the  tuition  of  religious  parents,  but 
have  neglected,  or  notoriously  abused  the  means 
of  grace.  To  these,  conviction  is  often  sudden, 
and  produces  thai  horwr  and  shame  which  are 
Dot  soon  overcome;  whereas  those  who  have  sat 
under  the  Gospel  from  their  infancy  have  not  had 
such  alarming  convictions,  because  they  have  al- 
ready some  notion  of  these  things,  anil  have  so 
touch  acqu  untance  with  the  Gospel  as  adminis- 
ters immediate  comfort.  As  it  is  not,  therefore, 
the  constant  method  of  the  Spirit  to  convince  in 
one  way,  it  is  improper  for  any  to  distress  them- 
selves because  they  are  not,  or  have  not  been  tor- 
mented almost  to  despair;  they  should  be  rather 
thankful  that  the  SpiritofGod  has  dealt  tenderly 
with  them,  and  opened  to  them  the  source  of  con- 
solation. It  is  necessary,  however,  to  observe, 
that,  in  order  to  repentance  and  conversion  to 
Goil,  there  must  he  real  and  lasting  conviction, 
which,  though  it  may  not  be  the  same  in  degree, 
is  the  same  in  nature.  Evangelical  conviction 
differs  from  legal  conviction  thus:  legal  arises 
from  a  consideration  of  God's  justice,  power,  or 
omniscience;  evangelical  from  God's  goodness 
and  holiness,  and  from  a  disaffection  to  sin  :  legal 
conviction  s|,ill  conceits  there  is  some  remaining 
good ;  hut  evangelical  is  sensible  there  is  no  good 
at  all :  legal  wishes  freedom  from  pain  ;  evangeli- 
cal from  sin  :  legal  hardens  the  heart ;  evangelical 
softens  it:  legal  is  only  temporary  ,  evangelical 
lasting. 

CONVOCATION,  an  assembly  of  persons 
for  the  worship  of  God,  Lev.  xxiii.  Numb, 
xxviii.  Exod.  xii.  10.  An  assembly  of  the  clergy 
for  consultation  upon  matters  ecclesiastical. 

As  the  parliament  consists  of  two  distinct  houses 
so  does  this  convocation.  The  one  called  the  up- 
per house,  where  the  archbishops  and  bishops  sit 
severally  by  themselves;  the  other  the  lower 
house,  where  all  the  rest  of  the  clergy  are  repre- 
sented by  their  deputies. — The  inferior  clergv 
are  represented  by  their  proctors ;  consisting  of 
all  the  deans  and  archdeacons;  of  one  proctor  for 
every  chapter,  and  two  for  the  clergy  of  every 
diocese — in  all,  one  hundred  and  forty-three  di- 
vines; viz.  twenty-two  deans,  fifty-three  archdea- 
cons, twenty-four  prebendaries,  and  forty-four 
proctors  of  the  diocesan  clergv.  The  lower  house 
c!i  loses  its  prolocutor,  who  is  to  take  care  that  the 
members  attend,  to  collect  their  debates  and  votes, 
and  to  carry  their  resolutions  to  the  upper  house. 
The  convocation  is  summoned  by  the  king's  writ, 
directed  to  the  archhishop  of  each  province,  re- 
quiring  him  to  summon  all  bishops,  deans,  arch- 
deacons, &c  The  power  of  the  convocation  is 
limited  by  a  statute  of  Henry  VIII.  They  are 
not  to  make  any  canons,  or  ecclesiastical  laws. 
Without  the  king's  license;  nor,  when  permitted, 
can  they  put  them  in  execution  but  under  several 
restrictions. — They  have  the  examining  and  cen- 
suring all  heretical  and  Bchismatical  hooks  and 
persons,  &C.;  but  there  lies  an  appeal  to  the  king 
In  chancery,  or  to  his  delegates.  The  clergy  in 
convocation,  and  their  servants,  have  the  same 
privileges  as  members  of  parliament.  In  1665, 
the  convocation  of  the  clergy  gave  up  the  privi- 
lege of  taxing  themselves  to  the  house  of  com- 
mons, in  consideration  of  their  being  allowed  to 
vote  at  the  election  of  members  fur  that  house. 
Since  that  period,  thev  have  been  seldom  allow- 


CORDELIER 
ed  to  do  any  business;  and  are  generally  pro> 
rogucd  from  time  to  time  till  dissolved,  a  new 
convocation  being  "enerallv  called  along  with  a 
new  parliament. 

COPHTI,  Copiit,  or  Copti,  a  name  given 
to  the  Christians  of  Egypt  who  are  of  the  sect  of 
the  Jacobites.  See  Jacobites.  The  Cophts  have 
a  patriarch,  who  resides  at  Cairo;  but  he  takes 
his  title  from  Alexandria.  He  has  no  archbishop 
under  him,  but  eleven  or  twelve  bishops.  The 
rest  of  the  clergy,  whether  secular  or  regular,  are 
composed  of  the  orders  of  St.  Anthony,  St.  Paul, 
St.  Macarius,  who  have  each  their  monasteries. 
Besides  the  orders  of  priests,  deacons,  and  sub- 
deacons,  the.  Cophts  have,  likewise,  archiman- 
drites, or  abbots ;  the  dignity  whereof  they  con- 
fer with  all  the  prayers  and  ceremonies  of  a  strict 
ordination.  By  a  custom  of  six  hundred  years5 
standing,  if  a  priest  elected  bishop  be  not  already 
archimandrite,  that  dignity  must  be  conferred  on 
him  before  episcopal  ordination.  The  second 
person  among  the  clergy  after  the  patriarch,  is  the 
titular  patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  who  also  resides 
at  Cairo.  To  him  belongs  the  government  of  the 
Cophtic  church  during  the  vacancy  of  the  patri- 
archal see.  To  be  elected  patriarch,  it  is  neces- 
sary the  person  have  lived  all  his  life  in  conti- 
nence. To  be  elected  bishop,  the  person  must 
be  in  the  celinate ;  or  if  he  have  been  married,  it 
must  not  be  above  once.  The  priests  and  infe- 
rior ministers  are  allowed  to  be  married  before 
ordination ;  but  not  forced  to  it,  as  some  havo 
observed.  They  have  a  great  number  of  dea- 
cons, and  even  confer  the  dignity  frequently  on 
their  children.  None  but  the  lowest  rank  among 
the  people  commence  ecclesiastics ;  whence  arises 
that  excessive  ignorance  found  among  them : 
yet  the  respect  of  the  laity  towards  the  clergy 
is  very  extraordinary.  The  monastic  life  is 
in  great  esteem  among  them:  to  be  admitted 
into  it,  there  is  always  required  the  consent  of 
the  bishop.  The  religious  Cophts,  it  is  said, 
make  a  vow  of  perpetual  chastity ;  renounce  the 
world,  and  live  with  great  austerity  in  deserts, 
they  are  obliged  to  sleep  in  their  clothes  and  their 
girdle,  on  a  mat  stretched  on  the  ground;  and 
to  prostrate  themselves  every  evening  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  times  with  their  face  and  breast  on 
the  ground.  They  are  all,  both  men  and  women, 
of  the  lowest  class  of  the  people,  and  live  on 
alms.  The  nunneries  are  properly  hospitals, 
and  few  enter  but  widows  reduced  to  beggary. 

CORBAN,  in  Jewish  antiquity,  were  those 
offerings  which  had  life ;  in  opposition  to  the 
minchab,  or  those  which  had  not.  It  is  derived 
from  the  word  karab,  which  signifies,  "  to  ap- 
proach ;"  because  the  victims  were  brought  to  the 
door  of  the  tabernacle.  The  corban  were  always 
looked  upon  ns  the  most  sacred  offerings.  The 
Jews  are  reproached  with  defeating,  by  means  of 
the  corban,  the  precept  of  the  fifth  commandment, 
which  enjoins  the  respect  due  to  parents;  for 
when  a  child  had  no  mind  to  relieve  the  wants  of 
his  father  or  mother,  he  would  say  to  them — "It 
is  a  gift  (corban)  by  whatsoever  thou  mightest  be 
profited  by  me;"  i.e.  "1  have  devoted  that  to 
God  which  you  ask  of  me,  and  it  is  no  longer 
mine  to  give."  Markvii,  11. 

CORDELIER,  a  Franciscan,  or  religious  of 
the  order  of  St.  Francis.  The  denomination 
cordelier  is  said  to  have  been  given  in  the  war  of 
St.  Lewis  against  the  inlidcls,  wherein  the  friar* 


COVENANT 

minor  having  rervilsed  the  barbarians,  and  that 
kin'f  having  inquired  their  name,  it  was  answered, 
they  were  people  cordeliez,  "  tied  with  ropes;" 
alluding  to  the  girdle  0f  rope,  or  cord,  tied  with 
th'ee  knots,  which  thev  wore  as  part  of  their  habit. 
CORNARISTS,  "the  disciples  of  Theodore 
Cornhert,  an  enthusiastic  secretary  of  the  states 
of  Holland.  He  wrote,  at  the  same  time,  against 
the  Catholics,  Lutherans,  and  Calvinists.  He 
maintained  that  every  religious  communion 
needed  reformation ;  but  he  added,  that  no  per- 
son had  a  right  to  engage  in  accomplishing  it 
without  a  mission  supported  by  miracles.  He 
was  also  of  opinion,  that  a  person  might  be  a 
good  Christian  without  being  a  member  of  any 
visible  church. 

COVENANT,  a  contract,  or  agreement, 
between  two  or  more  parties  on  certain  terms. 
The  terms  made  use  of  in  the  Scriptures  for 
covenant,  are  ry"!3  and  SiaS^*,.  The  former  sig- 
nifies choosing;  or  friendly  parting;  as  in  cove- 
nants each  party,  in  a  friendly  manner,  consented, 
and  so  bound  himself  to  the  chosen  terms ;  the 
latter  signifies  testament,  as  all  the  blessings  of 
the  covenant  are  freely  disposed  to  us.  The  word 
covenant  is  also  used  for  an  immutable  ordinance, 
Jer.  xxxiii.  20;  a  promise,  Exod.  xxxiv.  10.  Ts. 
lix.  21;  and  also  for  a  precept,  Jer.  xxxiv.  13,  ! 
11.  In  Scripture  we  read  of  various  covenants  ; 
such  as  those  made  with  Noah,  Abraham,  and 
the  Hebrews  at  large.  Anciently  covenants  were 
made  and  ratified  with  great  solemnity.  "The 
Scriptures  allude  to  the  cutting  of  animals  asun- 
der ,  denoting  that,  in  the  same  manner,  the  per- 
jured and  covenant-breaker  should  be  cut  asun- 
der by  the  vengeance  of  God,  Jer.  xxxiv.  18. 

The  covenants  which  more  especially  relate  to 
the  human  race,  are  generally  called  the  covenant 
of  works  and  the  covenant  of  grace. 

The  covenant  of  works  is  that  whereby  God 
requires  perfect  obedience  from  his  creatures,  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  make  no  express  provision 
for  the  pardon  of  offences  committed  against  the 
precepts  of  it  on  the  repentance  of  such  offenders, 
but  pronounces  a  sentence  of  death  upon  them, 
Gen.  ii.  Gal.  iv.  24.  Fs.  lxxxix.  3,  4.  The  cove- 
nant of  grace  is  generally  defined  to  be  that 
which  was  made  with  Christ,  as  the  second 
Adam,  and  in  him  with  all  the  elect  as  his  seed, 
Is.  xlii.  1—6.  1  Pet.  i.  20.  Is.  lii.  13. 

I.  The  covenant  of  works  was  made  with 
Adam ;  the  condition  of  which  was,  his  perse- 
verance during  the  whole  time  of  his  probation  : 
the  reward  annexed  to  this  obedience  was  the 
continuance  of  him  and  his  posterity  in  such  per- 
fect holiness  and  felicity  he  then  had,  while  upon 
earth,  and  everlasting  life  with  God  hereafter. 
The  penalty  threatened  for  the  breach  of  the 
command  was  condemnation ;  terminating  in 
death  temporal,  spiritual,  and  eternal.  The  seals 
of  this  covenant  were,  the  tree  of  knowledge  and 
the  tree  of  life ;  and,  perhaps,  the  Sabbath  and 
Paradise,  Gen.  ii.  hi.  Gal.  vi.  21.  Rom.  v.  12. 
1!).  This  covenant  was  broken  by  Adam's  eat- 
ing of  the  forbidden  fruit,  whereby  he  and  his 
posterity  were  all  subject  to  ruin,  Gen.  iii.  Rom. 
v.  12.  19 ;  and  without  the  intervention  of  the 
divine  grace  and  mercv,  would  have  been  lost  for 
ever,  Rom.  iii.  23.  The  Divine  Being,  foreseeing 
this,  in  infinite  wisdom  and  unspeakable  compas- 
sion, planned  the  covenant  of  grace;  by  virtue  of 
which  his  people  are  reinstated  in  the  blessings 
97  A' 


COVENANT 

of  puritv,  knowledge,  and  felicity,  and  that  with. 
out  a  possibility  of  any  farther  defalcation. 

II.    The  covenant   of  grace.     Some   divines 
makes  a  distinction  between  the  covenant  of  re- 
demption and  that  of  grace;  the  former,  they  say, 
was  made  with  Christ  in  eternity ;  the  latter  with 
believers  in  time.     Others  object  to  this,  and  sup- 
pose it  a  needless  distinction;  for  there  is  but  one 
covenant  of  grace,  and   not   two,  in  which  the 
head  and  members  are  concerned;  and,  besides, 
the  covenant  ot  grace,  properly  speaking,  could 
not  be  made  between  God  and  man;  for  what 
can  man  restipulate  with  God,  which  is  in  his 
power  to  do  or  give  him,  and  which  God  has  not 
a  prior  right  unto?     Fallen  man  has  neither  in- 
clination to  yield  obedience,  nor  power  to  perform 
it.      The,  parties,  therefore,  in  this  covenant,  are 
generally  said  to  be  the  Father  and  the  Son;  but 
Dr.  Gill  supposes  that  the  Holy  Ghost  should  not 
be  excluded,  since  he  is  promised  in  it,  and,  in 
consequence  of  it,  is  sent  down  into  the  hearts  of 
believers ;  and  which  must  be  by  agreement,  and 
with  his  consent.     If  we  believe,  therefore,  in  a 
Trinity,  it  is  more  proper  to  suppose  that  they 
were  all  engaged  in  this  plan  of  the  covenant, 
than  to  suppose  that  the  Father  and  Son  were 
engaged  exclusive  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  1  John  v. 
6,  7.     As  to  the  work  of  the  Son,  it  was  the  will 
and  appointment  of  the  Father  that  he  should 
take  the  charge  and  care  of  his  people,  John  vu 
39.  Heb.  ii.  13;  redeem  them  by  his  blood,  John 
xvii,    Heb.  x ;  obey  the  law  in  their  room,  Rom. 
x.  4;  justify  them  by  his  righteousness,  Dan.  ix. 
24,  &c,,  and  finally,  preserve  them  to  glory,  Isa. 
xl.   11.     Jesus  Christ,   according  to  the  divine 
purpose,  became  the  representative  and  covenant 
head  of  his  people,  Eph.  i.  22,  23.     Col.  i.  18. 
They  were  all  considered  in  him,  and  represented 
by  him,  Eph.  i.  4 ;  promises  of  grace  and  glory 
made  to  them  in  him,  Tit.  i.  2.    1  Cor.  i.  20 ;  he 
suffered  in  their  stead,  2  Cor.  v.  21.     He  is  also 
to  be  considered  as  the  mediator  of  the  covenant 
by  whom  justice  is  satisfied,  and  man  reconciled 
to  God.     See  art.  Mediator.     He  is  also  the 
surety  of  this  covenant,  Heb.  vii.  22,  as  he  took 
the  whole  debt  upon  him,  freed  his  people  from 
the  charge,  obeyed  the  law,  and  engaged  to  bring 
his  people  to'  glory,  Heb.  ii.  13.     Isa.  xlix.  5,  6. 
He  is  called  the  testator  of  the  covenant,  which 
is    denominated    a    Testament,    Heb.    vii.   22. 
ix.  15.     He  disposes  of  his  blessings,  according 
to  his  will  or  testament,  which  is   unalterable, 
signed  by  his  hand,  and  sealed  by  his  blood.     In 
this  covenant,  as  we  before  observed,  the  Holy 
Spirit  also  is  engaged.     His  assent  is  given  to 
every  part  thereof;  he  brings  his  people  into  the 
enjoyment  of  its  blessings,  1  Pet,  i.  2.    2  Thess. 
ii.  13.     He  was  concerned  in  the  incarnation  of 
Christ,  Matt  i.  18,  and  assisted  his  human  na- 
ture, Heb.  ix.  14.     He  takes  of  the  things  of 
Christ,  and  shows  them  unto  us;  cleanses,  en- 
lightens, sanctifies,  establishes,  and  comforts  his 
people,  according  to  the  plan  of  the  covenant. 
Rom.  viii.  15,  16.     See  Holy  Ghost. 

III.  The  properties  of  this  covenant  are  such 
as  these  :  1.  It  is  eternal,  being  made  before  time. 
Eph.  i.  3,  4.  •  2  Tim.  i.  9  —2.  Divine  ;>.s  to  its 
origin,  springing  entirely  from  free  grace,  Rom. 
si.  5,  6.  Ps.  lxxxix.  2,  "3.  28.-3.  It  is  absolute 
and  unconditional,  Eph.  ii  8,  '.').— 4.  It  is  perfect 
and  complete,  wanting  nothing,  2  Sam.  xxiii.  5  — 
5.  It  is  sure  and  immoveable,  Isa.  liv.  10.  Iv.  3  — 
1 


COVENANT 
(>.  Called  new  in  opposition  to  the  old,  and  as  its 

blessings  will  be  always  new,  1  [eb.  \iii.  6.  8. 

IV.  These  two  covenants  above-mentioned 
agree  in  some  things,  in  others  they  differ.  1. 
"In  both,"  says  Wit  si  us,  "  tho  parties  concerned 
are  God  and  man. — 2.  In  both,  the  same  promise 
of  eternal  life. — 3.  The  condition  of  both  is  the 
sum  •,  perfect  obedience  to  the  law  prescribed ;  for 
it  is  not  worthy  of  God  to  admit  man  to  a  blessed 
communion  with  liim  but  in  the  way  of  holiness. — 
•J.  In  both  is  the  same  vn:\,  the  glory  of  God. 
But  they  differ  io  the  following  respects:  1.  In 
the  covenant  of  works,  the  character  or  relation 
of  God  is  that  of  a  supreme  lawgiver,  and  the 
chief  good,  rejoicing  to  communicate  happiness 
to  his  creatures.  In  the  covenant  of  grace  he 
appears  as  infinitely  merciful,  adjudging  life  to 
the  elect  sinner,  agreeably  to  his  wisdom  and  jus- 
tice.— 2.  In  the  covenant  of  works  there  was  no 
mediator:  the  covenant  of  grace  has  a  mediator, 
Christ. — 3.  In  the  covenant  of  works,  the  condi- 
tion of  perfect  obedience  was  required  to  be  per- 
formed by  man  himself  in  covenant.  In  the  co- 
venant oi"  grace  the  same  condition  is  proposed, 
but  to  be  performed  by  a  mediator. — 1.  In  the 
covenant  of  works  man  is  considered  as  working, 
and  the  reward  is  to  be  given  of  debt.  In  the 
covenant  of  grace  the  man  in  covenant  is  consi- 
dered as  believing ;  eternal  life  being  given  as  the 
merit  of  the  mediator,  out  of  free  grace,  which 
excludes  all  boasting. — 5.  In  the  covenant  of 
works  something  is  required  as  a  condition,  which 
being  performed,  entitles  to  reward.  The  cove- 
nant of  grace  consists  not  of  conditions,  but  of 
promises  :  the  life  to  be  obtained ;  faith,  by  which 
we  are  made  partakers  of  Christ;  perseverance, 
and,  in  a  word,  the  whole  of  salvation,  are  abso- 
lutely promised. — 6.  The  special  end  of  the  co- 
venant of  works  was  the  manifestation  of  the 
holiness,  goodness,  and  justice  of  God ;  but  the 
special  end  of  the  covenant  of  grace,  is  the  praise 
of  the  glory  of  his  grace,  and  the  revelation  of 
his  unsearchable  and  manifold  wisdom." — 7.  The 
covenant  of  works  was  only  for  a  time,  but  the 
covenant  of  grace  stands  sure  for  ever. 

V.  The  administration  of  the  covenant  of 
grace.  The  covenant  of  grace,  under  the  Old 
Testament,  was  exhibited  by  promises,  sacrifices, 
types,  ordinances,  and  prophecies.  Under  the 
New  it  is  administered  in  the  preaching  of  the 
Gospel,  baptism,  and  the  Lord's  Supper;  in  which 
grace  and  salvation  are  held  forth  in  more  fulness, 
evidence,  and  erlicacy  ^o  all  nations,  2  Cor.  iii.  6 — 
18.  Heb.  viii.  Matt,  xxviii.  19,  20.  But  in  both 
periods,  the  mediator,  the  whole  substance,  bless- 
ings, and  manner  of  obtaining  an  interest,  therein 
by  faith,  are  the  very  same,  without  any  differ- 
ence, Heb.  xi.  (!.  Gal.  iii.  7.  14.  The  reader, 
who  may  wish  to  have  a  more  enlarged  view  of 
this  subject,  may  peruse  Witsius,  Strong,  or 
Boston  on  the  Covenants,  in  the  former  of 
which  especially  he  will  find  the  subject  masterly 
handled. 

COVENANT,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  denotes  a 
contract  or  convention  agreed  toby  the  Scotch,  in 
the  year  1638,  for  maintaining  their  religion  free 
from  innovation.  In  1681,  the  general  assembly 
of  Scotland  drew  up  a  confession  of  faith,  or  na- 
tional covenant,  condemning  episcopal  govern- 
ment, under  the  name  of  hierarchy,  which  was 
signed  by  James  1.  and  which  he  enjoined  on  all 
his  subjects.  It  was  again  subscribed  in  1590 
98 


COVETOUSNESS 
and   159G.     The  subscription  was  renewed  in 
1638,   and  the  subscribers  engaged  by  oath  to 

maintain  religion  in  the  same  state  as  it  was  in 
1580,  and  to  reject  all  innovations  introduced 
since  that  time.  This  oath,  annexed  to  the  con- 
fession of  faith,  received  the  name  of  Covenant, 
as  those  who  subscribed  it  were  called  Covenant- 
ers. 

Solemn  league  and  covenant  was  established  in 
the  year  1643,  and  formed  a  bond  of  union  be- 
tween Scotland  and  England.  It  was  sworn  to 
and  subscribed  by  many  in  both  nations ;  who 
hereby  solemnly  abjured  popery  and  prelacy,  and 
combined  together  for  their  mutual  defence.  It 
was  approved  by  the  parliament  and  assembly  at 
Westminster,  and  ratified  by  the  general  assem- 
bly of  Scotland  in  1045. — King  Charles  I.  disap- 
proved of  it  when  he  surrendered  himself  to  the 
Scots  army  in  1646 ;  but,  in  1650,  Charles  II. 
declared  his  approbation  both  of  this  and  the  na- 
tional covenant  by  a  solemn  oath ;  and,  in  Au- 
gust of  the  same  year,  made  a  further  declaration 
at  Dunfermline  to  the  same  purpose,  which  was 
also  renewed  on  occasion  of  his  coronation  at 
Scone,  in  1651.  The  covenant  was  ratified  by 
parliament  in  this  year ;  and  the  subscription  of 
it  was  required  by  every  member,  without  which 
the  constitution  of  the  parliament  was  declared 
null  and  void.  It  produced  a  series  of  distrac- 
tions in  the  subsequent  history  of  that  country, 
and  was  voted  illegal  by  parliament,  and  provi- 
sion made  against  it.     Stat.  14  Car.  II.  c.  4. 

COVETOUSNESS,  an  unreasonable  desire 
after  that  we  have  not,  with  a  dissatisfaction  with 
what  we  have.  It  may  further  be  considered  a* 
consisting  in,  1.  An  anxious  carking  care  abenu 
the  things  of  this  world. — 2.  A  rapacity  in  tret 
ting.— 3.  Too  frequently  includes  sinister  and  ille- 
gal ways  of  obtaining  wealth. — L  A  tenacious- 
ness  in  keeping.  It  is  a  vice  which  marvellously 
prevails  upon  and  insinuates  itself  into  the  heart 
of  man,  and  for  these  reasons :  it  often  bears  a 
near  resemblance  to  virtue  ;  brings  with  it  many 
plausible  reasons  ;  and  raises  a  man  to  a  state  of 
reputation  on  account  of  his  riches.  "  There 
cannot  be,"  as  one  observes,  "a  more  unreason- 
able sin  than  this.  It  is  unjust;  only  to  covet,  is  to 
wish  to  be  unjust.  It  is  cruel;  the  covetous  must 
harden  themselves  against  a  thousand  plaintive 
voices.  It  is  ungrateful;  such  forget  their  former 
obligations  and  their  present  supporters.  It  is 
foolish;  it  destroys  reputation,  breaks  the  rest, 
unfits  for  the  performance  of  duty,  and  is  a  con- 
tempt of  God  himself:  it  is  unprecedented  in  all 
our  examples  of  virtue  mentioned  in  the  Scrip- 
ture. One,  indeed,  spoke  unadvisedly  with  his 
lips  ;  another  cursed  and  swore ;  a  third  was  in  a 
passion;  and  a  fourth  committed  adultery;  but 
which  of  the  saints  ever  lived  in  the  habit  of  co- 
vetousnessl  Lastly,  it  is  idolatry,  Col.  iii.  5,  the 
idolatry  of  the  heart ;  where,  as  in  a  temple,  the 
miserable  wretch  excludes  God,  sets  up  gold  in- 
stead of  him,  and  places  that  confidence  in  it 
which  belongs  to  the  Great  Supreme  alone."  Let 
those  who  live  in  the  habitual  practice  of  it  con- 
sider the  judgments  that  have  been  inflicted  on 
such  characters,  Josh.  vii.  21.  Acts  v. ;  the  misery 
with  which  it  is  attended  ,  the  curse  such  persons 
are  to  society ;  the  denunciations  and  cautions 
respecting  it  in  the  Holy  Scripture;  and  how 
effectually  it  bars  nien  from  God,  from  happiness, 
and  from  heaven.  Scott's  Essays  72,  73.  South'* 


COUNCIL 
Scrm.,  vol.  iv.  ser.  1.  Robinson's  Mor.  Exercises, 
ex.  iv.  Saurin's  Serin,  vol.  v.  ser.  13.  Eng.  trans. 

COUNCIL,  an  assembly  of  persons  met  t(- 
gether  for  the  purpose  of  consultation  ;  an  assem- 
bly of  deputies  or  commissioners  sent  from  seve- 
ral churches,  associated  by  certain  bonds  in  a 
general  body,  Acts  i.  vi.  xv.  xxi. 

Council,  (Ecumenical  or  General,  is  an  ar.- 
Femblv  which  represents  the  whole  body  of  the 
Christian  church.  The  Romanists  reckon  eigh- 
teen of  them,  Builinger  six,  Dr.  Pridcaux  seven, 
and  bishop  Beveridge  eight,  which,  he  says,  are 
all  the  general  councils  which  hjtve  ever  been  held 
since  the  time  of  the  first  Christian  emperor. 
They  are  as  follow: — 1.  The  council  of  Nice, 
held  in  the  reign  of  Constantino  the  Great,  on 
account  of  the  heresy  of  Arius. — 2.  The  council 
of  Constantinople,  called  under  the  reign  and  by 
the  command  of  Theodosius  the  Great,  for  much 
the  same  end  that  the  former  council  was  sum- 
moned.— 3.  The  council  of  Ephesus,  convened 
by  Theodosius  the  Younger,  at  the  suit  of  Nes- 
torius. — 4.  The  council  at  Chalcedon,  held  in 
the  reign  of  Marcianus,  which  approved  of  the 
Eutychian  heresy. — 5.  The  second  council  of 
Constantinople,  assembled  by  the  emperor  Justi- 
nian, condemned  the  three  chapters  taken  out  of 
the  book  of  Theodorusof  Mopsuestia,  having  first 
decided  that  it  was  lawful  to  anathematize  the 
dead.  Some  authors  tell  us  that  they  likewise 
condemned  the  several  errors  of  Origen  about  the 
Trinity,  the  plurality  of  worlds,  and  prc-existence 
of  souls. — 6.  The  third  council  of  Constantinople, 
held  by  the  command  of  Constantius  Pogonatus, 
the  emperor,  in  which  they  received  thc^lcfinitions 
of  the  first  live  general  councils,  and  particularly 
(hat  against  Origen  and  Theodorus  of  Mopsues- 
tia.— 7.  The  second  Nicene  council. — 8.  The 
fourth  council  of  Constantinople,  assembled  when 
Louis  II.  was  emperor  of  the  West.  Their  regu- 
lations are  contained  in  twenty-seven  canons,  the 
heads  of  which  the  reader  may  find  in  Dupin. 
Whatever  may  be  said  in  favour  of  general  coun- 
cils, their  utility  has  been  doubted  by  some  of  the 
wisest  men.  Dr.  Jortin  says,  "they  have  been 
too  much  extolled  by  Papists,  and  by  some  Pro- 
testants. They  were  a  collection  of  men  who 
were  frail  and  fallible.  Some  of  those  councils 
were  not  assemblies  of  pious  and  learned  divines, 
but  cabals,  the  majority  of  which  were  quarrel- 
some, fanatical,  domineering,  dishonest  prelates, 
who  wanted  to  compel  men  to  approve  all  their 
opinions,  of  which  they  themselves  had  no  clear 
conceptions,  and  to  anathematize  and  oppress 
those  who  would  not  implicitly  submit  to  their 
determinations."  Jortin' s  Works,  vol, viL charge 2; 
Br  ought  oris  Did.;  Mosheim's  Eccl.  Hist.,  Index. 

Councils,  Provincial  or  Occasional,  have been 
numerous.  At  Aix-la-Chapelle,  A.  D.  81(3,  a 
council  was  held  for  regulating  the  canons  of  ca- 
thedral churches.  The  council  of  Savonnieries, 
in  859,  was  the  first  which  gave  thrf. title  of  Most 
Chris! ian  King  to  the  King  of  France ;  but  it  did 
not  become  the  peculiar  appellation  of  that  sove- 
reign till  1 169.  Of  Troyes,  in  887,  to  decide  the 
disputes  about  the  imperial  dignity.  The  second 
council  of  Troyes,  1107,  restrains  the  clergy  from 
marrying.  The  council  of  Clermont,  in  1095. 
The  first  crusade  was  determined  in  this  council. 
The  bishops  had  yet  the  precedency  of  cardinals. 
In  this  assembly  the  name  of  Pope  was  for  the 
first  time  given  to  the  head  of  the  church,  exclu- 
99 


CREATION 

si  very  of  the  bishops,  who  used  to  assume  that 
title.  Here,  also,  Hugh,  archbishop  of  Lyons, 
obtained  of  the  pope  a  confirmation  of  the  primacy 
of  his  see  over  that  of  Sens.  The  council  of 
Rheims,  summoned  by  Eugenius  III.  in  1148, 
called  an  assembly  of  Cisastrian  Gaul,  in  which 
advowees,  or  patrons  of  churches,  are  prohibited 
taking  more  than  ancient  fees,  upon  pain  of  de- 
privation and  ecclesiastical  burial.  Bishops,  dea- 
cons, subdeacons,  monks,  and  nuns,  are  restrain- 
ed from  marrying.  In  this  council  the  doctrine 
of  the  Trinity  was  decided  :  but  upon  separation 
the  pope  called  a  congregation,  in  which  the  car- 
dinals pretended  they  had  no  right  to  judge  of 
doctrinal  points ;  that  this  was  the  privilege  pe- 
culiar to  the  pope.  The  council  of  Sutrium,  in 
1046,  wherein  three  popes  who  had  assumed  the 
chair  were  deposed.  The  council  of  Clarendon  in 
England,  against  Becket,  held  in  1164.  The 
council  of  Lombcz,  in  the  country  of  Albigeois,  in 
1200,  occasioned  by  some  disturbances  on  account 
of  the  Albigenses;  a  crusade  was  formed  on  this 
account,  and  an  army  sent  to  extirpate  them.  In- 
nocent III.  spirited  up  this  barbarous  war.  Do- 
minic was  the  apostle,  the  count  of  Toulouse  the 
■victim,  and  Simon,  count  of  Montfort,  the  con- 
ductor or  chief.  The  council  of  Paris,  in  1210,  in 
which  Aristotle's  metaphysics  were  condemned 
to  the  flames,  lest  the  refinements  of  that  philoso- 
pher should  have  a  bad  tendency  on  men's  minds, 
by  applying  those  subjects  to  religion.  The  coun- 
cil of  Pisa,  begun  March  the  2d,  1409,  in  which 
Benedict  XI 11.  and  Gregory  XII.  were  deposed. 
Another  council,  sometimes  called  general,  held 
at  Pisa,  in  1505.  Lewis  XII.  of  France  assem- 
bled a  national  council  at  Tours  (being  highly 
disgusted  with  the  pope,)  1510,  where  was  present 
the  cardinal  De  Gurce,  deputed  by  the  emperor; 
and  it  was  then  agreed  to  convene  a  general  coun- 
cil at  Pisa.     Murray's  History  of  Religion* 

Council  of  Trent.     See  Trent. 

COURAGE  is  that  quality  of  the  mind  that 
enables  men  to  encounter  difficulties  and  dangers. 
Natural  courage  is  that  which  arises  chiefly  from 
constitution  ;  moral  or  spiritual  is  that  which  is 
produced  from  principle,  or  a  sense  of  duty.  Cou- 
rage and  fortitude  are  often  used  as  synonymous, 
but  they  may  be  distinguished  thus  :  fortitude  is 
firmness  of  mind  that  supports  pain;  courage  is 
active  fortitude,  that  meets  dangers,  and  attempts 
to  repel  them.  See  Fortitude.  Courage,  savs 
Addison,  that  grows  from  constitution,  very  often 
forsakes  a  man  when  he  has  occasion  for  it ;  and 
when  it  is  only  a  kind  of  instinct  in  the  soul,  it 
breaks  out  on  all  occasions  without  judgment  or 
discretion ;  but  that  courage  which  arises  from  a 
sense  of  duty,  and  from  a  fear  of  offending  Him 
that  made  us,  always  acts  in  an  uniform  manner, 
and  according  to  the  dictates  of  right  reason. 

CREATION,  in  its  primary  import,  signifies 
the  bringing  into  being  something  which  did  not 
before  exist.  The  term  is  therefore  most  gene- 
rally applied  to  the  original  production  of  the 
materials  whereof  the  visible  world  is  composed. 
It  is  also  used  in  a  secondary  or  subordinate  sense, 
to  denote  those  subsequent  operations  of  the  Deity 
upon  the  matter  so  produced,  by  which  the  whole 
system  of  Nature,  and  all  the  primitive  genera  of 
tilings,  receive  their  form,  qualities,  and  laws. 

There  is  no  subject  concerning  which  learned 
men  have  differed  hi  their  conjectures  more  than 
in  this  of  creation.     "It  is  certain,"   as  a  good 


CREATION 
writer  observes,  "that  none  of  the  .indent  philo- 
sophers had  the  smallest  idea  of  its  being  possible 
to  produce  a  substance  out  of  nothing,  or  that 
even  the  power  of  the  Deity  himself  could  work 
without  any  materials  to  work  upon.  Hence, 
some  of  them,  among  whom  was  Aristotle,  as- 
serted that  the  world  was  eternal,  both  as  to  its 
matter  and  form.  Others,  though  they  believed 
that  the  gods  had  given  the  world  its  form,  yet 
imagined  the  materials  whereof  it  is  composed  to 
have  heen  eternal.  Indeed,  the  opinions  of  the 
ancients,  who  had  not  the  benefit  of  revelation, 
were  on  this  head  so  confused  and  contradictory, 
that  nothing  of  any  consequence  can  be  deduced 
from  them.  The  free-thinkers  of  our  own  and 
of  former  ages  have  denied  the  possibility  of  cre- 
ation, as  being  a  contradiction  to  reason;  and  of 
consequence  nave  taken  the  opportunity  from 
thence  to  discredit  revelation.  On  the  other  hand, 
many  defenders  of  the  sacred  writings  have  as- 
serted that  creation  out  of  nothing,  so  far  from 
being  a  contradiction  to  reason,  is  not  only  pro- 
bable, but  demonstrably  certain.  Nay,  some  have 
gone  so  far  as  to  say,  that  from  the  very  inspec- 
tion of  the  visible  system  of  Nature,  we  are  able 
to  infer  that  it  was  once  in  a  state  of  non-exist- 
ence." We  cannot,  however,  here  enter  into  the 
multiplicity  of  the  arguments  on  both  sides ;  it  is 
enough  for  us  to  know  what  God  has  been  pleased 
to  reveal,  both  concerning  himself  and  the  works 
of  his  hands.  Men,  and  other  animals  that  in- 
habit the  earth  and  the  seas;  all  the  immense  va- 
rieties of  herbs  and  plants  of  which  the  vegetable 
kingdom  consists ;  the  globe  of  the  earth ;  and  the 
expanse  of  the  ocean,  these  we  know  to  have  been 
produced  by  his  power.  Besides  the  terrestrial 
world,  which  we  inhabit,  we  see  many  other  ma- 
terial bodies  disposed  around  it  in  the  wide  extent 
of  space.  The  moon,  which  is  in  a  particular 
manner  connected  with  our  earth,  and  even  de- 
pendent upon  it;  the  sun,  and  the  other  planets, 
with  their  satellites,  which  like  'the  earth  cir- 
culate round  the  sun,  and  appear  to  derive  from 
him  light  and  heat;  those  bodies  which  we  call 
lived  stars,  and  consider  as  illuminating  and  che- 
rishing with,  heat  each  its  peculiar  system  of  pla- 
nets; and  the  comets  which  at  certain  periods 
surprise  us  with  their  appearance,  and  the  na- 
ture of  whose  connexion  with  the  general  system 
of  Nature,  or  with  any  particular  system  of 
planets,  we  cannot  pretend  to  have  fully  disco- 
vered; these  are  so  many  more  of  the  Deity's 
works,  from  the  contemplation  of  which  we  can- 
not but  conceive  the  most  awful  ideas  of  liis  cre- 
ative power. 

"Matter,  however,  whatever  the  varieties  of 
form  under  which  it  is  made  to  appear,  the  rela- 
tive disposition  of  its  parts,  or  the  motions  com- 
municated to  it,  is  but  an  inferior  part  of  the 
works  of  creation.  We  believe  ourselves  to  be 
animated  with  a  much  higher  principle  than 
brute  matter;  in  viewing  the  manners  and  eco- 
nomy of  the  lower  animals,  we  can  scarce  avoid 
acknowledging  even  them  to  consist  of  something 
more  than  various  modifications  of  matter  and 
motion.  The  other  planetary  bodies,  which  seem 
to  be  in  circumstances  nearly  analogous  to  those 
of  our  earth,  are  surely,  as  well  as  it,  destined  for 
the  habitations  of  rational,  intelligent  beings. 
The  existence  <,\'  intelligences  of  an  higher  or- 
der than  man,  though  infinitely  below  the  Deity, 
appears  extremely  prolwble.  Of  these  spiritual 
100 


CREATION 

beings,  called  angels,  we  have  express  intimation 
in  Scripture  (see  the  article  Angel.)  But  the 
limits  of  the  creation  we  must  not  pretend  to  de- 
fine. How  far  the  regions  of  space  extend,  or 
how  they  are  filled,  we  know  not.  How  the 
planetary  worlds,  the  sun,  and  the  fixed  stars  are 
occupied,  we  do  not  pretend  to  have  ascertained. 
We  are  even  ignorant  how  wide  a  diversity  of 
forms,  what  an  infinity  of  living  animated  beings 
may  inhabit  our  own  globe.  So  confined  is  oui 
knowledge  of  creation,  yet  so  grand,  so  awful, 
that  part  which  our  narrow  understandings  can 
comprehend.         i 

"Concerning  the  periods  of  time  at  which  the 
Deity  executed  his  several  works,  it  cannot  be 
pretended  that  mankind  have  had  opportunities 
of  receiving  very  particular  information.     Many 
have  heen  the  conjectures,  and  curious  the  fan- 
cies of  learned  men,  respecting  it ;  but,  after  all, 
we  must  be  indebted  to  the  sacred  writings  for 
the  best  information."     Different  copies,  indeed, 
give  different  dates.     The  Hebrew  copy  of  the 
Bible,  which  we  Christians,  for  good  reasons,  con- 
sider as  the  most  authentic,  dates  the  creation  of 
the  world  3944  years  before  the  Christian  era. 
The  Samaritan  Bible,  again,  fixes  the  era  of  the 
creation  4305  years  before  the  birth  of  Christ. 
And  the  Greek  translation,  known  by  the  name 
of  the    Septuagint  version  of  the   Bible,  gives 
5370  as  the  number  of  the  years  which  inter- 
vened between  these  two  periods.  By  comparing 
the  various  dates  in  the  sacred  writings,  examin 
ing  ho-.v  these  have  come  to  disagree,  and  to  be 
diversified  in  different  copies ;  endeavouring  to 
reconcile  the  most  authentic  profane  with  sacred 
chronology,   some  ingenious  men  have   formed 
schemes  of  chronology  plausible,  indeed,  hut  not 
supported  by  sufficient  authorities,  which  they 
would  gladly  persuade  us  to  receive  in  preference 
to  any  of  those  above  mentioned.     Usher  makes 
out  from  the  Hebrew  Bible  4004  years  as  the 
term  between  the  creation  and  the  birth  of  Christ, 
Josephus,  according  to  Dr.  Wills  and  Mr.  Whis- 
ton,  makes  it  4G58  years;  and  M.  Pezron,  with 
the  help  of  the  Septuagint,  extends  it  to  5872 
years.     Usher's  system  is  the  most  generally  re- 
ceived.    But  though  these  different  systems  of 
chronology  are  so  inconsistent,  and  so  slenderly 
supported,  yet  the  differences  among  them  are 
so  inconsiderable  in  comparison  with  those  which 
arise  before  us  when  we  contemplate  the  chrono- 
logy of   the    Chinese,   the  Chaldeans,  and  the 
Egyptians,  and  they  agree  so  well  with  the  gene- 
ral information  of  authentic  history,  and  with  the 
appearances  of  nature  and  of  society,  that  they 
may   be   considered   as   nearly  fixing   the   true 
period  of  the  creation  of  the  earth."     Uncertain, 
however,  as  we  may  be  as  to  the  exact  tune  of 
the  creation,  we  may  profitably  apply  ourselves 
to  the  contemplation  of  this  immense  fabric     In- 
deed, the  beautiful  and  multiform  works  around 
us  must  strike  the  mind  of  every  beholder  with 
wonder  and  admiration,  unless  he  be  enveloped 
in  ignorance,  and  chained  down  to  the  earth  with 
sensuality.     These  works    every  way  proclaim 
the  wisdem,  the  power,  and  the  goodness  of  the 
Creator.     Creation  is  a  took  which   the  nicest 
philosopher  may  study  with  the  deepest  attention. 
Unlike  the  works  of  art,  the  more  it  is  examined, 
the  more  it  opens  to  us  sources  of  admiration  of 
its  great  Author;  the  more  it  calls  for  our  inspec- 
tion, and  the  more  it  demands  our  praise.    Here 


CREED 

every  thing  is  adjusted  in  the  exactcst  order;  all 
answering  the  wisest  ends,  and  acting  according 
to  the  appointed  laws  of  Deity.  Here  the  Chris- 
tian is  led  into  the  most  delightful  field  of  con- 
templation. To  him  every  pehhle  becomes  a 
preacher,  and  every  atom  a  step  by  which  he  as- 
cends to  his  Creator.  Placed  in  this  beautiful 
temple,  and  looking  around  on  all  its  various 
parts,  he  cannot  help  joining  with  the  Psalmist  in 
saying,  "  O  Lord,  how  manifold  are  thy  works ; 
in  wisdom  hast  thou  made  them  all !"  See  Eter- 
nity of  God. 

See  Ray  and  Blaekmore  on  the  Creation ; 
art.  Creation'.  Enc.  Brit.;  Dcr ham's  Astro  and 
Physico-thcology ;  Harvey's  Meditation ;  ha 
Pluchc's  Nature  Displayed;  Sturm's  Reflec- 
tions on  the  Works  of  God. 

CREDULITY,  the  belief  of  any  proposition 
without  sufficient  evidence  of  its  truth. 

CREED,  a  form  of  words  in  which  the  ar- 
ticles of  faith  are  comprehended.  See  Confes- 
sion. 

The  most  ancient  form  of  creeds  is  that  which 
goes  under  the  name  of  the  Apostles'  Creed  (see 
below) ;  besides  this,  there  are  several  other  an- 
cient forms  and  scattered  remains  of  creeds  to  be 
met  with  in  the  primitive  records  of  the  church ; 
as, — 1.  The  form  of  apostolical  doctrine  collected 
by  Origen. — 2.  A  fragment  of  a  creed  preserved 
by  Tertullian. — 3.  A  remnant  of  a  creed  in  the 
works''  of  Cyprian. — 4.  A  creed  composed  by 
Gregory  Thaumaturgus  for  the  use  of  his  own 
church. — 5.  The  creed  of  Lucian,  the.  martyr. 
(J.  The  creed  of  the  apostolical  constitutions. 
Besides  these  scattered  remains  of  the  ancient 
creeds,  there  are  extant  some  perfect  forms,  as 
those  of  Jerusalem,  Cesarea,  Antioch,  &c, 

CREED,  APOSTLES',  is  a  formula  or  sum- 
mary of  the  Christian  faith,  drawn  up,  according 
to  Ruffinus,  by  the  apostles  themselves;  who, 
during  their  stay  at  Jerusalem,  soon  after  our 
Lord's  ascension,  agreed  upon  this  creed  as  a  rule 
of  faith.  Bnronius  and  others  conjecture  that 
they  did  not  compose  it  till  the  second  year  of 
Claudius,  a  little  before  their  dispersion;  but 
there  are  many  reasons  which  induce  us  to  ques- 
tion whether  the  apostles  composed  any  such 
creed.  For,  1.  Neither  St.  Luke,  nor  any  other 
writer  before  the  fifth  century,  make  any  men- 
tion of  an  assembly  of  the  apostles  for  composing 
a  creed. — 2.  The  fathers  of  the  first  three  centu- 
ries, in  disputing  against  the  heretics,  endeavour 
to  prove  that  the  doctrine  contained  in  this  creed 
was  the  same  which  the  apostles  taught;  but 
they  never  pretend  that  the  apostles  composed  it. 
3.  If  the  apostles  had  made  this  creed,  it  would  have 
been  the  same  in  all  churches  and  in  all  ages ;  and 
all  authors  would  have  cited  it  after  the  same  man- 
ner. But  the  case  is  quite  otherwise.  In  the  se- 
cond and  third  ages  of  the  church  there  were  as 
many  creeds  as  authors;  and  the  same  author  sets 
down  the  creed  after  a  different  manner  in  seve- 
ral places  of  his  works ;  which  is  an  evidence, 
that  there  was  not,  at  that  time,  any  creed  reput- 
ed to  be  the  apostles'.  In  the  fourth  century, 
Ruffinus  compares  together  the  three  ancient 
creeds  of  the  churches  of  Aquileia,  Rome,  and 
the  East,  which  differ  very  considerably.  Be- 
sides, these  creeds  differed  not  only  in  the  terms 
and  expressions,  but  even  in  the  articles,  some 
of  which  were  omitted  in  one  or  othcT  of  them ; 
such  as  those  of  the  descent  into  hell,  the  com- 
101 


CRISPITES 

munion  of  the  saints,  and  the  life  everlasting. 
From  all  which  it  may  be  gathered,  that  though 
this  creed  may  be  said  to  be  that  of  the  apostles, 
in  regard  to  the  doctrines  contained  therein,  yet 
it  cannot  be  referred  to  them  as  the  authors  of  it. 
Its  great  antiquity,  however,  may  be  inferred 
from  hence,  that  the  whole  form,  as  it  now 
stands  in  the  English  liturgy,  is  to  be  found  in 
the  works  of  St.  Ambrose  and  Ruffinus;  the 
former  of  whom  flourished  in  the  third,  and  the 
latter  in  the  fourth  century.  The  primitive 
Christians  did  not  publicly  recite  the  creed,  ex- 
cept at  baptisms,  which,  unless  in  cases  of  neces- 
sity, were  only  at  Easter  and  Whitsuntide.  The 
constant  repeating  of  it  was  not  introduced  into 
the  church  till  the  end  of  the  fifth  century ;  about 
which  time  Peter  Gnaphius,  bishop  of  Antioch, 
prescribed  the  recital  of  it  every  time  divine  ser- 
vice was  performed.  See  King's  History  of  the 
Apostles'  Creed;  and  Barrow's  Exposition  of  it, 
in  his  Works,  vol.  ii. 

CREED,  ATHANASIAN,  a  formulary  or 
confession  of  faith,  long  supposed  to  have  l>een 
drawn  up  by  Athanasius,  bishop  of  Alexandria, 
in  the  .fourth  century,  to  justify  himself  against 
the  calumnies  of  his  Arian  enemies ;  but  it  is  now 
generally  allowed  not  to  have  been  his.  Dr.  Wa- 
terland  ascribes  it  to  Hilary,  bishop  of  Aries. 
This  creed  obtained  in  France  about  A.  D.  850, 
and  was  received  in  Spain  and  Germany  about 
180  years  later.  As  to  our  own  country,  we  have 
clear  proofs  of  its  being  sung  alternately  in  our 
churches,  in  the  tenth  century.  It  was  in  common 
use  in  some  parts  of  Italy  in  9C0,  and  was  receiv- 
ed at  Rome  about  1014.  As  to  the  Greek  and 
Oriental  churches,  it  has  been  questioned  whether 
they  have  ever  received  it,  though  some  writers 
are  of  a  contrary  persuasion.  The  episcopal 
churches  of  America  have  rejected  it.  As  to  the 
matter  of  it,  it  is  given  as  a  summary  of  the  true 
orthodox  faith.  Unhappily,  however,  it  has  proved 
a  fruitful  source  of  unprofitable  controversy.  See 
Dr.  Waterland's  Critical  History  of  it. 

CREED,  NICENE,  a  formulary  of  Christian 
faith ;  so  called,  because  it  is  a  paraphrase  of  that 
creed  which  was  made  at  the.  first  general  council 
of  Nice.  This  latter  was  drawn  up  by  the  second 
general  council  of  Constantinople,  A.  D.  381 ; 
and  therefore  might  be  more  properly  styled  the 
Constantinopolitan  creed.  The  creed  was  car- 
ried by  a  majority,  and  admitted  into  the  church 
as  a  barrier  against  Arius  and  his  followers. 

The  three  creeds  above  mentioned  are  used  in 
the  public,  offices  of  the  church  of  England,  and 
subscription  to  them  is  required  of  all  the  esta- 
blished clergy.  Subscription  to  these  was  also 
required  of  the  dissenting  teachers  by  the  Tolera- 
tion Act ;  but  from  which  they  are  now  relieved  by 
19  Geo.  III. 

CRIME,  a  voluntary  breach  cf  any  known 
law.  Faults  result  from  human  weakness,  being 
transgressions  of  the  rules  of  duty.  Crimes  pro- 
ceed from  the  wickedness  of  the  heart,  being  ac- 
tions against  the  rules  of  nature.  See  Punish- 
ment and  Sin. 

CRISPITES,  those  who  adopt  the  sentiments 
of  Dr.  Crisp,  a  divine  of  the  seventeenth  century. 
He  was  fond,  it  is  said,  of  expressions  which 
alarm,  and  paradoxes  which  astonish;  and  per- 
plexed himself  much  about  the  divine  purposes. 
He  did  not  distinguish  as  he  ought,  between 
God's  secret  will  in  his  decrees,  and  his  revealed 
j  2 


CROISADE 
will  in  his  covenant  and  promises.  The  root  of 
his  emir  seems  to  be  this.-— he  viewed  the  union 
between  Christ  and  the  believer  to  be  of  such  a 
kind  as  actually  to  make  a  Saviour  of  the  sinner. 
and  a  sinner  of  the  Saviour,  lie  speaks  as  if 
God  considered  the  sinner  as  doing  and  Buffering 
what  Christ  did  and  Buffered  ;  and  Christ  as  hav- 
ing committed  their  sins,  and  as  being  actually 
guilty  of  them.  See  books  under  articles  Anti- 
nomy ns  and  Neonomuns.  Crisp's  Scrmo?is, 
edited  by  Dr.  Gill;  Bogue  and  Bennett's  His- 
tory of  Dissenters,  vol.  i.  p.  400. 

CROISADE,  orCROSADE,  may  be  applied  to 
any  war  undertaken  on  pretence  of  defending  the 
cause  of  religion,  hut  has  been  chiefly  used  for  the 
expeditions  of  the  Christians  against  the  infidels 
for  the  conquest  of  Palestine. 

These  expeditions  commenced  A.  D.  109G. 
The  foundation  of  them  was  a  superstitious  vene- 
ration for  those  places  where  our  Saviour  per- 
formed his  miracles  and  accomplished  the  work 
of  man's  redemption.  Jerusalem  had  been  taken 
and  Palestine  conquered  by  Omar.  This  proved 
a  considerable  interruption  to  the  pilgrims,  who 
flocked  from  all  quarters  to  perform  their  devo- 
tions at  the  holy  sepulchre.  They  had,  however, 
still  been  allowed  this  liberty,  on  paying  a  small 
tribute  to  the  Saracen  caliphs,  who  were  not  much 
inclined  to  molest  them.  But,  in  10G4,  this  city 
changed  its  masters.  The  Turks  took  it  from 
the  Saracens ;  and  being  much  more  fierce  and 
barbarous,  the  pilgrims  now  found  they  could  no 
longer  perform  their  devotions  with  the  same 
safety.  An  opinion  was  about  this  time  also 
prevalent  in  Europe,  which  made  these  pilgrim- 
ages much  more  frequent  than  formerly:  it  was 
imagined  that  the  1006  years  mentioned  in  Rev. 
x:c.  were  fulfilled;  that  Christ  was  soon  to  make 
his  appearance  in  Palestine  to  judge  the  world; 
and  consequently  that  journeys  to  that  country 
were  in  the  highest  degree  meritorious,  and  even 
absolutely  necessary.  The  multitudes  of  pilgrims 
who  now  flocked  to  Palestine,  meeting  with  a  very 
rough  reception  from  the  Turks,  filled  all  Europe 
with  complaints  against  those  infidels,  who  pro- 
fused  the  holy  dty,  and  derided  the  sacred  mys- 
teries of  Christianity  even  in  the  place  where  they 
were  fulfilled.  Pope  Gregory  VII.  had  formed  a 
design  of  uniting  all  the  princes  of  Christendom 
against  the  Mahometans  ;  but.  his  exorbitant  en- 
croachments upon  the  civil  power  of  princes  had 
created  him  so  many  enemies,  and  rendered  his 
schemes  so  suspicious,  that  he  was  not  able  to 
make  great  progress  isi  his  undertaking.  The 
work  was  reserved  for  a  meaner  instrument.  Pe- 
ter, commonly  called  the  Hermit,  a  native  of 
Amiens,  in  1'icardv,  had  made  the  pilgrimage  to 
Jerusalem;  ami  being  deeply  affected  with  the 
(i  tngera  to  which  that  act  of  piety  now  exposed 
the  pilgrims,  as  well  as  with  the  oppression  under 
which  the  eastern  Christians  now  laboured,  form- 
ed the  hold,  and,  in  all  appearance,  impracticable 
design  of  leading  into  Asia,  from  the  farthest  ex- 
tremities of  the  West,  armies  sufficient  to  subdue 
those  potent  and  warlike  nations  that  now  held 
the  holy  land  i,i  slavery.  1  le  proposed  his  scheme 
ti  pope  Martin  11.,  who,  prudently  resolving  not 
to  interpose  his  authority  till  he  saw  a  probability 
of  success,  summoned  sit  Placentiaa  council  of 
■1000  ecclesiastics,  and  30,000  seculars.  As  no 
hall  could  be  found  large  enough  to  contain  such 
a  multitude  the  assembly  was  held  in  a  plain. 
103 


CROISADE 

Here  the  pope  himself,  as  well  as  Peter,  ha- 
rangued the  people,  representing  the  dismal  situa- 
tion of  their  brethren  in  the  East,  and  the  indig- 
nity offered  to  the  Christian  name  in  allowing  the 
holy  city  to  remain  in  the  hands  of  the  infidels. 
These  speeches  were  so  agreeable  to  those  who 
heard  them,  that  the  whole  multitude  suddenly 
and  violently  declared  for  the  war,  and  solemnly 
devoted  themselves  to  perform  this  service,  which 
they  believed  so  meritorious  in  the  sight  of  God. 
But  though  Italy  seemed  to  have  embraced  the 
design  with  ardour,  Martin  thought  it  necessary, 
in  order  to  obtain  perfect  success,  to  engage  the 
greater  and  more  warlike  nations  in  the  same 
enterprise.  Having,  therefore,  exhorted  Peter  to 
visit  the  chief  cities  and  sovereigns  of  Christen- 
dom, he  summoned  another  council  at  Clermont 
in  Auvergne.  The  fame  of  this  great  and  pious 
design  being  now  universally  diffused,  procured 
the  attendance  of  the  greatest  prelates,  nobles,  and 
princes  :  and  when  the  pope  and  the  hern  sit  re- 
newed their  pathetic  exhortations,  the  whole  as- 
sembly, as  if  impelled  by  immediate  inspiration, 
exrlsiimed  with  one  voice,  "It  is  the  will  of  God  !" 
These  words  were  deemed  so  much  the  effect  of 
divine  impulse,  that  they  were  employed  as  the 
signal  of  rendezvous  and  battle  in  all  future  ex- 
ploits of  these  adventurers.  Men  of  sill  ranks  now 
flew  to  arms  with  the  utmost  ardour,  and  a  cros3 
was  affixed  to  their  right  shoulder  by  all  who  en- 
listed in  this  holy  enterprise.  At  this  time  Eu- 
rope was  sunk  in  the  most,  profound  ignorance 
and  superstition.  The  ecclesiastics  had  gained 
the  greatest  ascendency  over  the  human  mind  : 
and  the  people,  who  committed  the  most  horrid 
crimes  and  disorders,  knew  of  no  other  expiation 
than  the  observances  imposed  on  them  by  their 
spiritual  pastors.  But  amidst  the  abject  super- 
stition which  now  prevailed,  the  military  spirit 
had  also  universally  diffused  itself;  and,  though 
not  supported  by  art  or  discipline,  was  become 
the  general  passion  of  the  nations  governed  by  the 
feudal  law.  All  the  great  lords  possessed  the 
right  of  peace  and  war.  They  were  engaged  in. 
continual  hostilities  with  one  another  :  the  open 
country  was  become  a  scene  of  outrage  and  dis- 
order :  the  cities,  still  mean  and  poor,  were  nei- 
ther guarded  by  walls  nor  protected  by  privileges, 
Every  man  was  obliged  to  depend  for  safety  on 
his  own  force,  or  his  private  alliances;  and  valour 
was  the  only  excellence  which  was  held  in  es- 
teem, or  gave  one  man  the  pre-eminence  above 
another.  When  all  the  particular  superstitions, 
therefore,  were  here  united  in  one  great  object,  the 
ardour  for  private  hostilities  took  the  same  direc- 
tion; "and  all  Europe,"  as  the  princess  Anna 
Comnena  expresses  it,  "torn  from  its  founda- 
tions, seemed  ready  to  precipitate  itself  in  one 
united  body  upon  Asia." 

All  ranks  of  men  now  deeming  the  crusades 
the  only  road  to  heaven,  were  impatient  to  open 
the  way  with  their  swords  to  the  holy  city.  No- 
bles, artisans,  peasants,  even  priests,  enrolled  their 
names;  and  to  decline  this  service,  was  branded 
with  the  reproach  of  impiety  or  cowardice.  The 
nobles  were  moved,  by  the  romantic  spirit  of  the 
agej  to  hope  for  opulent  establishments  in  the 
Bast,  the  chief  seat  of  arU  and  commerce  at  that 
time.  In  pursuit  of  these  chimerical  projects, 
they  sold  at  low  prices  their  ancient  castles  and 
inheritances,  which  had  now  lost  sJl  value  in  their 
eyes.     The  infirm  and  aged  contributed  to  tins 


CROISADE 

expedition  hy  presents  and  money,  and  many  of 
them  attended  it  in  person ;  being  determined,  if 
possible,  to  breathe  their  last  in  sight  of  that  city 
where  their  Saviour  died  for  them.  Even  women, 
concealing  their  sex  under  the  disguise  of  armour, 
attended  the  camp ;  and  often  forgot  their  duty 
still  more,  by  prostituting  themselves  to  the  army. 
The  greatest  criminals  were  forward  in  a  service 
which  they  considered  as  an  expiation  for  all 
crimes ;  and  the  most  enormous  disorders  were, 
during  the  course  of  these  expeditions,  committed 
by  men  inured  to  wickedness,  encouraged  by 
example,  and  impelled  by  necessity.  The  adven- 
turers were  at  last  so  numerous,  that  their  saga- 
cious leaders  became  apprehensive  lest  the  great- 
ness of  the  armament  would  be  the  cause  of  its  own 
disappointment.  For  this  reason  they  permitted 
an  undisciplined  multitude,  computed  at  300,000 
men,  to  go  before  them  under  the  command  of 
Peter  the  hermit,  and  Gautier  or  Walter,  sur- 
named  the  Moneyless,  from  his  being  a  soldier  of 
fortune.  These  took  the  road  towards  Constan- 
tinople through  Hungary  and  Bulgaria;  and 
trusting  that  heaven,  by  supernatural  assistance, 
would  supply  all  their  necessities,  they  made  no 
provision  for  subsistence  in  their  march.  They 
soon  found  themselves  obliged  to  obtain  by  plun- 
der what  they  vainly  expected  from  miracles; 
and  the  enraged  inhabitants  of  the  countries 
through  which  they  passed  attacked  the  disorder- 
ly multitude,  and  slaughtered  them  without  re- 
sistance. The  more  disciplined  armies  followed 
after ;  and,  passing  the  straits  of  Constantinople, 
were  mustered  in  the  plains  of  Asia,  and  amount- 
ed in  the  whole  to  700,000  men.  The  princes 
engaged  in  this  first  crusade  were,  Hugo,  count 
of  Vermandois,  brother  to  Philip  I.  king  of 
France;  Robert,  duke  of  Normandy;  Robert, 
earl  of  Flanders;  Raimond,  earl  of  Toulouse 
and  St.  Giles ;  the  celebrated  Godfrey  of  Bouil- 
lon, duke  of  Lorrain,  with  his  brothers  Baldwin 
and  Eustace;  Stephen,  earl  of  Chartres  and 
Blois ;  Hugo,  count  of  St.  Paul;  with  many  other 
lords.  The  general  rendezvous  was  at  Constan- 
tinople. In  this  expedition,  Godfrey  besieged 
and  took  the  city  of  Nice.  Jerusalem  was  taken 
by  the  confederated  army,  and  Godfrey  chosen 
king.  The  Christians  gained  the  famous  battle 
of  Ascalon  against  the  sultan  of  Egypt,  which 
put  an  end  to  the  first  crusade,  but  not  to  the 
spirit  of  crusading.  The  rage  continued  for  near 
two  centuries.  The  second  crusade,  in  1144, 
was  headed  by  the  emperor  Conrad  III,  and 
Louis  VII.  king  of  France.  The  emperor's  army 
was  either  destroyed  by  the  enemy,  or  perished 
through  the  treachery  of  Manuel,  the  Greek  em- 
peror; and  the  second  army,  through  the  unfaith- 
fulness of  the  Christians  of  Syria,  was  forced  to 
break  up  the  siege  of  Damascus.  The  third 
crusade,  1188,  immediately  followed  the  taking 
of  Jerusalem  by  Saladin,  the  sultan  of  Egypt. 
The  princes  engaged  in  this  expedition  were,  the 
emperor  Frederic  Barbarossa ;  Frederic,  duke  of 
Suabia,  his  second  son ;  Leopold,  duke  of  Aus- 
tria; Berthold,  duke  of  Moravia;  Herman,  mar- 
quess of  Baden ;  the  counts  of  Nassau,  Thurin- 
gia,  Missen,  and  Holland  ;  and  above  sixty  other 
princes  of  the  empire ;  with  the  bishops  of  Be- 
sanfon,  Cambray,  Munster,  Osnaburg,  Missen, 
Passau,  Visburg,  and  several  others.  In  this  ex- 
pedition the  emperor  Frederic  defeated  the  sultan 
of  Iconium :  his  son  Frederic,  joined  by  Guy 
103 


CROISADE 

Lusignan,  king  of  Jerusalem,  in  vain  endeavour- 
ed to  take  Acre  or  Ptolemais.  During  these 
transactions,  Philip  Augustus,  king  of  France, 
and  Richard  T.  king  of  England,  joined  the  cru- 
sade :  by  which  means  the  Christian  army  con- 
sisted of  300,000  fighting  men ;  but  great  disputes 
happening  between  the  kings  of  France  and 
England,  the  former  quitted  the  holy  land,  and 
Richard  concluded  a  peace  with  Saladin.  The 
fourth  crusade  was  undertaken  in  1195,  by  the 
emperor  Henry  VI.  after  Saladin's  death.  In 
this  expedition  the  Christians  gained  several  bat- 
tles against  the  infidels,  took  a  great  many  towns, 
anil  were  in  the  way  of  success,  when  the  death 
of  the  emperor  obliged  them  to  quit  the  holy  land, 
and  return  into  Germany.  The  fifth  crusade  was 
published  by  pope  Innocent  III.  in  1198.  Those 
engaged  in  it  made  fruitless  efforts  for  the  reco- 
very of  the  holy  land ;  for,  though  John  de  Neule, 
who  commanded  the  fleet  equipped  in  Flanders, 
arrived  at  Ptolemais  a  little  after  Simon  of  Mont- 
fort,  Renard  of  Dampierre,  and  others,  yet  the 
plague  destroyed  many  of  them,  and  the  rest 
either  returning  or  engaging  in  the  petty  quarrels 
of  the  Christian  princes,  there  was  nothing  done; 
so  that  the.  sultan  of  Aleppo  easily  defeated  their 
troops  in  1204.  The  sixth  crusade  began  in 
1228 ;  in  which  the  Christians  took  the  town  of 
Damietta,  but  were  forced  to  surrender  it  again. 
In  1229,  the  emperor  Frederic  made  peace  with 
the  sultan  for  ten  years.  About  1240,  Richard, 
earl  of  Cornwall,  brother  to  Henry  III,  king  of 
England,  arrived  at  Palestine,  at  the  head  of  the 
English  crusade  ;  but  finding  it  most  advantage- 
ous to  conclude  a  peace,  he  re-imbarked,  and 
steered  towards  Italy.  In  1244,  the  Karasmians 
being  driven  out  of  Turkey  by  the  Tartars,  broke 
into  Palestine,  and  gave  the  Christians  a  general 
defeat  near  Gaza.  The  seventh  crusade  was 
headed,  in  1249,  by  St.  Lewis,  who  took  the 
town  of  Damietta;  but  a  sickness  happening  in 
the  Christian  army,  the  king  endeavoured  a  re- 
treat ;  in  which,  being  pursued  by  the  infidels, 
most  of  his  army  were  miserably  butchered,  and 
himself  and  the  nobility  taken  prisoners.  A 
truce  was  agreed  upon  for  ten  years,  and  the 
king  and  lords  set  at  liberty.  The  eighth  cru- 
sade, in  1279,  was  headed  by  the  same  prince, 
who  made  himself  master  of  the  port  and  castle 
of  Carthage  in  Africa ;  but  dying  a  short  time 
after,  he  left  his  army  in  a  very  ill  condition. 
Soon  after,  the  king  of  Sicily  coining  up  with  a 
good  fleet,  and  joining  Philip  the  Bold,  son  and 
successor  of  Lewis,  the  king  of  Tunis,  after  se- 
veral engagements  with  the  Christians,  in  which 
he  was  always  worsted,  desired  peace,  which  was 
granted  upon  conditions  advantageous  to  the 
Christians;  after  which  both  princes  embarked 
to  their  own  kingdoms.  Prince  Edward,  of 
England,  who  arrived  at  Tunis  at  the  time  of 
this  treaty,  sailed  towards  Ptolemais,  where  he 
landed  a  small  body  of  300  English  and  French, 
and  hindered  Bendochar  from  laying  siege  to 
Ptolemais ;  but  being  obliged  to  return  to  take 
possession  of  the  crown  of  England,  this  crusade 
ended  without  contributing  any  thing  to  the  re- 
covery of  the  holy  land.  In  1291,  the  town  of 
Acre  or  Ptolemais  was  taken  and  plundered  by 
the  sultan  of  Egypt,  and  the  Christians  quite 
driven  out  of  Syria.  There  has  been  no  crusade 
since  that  period,  though  several  popes  have  at- 
tempted to  stir  up  the  Christians  to  such  an  un- 


CROISADES 

dertaking;  particuiarlv  Nicholas   IV.  in  1292, 
and  Clement  V.  in  1311. 

Though  these  crusades  were  effects  of  the 
most  absurd  superstition,  they  tended  greatly  to 
promote  the  good  of  Europe.  Multitudes,  indeed, 
were  destroyed.  M.  Voltaire  computes  the  peo- 
ple who  perished  in  the  different  expeditions  at 
upwards  of  two  millions.  Many  there  were, 
however,  who  returned  ;  and  these  having  con- 
versed so  long  with  people  who  lived  in  a  much 
more  magniticent  way  than  themselves,  began  to 
entertain  some  taste  for  a  refined  and  polished 
way  of  life.  Thus  the  barbarism  in  which 
Europe  had  been  so  long  immersed  began  to 
Wear  off  soon  after.  The  princes  also  who  re- 
mained at  home,  found  means  to  avail  themselves 
of  the  frenzy  of  the  people.  By  the  absence  of 
such  numbers  of  restless  and  martial  adventurers, 
peace  was  established  in  their  dominions.  They 
also  took  the  opportunity  of  annexing  to  their 
crowns  many  considerable  fiefs,  either  by  pur- 
chase, or  the  extinction  of  the  heirs;  and  thus 
the.  mischiefs  which  must  always  attend  feudal 
governments  were  considerably  lessened.  With 
regard  to  the  bad  success  of  the  crusaders,  it  was 
scarcely  possible  that  any  other  thing  could  hap- 
pen to  them.  The  emperors  of  Constantinople, 
instead  of  assisting,  did  all  in  their  power  to  dis- 
concert their  schemes :  they  were  jealous,  and  not 
without  reason,  of  such  an  inundation  of  barba- 
rians. Yet,  had  they  considered  their  true  in- 
terests, they  would  rather  have  assisted  them,  or 
at  least  stood  neuter,  than  enter  into  alliances 
with  the  Turks.  They  followed  the  latter  me- 
thod, however,  and  were  often  of  very  great  dis- 
service to  the  western  adventurers,  which  at  last 
occasioned  the  loss  of  their  city.  But  the  worst 
enemies  the  crusaders  had  were  their  own  inter- 
nal feuds  and  dissentions.  They  neither  could 
agree  while  marching  together  in  armies  with  a 
view  to  conquest,  nor  could  they  unite  their  con- 
quests under  one  government  after  they  had  made 
them.  They  set  up  three  small  states,  one  at 
Jerusalem,  another  at  Antioch,  and  another  at 
Edessa.  These  states,  instead  of  assisting,  made 
war  upon  each  other,  and  on  the  Greek  emperors ; 
and  thus  became  an  easy  prey  to  the  common 
enemy.  The  horrid  cruelties  they  committed,  too. 
must  have  inspired  the  Turks  with  the  most  in- 
vincible hatred  against  them,  and  made  them 
resist  with  the  greatest  obstinacy.  They  were 
such  as  could  have  been  committed  only  by  bar- 
barians inflamed  with  the  most  bigoted  enthu- 
siasm. When  Jerusalem  was  taken,  not  only  the 
numerous  garrison  were  put  to  the  sword,  but 
the  inhabitants  were  massacred  without  mercy 
and  without  distinction.  No  age  or  sex  was 
Bpared,  not  even  sucking  children.  According 
to  Voltaire,  some  Christians  who  had  been  suffer- 
ed by  the  Turks  to  live  in  that  city,  led  the  con- 
querors into  the  most  private  caves,  where  wo- 
men had  concealed  themselves  with  their  children, 
and  not  one  of  them  was  suffered  to  escape. 
What  eminently  shows  the  enthusiasm  by  which 
these  conquerors  were  animated,  is,  their  beha- 
viour after  this  terrible  slaughter.  They  marched 
over  heaps  of  dead  bodies  towards  the  holy  se- 
pulchre; and  while  their  hands  were  polluted 
with  the  blood  of  so  many  innocent  persons,  sunn 
anthems  to  the  common  Saviour  ^\'  mankind  ! 
Nay,  so  far  did  tin  ir  religious  enthusiasm  over- 
come their  fury,  that  the.-*;  ferocious  conquerors 
104 


CROISADES 
now  burst  into  tears.  If  the  absurdity  and  wick- 
edness of  their  conduct  can  be  exceeded  by  any 
thing,  it  must  be  what  follows.  In  1204,  the 
frenzy  of  crusading  seized  the  children,  who  are 
ever  ready  to  imitate  what  they  sec  their  parents 
engaged  in.  Their  childish  folly  was  encour- 
aged by  the  monks  and  schoolmasters  ;  and  thou- 
sands of  those  innocents  were  conducted  from 
the  houses  of  their  parents  on  the  superstitious 
interpretation  of  these  words :'  "  Out  of  the 
mouths  of  babes  and  sucklings  hast  thou  per- 
fected praise."  Their  base  conductors  sold  a 
part  of  them  to  the  Turks,  and  the  rest  perished 
miserably.  Hume's  Hist,  of  England,  vol.  i.  p. 
292,  &c"  and  vol.  ii.  p.  280;  Enc.  Brit.;  and 
Mosheim's  Ecc.  Hist. 

CROISIERS,  a  religious  order,  founded  in 
honour  of  the  imention  or  discovery  of  the  cross 
by  the  empress  Helena.  They  were,  till  of  late, 
dispersed  in  several  parts  of  Europe,  particularly 
in  the  Low  Countries,  France  and  Bohemia ; 
those  of  Italy  were  suppressed  even  before  the 
late  revolutions.  These  religious  follow  the  rule 
of  St.  Augustine.  They  had  in  England  the 
name  of  Crouched  Friars. 

CROSIER,  or  Crozier,  a  shepherd's  crook  ; 
a  symbol  of  pastoral  authority,  consisting  of  a 
gold  or  silver  staff,  crooked  at  the  top,  carried 
occasionally  before  bishops  and  abbots,  and  held  in 
the  hand  when  they  give  the  solemn  benedictions. 

CROSS,  in  Scripture  language,  means  the 
sufferings  of  Christ,  Gal.  vi.  14.  The  sufferings. 
trials,  or  persecutions  of  the  people  are  also  called 
a  cross,  Matt,  xvi  24.  Cross  signifies  also  a 
gibbet,  made  with  two  pieces  of  wood,  placed 
crosswise,  whether  they  cross  with  right  angles 
at  the  top  like  a  T,  or  in  the  middle  of  their 
length  like  an  X.  The  cross  on  which  our  Sa- 
viour was  fastened,  and  on  which  he  died,  was 
of  the  former  kind  ;  being  thus  represented  by 
old  monuments,  coins,  and  crosses.  The  death 
of  the  cross  was  the  most  dreadful  of  all  others, 
both  for  the  shame  and  pain  of  it ;  and  so  scan- 
dalous, that  it  was  inflicted  as  the  last  mark  of 
detestation  upon  the  vilest  of  people.  It  was  the 
punishment  of  robbers  and  murderers,  provided 
that  they  were  slaves  too;  but  otherwise,  if  they 
were  free,  and  had  the  privilege  of  the  city  of 
Rome,  this  was  then  thought  a  prostitution  of  that 
honour,  and  too  infamous  a  punishment  for  such 
a  one,  let  his  crimes  be  what  they  would.  The 
form  of  a  cross  being  such  as  has  been  already 
described,  the  body  of  the  criminal  was  fastened 
to  the  upright  piece  by  nailing  the  feet  to  it,  and 
on  the  other  transverse  piece  generally  by  nail- 
ing the  hands  on  each  side.  .Now,  because  these 
parts  of  the  body,  being  the  instruments  of  action 
and  motion,  are  provided  by  nature  with  a  much 
greater  quantity  A  nerves  than  others  have  occa- 
sion for  ;  and  because  all  sensation  is  performed 
by  the  spirit  contained  in  the  nerves;  it  will  fol- 
low, as  Stanhope  observes,  that  wherever  they 
abound,  the  sense  oi'  pain  must  needs  in  propor- 
tion be  more  quick  and  tender.  The  Jews  con- 
fess, indeed,  that  tbey  crucified  people  in  their 
nation,  but  deny  that  they  inflicted  this  punish- 
ment upon  any  one  alive.  They  first  put  their. 
to  death,  and' then  fastened  them  to  the  cross, 
either  by  the  bands  or  neck.  But  there  are  in- 
disputable proofs  of  their  crucifying  men  fre- 
quently alive.  The  worshippers  of  Baal-pear 
and  the  King  of  Ai  were  hungup  alive;  as  were 


CROSS 
also  the  descendants  of  Saul,  who  were  put  into 
the  hands  of  the  Gibeonites.  '2  Sam,  xxi.  9. 
Before  crucifixion,  the  criminal  was  generally 

scourged  with  cords  •  sometimes  little  bones,  or 
pieces  of  bones,  were  tied  to  these  scourges,  so 
that  the  condemned  person  might  suffer  more 
severely.  It  was  also  a  custom,  that  lie  who  was 
to  be  crucified  should  bear  his  own  cross  to  the 
place  of  execution.  After  this  manner,  we  find 
Christ  was  compelled  to  bear  his  cross  ;  and  as  he 
sunk  under  the  burden,  Simon  the  Cyrenian  was 
constrained  to  bear  it  after  him  and  with  him. 
But  whereas  it  is  generally  supposed  that  our 
Lord  bore  the  whole  cross,  i.  e.  the  long  and 
transverse  part  both,  this  seems  to  be  a  thing  im- 
possible; and  therefore  Lipsius  (in  his  treatise 
De  Supplicio  Cruris)  has  set  the  matter  in  a  true 
light,  when  he  tells  us  that  Jesus  only  carried 
the  transverse  beam,  because  the  long  beam,  or 
the  body  of  the  cross,  was  either  fixed  in  the 
ground  before,  or  made  ready  to  be  set  up  as 
soon  as  the  prisoner  came ;  and  from  hence  he 
observes,  that  painters  are  very  much  mistaken 
in  the  description  of  our  Saviour  carrying  the 
whole  cross.  There  were  several  ways  of  cruci- 
fying ;  sometimes  the  criminal  was  fastened  with 
cords  to  a  tree,  sometimes  he  was  crucified  with 
his  head  downwards.  This  way,  it  is  said, 
Peter  chose,  out  of  respect  to  his  master,  Jesus 
Christ,  not  thinking  himself  worthy  to  be  cruci- 
fied like  him ;  though  the  common  way  of  cruci- 
fying was  by  fastening  the  criminal  with  nails, 
one  through  each  hand,  and  one  through  both 
feet,  or  one  through  each  of  them ;  for  this  was 
not  always  performed  in  the  same  manner;  the 
ancients  sometimes  represent  Jesus  Christ,  cruci- 
fied with  four  nails,  and  sometimes  with  three. 
The  criminal  was  fixed  to  the  cross  quite  naked; 
and,  in  all  probability,  the  Saviour  of  sinners  was 
not  used  with  any  greater  tenderness  than  others 
upon  whom  this  punishment  was  inflicted.  The 
text  of  the  Gospel  shows  clearly  that  Jesus 
Christ  was  fastened  to  the  cross  with  nails ;  and 
the  Psalmist  (Ps.  xxii.  l(j)  had  foretold  long  be- 
fore, that  they  should  pierce  his  hands  and  his 
feet;  but  there  are  great  disputes  concerning  the 
number  of  the  nails.  1'  he  Greeks  represent  our 
Saviour  as  fastened  to  the  cross  with  four  nails ; 
in  which  particular  Gregory  of  Tours  agrees  with 
them,  one  on  each  hand  and  foot.  But  several 
are  of  opinion,  that  our  Saviour's  hands  and  feet 
were  pierced  with  three  nails  only,  viz.  one  on 
each  hand,  and  one  through  both  his  feet :  and 
the  custom  of  the  Latins  is  rather  for  tliis  last 
opinion  ;  for  the  generality  of  the  old  crucifixes 
made  in  the  Latin  church  have  only  three  nails. 
Nonnus  thinks  that  our  Saviour's  arms  were 
Besides  bound  fast  to  the  cross  with  chains ;  and 
St.  Hilary  speaks  of  the  cords  wherewith  he  was 
tied  to  it.  Sometimes  they  who  were  fastened 
upon  the  cross  lived  a  good  while  in  that  condi- 
tion. St.  Andrew  is  believed  to  have  continued 
three  days  alive  upon  it.  Eusebius  speaks  of  cer- 
tain martyrs  in  Eg'r,it,  who  were  kept  upon  the 
cross  till  they  were  starved  to  death.  Pilate  was 
amazed  at  Jesus  Christ's  dying  so  soon,  because 
naturally  he  must  have  lived  'onger,  if  it  had  not 
been  in  his  power  to  have  laid  down  his  life,  and 
to  take  it  up  again.  The  thighs  of  the  two 
thieves,  who  were  crucified  with  our  Saviour, 
were  broken,  in  order  co  hasten  their  death,  that 
their  bodies  might  not  remain  upon  the  cross  on 
105  O 


CRUCIFIX 
the  Sabvath-day,  John  .ux.  31.  ^3;  and  to  com- 
ply with  the  law  of  Moses,  which  forbids  ihe 
bodies  to  be  left  there  alter  sun-set.  But,  among 
other  nations,  they  were  sutler ed  to  remain  upon 
the  cross  a  long  time.  Sometimes  they  were  de- 
voured alive  by  birds  and  beasts  of  prey.  Guards 
were  appointed  to  observe  that  none  of  their 
friends  or  relation  should  take  them  down  and 
bury  (hem.  The  Roman  soldiers,  who  had  cru- 
cified Jesus  Christ  and  the  two  thieves,  continued 
near  the  crosses  till  the  bodies  were  taken  down 
and  buried. 

Intention  of  the  Cross,  an  ancient  feast  solem- 
nized on  the  3d  of  May,  hi  memory  of  St.  Hele- 
na's (the  mother  of  Constantine)  finding  the  true 
cross  of  Christ  deep  in  the  ground  on  Mount 
Calvarv,  where  she  erected  a  church  for  the  pre- 
servation of  part  of  it ;  the  rest  being  brought  to 
Rome,  and  deposited  in  the  church  of  the  Hoiy 
Cross  of  Jerusalem. 

Exaltation  of  the  Cross,  an  ancient  feast  held 
on  the  14th  of  September,  in  memory  of  this,  that 
Heraclitus  restored  to  Mount  Calvary  the  true 
cross,  in  G42,  which  had  been  carried  off  four- 
teen years  before  by  Cosroes,  king  of  Persia,  upon 
his  taking  Jerusalem  from  the  emperor  Phocas. 

The  Adoration  of  the  Cross  seems  to  havo 
been  practised  in  the  ancient  church,  inasmuch 
as  the  heathens,  particularly  Julian,  reproached 
the  primitive  Christians  with  it;  and  we  do  not 
find  that  their  apologists  disclaimed  the  charge. 
Mornay,  indeed,  asserted  that  this  had  been  done, 
by  St.  Cyril,  but  could  not  support  his  allega- 
tion at  the  conference  of  Fontainebleau.  St 
Helena  is  said  to  have  reduced  the  adoration  of 
the  cross  to  its  just  principle,  since  she  adored 
Christ  in  the  wood,  not  the  wood  itself.  With 
such  modifications,  some  Protestants  have  been 
induced  to  admit  the  adoration  of  the  cross. 
John  Huss  allowed  of  the  phrase,  provided  it 
were  expressly  added,  that  the  adoration  was 
relative  to  the  person  of  Christ.  But,  however 
Roman  Catholics  may  seem  to  triumph  by  virtue 
of  such  distinction  and  mitigations,  it  is  well 
known  they  have  no  great  place  in  their  own 
practice,  lrnbert,  the  prior  of  Gascony,  was  se- 
verely persecuted  in  1G83  for  telling  the  people, 
that,  in  the  ceremony  of  adoring  the  cross,  prac- 
tised in  that  church  on  Good  Friday,  they  were 
not  to  adore  the  wood,  but  Christ,  who  was 
crucified  on  it.  The  curate  of  the  parish  told 
them  the  contrary.  It  was  the  wood ;  the  wood 
they  were  to  adore.  Imbert  replied,  it  was 
Christ,  not  the  wood:  for  which  he  was  cited 
before  the  archbishop  of  Bourdeaux,  suspended 
from  Ids  functions,  and  even  threatened  with 
chains  and  perpetual  imprisonment.  It  little 
availed  him  to  cite  the  bishop  oi'  Meaux's  dis- 
tinction; it  was  answered,  that  the  church  allow 
ed  it  not. 

CROSS-BEARER,  in  the  Romish  Church, 
the  chaplain  of  an  archbishop,  who  bears  a  cross 
before  him  on  solemn  occasions.  Cross-bearers 
also  denote  certain  officers  in  the  inquisition,  who 
make  a  vow  before  the  inquisitors,  or  their  vicars, 
to  defend  the  Catholic  faith,  though  with  the  loss 
o\'  fortune  and  life.  Their  business  is  also  to 
provide  the  inquisitors  with  necessaries. 

CRUCIFIX,  a  cross,  upon  which  the  body  of 
Christ  is  fastened  in  effigy,  used  by  the  Roman 
catholics,  to  excite  in  their  minds  a  strong  idea  et 
our  Saviour's  passion. 


CURIOSITY 

CRUCIFIXION  OF  CHRIST.  See  Cross. 

CRUSADE.     See  Croisade. 

CURATE,  the  lowest  degree  in  the  church  of 
England;  he  who  represents  the  incumbent  of  a 
church,  parson,  or  vicar,  and  officiates  in  his 
stead  :  he  is  to  he  licensed  and  admitted  by  the 
bishop  of  the  diocese,  or  by  an  ordinary  having 
episcopal  jurisdiction  ;  and  when  a  curate  hath 
the  approbation  of  the  bishop,  lie  usually  appoints 
the  salary  too;  and,  in  such  case,  if  he  be  not 
I  .aid,  the  curate  hath  a  proper  remedy  in  the 
ecclesiastical  court,  by  a  sequestration  of  the  pro- 
fits o(  the  benefice ;  but  if  the  curate  be  not  li- 
censed by  the  bishop,  he  is  put  to  his  remedy  at 
common  law,  wdiere  he  must  prove  the  agree- 
ment, &c.  A  curate,  having  no  fixed  estate  in 
his  curacy,  not  being  instituted  and  inducted,  may 
be  removed  at  pleasure  by  the  bishop  or  in- 
cumbent. But  there  are  perpetual  curates  as  well 
as  temporary  ;  who  are  appointed  where  tithes  are 
impropriate,  and  no  vicarage  endowed  :  these  are 
not  removeable,  and  the  impropriators  are  obliged 
to  find  them;  some  whereof  have  certain  portions 
of  the  tithes  settled  on  them.  Curates  must  sub- 
scribe the  declaration  according  to  the  Act  of  Uni- 
formity, or  are  liable  to  imprisonment.  Though 
the  condition  of  curates  be  somewhat  amelior- 
ated by  a  late  act,  it  must  be  confessed  that  they 
are  still,  in  many  respects,  exposed  to  hardships ; 
their  salaries  are  not  equal  to  many  dissenting 
ministers,  who  have  nothing  to  depend  on  but 
the  liberality  of  their  people.  Can  there  be  a 
greater  reproach  to  the  dignified  ecclesiastics  of 
this  country,  than  the  comparatively  miserable 
pittance  allowed  the  curates,  who  do  all  the  la- 
bour? Surely  they  must  be  a  set  of  useless 
beings,  to  reap  so  little  wages ;  or  else  they  are 
unjustly  treated. 

CURIOSITY,  a  propensity  or  disposition  of 
the  soul  which  inclines  it  to  inquire  after  new  ob- 
jects, and  to  delight  in  viewing  them.  Curiosity 
js  proper,  when  it  springs  from  a  desire  to  know 
our  duty,  to  mature  our  judgments,  to  enlarge  our 
minds,  and  to  regulate  our  conduct ;  hut  impro- 
per, when  it  wishes  to  know  more  of  God,  of  the 
decrees,  the  origin  of  evil,  the  state  of  men,  or  the 
nature  of  things,  than  it  is  designed  for  us  to 
know.  The  evil  of  this  is  evident.  It  reproaches 
God's  goodness ;  it  is  a  violation  of  Scripture, 
Deut.  xxii.  29;  it  robs  us  of  our  time;  it  often 
makes  us  unhappy ;  lessens  our  usefulness,'and 
produces  mischief.  To  cure  this  disposition,  let 
us  consider  the  divine  command,  Phil.  iv.  (!,  that 
every  thing  essential  is  revealed  ;  that  God  can- 
not err;  that  we  shall  be  satisfied  in  a  future 
state,  Isa.  xiii.  7.  Curiosity  concerning  the  af- 
fairs of  others,  is  exceedingly  reprehensible.  "  It 
interrupts,"  says  an  elegant  writer,  "  the  order, 
and  breaks  the  peace  of  society.  Persons  of  this 
disposition  are  dangerous  troiiblers  of  the  world. 
I  'fosaing  the  lines  in  which  others  move,  they 
create  confusion,  and  awaken  resentment.  Hence, 
many  a  friendship  has  been  broken  ;  the  peace  of 
many  a  family  has  been  overthrown;  and  much 
bitter  and  lasting  discord  has  been  propagated 
through  society.  Such  a  disposition  is  entirely 
the  reverse  of  that  amiable  spirit  of  charity  our 
Lord  inculcates.  Charity,  like  the  sun,  brightens 
every  object  on  which  it  shines ;  a  censorious  dis- 
position casts  every  character  into  the  darkest 
■hade  it  will  bear.  It  is  to  be  further  observed, 
lhat  all  impertinent  curiosity  about  the  affairs  of 
106 


CYNlGfc 

others  tends  greatly  to  obstruct  personal  reforma- 
tion. They  who  are  so  officiously  occupied  about 
their  neighbours,  have  little  leisure,  and  less  in- 
clination, to  observe  their  own  defects,  or  to  mind 
their  own  duty.  From  their  inquisitive  researches, 
they  find,  or  imagine  they  find,  in  the  behaviour 
of  others,  an  apology  for  their  own  failings ;  and 
the  favourite  result  of  their  inquiries  generally  is, 
to  rest  satisfied  with  themselves.  We  should  con- 
sider, also,  that  every  excursion  of  vain  curiosity 
about  others  is  a  subtraction  from  that  time  and 
thought  which  are  due  to  ourselves,  and  to  God. 
In  the  great  circle  of  human  affairs,  there  is  room 
for  every  one  to  be  busy  and  well  employed  in 
his  own  province,  without  encroaching  upon  that 
of  others.  It  is  the  province  of  superiors  to  di- 
rect, of  inferiors  to  obey :  of  the  learned  to  be  in- 
structive ;  of  the  ignorant  to  be  docile  ;  of  the  old 
to  he  communicative  ;  of  the  young  to  be  advisa- 
ble and  diligent.  In  all  the  various  relations 
which  subsist  among  us  in  life,  as  husband  and 
wife,  masters  and  servants,  parents  and  children, 
relations  and  friends,  rulers  and  subjects,  innumer- 
able duties  stand  ready  to  be  performed  ;  innumer- 
able calls  to  activity  present  themselves  on  every 
hand,  sufficient  to  fill  up  with  advantage  and  ho- 
nour the  whole  time  of  man." — Blair's  Serm. 
vol.  iv.  ser.  8  ;  Clark's  Scrm.  ser.  on  Deut.  xxix. 
29  ;  Seed's  Post.  Serm.  ser.  7. 

CURSE,  the  action  of  wishing  any  tremend- 
ous evil  to  another.  In  Scripture  language,  it 
signifies  the  just  and  lawful  sentence  of  God's 
law,  condemning  sinners  to  suffer  the  full  punish- 
ment of  their  sin,  Gal.  iii.  10. 

CURSING  and  Swearing.     See  Swearing. 

CUSTOM,  a  very  comprehensive  term,  de- 
noting the  manners,  ceremonies,  and  fashions  of 
a  people,  which  having  turned  into  habit,  and 
passed  into  use,  obtain  the  force  of  laws.  Cus- 
tom and  habit  are  often  confounded.  By  custom, 
we  mean  a  frequent  reiteration  of  the  same  act ; 
and  by  habit,  {he  effect  that  custom  has  on  the 
mind  or  the  body.     See  Habit. 

"  Viewing  man,"  says  Lord  Karnes,  "  as  a  sen- 
sitive being,  and  perceiving  the  influence  of  no- 
velty upon  him,  would  one  suspect  that  custom 
has  an  equal  influence  ?  and  yet  our  nature  is 
equally  susceptible  of  both  :  not  only  in  different 
objects,  but  frequently  in  the  same.  When  an  ob- 
ject is  new,  it  is  enchanting ;  familiarity  renders 
it  indifferent ;  and  custom,  after  a  longer  fami- 
liarity, makes  it  again  desirable.  Human  nature, 
diversified  with  many  and  various  springs  of  ac- 
tion, is  wonderful,  and,  indulging  the  expression, 
intricately  constructed.  Custom  hath  such  influ- 
ence upon  many  of  our  feelings,  by  warping  and 
varying  them,  that  we  must  attend  to. its  opera- 
tions, if  we  w-ould  be  acquainted  with  human  na- 
ture. A  walk  upon  the  quarter-deck,  though  in- 
tolerably confined,  becomes,  however,  so  agreeable 
by  custom,  that  a  sailor,  in  his  walk  on  shore, 
confines  himself  commonly  within  the  same 
bounds.  I  knew  a  man  who  had  relinquished 
the  sea  for  a  country  life:  in  the  corner  of  his 
garden  he  reared  an  artificial  mount,  with  a  level 
summit,  resembling,  most  accurately,  a  quarter- 
deck, not  only  in  shape,  but  in  size :  and  here 
was  his  choice  walk."  Such  we  find  is  often  tho 
power  of  custom. 

CYNICS,  a  sect  of  ancient  philosophers,  who 
valued  themselves  upon  their  contempt  of  riches 
and  state,  a  ts  and  sciences,  and  every  thing,  in 


DEMONIAC 

short,  except  virtue,  and  morality.  They  owe 
their  origin  and  institution  to  Antisthenes  of 
Athens,  a  disciple  of  Socrates  ;  who  bein<r  asked 
of  what  use  his  philosophy  had  been  to  him,  re- 
plied, "it  enables  me  to  live  with  myself."  Dio- 
genes was  the  most  famous  of  his  disciples,  in 
whose  life  the  system  of  this  philosophy  appears 
in  its  greatest  perfection.  He  led  a  most  whim- 
sical life,  despising  every  kind  of  convenience ;  a 
tub  served  him  for  a  lodging,  which  he  rolled 
before  him  wherever  he  went ;  yet  he  was  not  the 
more  humble  on  account  of  his  ragged  cloak,  bag, 


DEMONIAC 

and  tub.  One  day  entering  Plato's  house,  at  a 
time  when  there  was  a  splendid  entertainment 
for  several  persons  of  distinction,  he  jumped,  in 
all  his  dirt,  upon  a  very  rich  couch,  saying,  "  I 
trample  on  the  pride  of  Plato !" — •'  Yes,"  replied 
Plato,  "but  with  still  greater  pride,  Diogenes  J" 
He  had  the  utmost  contempt  for  all  the  human 
race ;  for  he  walked  the  streets  of  Athens  at 
noon-day,  with  a  lighted  lantern  in  his  hand, 
telling  the  people.  "  he  was  in  search  of  an  honest 
man."  But  with  all  his  maxims  of  morality,  he 
held  some  very  pernicious  opinions. 


D. 


DAMIANISTS,  a  denomination  in  the  sixth 
century,  so  called  from  Damian,  bishop  of  Alex- 
andria. Their  opinions  were  the  same  as  the 
An<;elites,  which  see. 

DAEMONS,  a  name  given  by  the  ancients  to 
certain  spirits  or  genii,  which  they  say,  appeared 
to  men,  cither  to  do  them  service,  or  to  hurt  them. 

Several  of  the.  heathen  philosophers  held  that 
there  were  different  kinds  of  demons ;  that  some 
of  them  were  spiritual  substances,  of  a  more  noble 
origin  than  the  human  race,  and  that  others  had 
once  been  men. 

But  these  daemons  who  were  the  more  imme- 
diate objects  of  the  established  worship  among 
the  ancient  nations,  were  human  spirits,  such  as 
were  believed  to  become  demons,  or  deities,  after 
their  departure  from  their  bodies. 

It  has  been  generally  thought,  that  by  decmons 
we  are  to  understand  devils,  in  the  Septuagint 
version  of  the  Old  Testament.  Others  think  the 
word  is  in  that  version  certainly  applied  to  the 
ghosts  of  such  dead  men  as  the  heathens  deified, 
in  Deut.  xxxii.  17;  Ps.  cvi.  37.  That  decmon 
oiten  bears  the  same  meaning  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament, and  particularly  in  Acts  xvii.  18;  1  Cor. 
x.  21 ;  1  Tim.  iv.  1 ;  Rev.  ix.  13,  is  shown  at 
karge  by  Mr.  Joseph  Mede  (see  Works,  p.  623, 
et  seq.)  That  the  word  is  applied  always  to 
human  spirits  in  the  New  Testament,  Mr.  Far- 
mer has  attempted  to  show  in  his  essay  on  Demo- 
niacs, p.  208,  et  seq.  As  to  the  meaning  of  the 
word  Daemon  in  the  fathers  of  the  Christian 
church,  it  is  used  by  them  in  the  same  sense  as 
it  was  by  the  heathen  philosophers,  especially  the 
latter  Platonists  ;  that  is,  sometimes  for  departed 
human  spirits,  and  at  others  for  such  spirits  as 
had  never  inhabited  human  bodies.  In  the  fa- 
thers, indeed,  the  word  is  more  commonly  taken 
in  an  evil  sense,  than  in  the  ancient  philosophers. 

DjEMONIAC,  a  human  being  whose  voli- 
tion and  other  mental  faculties  are  overpowered 
and  restrained,  and  his  body  possessed  and  actu- 
ated by  some  created  spiritual  being  of  superior 
p,wer.  Such  seems  to  be  the  determinate  sense 
oi  the  word;  but  it  is  disputed  whether  any  of 
mankind  ever  were  in  this  unfortunate  condition. 
That  the  reader  may  form  some  judgment,  we 
shall  lay  before  him  the  arguments  on  both  sides. 

1.  Dxmoniacs;  arguments  against  the  exist- 
ence of.  Those  who  are  unwilling  to  allow  that 
angels  or  devils  have  ever  intermeddled  with  the 
concerns  of  human  life,  urge  a  number  of  spe- 
cious arguments.  The  Greeks  and  Romans  of 
old,  say  they,  did  believe  in  the  reality  of  demo- 
niacal possession.  They  supposed  that  spiritual 
107 


beings  did  at  times  enter  into  the  sons  and  daugh- 
ters of  men,  and  distinguished  themselves  in  that 
station  by  capricious  freaks,  deeds  of  wanton 
mischief,  or  prophetic  enunciations.  But  in  the 
instances  in  which  they  supposed  this  to  happen, 
it  is  evident  no  such  thing  took  place.  Their 
accounts  of  the  state  and  conduct  of  those  persons 
whom  they  believed  to  be  possessed  in  this  super- 
natural manner,  show  plainly  that,  what  they  as- 
cribed to  the  influence  of  demons  was  merely  the 
effect  of  natural  diseases.  Whatever  they  relate 
concerning  the  larrati,  the  cerriti,  and  the  lym- 
phatki,  shows  that  these  were  merely  people 
disordered  in  mind,  in  the  same  unfortunate  situ- 
ation with  those  madmen,  idiots,  and  melancholy 
persons,  whom  we  have  among  ourselves.  Fes- 
tus  describes  the  larvati  as  being  furiosi  ct 
mente  moti.  Lucian  describes  demoniacs  as 
lunatic,  and  as  staring  with  their  eyes,  foaming  at 
the  mouth,  and  being  speechless.  It  appears  still 
more  evident  that  all  the  persons  spoken  of  as 
possessed  with  devils  in  the  New  Testament, 
were  either  mad  or  epileptic,  and  precisely  in 
the  same  condition  with  the.  madmen  and  epi- 
leptics of  modern  times.  The  Jews,  among  other 
reproaches  which  they  threw  out  against  our 
Saviour,  said,  He  hath,  a  devil,  and  is  mad; 
why  hear  ye  him  ?  The  expression  he  hath  a 
devil  and  is  mad,  were  certainly  used  on  this 
occasion  as  synonymous.  With  all  their  viru- 
lence, they  would  not  surely  ascribe  to  him  at 
once  two  things  that  were  inconsistent  and  con- 
tradictory. Those  who  thought  more  favourably 
of  the  character  of  Jesus,  asserted  concerning  his 
discourses,  in  reply  to  his  adversaries,  These 
are  not  the  words  of  him  that  hath  a  decmon; 
meaning,  no  doubt,  that  he  spoke  in  a  more  ra- 
tional manner  than  a  madman  could  be  expected 
to  speak.  The  Jews  appear  to  have  ascribed  to 
the  influence  of  demons,  not  only  that  species  of 
madness  in  which  the  patient  is  raving,  and 
furious,  but  also  melancholy  madness.  Of  Jonn, 
who  secluded  himself  from  intercourse  with  the 
world,  and  was  distinguished  for  abstinence  and 
acts  of  mortification,  they  said,  He  hath  a  decmon. 
The  youth,  whose  father  applied  to  Jesus  to  free 
him  from  an  evil  spirit,  describing  his  unhappy 
condition  in  these  words,  Have,  mercy  on  my  son, 
for  he  is  a  lunatic,  and  sore  vexed,  vrith  a  dae- 
mon ;  for  of  I  times  he  fallelh  into  the  fre,  and 
oft  into  the  water,  was  plainly, epileptic.  Every 
thing,  indeed,  that  is  related  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment concerning  demoniacs,  proves  that  they 
were  people  affected  with  such  natural  diseaaos 
as  are  far  trom  bun"  uncommon  among  man- 


DEMONIAC 
kind  in  the  present  age.  When  the  symptoms 
of  the  disorders  cured  by  our  Saviour  and  Ilia 
apostles  as  eases  of  demoniacal  possession  eor- 
nspond  so  exactly  with  those  of  diseases  weil 
known  as  natural  in  the  present  age,  it  would  be 
absurd  to  impute  them  to  a  supernatural  cause. 
It  is  much  more  consistent  with  common  sense 
and  sound  philosophy  to  suppose  that  our  Saviour 
and  his  apostles  wisely,  and  with  that  conde- 
scension to  the  weakness  and  prejudices  of  those 
with  whom  they  conversed,  which  so  eminently 
distinguished  the  character  of  the  Author  of  our 
holy  religion,  and  must  always  be  a  prominent 
feature  in  the  character  of  the  true  Christian, 
adopted  the  vulgar  language  in  speaking  of  those 
unfortunate  persons  who  were  groundlessly  inui- 
gined  to  be  possessed  with  daemons,  though  they 
well  knew  the  notions  which  had  given  rise  to 
such  modes  of  expression  to  he  ill  founded,  than 
to  imagine  that  diseases  which  arise  at  present 
from  natural  causes,  were  produced  in  days  of  old 
by  the  intervention  of  daemons,  or  that  evil  spi- 
rits still  continue  to  enter  into  mankind  in  all 
cases  til'  madness,  melancholy,  or  epilepsy.  Be- 
sides, it  is  by  no  means  a  sufficient  reason  for  re- 
ceiving any  doctrine  as  true,  that  it  has  been 
generally  received  through  the  world.  Error,  like 
an  epidemical  disease,  is  communicated  from  one 
to  another.  In  certain  circumstances,  too,  the 
influence  of  imagination  predominates,  and  re- 
strains the  exertions  of  reason.  Many  false  opi- 
nions have  extended  their  influence  through  a 
very  wide  circle,  and  maintained  it  long.  On 
every  such  occasion  as  the  present,  therefore,  it 
becomes  us  to  inquire  not  so  much  how  generally 
atiy  opinion  has  been  received,  or  how  long  it  has 
prevailed,  as  from  what  cause  it  has  originated, 
and  on  what  evidence  it  rests.  When  we  con- 
template the  frame  of  Nature,  we  behold  a  grand 
and  beautiful  simplicity  prevailing  through  the 
whole:  notwithstanding  its  immense  extent,  and 
though  it  contains  such  numberless  diversities  ol 
being,  yet  the  simplest  machine  constructed  by 
human  art  does  not  display  greater  simplicity,  or 
a  happier  connexion  of  parts.  We  may,  there- 
fore, infer  by  analogy,  from  what  is  observable  of 
the  order  of  Nature  in  general  to  the  present  case, 
that  to  permit  evil  spirits  to  intermeddle  witli  the 
concerns  of  human  life,  would  be  to  break  through 
that  order  which  the  Deity  appears  to  have  esta- 
blished through  his  works:  it  would  he  to  intro- 
duce a  degree  of  confusion  unworthy  of  the  wis- 
dom of  Divine  Providence. 

II.  DasmmuaeBj  arguments  for  the  existence 
of.  In  opposition  to  these  arguments,  the  follow- 
ing are  urged  by  the  Daanonianists.  In  the  days 
of  our  Saviour,  it  would  appear  that  damioniaeal 
possession  was  very  frequent  among  the  jews 
and  neighbouring  nations.  Many  were  the  evil 
spirits  whom  Jesus  is  related  in  the  Gospels  to 
have  ejected  from  patients  that  were  brought  unto 
him  as  possessed  and  tormented  by  those  malevo- 
lent demons.  His  apostles  too,  and  the  first 
Christians,  who  were  most  active  and  successful 
in  the  propagation  ol'  ( Christianity,  appear  to  have 
often  exerted  the  miraculous  powers  with  which 
they  were  endowed  on  similar  occasions.  The 
dsjcbons  displayed  i  degree  of  knowledge  and 

malevolence  which  sufficiently  distinguished,  them 
from  human  being;.;  and  the  language  in  which 
the  demoniacs  are  mentioned,  and  the  actions 
and  sentiments  ascribed  to  them  in  the  New  Tes- 
108 


DEMONIAC 
tament,  show  that  our  Saviour  and  his  apostles 
did  not  consider  the  idea  of  demoniacal  possessiop 
as  being  merely  a  vulgar  error  concerning  the 
origin  of  a  disease  or  diseases  produced  by  natural 
causes.  The  more  enlightened  cannot  always 
avoid  the  use  of  metaphorical  modes  of  expression; 
which,  though  founded  upon  error,  yet  have  been 
so  established  in  language  by  the  influence  of 
custom,  that  they  canno!  be  suddenly  dismissed. 
But  in  descriptions  of  characters,  in  the  narra- 
tion of  facts,  and  in  the  laving  down  of  systems 
of  doctrine,  we  require  different  rules  to  be  ob- 
served. Should  any  person,  in  compliance  with 
popular  opinions,  talk  in  serious  language  of  the 
existence,  dispositions,  declarations,  and  actions 
of  a  race  of  beings  whom  he  knew  to  lie  abso- 
lutely fabulous,  we  surely  could  not  praise  him 
for  integrity;  we  must  suppose  him  to  be  either 
exulting  in  irony  over  the  weak  credulity  of  those 
around  him,  or  taking  advantage  of  their  weak- 
ness, with  the  dishonesty  and  selfish  views  of  an 
impostor.  And  if  he  himself  should  pretend  to 
any  connexion  with  this  imaginary  system  of  be- 
ings; and  should  claim,  in  consequence  of  his 
connexion  with  them,  particular  honours  from  his 
contemporaries — whatever  might  be  the  dignity 
of  his  character  in  all  other  respects,  nobody  could 
hesitate  to  brand  him  as  an  impostor.  In  this 
light  must  we  regard  the  conduct  of  our  Saviour 
and  his  apostles,  if  the  idea  of  damioniaeal  pos- 
session were  to  be  considered  merely  as  a  vulgar 
error.  They  talked  and  acted  as  if  they  believed 
that  evil  spirits  had  actually  entered  into  those 
who  were  brought  to  them  as  possessed  with  de- 
vils, and  as  if  those  spirits  ha  1  been  actually  ex- 
pelled by  their  authority  out  of  the  unhappy  pax- 
sons  whom  they  had  possessed.  They  demanded, 
too,  to  have  their  professions  and  declarations  be- 
lieved, in  consequence  of  their  performing  such 
mighty  works,  and  having  thus  triumphed  over 
the  powers  of  hell.  The  reality  of  damioniaeal 
possession  stands  upon  the  same  evidence  with 
the  Gospel  system  in  general."  Nor  is  there  any 
thing  unreasonable  in  this  doctrine.  It  does  not 
appear  to  contradict  those  ideas  which  the  gene- 
ral appearance  of  Nature  and  the  series  of  events 
suggest,  concerning  the  benevolence  and  wisdom 
of  the  Deity,  by  which  he  regulates  the  affairs  of 
the  universe.  We  often  fancy  ourselves  able  to 
comprehend  things  to  which  our  understanding 
is  wholly  inadequate;  we  persuade  ourselves,  at 
times,  that  the  whole  extent  of  the  works  of  the 
Deity  must  be  well  known  to  us,  and  that  his  de- 
signs must  always  be  such  as  we  can  fathom. 
We  are  then  ready,  whenever  any  difficulty 
arises  to  us  in  considering  the  conduct  of  Provi- 
dence, to  model  tilings  according  to  our  own 
ideas;  to  deny  that  the  Deity  can  possibly  be  the 
author  of  things  which  we  cannot  reconcile;  and 
to  assert  that  he  must  act  on  every  occasion  in  a 
manner  consistent  with  our  narrow  views.  This 
is  the  pride  of  reason  ;  and  it  seems  to  have  sug- 
gested the  strongest  objections  that  have  been  at 
any  time  urged  against  the  reality  of  demoniacal 
possession.     Bui  the  Deity  ;,  surely  connect 

one  order  of  his  creatures  with  another.  We 
perceive  mutual  relations  and  a  beautiful  con- 
nexion to  prevail  through  all  thai  part  of  Nature 
which  falls  within  the  sphere  of  our  observation. 
The  inferior  animals  are  connected  with  man- 
kind, and  subjected  to  their  authority,  not  only 
i  in  instances  in  which  it  is  exerted  for  their  ad- 


DARKNESS 
vantage,  but  even  where  it  is  tyrannically  abused 
to  their  destruction.  Among  the  evils  to  which 
mankind  have  been  subjected,  why  might  not 
their  being  liable  to  demoniacal  possession  be 
one?  While  the  Supreme  Being  retains  the 
sovereignty  of  the  universe,  he  may  employ  what- 
ever agents  he  thinks  proper  in  the  execution  of 
his  purposes  ;  he  may  either  commission  an  an- 
gel, or  let  loose  a  devil ;  as  well  as  bend  the 
human  will,  or  communicate  any  particular  im- 
pulse to  matter.  All  that  revelation  makes 
known,  all  that  human  reason  a-n  conjecture, 
concerning  the  existence  of  various  orders  of 
spiritual  beings,  good  and  bad,  is  perfectly  con- 
sistent with,  and  even  favourable  t.>,  the  doctrine 
of  demoniacal  possession.  It  is  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament  in  such  language,  and  such  nar- 
ratives are  related  concerning  it,  that  the  Gospels 
cannot  be  well  regarded  in  any  other  light  than 
as  pieces  of  imposture,  and  Jesus  Christ  must  be 
considered  as  a  man  who  took  advantage  of  the 
weakness  and  ignorance  of  his  contemporaries,  if 
this  doctrine  be  nothing  but  a  vulgar  error;  it 
teaches  nothing  inconsistent  with  the  general 
conduct  of  Providence;  in  short,  it  is  not  the 
caution  of  philosophy,  but  the  pride  of  reason  that 
suggests  objections  against  this  doctrine.  See  the 
essays  of  Young,  Farmer,  Wortliington.  Dr. 
Lardner,  Macknight,  Fell,  Burgh,  dj'c.  on  Dce- 
moniacs ;  Seed's  Posthumous  Sermons,  set.  vi. 
and  article  D,emomac  in  Enc.  Brit. 

DAMNATION,  condemnation.  This  word 
is  used  to  denote  the  final  loss  of  the  soul ;  but  it 
is  not  always  to  be  understood  in  this  sense  in  the 
sacred  Scripture.  Thus  it  is  said  in  Rom.  xiii.  2, 
"They  that  resist  shall  receive  to  themselves 
damnation,  i.  e.  condemnation,  "  fi  om  the  rulers, 
who  are  not  a  terror  to  good  works,  but  to  the 
evil."  Again,  in  1  Cor.  xi.  29:  "  He  that,  eateth 
and  drinketh  unworthily,  eateth  and  drinketh 
damnation  to  himself;"  i.  e.  condemnation ;  ex- 
poses himself  to  severe  temporal  ju  Igments  from 
God,  and  to  the  judgment  and  censure  of  the 
wise  and  good.  Again,  Rom.  xiv.  23 :  "  He 
that  doubteth  is  damned  if  he  eat ;"  i.  e.  is  con- 
demned both  by  his  own  conscience  and  the 
word  of  God,  because  he  is  far  from  being  satis- 
fied that  he  is  right  in  so  doing. 

DANCERS,  a  sect  which  sprung  up  about 
1373  in  Flanders,  and  places  about.  It  was  their 
custom  all  of  a  sudden  to  fall  a  dancing,  ijnd, 
holding  each  other's  hands,  to  continue  thereat, 
till,  being  suffocated  with  the  extraordinary  vio- 
lence, they  fell  down  breathless  together.  During 
these  intervals  of  vehement  agitation  they  pre- 
tended they  were  favoured  with  wonderful  vi- 
sions. Like  the  Whippers,  they  roved  from 
place  to  place,  begging  their  victuals,  holding 
their  secret  assemblies,  and  treating  the  priest- 
hood and  worship  of  the  church  with  the  utmost 
contempt.  Thus  we  find,  as  Dr.  Haweis  ob- 
serves, that  the  French  Convulsi  onists  and  the 
Welch  Jumpers  have  had  predecessors  of  the 
same  stamp.  There  is  nothing  new  under  the 
sun.    Haweis  and  Mosheim's  Ch.  Hint.  Cent.  14. 

DARKNESS,  the  absence,  privation,  or  want 
of  natural  light.  In  Scripture  1  mguage  it  also 
signifies  sin,  John  iii.  19;  trouW  -  Is.  viii.  2:2; 
obscurity,  privacy,  Matt.  x.  27  'orgetfulness, 
contempt,  Ecc.  vi.  4. 

Darkness,  says  Moses,  was  upon  the  face  of 
the  deep,  Gen.  i.  2  •  that  is  to  sav,  the  chaos  was 
109 


DAVIDISTS 
plunged  in  thick  darkness,  because  hitherto  the 
light  was  not  created.  Moses,  at  the  command 
of  God,  brought  darkness  upon  Egypt,  as  a  plague 
to  the  inhabitants  of  it.  The  Septuagint,  our 
translation  of  the  Bible,  and  indeed  most  other*, 
in  explaining  Moses's  account  of  this  darkness, 
render  it  "a  darkness  which  maybe  felt;"  and 
the  Vulgate  has  it,  ;i  palpable  darkness  ;"  that  is, 
a  darkness  consisting  of  black  vapours  and  exha- 
lations, so  condensed  that  they  might  be  per- 
ceived by  the  organs  of  feeling  or  seeing ;  but 
some  commentators  think  that  this  is  carrying 
the  sense  too  far,  since,  in  such  a  medium  as  this, 
mankind  could  not  live  an  hour,  much  less  for 
the  space  of  three  days,  as  the  Egyptians  are  said 
to  have  done,  during  the  time  this  darkness  last- 
ed ;  and,  therefore,  they  imagine  that  instead  of 
a  darkness  that  may  be  felt,  the  Hebrew  phrase 
may  signify  a  darkness  wherein  men  went  grop 
ing  and  feeling  about  for  every  thing  they  want- 
ed. Let  this,  however,  be  as  it  may,  it  was  an 
awful  judgment  on  the  Egyptians  ;  and  we  may 
naturally  conclude  that  it  must  have  also  spread 
darkness  and  distress  over  their  minds  as  well  as 
their  persons.  The  tradition  of  the  Jews  is,  that 
in  this  darkness  they  were  terrified  by  the  appa- 
ritions of  evil  spirits,  or  rather  by  dreadful  sounds 
and  murmurs  which  they  made.  What  made  it 
still  worse,  was  the  length  of  time  it  continued : 
three  days,  or  as  Bishop  Hall  expresses  it,  six 
nights  in  one. 

During  the  last  three  hours  that  our  Saviour 
hung  upon  the  cross,  a  darkness  covered  the  face 
of  the  earth,  to  the  great  terror  and  amazement 
of  the  people  present  at  his  execution.  Tins  ex- 
traordinary alteration  in  the  face  of  nature,  says 
Dr.  Macknight,  in  his  Harmony  of  the  Gospels, 
was  peculiarly  proper,  whilst  the  Sun  of  Right- 
eousness was  withdrawing  his  beams  from  the 
land  of  Israel,  and  from  the  world ;  not  only  be- 
cause it  was  a  miraculous  testimony  borne  by 
God  himself  to  his  innocence,  but  also  because  it 
was  a  fit  emblem  of  his  departure  and  its  effects, 
at  least  till  his  light  shone  out  anew  with  addi- 
tional splendour  in  the  ministry  of  his  apostles. 
The  darkness  which  now  covered  Judea,  and  the 
neighbouring  countries,  beginning  about  noon, 
and  continuing  till  Jesus  expired,  was  not  the 
effect  of  an  ordinary  eclipse  of  the  sun,  for  that 
can  never  happen  but  at  the  new  moon,  whereas 
now  it  was  full  moon ;  not  to  mention  that  the 
total  darkness  occasioned  by  eclipses  of  the  sun 
never  continues  above  twelve  or  fifteen  minutes : 
wherefore  it  nmst  have  been  produced  by  the  di- 
vine power,  in  a  manner  we  are  not  able  to  ex- 
plain. Accordingly  Luke  (chap,  xxiii.  44,  45.) 
after  relating  that  there  was  darkness  over  all  the 
earth,  adds,  "  and  the  sun  was  darkened  ;"  which 
perhaps  may  imply  that  the  darkness  of  the  sun 
did  not  occasion,  but  proceeded  from,  the  darkness 
that  was  over  all  the  land.  Further,  the  Chris- 
t'an  writers,  in  their  most  ancient  apologies  to 
the  heathens,  affirm  that  as  it  was  full  moon  at 
the  passover  when  Christ  was  crucified,  no  such 
eclipse  could  happen  by  the  course  of  nature. 
They  observe,  also,  that  it  was  taken  notice  of 
as  a  prodigv  by  the  heathen  themselves. 

DA  ViDlSTS,  the  adherents  of  David  George, 
a  native  of  Delft,  who,  in  1525,  began  to  preach 
a  new  doctrine,  publishing  himself  to  be  the  true 
Messiah;  and  that  he  was  sent  of  God  to  fill 
heaven,  which  was  quite  empty  for  want  of  peo- 
K 


DEAN 
pie.  to  deserve  it.  He  is  likewise  said  to  have  de- 
nied the  existence  of  angels,  good  and  evil,  and  to 
have  disbelieved  the  doctrine  of  a  future  judgment 
He  rejected  marriage  with  the  Adamites;  held 
with  Manes,  that  the  soul  was  not  defiled  by  sin; 
and  laughed  nt  the  self-denial  so  much  recom- 
mended by  Jesus  Christ.  Such  were  his  princi- 
pal errors,  lie  made  his  escape  from  Delft,  and 
retired  first  into  Kriesland,  and  then  to  Basil, 
where  he  changed  his  name,  assuming  that  of 
John  Brack,  and  died  m  1556.  He  left,  some 
disciples  behind  him,  to  whom  he  promised  that 
he  would  rise  again  at  the  end  of  three  years. 
Nor  was  he  altogether  a  false  prophet  herein  ;  for 
the  magistrates  of  that  city  being  informed,  at  the 
three  years'  end,  of  what  he  had  taught,  ordered 
him  to  be  dug  up,  and  burnt,  together  with  his 
writings,  by  the  common  hangman. 

DEACON,  Aixxcvuf,  a  servant,  a  minister. 

1.  In  ecclesiastical  polity,  a  deacon  is  one  of 
the  lowest  of  the  three  orders  of  the  clergy.  He 
is  rather  a  novitiate,  or  in  a  state  of  probation 
for  one  year,  after  which  he  is  admitted  into  full 
orders,  or  ordained  a  priest. 

2.  In  the  New  Testament  the  word  is  used  for 
any  one  that  ministers  in  the  service  of  God  : 
bishops  and  presbyters  arc  also  styled  deacons  ; 
but  more  particularly  and  generally  it  is  under- 
stood of  the  lowest  order  of  ministering  servants 
in  the  church,  1  Cor.  iii.  5.  Col.  i.  23,  23.  Phil.  i. 
1.  1  Tim.  iii. 

The  office  of  deacons  originally  was  to  serve 
tables,  the  Lord's  table,  the  minister's  table,  and 
the  poor's  table.  They  took  care  of  the  secular 
affairs  of  the  church,  received  and  disbursed  mo- 
nies, kept  the  church's  accounts,  and  provided 
every  thing  necessary  for  its  temporal  good. 
Thus,  while  the  bishop  attended  to  the  souls,  the 
deacons  attended  to  the  bodies  of  the  people:  the 
pastor  to  the  spiritual,  and  the  deacons  to  the  tem- 
poral interests  of  the  church,  Acts  vi. 

DEACON  ESS,  a  female  deacon.  It  is  gene- 
rally allowed,  that  in  the  primitive  chun  h  there 
were  deaconesses,  i.  e.  pious  women,  whose  par- 
ticular business  it  was  to  assist  in  the  entertain- 
ment and  care  of  the  itinerant  preachers,  visit  the 
sick  and  imprisoned,  instruct  female  catechumens, 
and  assist  at  their  baptism;  then  more  particularly 
necessary,  from  the  peculiar  customs  of  those 
countries,  the  persecuted  stale  of  the  church,  and 
the  speedier  spreading  of  the  Gospel.  Such  a 
one  it  is  reasonable  to  think  Phcbe  was,  Rom. 
xvi.  1,  who  is  expressly  called  Ataxovo;',  a  deaconess 
or  stated  servant,  as  Doddridge  renders  it.  They 
were  usually  widows,  and,  to  prevent  scandal, 
generally  in  years,  1  Tim.  v.  9.  See  also  Span- 
hcim.  HUt.  Christ.  S<icul.  1.  p.  554.  The  apos- 
tolic constitutions,  as  they  are  called,  mention  the 
ordination  of  a  deaconess,  and  the  form  of  prayer 
used  on  that  occasion  (lib.  viii.  ch.  10,  20.)  Pliny 
also,  in  his  celebrated  epistle  to  Trajan,  (xcvii.) 
is  thought  to  refer  to  them,  when,  speaking  of  two 
female  Christians  whom  he  put  to  torture,  he 
says  "qua:  ministne  diccbantur,"  i.  e.  who  were 
called  deaconesses. — But.  as  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians seem  to  be.  led  to  this  practice  from  the  pe- 
culiarity of  their  circumstances,  and  the  Scripture 
is  entirely  silent  as  to  any  appointment  to  this 
suj>posed  office,  or  any  rules  about  it,  it  is  very 
justlv  laid  aside,  at  least  as  an  office. 

DEAN,  an  ecclesiastical  dignitary,  next  under 
the  bishop,  in  cathedral  churches,  and  head  of  the 
110 


DECALOGUE 
chapter.  The  .Latin  word  is  decanus,  derived 
from  the  Creek  a.-**,  ten,  because  the  dean  pre- 
sides over  at  least  ten  canons,  or  prebendaries. 
A  dean  and  chapter  are  the  bishop's  council,  to 
assist  him  in  the  affairs  of  religion. 

DEATH  is  ire ncrally  defined  to  be  the  sepa- 
ration of  the  soul  from  the  body.  It  is  styled,  in 
Scripture  language,  a  departure  out  of  this  world 
to  another,  2  Tim.  iv.  7 ;  a  dissolving  of  the 
earthly  house  of  this  tabernacle,  2  Cor.  v.  1  ;  a 
going  the  way  of  all  the  earth,  Jos.  xxiii.  14;  a 
rcturnimi  to  the  dust,  Ecc.  xii.  7;  a  sleep,  John 
xi.  11.  Deatii  may  be  considered  as  the  effect 
of  sin,  Rom.  v.  12:  yet,  as  our  existence  is  from 
God,  no  man  has  a  right  to  take  away  his  own 
life,  or  the  life  of  another,  Gen.  ix.  6.  Satan  is 
said  to  have  the  -power  of  death,  Heb.  ii.  14;  not 
that  he  can  at  his  pleasure  inflict  death  on  man- 
kind, but  as  he  was  the  instrument  of  first  bring- 
ing death  into  the  world,  John  viii.  44  ;  and  as  he 
may  be  the  executioner  of  God's  wrath  on  im- 
penitent sinners,  when  God  permits  him.  Death 
is  but  ffnee,  Heb.  ix.  27;  certain,  Job  xiv.  1,  2; 
powerful,  and  terrific,  called  the  king  of  terrors, 
Job  xviii.  14;  uncertain  as  to  the  time,  Prov. 
xxviii.  1:  universal,  Gen.  v;  necessary,  that  God's 
justice  may  be  displayed,  and  his  mercy  manifest- 
ed; demable  to  the  righteous,  Luke  ii.  28 — 30. 
The  /«»  of  death  is  a  source  of  uneasiness  to 
the  generality,  and  to  a  guilty  conscience  it  may 
indeed  be  terrible;  but  to  a  good  man  it  should 
be  obviated  by  the  consideration,  that  death  is  the 
termination  of  every  trouble ;  that  it  puts  him  be- 
yond th-;  reach  of  sin  and  temptation;  that  God 
has  pron.secl  to  be  with  the  righteous,  even  to  the 
end,  Heb  xiii.  5;  that  Jesus  Christ  has  taken 
away  the  sting,  1  Cor.  xv.  54;  and  that  it  intro- 
duces hm'  to  a  state  of  endless  felicity,  2  Cor.  v.  8. 

Prep  n  ationfor  death.  This  does  not  consist 
in  bare  morality;  in  an  external  reformation  from 
gross  sins;  in  attention  to  a  round  of  duties  in 
our  own  strength;  in  acts  of  charity ;  in  a  zealous 
profession ;  in  possessing  eminent  gifts;  but  in 
reconciliation  to  God;  repentance  of  sin;  faith  in 
Christ;  obedience  to  his  word  ;  and  all  as  the  ef- 
fect of  regeneration  by  the  Spirit.  3  John  iii.  6. 
1  Cor.  xi  3.  Tit.  5.  'Bates's four  last  Things, 
Hopkins,  Drelincourt,  Sherlock,  and  Fcllowes, 
on  Death;  Bp.  Porteus's  Poem  on  Death; 
Grove's  Admirable  Sermon  on  the  Fear  of 
Death;  Watts's  World  to  Come;  Law's  Theory 
of  Rcligim. 

Spiritual  Death  is  that  awful  state  of  igno- 
rance, insensibility,  and  disobedience,  which  man- 
kind are  in  by  nature,  and  which  exclude  them 
from  the  Hvour  and  enjoyment  of  Cod,  Lukei.79. 
See  Sin. 

Broil. t-s  of  Death,  a  denomination  usually 
given  to  ihe  religious  of  the  order  of  St.  Paul, 
the  first  hermit.  They  are  called  brothers  of 
(hath,  on  recount  of  the  figure  of  a  death's  head 
which  t.Uev  were  always  to  have  with  them,  in 
order  to  keep  perpetually  before  them  the  thoughts 
of  death.  The  order  was  probably  suppressed  by 
pope  Ur'n.n  VIII.  See  Atonement;  Pearson 
and  Banow  on  the  Creed;  Owen's  Death  of 
Death  in  the  Death  of  Christ;  Charnock't 
Works,  I'd.  ii.  on  the  Necessity,  Voluntariness, 
qV.  of  the  Death  of  Christ. 

DEC  A  LOG  UE,  the  ten  commandments  given 
by  God  to  Moses. 
"  The  ten  commandments  were  engraved  by  God 


DECLAMATION 
on  two  tables  of  stone.  The  Jews,  by  way  ot 
eminence  call  these  commandments  the  ten 
words,  from  whence  they  had  afterwards,  the 
name  of  decalogue  ;  but  they  joined  the  first  and 
second  into  one,  and  divided  the  last  int6  two. 
They  understand  that  against  stealing  to  relate 
to  the  stealing  of  men,  or  kidnapping  ;  alleging, 
that  the  stea'ing  one  another's  goods  or  property 
is  forbidden  in  the  last  commandment.  The 
church  of  R.ime  has  struck  the  second  command- 
ment quite  out  of  the  decalogue ;  and,  to  make 
their  number  complete,  has  split  the  tenth  intc 
two.     The  reason  is  obvious. 

DECEIT  consists  in  passing  any  thing  upon 
a  person  for  what  it  is  not,  as  when  falsehood  is 
made  to  pass  for  truth.     See  Hypocrisy. 

DECEPTION,    SELF.     See  Self-Decep- 

.ON. 

DECLAMATION,  a  speech  made  in  public 
in  the  tone  and  manner  of  an  oration,  uniting  the 
expression  of  action  to  the  propriety  of  pronun- 
ciation, in  order  to  give  the  sentiment  its  full  im- 
pression on  the  mind.  It  is  also  used  in  a  dero- 
gatory sense ;  as  when  it  is  said,  such  a  speech 
was  mere  declamation,  it  implies  that  it  was  defi- 
cient in  point  of  reasoning,  or  had  more  sound 
than  sense. 

Declamation  of  the  Pulpit.  "The  dig- 
nity and  sanctity  of  the  [dace,  and  the  importance 
of  the  subject,  require  the  preacher  to  exert  the 
utmost  powers  of  his  voice,  to  produce  a  pronun- 
ciation that  is  perfectly  distinct  and  harmonious, 
and  that  he  observe  a  deportment  and  action 
which  is  expressive  and  graceful.  The  preacher 
should  not  roar  like  a  common  crier,  and  rend  the 
ear  with  a  voice  like  thunder ;  for  such  kind  of  de- 
clamation is  not  only  without  meaning  and  with- 
out persuasion,  but  highly  incongruous  with  the 
meek  and  gentle  spirit  of  the  Gospel.  He  should 
likewise  take  particular  care  to  avoid  a  monotony : 
his  voice  should  rise  from  the  beginning,  as  it 
were,  by  degrees,  and  its  greatest  strength  should 
be  exerted  in  the  application.  Each  inflexion  of 
the  voice  should  be  adapted  to  the  phrase  and  to 
the  meaning  of  the  words  ;  and  each  remarkable 
expression  should  have  its  peculiar  inflexion. 
The  dogmatic  requires  a  plain  uniform  tone  of 
voice  only,  and  the  menaces  of  God's  word  de- 
mand a  greater  force  than  its  promises  and  re- 
wards ;  but  the  latter  should  not  lie  pronounced 
in  the  soft  tone  of  a  flute,  nor  the  former  with  the 
loud  sound  of  a  trumpet.  The  voice  should  still 
retain  its  natural  tone  in  all  its  various  inflexions. 
Happy  is  that  preacher  who  has  a  voice  that  is  at 
once  strong,  flexible,  and  harmonious.  An  air 
of  complacency  and  benevolence,  as  well  as  de- 
votion, should  be  constantly  visible  in  the  coun- 
tenance of  the  preacher ;  but  every  appearance 
of  affectation  must  be  carefully  avoided  ;  for  no- 
thing is  so  disgustful  to  an  audience  as  even  the 
semblance  of  dissimulation.  Eyes  constantly 
rolling,  turned  towards  heaven,  and  streaming 
with  tears,  rather  denote  a  hypocrite  than  a  man 
possessed  of  the  real  spirit  of  religion,  and  who 
feels  the  true  import  of  what  he  preaches.  An 
air  of  affected  devotion  infallibly  destroys  the  effi- 
cacy of  all  that  the  preacher  can  say,  however 
just  and  important  it  may  be.  On  the  other 
hand,  he  must  axoid  every  appearance  of  mirth 
or  raillery,  or  of  that  cold  unfeeling  manner  which 
is  so  ?pt  to  freeze  the  heart  of  his  hearers.  The 
body  should  in  general  be  erect  and  in  a  natural 
111 


DECREES 
and  easy  attitude.  The  perpetual  movement  or 
contortion  of  the  body  has  a  ridiculous  effect  in 
the  pulpit,  and  makes  the  figure  of  a  preacher 
and  a  harlequin  too  similar ;  on  the  other  hand, 
he  ought  not  to  remain  constantly  upright  and 
motionless,  like  a  speaking  statue.  The  motions 
of  the  hands  give  a  strong  expression  to  a  dis- 
course; but  they  should  be  decent,  grave,  noble, 
and  expressive.  The  preacher  who  is  incessantly 
in  action,  who  is  perpetually  clasping  his  hands, 
or  who  menaces  with  a  clenched  fist,  or  counts 
his  arguments  on  his  fingers,  will  only  excite 
mirth  among  his  auditory.  In  a  word,  declama- 
tion is  an  art  that  the  sacred  orator  should  study 
with  assiduity.  The  design  of  a  sermon  is  to 
convince,  to  affect,  and  to  persuade.  The  voice, 
the  countenance,  and  the  action,  which  are  to 
produce  the  triple  effect,  are  therefore  objects  to 
which  the  preacher  should  particularly  apply  him- 
self."    See  Sermon.  . 

DECREES  OF  GOD  are  his  settled  pur- 
poses, whereby  he  foreordains  whatsoever  comes 
to  pass,  Dan.  iv.  24.  Acts  xv.  18.  Eph.  i.  11. 
This  doctrine  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the  m>st 
perplexing  controversies  that  has  occurred  among 
mankind ;  it  is  not,  however,  as  some  think,  a 
novel  doctrine.  The  opinion,  that  whatever  occurs 
in  the  world  at  large,  or  in  the  lot  of  private  indi- 
viduals, is  the  result  of  a  previous  and  unalterable 
arrangement  by  that  Supreme  Power  which  pre- 
sides over  Nature,  has  always  been  held  by  many 
of  the  vulgar,  and  has  been  believed  by  specula- 
tive men.  The  indent  stoics,  Zeno  and  Chry- 
sippus,  whom  the  Jewish  Essenes  seem  to  have 
followed,  asserted  the  existence  of  a  deity,  that, 
acting  wisely  but  necessarily,  contrived  the  <rene- 
ral  system  of  the  world ;  from  which,  by  a  series 
of  causes,  whatever  is  now  done  in  it  unavoidably 
results.  Mahomet  introduced  into  his  Koran  the 
doctrine  of  absolute  predestination  of  the  course 
of  human  affairs.  He  represented  life  and  death, 
prosperity  and  adversity,  and  every  event  that 
befalls  a  man  in  this  world,  as  the  result  of  a  pre- 
vious determination  of  the  one  God  who  rules 
over  all.  Augustine  and  the  whole  of  the  earliest 
reformers,  but  especially  Calvin,  favoured  this 
doctrine.  It  was  generally  asserted,  and  publicly 
owned,  in  most  of  the  confessions  of  faith  of  the 
reformed  churches,  and  particularly  in  the  church 
of  England ;  and  to  this  we  may  add,  that  it  was 
maintained  by  a  great  number  of  divines  in  the 
last  two  centuries. 

As  to  the  nature  of  these  decrees,  it  must  be  ob- 
served that  they  are  not  the  result  of  deliberation, 
or  the  Almighty's  debating  matters  within  himself, 
reasoning  in  hisown  mind  abort  the  expediency  or 
inexpediency  of  things,  as  creatures  do;  nor  are 
they  merely  ideas  of  things  future,  but  settled  deter- 
minations founded  on  his  sovereign  will  and  plea- 
sure, Isa.  xl.  14.  They  are  to  be  considered  as  etcr- 
nal:  this  is  evident;  for  if  God  be  eternal,  conse- 
quently his  purposes  must  be  of  equal  duration  with 
himself:  to  suppose  otherwise,  would  be  to  suppose 
that  there  was  a  time  when  he  was  undetermined 
and  mutable;  whereas,  no  new  determinations  or 
after-thoughts  can  arise  in  his  mind,  Job  xxiii. 
13,  14. — 2.  They  are  free,  without  any  compul- 
sion, and  not  excited  by  any  motive  out  of  him- 
self, Rom.  ix.  15. — 3.  They  are  infinitely  wise, 
displaying  his  glory,  and  promoting  the  general 
good,  Rom.  xi.  33. — 1.  They  are  immutable,  for 
this  is  the  result  of  his  being  infinitely  perfect; 


DEFENDER 

for  if  there  were  the  lcr>st  change  in  God's  under- 
standing, it  would  bo  an  instance  of  imperfection, 

Mai.  iii.  (!. — 5.  They  are  extensive  or  universal, 
relating  to  all  creatures  and  things  in  heaven, 
earth,  and  hell,  Eph.  i.  11.  Prov.  xvi.  4.-6.  They 
are  secret,  or  at  least  cannot  he  known  till  he  be 
pleased  to  discover  them.  It  is  therefore  presump- 
tion for  any  to  attempt  to  enter  into  or  judge  of 
his  sec r>t  purpose,  or  to  decide  upon  what  he  has 
not  revealed,  Deut.  xxiv.  2f>.  Nor  is  an  unknown 
or  supposed  decree  at  any  time  to  he  the  rule  of 
our  conduct.  His  revealed  will  alone  must  be 
considered  as  the  rule  by  which  we  are  to  judge 
of  the  event  of  things,  as  well  as  of  our  conduct 
at  large,  Rom.  xi.  34. — 7.  Lastly,  they  are  effec- 
tual;  for  as  he  is  infinitely  wise  to  plan,  so  he  is 
infinitely  powerful  to  perform:  his  counsel  shall 
stand,  and  he  trill  do  all  his  pleasure,  Isa.  xlvi.10. 
This  doctrine  should  teach  us,  1.  Admiration. 
"  He  is  the  rock,  his  work  is  perfect,  for  all  his 
wavs  are  judgment;  a  God  of  truth,  and  without 
iniquity;  just  and  right  is  he."  Deut.  xxxii.  4. — 
2.  Reverence.  "  Who  would  not  fear  thee,  O 
King  of  nations  ?  for  to  thee  doth  it  appertain," 
Jer.x.  7.— 3.  Humility.  "O  the  depth  of  the 
riches,  both  of  the  wisdom  and  knowledge  of 
God  ! — how  unsearchable  are  his  judgments,  and 
his  ways  past  finding  out !"  Roin.  xi.  33.' — 4.  Sub- 
mission. For  he  doeth  according  to  his  will  in 
the  armies  of  heaven,  and  among  the  inhabitants 
of  the  earth  ;  and  none  can  stay  his  hand,  or  say 
unto  him,  What  doest  thou '?"  Dan.  iv.  35. — 
5  Desire  for  heaven.  "  What  I  do,  thou  know- 
est  not  now ;  but  thou  shalt  krow  hereafter," 
John  xiii.  7.  See  Necessity,  Predestination. 
Decrees  of  Councils  are  the  laws  made  by 
them  to  regulate  the  doctrine  and  policy  of  the 
church.  Thus  the  acts  of  the  Christian  council 
at  Jerusalem  are  called,  Acts  xvi.  4. 

DECRETAL,  a  letter  of  a  pope,  determining 
some  point  or  question  in  the  ecclesiastical  law. 
The  decretals  compose  the  second  part  of  the  ca- 
non law.  The  first  genuine  one,  acknowledged 
by  all  the  learned  as  such,  is  a  letter  of  pope  Si- 
ricius,  written  in  the  year  383,  to  Himerus,  bishop 
of  Tarragona,  in  Spain,  concerning  some  dis- 
orders which  had  crept  into  the  churches  of  Spain. 
Gratian  published  a  collection  of  decretals,  con- 
taining all  the  ordinances  made  by  the  popes  till 
the  year  1130.  Gregory  IX.  in  1227,  following 
the  example  of  Theodosius  and  Justinian,  formed 
a  constitution  of  his  own,  collecting  into  one  body 
all  the  decisions  and  all  the  causes  which  served 
to  advance  the  papal  power  ;  which  collection  of 
decretals  was  called  the  Pentateuch,  because  it 
contained  five  books. 

DEDICATION,  a  religious  ceremony,  where- 
by any  person  or  thing  is  solemnly  consecrated, 
or  set  apart  to  the  service  of  God  and  the  pur- 
poses of  religion. 

The  use  of  dedication  is  very  ancient,  both 
among  the  worshippers  of  the  true  God,  and 
among  the  heathens.  In  the  Scripture  we  meet 
with  dedications  of  the  tabernacle,  altars,  &q. 
Under  Christianity  dedication  is  only  applied  to 
b  church,  and  is  properly  the  consecration  there- 
of!    See  Consecration. 

DEFENCE.     See  Self-defence. 

DEFENDER  OF  THE  FAITH,  (Fidei 

Defensor,)  a  peculiar  title  belonging  to  the  king 

of  England;  as  Callwlicus  to  the  king  of  Spain, 

and   Christ ianissimus  to  the  king  of  France. 

112 


DEISTS 

These  titles  were  given  by  the  popes  of  Rome. 
That  of  Fidei  Defensorwas  first  conferred  by  Lee 
X.  on  king  Henrv  VI 11.  for  writing  against  Mar- 
tin Luther:  and  the  bull  for  it  bears  dnte  rjuinto 
idus,  October  1521.  It  was  afterwards  confirmed 
by  Clement  711.  Eut  the  pope,  on  Henry's 
suppressing  the  houses  of  religion,  at  the  time  of 
the  Reformat'O'i,  not  only  deprived  him  of  his  title, 
but  deposed  him  from  his  crown  also;  though  in 
the  35th  year  i  f  his  reign,  his  title,  &c.  was  con- 
firmed by  parliament,  and  has  continued  to  be 
used  by  all  his  successors.  Chamberlayne  says, 
the  title  belonged  to  the  kings  of  England  before 
that  time,  and  for  proof  hereof  appeals  to  several 
charters  gran'ed  to  the  University  of  Oxford:  so 
that  pope  Leo's  bull  was  only  a  renovation  of 
an  ancient  right. 

DEGRADATION,  Ecclesiastical,  is  the  de- 
privation of  a  priest  of  his  dignity.  We  have  an 
instance  of  it  in  the  eighth  century  at  Constanti- 
nople, in  the  person  of  the  patriarch  Constantine, 
who  was  made  to  go  out  of  the  church  backwards, 
stripped  of  his  pallium,  and  anathematized.  In 
our  own  couittry,  Cranmer  was  degraded  by  or- 
der of  the  bloody  queen  Mary.  They  dressed  him 
in  episcopal  r.bes,  made  only  of  canvass;  put  the 
mitre  on  his  head,  and  the  pastoral  staff  in  his 
hand,  and  in  this  attire  showed  him  to  the  people, 
and  then  stripjt'd  him  piece  by  piece. 

DEISTS,  a  class  of  people  whose  distinguish- 
ing character  it  is,  not  to  profess  any  particular 
form  or  system  of  religion  ;  but  only  to  acknow- 
ledge the  existence  of  a  God,  and  to  follow  the 
light  and  law  cf  Nature,  rejecting  revelation  and 
opposing  Chiistianity.  The  name  of  deists  seems 
to  have  been  first  assumed,  as  the  denomination 
of  a  party,  about  the  middle  of  the  16th  century, 
by  some  gentlemen  in  France  and  Italy,  who 
were  desirous  of  thus  disguising  their  opposition 
to  Christianity  by  a  more  honourable  appellation 
than  that  of  atheists.  Viret,  an  eminent  reformer, 
mentions  certain  persons  in  his  epistle  dedicatory, 
prefixed  to  the  second  volume  of  his  Instruction 
Chritiennc,  published  in  1653,  who  called  them- 
selves by  a  new  name,  that  of  deists.  These,  he 
tells  us,  professed  to  believe  in  God,  but  show- 
ed no  regard  to  Jesus  Christ,  and  considered  the 
doctrine  of  the  apostles  and  evangelists  as  fables 
and  dreams.  He  adds,  that  they  laughed  at  all 
religion,  though  they  outwardly  conformed  to  the 
religion  of  those  with  whom  they  lived,  or  whom 
they  wished  to  please,  or  feared  to  offend.  Some, 
he  observed,  professed  to  believe  the  immortality 
of  the  soul ;  others  denied  both  this  doctrine  and 
that  of  provide! ice.  Many  of  them  were  consid- 
ered as  persons  of  acute  and  subtle  genius,  and 
took  pains  in  disseminating  their  notions.  The 
deists  hold,  that,  considering  the  multiplicity  of 
religions)  the  numerous  pretences  to  revelation, 
and  the  precarious  arguments  generally  advanced 
in  proof  thereof,  the  best  and  surest  way  is  to  re- 
turn to  the  simplicity  of  nature,  and  the  belief  of 
one  God;  which  is'the  only  truth  agreed  to  by 
all  nations.  They  complain,  that  the  freedom  of 
thinking  and  reasoning  is  oppressed  under  the 
yoke  of  religion,  and  that  the  minds  of  men  are 
tyrannized  over,  by  the  necessity  imposed  upon 
them  of  believing  inconceivable  mysteries;  and 
contend  that  in  thin_'  sIhhiKI  be  required  to  be  as- 
sented to  or  believed  but  what  their  reason  clearly 
conceives.  The  distinguishing  character  of  mo- 
dern deists  is,  that  they  discard  ail  pretences  to 


DEISTS 

revelation  as  the  effects  of  imposture  or  enthusi- 
asm. They  profess  a  regard  for  natural  religion, 
though  they  arc  far  from  being  agreed  in  their 
notions  concerning  it. 

They  are  classed  by  some  of  their  own  writers 
into  mortal  and  immortal  deists :  the  latter 
acknowledging  a  future  state ;  and  the  former 
denying  it,  or  representing  it  as  very  uncertain. 
Dr.  Clarke  distinguishes  four  sorts  of  deists.  1. 
Those  who  pretend  to  believe  the  existence  of  an 
eternal,  infinite,  independent,  intelligent  Being, 
who  made  the  world,  without  concerning  himself 
in  the  government  of  it. — 2.  Those  who  believe 
the  being  and  natural  providence  of  God,  but 
deny  the  difference  of  actions  as  morally  good  or 
evil,  resolving  it  into  the  arbitrary  constitution  of 
human  laws;  and  therefore  they  suppose  that 
God  takes  no  notice  of  them.  With  respect  to 
both  these  classes,  he  observes,  that  their  opinions 
can  consistently  terminate  in  nothing  but  down- 
right atheism. — 3.  Those  who,  having,  right  ap- 
prehensions concerning  the  nature,  attributes, 
and  all-governing  providence  of  God,  seem  also  to 
have  some  notion  of  his  moral  perfections ;  though 
they  consider  them  as  transcendant,  and  such  in 
nature  and  degree,  that  we  can  form  no  true 
judgment,  nor  argue  with  any  certainty  concern- 
ing them  :  but  they  deny  the  immortality  of  hu- 
man souls ;  alleging  that  men  perish  at  death, 
and  that  the  present  life  is  the  whole  of  human 
existence. — 4.  Those  who  believe  the  existence, 
perfections,  and  providence  of  God,  the  obligations 
of  natural  religion,  and  a  state  of  future  retribu- 
tion, on  the  evidence  of  the  light  of  Nature,  with- 
out a  divine  revelation ;  such  as  these,  he  says, 
are  the  only  true  deists  :  but  their  principles,  he 
apprehends,  should  lead  them  to  embrace  Chris- 
tianity ;  and  therefore  he  concludes  that  there  is 
now  no  consistent  scheme  of  deism  in  the  world. 
The  first  deistical  writer  of  any  note  that  ap- 
peared in  this  country,  was  Herbert,  baron  of 
Oherbury.  He  lived  and  wrote  in  the  seven- 
leenth  century.  His  book  De  Vcritatc  was  first 
published  at  Paris  in  1624.  This,  together  with 
his  book  De  Causis  Errorum,  and  his  treatise 
De  Religione  Laid,  were  afterwards  published 
in  London.  His  celebrated  work  De  Religione 
Gentilium  was  published  at  Amsterdam  in  1663 
in  4to.,  and  in  1700  in  8vo. ;  and  an  English 
translation  of  it  was  published  at  London  in 
1705.  As  he  was  one  of  the  first  that  formed 
deism  into  a  system,  and  asserted  the  sufficiency, 
universality,  and  absolute  perfection  of  natural 
religion,  with  a  view  to  discard  all  extraordinary 
revelation  as  useless  and  needless,  we  shall  sub- 
join the  five  fundamental  articles  of  this  universal 
religion.  They  are  these:  1.  There  is  one  su- 
preme God. — 2.  That  he  is  chiefly  to  be  wor- 
shipped.— 3.  That  piety  and  virtue  arc  the  prin- 
cipal part  of  his  worship. — 4.  That  we  must  re- 
pent of  our  sins;  and  if  we  do  so,  God  will  par- 
don them. — 5.  That  there  are  rewards  for  good 
men  and  punishments  for  bad  men.  both  here  and 
hereafter.  A  number  of  advocates  have  appeared 
m  the  same  cause;  and  however  they  may  have 
differed  among  themselves,  they  have  been  agreed 
in  thsir  attempts  at  invalidating  the  evidence  and 
authority  of  divine  revelation.  We  might  men- 
tion Hobbes,  Blount,  Toland,  Collins,  Wool- 
Bton,  Tindal,  Morgan,  Chubb,  lord  Bolingbroke, 
Hume,  Gibbon,  Paine,  and  some  add  lord  Shaf- 
tesbury to  the  number.  Among  foreigners,  Vol- 
113  P 


DELUGE 
taire,  R  msseau,  Condorcet,  and  many  other  cele- 
brated French  authors,  have  rendered  themselves 
conspicuous  by  their  deistical  writings.  "  But," 
as  one  observes,  "  the  friends  of  Christianity  have 
no  reason  to  regret  the  free  and  unreserved  dis- 
cussion which  their  religion  has  undergone.  Ob- 
jections have  been  stated  and  urged  in  their  full 
force,  and  as  fully  answered  ;  arguments  and 
raillery  have  been  repelled  ;  and  the  controversy 
between  Christians  and  deists  has  called  forth  a 
great  number  of  excellent  writers,  who  have  il- 
lustrated both  the  doctrines  and  evidences  of 
Christianity  in  a  manner  that  will  ever  reflect 
honour  on  their  names,  and  be  of  lasting  service 
to  the  cause  of  genuine  religion,  and  the  best  in- 
terests of  mankind."  See  articles  Christianity, 
Infidelity,  Inspiration,  and  Scripture,  in 
this  work.  Leland's  View  of  Deistical  Writers; 
Sermons  at  Boyle's  Lecture  ;  Halyburton's  Na- 
tural Religion  insufficient  ;  Leslie's  Short  Me- 
thod with  the  Deists  ;  Bishop  Watson's  Apology 
for  the  Bible  ;  Fullers  Gospel  of  Christ  its  own 
Witness;  Bishop  Porteus's  Charge  to  the  Cler- 
gy, for  1794 ;  and  his  Summary  of  the  Evi- 
dences of  Christianity. 

DEITY  OF  CHRIST.   See  Jesus  Christ. 

DELUGE,  the  flood  which  overflowed  and 
destroyed  the  earth.  This  flood  makes  one  of  the 
most  considerable  epochas  in  chronology.  Its 
history  is  given  by  Moses,  Gen.  vi.  and  vii.  Its 
time  is  fixed  by  the  best  chronologers  to  the  year 
from  the  creation  1656,  answering  to  the  year 
before  Christ  2293.  Fiom  this  flood,  the  state 
of  the  world  is  divided  into  diluvian  and  ante- 
dilwcian. 

Men  who  have  not  paid  that  regard  to  sacred 
history  which  it  deserves,  have  cavilled  at  the  ac- 
count given  of  an  universal  deluge.  Their  ob- 
jections principally  turn  upon  three  points:  1. 
The  want  of  any  direct  history  of  that  event  by 
the  profane  writers  of  antiquity. — 2.  The  ap- 
parent impossibility  of  accounting  for  the  quan 
tity  of  water  necessary  to  overtiow  the  whole 
earth  to  such  a  depth  as  it  is  said  to  have  been. — 
And,  3.  There  appearing  no  necessity  for  an  uni- 
versal deluge,  as  the  same  end  might  have  been 
accomplished  by  a  partial  one. 

To  the  above  arguments  we  oppose  the  plain 
declarations  of  Scripture.  God  declared  to  Noah 
that  he  was  resolved  to  destroy  every  thing  that 
had  breath  under  heaven,  or  had  life  on  the  earth, 
by  a  flood  of  waters ;  such  was  the  threatening, 
such  was  the  execution.  The  waters,  Moses 
assures  us,  covered  the  whole  earth,  buried  all  the 
mountains ;  every  thing  perished  therein  that  had 
life,  excepting  Noah  and  those  with  him  in  the 
ark.  Can  an  universal  deluge  be  more  clearly 
expressed  1  If  the  deluge  had  only  been  partial, 
there  had  been  no  necessity  to  spend  a  hundred 
years  in  the  building  of  an  ark,  and  shutting  up 
all  sorts  of  animals  therein,  in  order  to  re-stock 
the  world :  they  had  been  easily  and  readily 
brought  from  those  parts  of  the  world  not  over- 
flowed into  those  that  were  ;  at  least,  all  the  birds 
never  would  have  been  destroyed,  as  Moses  says 
they  were,  so  long  as  they  had  wings  to  bear 
them  to  those  parts  where  the  flood  did  not  reach. 
If  the  waters  had  only  overflowed  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris,  they  could 
not  be  fifteen  cubits  above  the  highest  mountains* 
there  was  no  rising  that  height  but  they  must 
spread  themselves,  by  the  laws  of  gravity,  over 
'  k2 


DEPRECATORY 
the  rest  of  the  earth ;  unless  perhnps  they  had 
(>een  retained  there  by  a  miracle;  in  that  case, 
Aloises,  no  doubt,  would  have  related  the  miracle, 
as  he  did  that  of  the  waters  of  the  Red  Sea,  &C. 
It  may  also  be  observed,  that  in  regions  far  remote 
from  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  viz.  Italy,  France, 
Switzerland,  Germany,  England,  &c.  there  are 
frequently  found,  in  places  many  scores  of  leagues 
from  the  sea,  and  even  in  the  tops  of  high  moun- 
tains, whole  trees  sunk  deep  under  ground,  as 
also  teeth  and  bones  of  animals,  fishes  entire,  sea 
shells,  ears  of  corn,  &e.  petrified  ;  which  the  best 
naturalists  are  agreed  could  never  have  come 
there  but  by  the  deluge.  That  the  Greeks  and 
western  nations  had  some  knowledge  of  the  flood, 
lias  never  been  denied;  and  the  Mussulmen, 
Chinese,  and  Americans,  have  traditions  of  the 
deluge.  The  ingenious  Mr.  Bryant,  in  his  My- 
thology, has  pretty  clearly  proved  that  the  deluge, 
so  far  from  being  unknown  to  the  heathen  world 
at  large,  is  in  reality  conspicuous  throughout  every 
one  of-  their  acts  of  religious  worship.  In  India, 
also,  Sir  William  Jones  has  discovered,  that  in  the 
oldest  mythological  books  of  that  country,  there  is 
such  an  account  of  the  deluge  as  corresponds 
sufficiently  with  that  of  Moses. 

Various  have  been  the  conjectures  of  learned 
men  as  to  the  natural  causes  of  the  deluge. 
Some  have  supposed  that  a  quantity  of  water  was 
created  on  purpose,  and  at  a  proper  time  anni- 
hilated by  Divine  power.  Dr.  Burnet  supposes 
the  primitive  earth  to  have  been  no  more  than  a 
crust  investing  the  water  contained  in  the  ocean ; 
and  in  the  central  abyss,  which  he  and  others 
suppose  to  exist  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth  sit  the 
time  of  the  flood,  this  outward  crust  broke  in  a 
thousand  pieces,  and  sunk  down  among  the  water, 
which  thus  spouted  up  in  vast  cataracts  and  over- 
flowed the  whole  surface.  Others,  supposing  a 
sufficient  fund  of  water  in  the  sea  or  abyss,  think 
that  the  shifting  of  the  earth's  centre  of  gravity 
drew  after  it  the  water  out  of  the  channel,  and 
overwhelmed  the  several  parts  of  the  earth  suc- 
cessively. Others  ascribe  it  to  the  shock  of  a 
comet ;  and  Mr.  King  supposes  it  to  arise  from 
subterraneous  fires  bursting  forth  with  great  vio- 
lence under  the  sea.  But  are  not  most,  if  not  all 
these  hypotheses  quite  arbitrary,  and  without 
foundation  from  the  words  of  Moses  ?  It  is,  per- 
haps, in  vain  to  attempt  accounting  for  this  event 
by  natural  causes,  it  being  altogether  miraculous 
and  supernatural,  as  a  punishment  to  men  for  the 
corruption  then  in  the  world.  Let  us  be  satisfied 
with  the  sources  which  Moses  gives  us,  namely, 
the  fountains  of  the  great  deep  broken  up,  and  the 
windows  of  heaven  opened ;  that  is,  the  waters 
rushed  out  from  the  hidden  abyss  of  the  bowels 
of  the  earth,  and  the  clouds  poured  down  their 
rain  incessantly.  Let  it  suffice  us  to  know,  that 
all  the  elements  are  under  God's  power ;  that  he 
Can  do  with  them  as  he  pleases,  and  frequently  in 
vays  we  are  ignorant  of,  in  order  to  accomplish 
nis  own  purposes. 

The  principal  writers  on  this  subject  have  been 
Woodyard,  Cockburn,  Bryant,  Burnet,  Whis- 
oii,  Slillingjlcet,  King,  Catcott,  Tytlcr,  and 
Yforthington. 

DEPRAVITY,  corruption,  a  change  from 
perfection  to  imperfection.    See  Fall,  Sin. 

DEPRECATORY,    a  term   applied   to  the 
manner  of  performing  some   ceremonies  in   the 
form  of  prayer.     The  form  of  absolution  in  the 
111 


OBSTRUCTIONISTS 
Greek  church  is  deprecative,  thus  expressed — 
May  God  absolve  you  ;  whereas   in  the  Latin 
church  it  is  declarative — / absolve  you. 

DES(  'F.XT  of  Christ  into  Hell.     See  Heu.. 

DESERTION,  a  term  made  use  of  to  denote 
an  unhappy  state  of  mind,  occasioned  by  the  sen- 
sible influences  of  the  divine  favour  being  with 
drawn.  Some  of  the  best  men  in  all  ages  have 
suffered  a  temporary  suspension  of  divine  enjoy- 
ments, Job  xxix.  'J;  l's.  li ;  Isn.xlix.  14;  Lain, 
iii.  1;  Isa.  i.  10.  The  causes  of  this  must  not  be 
attributed  to  the  Almighty,  since  he  is  always  the 
same,  but  must  arise  from  ourselves.  Neglect  of 
duty,  improper  views  of  Providence,  self-con- 
fidence, a  worldly  spirit,  lukewarmness  of  mind, 
inattention  to  the  means  of  grace,  or  open  trans- 
gression, may  be  considered  as  leading  to  this 
state.  As  all  things,  however,  are  under  the 
divine  controul,  so  even  desertion,  or,  as  it  is 
sometimes  expressed  in  Scripture,  "the  hidings 
of  God's  face,"  may  be  useful  to  excite  humility, 
exercise  faith  and  patience,  detach  us  from  the 
world,  prompt  to  more  vigorous  action,  bring  us 
to  look  more  to  God  as  the  fountain  of  happiness, 
conform  us  to  his  word,  and  increase  our  desires 
for  that  state  of  blessedness  which  is  to  come. 
Ilcrrci/s  Titer,  and  Asp.  dial,  xix.;  Wattes 
Medit.  on  Job,  xxiii.  3;  Lambert's  Ser.  vol.  i.  ser. 
16 ;  Floret's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  167.  folio. 

DESIRE  is  an  eagerness  to  obtain  or  enjoy 
an  object  which  we  suppose  to  be  good.  Those 
desires,  says  Dr.  Watts,  that  arise  without  any 
express  ideas  of  the  goodness  or  agreeableness  of 
their  object  to  the  mind  beforehand,  such  as  hun- 
ger, thirst,  &c,  are  called  appetites.  These 
which  arise  from  our  perception  or  opinion  of  an 
object  as  good  or  agreeable,  are  most  properly 
called  passions.  Sometimes  both  these  are  united. 
If  our  desire  to  do  or  receive  good  be  not  violent, 
it  is  called  a  simple  inclination  or  propensity. 
When  it  rises  high,  it  is  termed  longing:  when 
our  desires  set  our  active  powers  at  work  to  obtain 
the  very  same  good,  or  the  same  sort  of  good, 
which  another  desires,  it  is  called  emulation. 
Desire  of  pleasures  of  sense,  is  called  sensuality ; 
of  honour,  is  called  ambition;  of  riches,  coretous- 
ness.  The  objects  of  a  good  man's  desires  are, 
that  God  may  be  glorified,  his  sins  forgiven  and 
subdued,  his  affections  enlivened  and  placed  on 
God  as  the  supreme  object  of  love,  his  afflictions 
sanctified,  and  his  life  devoted  to  the  service  of 
God.     Prov.  xi.  23 ;  Ps.  cv.  19 

DESPAIR,  loss  of  hope ;  that  state  of  mind 
in  which  a  person  loses  his  confidence  in  the  di- 
vine mercy. 

Some  of  the  best  antidotes  against  despair,  says 
one,  may  be  taken  from  the  consideration,  1.  Of 
the  nature  of  God,  his  goodness,  mercy,  &c. — 
•2.  The  testimony  of  God  :  he  hath  said,  he  de- 
sireth  not  the  death  of  the  sinner. — 3.  From  the 
works  of  God :  he  hath  given  his  son  to  die.— 
4.  From  his  promises,  Heb.  xiii.  5. — 5.  From  his 
command  :  he  hath  commanded  us  to  confide  in 
his  mercy. — 6.  From  his  expostulations,  &c. 
Baxter  on  Religious  Melancholy ;  Claude's 
Essays,  p.  388,  Robinson's  Edit. ;  Osborne's 
Sermon  on  Religious  Despondency. 

DESTRUCTIONISTS,  those  who  believe 
that  the  final  punishment  threatened  in  the  Gos- 
pel to  the  wicked  and  impenitent  consists  not  in 
an  eternal  preservation  in  misery  and  torment,  but 
in  a  total  extinction  of  being ;  and  that  the  sen- 


OBSTRUCTIONISTS 

fence  of  annihilation  shall  be  executed  with  more 
or  less  torment,  preceding  or  attending  the  final 
period,  in  proportion  to  the  greater  or  less  guilt  of 
the  criminal. 

The  name  assumed  by  this  denomination,  like 
those  of  many  others,  takes  for  granted  the  ques- 
tion in  dispute,  viz.  that  the  Scripture,  word  de- 
struction means  annihilation  :  in  strict  propriety 
of  speech,  they  should  he  called  Annihilationists. 
The  doctrine  is  largely  maintained  in  the  ser- 
mons of  Mr.  Samuel  Bourn,  of  Birmingham  ;  it 
was  held,  also,  by  Mr  J.  N.  Scott;  Mr.  John 
Taylor,  of  Norwich;  Mr.  Marsom,  and  many 
others. 

In  defence  of  the  system,  Mr.  Bourn  argues  as 
follows : — There  are  many  passages  of  Scripture 
in  which  the  ultimate  punishment  to  which  wick- 
ed men  shall  be  adjudged  is  defined,  in  the  most 
precise  and  intelligible  terms,  to  be  an  everlasting 
destruction  from  the  power  of  God,  which  is 
equally  able  to  destroy  as  to  preserve.  So  when 
our  Saviour  is  fortifying  the  minds  of  his  disci- 
ples against  the  power  of  men,  by  an  awe  of  the 
far  greater  power  of  God,  and  the  punishment  of 
his  justice,  he  expresseth  himself  thus  :  Fear  not 
them  that  kill  the  body,  and  after  that  hare  no 
more  that  they  can  do;  fear  him  who  is  able  to  de- 
stroy both  soul  and  body  in  hell.  Here  he  plainly 
proposes  the  destruction  of  the  soul  (not  its  end- 
less pain  and  misery)  as  the  ultimate  object  of  the 
divine  displeasure,  and  the  greatest  object  of  our 
fear.  And  when  he  says,  These  shall  go  away 
into  everlasting  punishment,  but  the  righteous 
into  life  eternal,  it  appears  evident  that  by  that 
eternal  punishment  which  is  set  in  opposition  to 
eternal  life,  is  not  meant  any  kind  of  life,  how- 
ever miserable,  but  the  same  which  the  apostle 
expresses  bv  everlasting  destruction  from  the 
presence  and  power  of  the  Lord.  The  very  term, 
death,  is  most  frequently  made  use  of  to  signify 
the  end  of  wicked  men  in  another  world,  or  the 
final  effect  of  divine  justice  in  their  punishment. 
77te  wages  of  sin  (saith  the  apostle)  i*  death;  but 
eternal  life  is  the  gift  of  God,  through  Christ 
Jesus  our  Lord.     See  also  Rom.  viii.  G. 

To  imagine  that  by  the  term  death  is  meant  an 
eternal  life,  though  in  a  condition  of  extreme 
misery,  seems,  according  to  him,  to  be  confound- 
ing all  propriety  and  meaning  of  words.  Death, 
when  applied  to  the  end  of  wicked  men  in  a  fu- 
ture state,  he  says,  properly  denotes  a  total  ex- 
tinction of  life  and  being.  It  may  contribute,  he 
adds,  to  fix  this  meaning,  if  we  observe  that  the 
state  to  which  temporal  death  reduces  men  is 
usually  termed  by  our  Saviour  and  his  apostles, 
sleep;  because  from  this  death  the  soul  shall  be 
raised  to  life  again  :  but  from  the  other,  which  is 
fully  and  properly  death,  and  of  which  the  former 
is  but  an  image  or  shadow,  there  is  no  recovery ; 
it  is  an  eternal  death,  an  everlasting  destruction 
from  tlie  presence  of  the  Lord,  and  the  glory  of 
hii  power. 

He  next  proceeds  to  the  figures  by  which  the 
eternal  punishment  of  wicked  men  is  described, 
and  finds  them  perfectly  agreeing  to  establish  the 
same  doctrine.  One  figure  or  comparison,  often 
used,  is  that  of  combustible  materials  thrown  into 
afire,  which  will  consequently  be  entirely  con- 
sumed, il'the  fire  be  not  quenched.  Dcpartfrom 
vie,  ye  cursed,  into  everlasting  fi  re,  prepared  for 
the  devil  and  his  angels.  The  meaning  is,  a  to- 
tal, irrevocable  destruction :  for,  as  the  tree  that 
M5 


OBSTRUCTIONISTS 
bringcth  not  forth  good  fruit  is  hewn  down  and 
cast  into  the  fire,  and  is  destroyed  ;  as  the  useless 
chaff  when  separated  from  the  good  grain,  is  set 
on  fire,  and,  if  the  fire  be  not  quenched,  is  con- 
sumed :  so,  he  thinks,  it  plainly  appears,  that  the 
image  of  unquenchable  or  everlasting  fire  is  not 
intended  to  signify  the  degree  or  duration  of  tor- 
ment, but  the"  absolute  certainty  of  destruction, 
bevond  all  possibility  of  recovery.  So  the  cities 
of  Sodom  and  Gomorrah  are  said  to  have  suffered 
the  vengeance  of  an  eternal  fire,  that  is,  they  were 
so  effectually  consumed,  or  destroyed,  that  they 
could  never  he  rebuilt ;  the  phrase,  eternal  fire, 
signifying  the  irrevocable  destruction  of  those  ci- 
ties, not  the  degree  or  duration  of  the  misery  of 
the  inhabitants  who  perished. 

The  images  of  the  worm  that  dieth  not,  and 
the  fire  that  is  not  quenched,  used  in  Mark  ix. 
43,  are  set  in  opposition  to  entering  into  life,  and 
intended  to  denote  a  period  of  life  and  existence. 

Our  Saviour  expressly  assigns  different  degrees 
of  future  misery,  in  proportion  to  men's  respec- 
tive degree  of  guilt,  Luke  xii.  47,  48.  But  if  all 
wicked  men  shall  suffer  torments  without  end, 
how  can  any  of  them  be  said  to  suffer  but  a  few 
stripes  1  All  degrees  and  distinctions  of  punish- 
ment seem  swallowed  up  in  the  notion  of  never- 
ending  or  infinite  misery. 

Finally,  death  and  eternal  destruction,  or  anni- 
hilation, is  properly  styled  in  the  New  Testament 
an  everlasting  punishment,  as  it  is  irrevocable 
and  unalterable  forever;  and  it  is  most  strictly 
and  literally  styled,  an  everlasting  destruction 
from  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  and  fro  in  the  glo- 
ry of  his  power. 

Dr.  Edwards,  in  his  answer  to  Dr.  Chauncey, 
on  the  salvation  of  all  men,  says  that  this  scheme 
was  nrovisionally  retained  by  Dr.  C. ;  i.  e.  in  case 
the  scheme  of  universal  salvation  should  fail  him ; 
and  therefore  Dr.  E.,  in  his  examination  of  that 
work,  appropriates  a  chapter  to  the  consideration 
of  it  Among  other  reasonings  against  it  are  the 
following : — 

1.  The  different  degrees  of  punishment  which 
the  wicked  will  suffer  according  to  their  works, 
proves  that  it  does  not  consist  in  annihilation, 
which  admits  of  no  degrees. 

2.  If  it  be  said  that  the  punishment  of  the 
wicked,  though  it  will  end  in  annihilation,  yet 
shall  be  preceded  by  torment,  and  that  this  will 
be  of  ditierent  degrees,  according  to  the  degrees 
of  sin;  it  may  be  replied,  this  is  making  it  to  be 
compounded  partly  of  torment,  and  partly  of  anni- 
hilation. The  latter  also  appears  to  he  but.  a 
small  part  of  future  punishment,  for  that  alone 
will  be  indicted  on  the  least  sinner,  and  on  account 
of  the  least  sin;  and  that  all  punishment  which 
will  be  inflicted  on  any  person  above  that  which  is 
due  to  the  least  sin,  is  to  consist  in  torment.  Nay, 
if  we  can  form  any  idea  in  the  present  state  of 
what  would  be  dreadful  or  desirable  in  another, 
instead  of  its  being  any  punishment  to  be  anni- 
hilated after  a  long  series  of  torment,  it  must  be  a 
deliverance,  to  which  the  sinner  would  look  for- 
ward with  anxious  desire.  And  is  it  credible 
that  this  was  the  termination  of  torment  that  our 
Lord  held  up  to  his  disciples  as  an  object  of  dread  ? 
Can  this  be  the  destruction  of  body  and  soul  in 
hell?  Is  it  credible  that  everlasting  destruction 
from  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  and  from  the  glory 
of  his  power,  shouTd  constitute  only  a  part,  and  a 
small  part,  of  future  punishment ;  and  such  too. 


DETRACTION 
«s,  after  a  scries  of  torment,  must,  next  to  being 
made  happy,  he  the  most  acceptable  thin;,'  that 
could  belal  them  ?  Can  this  be  the  object  threat- 
ened by  such  language,  as  recompensing  tribula- 
tion, and  talcing  vengeance  in  naming  fire?  2 
Thess.  i.  Is  it  possible  that  God  should  threaten 
them  with  putting  an  end  to  their  miseries? 
Moreover,  this  destruction  is  not  described  as  the 
conclusion  of  a  succession  of  torments,  but  as 
taking  place  immediately  after  the  last  judgment. 
When  Christ  shall  come  to  he  glorified  in  his 
saints,  then  shall  the  wicked  be  destroyed. 

3.  Everlasting  destruction  from  the  presence 
of  the  Lord,  and  from  the  glory  of  his  power. 
cannot  mean  annihilation,  for  that  would  be  no 
exertion  of  divine  power,  but  merely  the  suspen- 
sion of  it ;  for  let  the  upholding  power  of  God  be 
withheld  for  one  moment,  and  the  whole  creation 
would  sink  into  nothing. 

4.  The  punishment  of  wicked  men  will  be  Me 
same  as  that  of  wicked  angels,  Matt.  xxv.  41. 
Depart,  ye  cursed,  into  everlasting  fire,  prepared 
for  the  devil  and  his  angels.  But  the  punish- 
ment of  wicked  angels  consists  not  in  annihila- 
tion, but  torment.  Such  is  their  present  punish- 
ment in  a  degree,  and  such  in  a  greater  degree 
will  be  their  punishment  hereafter.  They  are 
"cast  down  to  hell;"  they  "believe  and  trem- 
ble ;"  they  are  reserved  in  chains  under  darkness, 
to  the  judgment  of  the  great  day ;  they  cried, 
saying,  "  What  have  we  to  do  with  thee  ?  Art 
thou  come  to  torment  us  before  our  time  ?" 
Could  the  devils  but  persuade  themselves  they 
should  be  annihilated,  they  would  believe  and  be 
at  ease  rather  than  tremble. 

5.  The  Scriptures  explain  their  own  meaning 
in  the  use  of  such  terms  as  death,  destruction, 
&c.  The  second  death  is  expressly  said  to  con- 
sist in  being  ca*t  into  the  lake  of  fire  and  brim- 
stone ;  and  as  having  c  part  in  that  lake,  Rev. 
xx.  14 ;  xxi.  8 ;  which  does  not  describe  anni- 
hilation, nor  can  it  be  made  to  consist  with  it. 
The  phrase  cut  him  asunder,  Matt.  xxiv.  51,  is 
as  strong  as  those  of  death  or  destruction ;  yet 
that  is  made  to  consist  of  having  their  portion 
vith  hypocrites,  where  shall  be  weeping  and 
gnashing  of  teeth. 

G.  The  happiness  of  the  righteous  does  not 
consist  in  eternal  being,  but  eternal  well-being; 
and  as  the  punishment  of  the  wicked  stands  every 
where  opposed  to  it,  it  must  consist,  not  in  the 
loss  of  being,  but  of  well-being,  and  in  suffering 
the  contrary. 

The  great  Dr.  Watts  may  be  considered,  in 
some  measure,  a  destructionist ;  since  it  was  his 
opinion  that  the  children  of  ungodly  parents  who 
die  in  infancy  arc  annihilated.  See  Annihila- 
tion', Hell;  Bourn's  Sermons;  Dr.  Edicards 
an  the  salvation  of  all  men  strictly  examined  ; 
Adams's  View  of  Religion ;  M' Alia  on  Univer- 
salism. 

DETRACTION,  in  the  native  importance 
of  the  word,  signifies  the  withdrawing  or  taking 
off  from  a  thing  ;  and  as  it  is  applied  to  the  repu- 
tation, it  denotes  the  impairing  or  lessening  a 
man  in  point  of  fame,  rendering  him  less  valued 
and  esteemed  by  others.  Dr.  Barrow  observes 
(Works,  vol.  i.  ser.  1!),)  that  it  differs  from  slan- 
der, which  involves  an  imputation  of  falsehood; 
from  reviling,  which  includes  bitter  and  foul 
language;  and  from  censuring,  which  is  of  a 
nwre  general  [iurj>ort,  extending  indifferently  to 

116 


DEUTEROCANONICAL 
all  kinds  of  persons,  qualities,  and  actions,  btl 
detraction  especially  respects  worthy  persona, 
good  qualities,  and  laudable  actions,  the  reputa- 
tion of  which  it  aimeth  to  destroy.  It  is  a  fault 
opposed  to  candour. 

Nothing  can  be  more  incongruous  with  the 
spirit  of  the  Gospel,  the  example  of  Christ,  th« 
command  of  God,  and  the  love  of  mankind,  than 
a  spirit  of  detraction ;  and  yet  there  are  many 
who  never  seem  happy  but  when  they  are  em- 
ployed in  this  work ;  they  feed  and  live  upon  the 
supposed  infirmities  of  others;  they  allow  excel* 
lence  to  none  ;  they  depreciate  every  thing  that 
is  praiseworthy ;  and,  possessed  of  no  good  them- 
selves, they  think  all  others  are  like  thein.  "  O ! 
my  soul,  come  thou  not  into  their  secret;  untu 
their  assembly,  mine  honour,  be  not  thou  united." 

DPWIL,  AiaSoxo;,  calumniator,  or  slanderer; 
a  fallen  angel,  especially  the  chief  of  them.  He 
is  called  Abaddon  in  Hebrew,  Apollyon  in 
Greek,  that  is,  destroyer. — Angel  of  the  bottom- 
less pit,  Rev.  ix.  11. — Prince  of  the  world,  John 
xii.  31. — Prince  of  darkness,  Eph.  vi.  12. — A 
roaring  lion,  and  an  adversary,  1st  Pet.  v.  8. — A 
sinner  from  the  beginning,  1  John  iii.  8. — Beel- 
zebub, Matt.  xii.  24. — Accuser,  Rev.  xii.  10. — 
Belial,  2  Cor.  vi.  15. — Deceiver,  Rev.  xx.  10. — 
Dragon,  Rev.  xii.  3. — Liar,  John  viii.  44. — Le- 
viathan, Isa.  xxvii.  1 — Murderer,  John  viii.  44. — 
Serpent,  Isa,  xxvii.  1. — Satan^  Job  ii.  6. — Tor- 
mentor, Matt,  xviii.  34. — The  God  of  this  world, 
2  Cor.  iv.  4.     See  Satan. 

DEVOTEE,  in  the  primary  sense  of  the 
word,  means  a  person  wholly  given  up  to  acts  of 
piety  and  devotion ;  but  it  is  usually  understood, 
in  a  bad  sense,  to  denote  a  bigot,  or  superstitious 
person. 

DEVOTION,  a  religious  and  fervent  exer- 
cise of  some  public  act  of  religion,  or  a  temper 
and  disposition  of  the  mind  rightly  affected  with 
such  exercises.  It  is  also  taken  for  certain  reli- 
gious practices  which  a  person  makes  it  a  rule  to 
discharge  regularly.  "  Wherever  the  vital  and 
unadulterated  spirit  of  Christian  devotion  pre- 
vails, its  immediate  objects  will  be  to  adore  the 
perfections  of  God  ;  to  entertain  with  reverence 
and  complacence  the  various  intimations  of  his 
pleasure,  especially  those  contained  in  holy  writ; 
to  acknowledge  our  absolute  dependence  on  and 
infinite  obligations  to  him ;  to  confess  and  lament 
the  disorders  of  our  nature,  and  the  transgressions 
of  our  lives;  to  implore  his*  grace  and  mercy 
through  Jesus  Christ ;  to  intercede  for  our  bre- 
thren of  mankind  ;  to  pray  for  the  propagation 
and  establishment  of  truth,  righteousness,  and 
]>cac«,  on  earth ;  in  fine,  to  long  for  a  more  en- 
tire conformity  to  the  will  of  God,  and  to  breathe 
after  the  everlasting  enjoyment  of  his  friendship. 
The  effects  of  such  a  spirit  habitually  cherished, 
and  feelingly  expressed  before  him,  must  surely 
be  important  and  happy.  Among  these  may  be 
reckoned  a  profound  humility  in  the  sight  of 
God,  a  high  veneration  for  his  presence  and  attri- 
butes, an  ardent  zeal  for  his  worship  and  honour, 
a  constant  imitation  of  our  Saviour's  divine  ex- 
ample, a  diffusive  charity  for  men  of  all  denomi- 
nations, a  generous  and  unwearied  self-denial,  a 
total  resignation  to  Providence,  an  increasing 
esteem  for  the  Gospel,  with  clearer  and  firmer 
hopes  of  that  immortal  life  which  it  has  brought 
to  light " 

DEUTEROCANONICAL,   in  the  school 


DIET 

theology  an  appellation  given  to  certain  books  of 
holy  Scripture,  which  were  added  to  the  canon 
tiler  the  rest,  either  by  reason  they  were  not 
written  till  after  the  compilation  of  the  canon,  or 
by  reason  of  some  dispute  as  to  their  canonicity. 
The  word  is  Greek,  being  compounded  of  <Wif>o{, 
second;  and  xxvovixo?,  canonical. 

The  Jews,  it  is  certain,  acknowledged  several 
hooks  in  their  canon,  which  were  put  there  later 
than  the  rest  They  say  that,  under  Esdras,  a 
great  assembly  of  their  doctors,  which  they  call, 
by  way  of  eminence,  the  great  synagogue,  made 
the  collection  of  the  sacred  books  which  we  now 
have  in  the  Hebrew  Old  Testament;  and  they 
agree  that  they  put  books  therein  which  had  not 
been  so  before  the  Babylonish  captivity  :  such  as 
those  of  Daniel,  Ezekiel,  Haggai,  &c.;  and  those 
of  Esdras  and  Nehemiah.  And  the  Romish 
church  has  since  added  others  to  the  canon,  that 
were  not,  and  could  not  be,  in  the  canon  of  the 
Jews,  by  reason  some  of  them  were  not  composed 
till  after :  such  as  the  book  of  Ecclesiasticus,  with 
several  of  the  apocryphal  books,  as  the  Macca- 
bees, Wisdom,  &c.  Others  were  added  still  later, 
by  reason  their  canonicity  had  not  been  yet  ex- 
amined :  and  till  such  examen  and  judgment  they 
might  be  set  aside  at  pleasure.  But  since  that 
church  has  pronounced  as  to  the  canonicity  of 
those  books,  there  is  no  more  room  now  for  her 
members  to  doubt  of  them,  than  there  was  for  the 
Jews  to  doubt  of  those  of  the  canon  of  Esdras. 
And  the  deuterocanonical  books  are  with  them 
as  canonical  as  the  proto-canonical ;  the  only  dif- 
ference between  them  consisting  in  this,  that  the 
canonicity  of  the  one  was  not  generally  known, 
examined,  and  settled,  as  soon  as  that  of  the 
others.  The  deuterocanonical  books  in  the  mo- 
dern canon  are,  the  book  of  Esther,  either  the 
whole,  or  at  least  the  seven  last  chapters  thereof; 
the  epistle  to  the  Hebrews ;  that  of  James,  and 
that  of  Jude ;  the  second  of  St.  Peter,  and  the 
second  and  third  of  St.  John,  and  the  Revelation. 
The  deuterocanonical  parts  of  books  are,  the 
hymn  of  the  three  children  ;  the  prayer  of  Aza- 
riah  ;  the  histories  of  Susannah,  of  Bel  and  the 
Dragon ;  the  last  chapter  of  St.  Mark ;  the 
bloody  sweat ;  and  the  appearance  of  the  angel, 
related  in  St.  Luke,  chap.  xxii.  and  the  history 
of  the  adulterous  woman  in  St.  John,  chap.  viii. 
See  Canon. 

DIET,  an  assembly  of  the  states  of  Germany. 
We  shall  only  take  notice,  in  this  place,  of  the 
more  remarkable  of  those  whi<*h  have  been  held 
on  the  affairs  of  religion.  1.  The  diet  of  Augs- 
burgh,  in  the  year  1530,  was  assembled  to  re- 
unite the  princes  of  the  empire,  in  relation  to 
some  religious  matters.  The  emperor  himself 
presided  in  this  assembly  with  the  greatest  mag- 
nificence imaginable.  The  elector  of  Saxony, 
followed  by  several  princes,  presented  the  confes- 
sion of  faith,  called  the  Confession  of  Augsburgh. 
The  emperor  ended  the  diet  with  a  decree,  that 
no  alteration  should  be  made  in  the  doctrines  and 
ceremonies  of  the  Romish  church  till  the  council 
should  order  it  otherwise. — 2.  The  diet  of  Augs- 
burgh, in  1547,  was  held  on  account  of  the  elec- 
tors being  divided  concerning  the  decisions  of  the 
council  of  Trent.  The  emperor  demanded  that 
the  management  of  that  affair  should  be  referred 
to  him ;  and  it  was  resolved,  that  every  one  should 
conform  to  the  decisions  of  the  council. — 3.  The 
diet  of  Augsburgh.  in  1518,  was  assembled  to 
117 


DIET 
examine  some  memorials  relating  to  the  confes- 
sion of  faith ;  but,  the  commissioners  not  a<ree- 
ing  together,  the  emperor  named  three  divines, 
who  drew  the  design  of  this  famous  interim,  so 
well  known  in  Germany  and  elsewhere.     See 
Interim. — 4.  The  diet  of  Augsburgh,  in  1550. 
In  this  assembly,  the  emperor  complained  that  the 
interim  was  not  observed,  and  demanded  that  all 
should  submit  to  the  council,  which  they  were 
going  to  renew  at  Trent;  which  submission  was 
resolved  upon  by  a  plurality  of  votes. — 5.  The 
diet  of  Nuremberg,  in  1523.     Here  pope  Adrian 
Vlth's  nuncio  demanded  the  execution  of  Leo 
Xth's  bull,  and  Charles  Vth's  edict  against  Lu- 
ther.    But  the  assembly  drew  up  a  list  of  griev- 
ances, which  were   reduced  to  a  hundred  arti- 
cles, some  whereof  aimed  at  the  destruction  of 
the  pope's  authority,  and  the  discipline  of  the  Ro- 
mish church ;  however,  they  consented  that  the 
Lutherans  should  be  commanded   not  to  write 
against  the  Roman  Catholics. — 6.  The  diet  of 
Nuremburgh,    in   1524.     In  this  assembly,    the 
Lutherans  naving  the  advantage,  it  was  decreed 
that  the  pope  should  call  a  council  in  Germany; 
but  that,  in  the  mean  time,  an'  assembly  should 
be  held  at  Spire,  to  determine  what  was  to  be  be- 
lieved and  practised ;  but  Charles  V.  prohibited 
the  holding  this  assembly. — 7.  The  diet  of  Ra- 
tisbon,  in  1541,  was  held  for  re-uniting  the  Pro- 
testants with  the  Roman  Catholics.     The  em- 
peror named  three  Roman  Catholics  and  three 
Protestant  divines,  to  agree  upon  articles.     The 
Roman    Catholics    were,    Julius    Phlug,    John 
Gropper,  and  John  Eckius;  the  Protestants  were 
Philip   Melanclhon,    Martin   Bucer,   and   John 
Pistorius;  but  after  a  whole  month's  consulta- 
tion, they  could  agree  upon  no  more  than  live  or 
six  articles:  which  the  emperor  consented  the 
Prctestants  should    retain,    forbidding  them  to 
solicit  any  body  to  change  the  ancient  religion. — 
8.  The  diet  of  Ratisbon,  in  154G,  decreed  that 
the  council  of  Trent  was  to  be  followed,  which 
was  opposed  by  the  Protestant  deputies :  and  this 
caused  a  war  against  them. — 9.  The  diet  of  Ra- 
tisbon, in  1557,  demanded  a  conference  between 
some  famous  doctors  of  both  parties ;  which  con- 
ference was  held  at  Worms,  in  September,  be- 
tween twelve  Roman  Catholic  and  twelve  Luthe- 
ran divines ;  but  was  soon  dissolved  by  the  Luthe- 
rans being  divided  among  themselves. — 10.  The 
diet  of  Spire,  in  1526.  In  this  assembly  (wherein 
presided  the  arch-duke  Ferdinand)  the  duke  of 
Saxony  and  the  landgrave  of  Hesse  demanded 
the  free  exercise  of  the  Lutheran  religion:  upon 
which  it  was  decreed,  that  the  emperor  should  be 
desired  to  call  a  general,  or  national  council  in 
Germany  within  a  year ;  and  that,  in  the  mean 
time,  every  one  should  have  liberty  of  conscience. 
11.  The  diet  of  Spire,  in  1529,  decreed,  that  in 
the  countries  which  had  embraced  the  new  reli- 
gion, it  should  be  lawful   to  continue  in  it  till 
the  next  council ;  but  that  no  Roman  Catholic 
should  be  allowed  to  turn  Lutheran.     Against 
this  decree  six  Lutheran  princes,  viz.  the  elector 
of  Saxony,  the  marquess  of  Brandenburg,   the 
two  dukes  of  Lunenburg,  the  landgrave  of  Hesse, 
and  the  prince  of  Anhalt,  with  the  deputies  of 
fourteen  imperial   towns,   protested  in  writing; 
from  which  solemn  protestation  came  the  famous 
name  of  Protestants,  which  the  Lutherans  pre- 
sently after  took. — 12.  The  diet  of  Worms,  in 
1521.     In  this  assembly,  Luther,  being  charged 


DIRECTORY 
by  the  pope's  nuncio  with  heresy,  and  refusing  to 
recant,  the  emperor,  by  hi*  edict  of  May  26,  he- 
fore  all  the  princes  of  Germany,  publicly  outlaw- 
ed him. 

DIFFIDENCE,  distrust,  want  of  confidence 
in  ourselves.  Diffidence,  says  Dr.  Johnson,  may 
check  resolution  and  obstruct  performance,  but 
compensates  its  embarrassment  by  more  impor- 
tant advantages:  it  conciliates  the  proud,  and 
softens  the  severe;  averts  envy  from  excellence, 
and  censure  from  miscarriage. 

DIGGERS,  a  denomination  which  sprung  up 
in  Germany,  in  the  fifteenth  century ;  so  called 
because  they  dug  their  assemblies  under  ground 
in  eaves  and  forests.  They  derided  the  church, 
its  ministers,  and  sacraments. 

DILIGENCE,  Christian,  is  constancy  in  the 
performance  of  all  those  duties  enjoined  us  in 
God's  sacred  word.  It  includes  activity  and 
vigour — watchfulness  against  intruding  objects — 
firmness  and  resolution — patience  and  persever- 
ance. The  shortness  of  our  time;  the  impor- 
tance of  our  work ;  the  pleasure  which  arises 
from  discharging  duty ;  the  uncertainty  of  the 
time  of  our  dissolution ;  the  consciousness  we  do 
not  labour  in  vain ;  together  with  the  example  of 
Christ  and  all  good  men,  should  excite  us  to  the 
most  unwearied  diligence  in  the  cause  of  God,  of 
truth,  and  our  own  souls. 

DIM1SSORY  LETTER,  a  letter  given  by 
a  bishop  to  a  candidate  for  holy  orders,  having  a 
title  in  his  diocese,  directed  to  some  other  bishop, 
and  giving  leave  for  the  bearer  to  be  ordained  by 
him. 

DIOCESE,  the  circuit  of  every  bishop's  juris- 
diction. It  is  formed  from  the  Greek  Sjoo-ixo-is, 
government. 

DIRECTORY,  a  kind  of  regulation  for  the 
performance  of  religious  worship,  drawn  up  by 
the  assembly  of  divines  in  England,  at  the  in- 
stance of  the  parliament,  in  1044.  It  was  designed 
to  supply  the  place  of  the  Liturgy,  or  Book  of 
Common  Prayer,  the  use  of  which  they  had 
abolished.  It  consisted  of  some  general  heads, 
which  were  to  be  managed  and  tilled  up  at  dis- 
cretion ;  for  it  prescribed  no  form  of  prayer,  or 
circumstances  of  external  worship,  nor  obliged  the 
people  to  any  responses,  excepting  Amen.  The 
substance  of  it  is  as  follows  : — It  forbids  all  saluta- 
tions and  civil  ceremony  in  the  churches  : — the 
reading  the  Scriptures  in  the  congregation  is  de- 
clared to  be  part  of  the  pastoral  office  ; — all  the 
canonical  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
(but  not  of  the  Apocrypha)  are  to  be  publicly 
read  in  the  vulgir  tongue  :  how  large  a  portion  is 
to  be  read  at  once,  is  left  to  the  minister,  who  has 
.ikewise  the  liberty  of  expounding,  when  he 
judges  it  necessary.  It  prescribes  heads  for  the 
prayer  before  sermon ;  it  delivers  rules  for  preach- 
ing the  word;  tin'  introduction  to  the  text  must 
he  short  and  clear,  drawn  from  the  words  or  con- 
text, or  some  parallel  place  of  Scripture.  In  di- 
viding the  text,  the  minister  is  to  regard  the  order 
of  the  muter  more  than  that  of  the  words  :  he  is 
not  to  burden  the  memory  of  his  audience  with 
too  many  divisions,  nor  perplex  their  understand- 
ing with  logical  phrases  and  terms  of  art;  he  is 
not  to  start  unnecessary  objections;  and  he  is  to 
rte  very  sparing  in  citations  from  ecclesiastical  or 
ether  human  writers,  ancient  or  modern,  &c. 
The  Directory  recommends  the  use  of  the  Lord's 
Praver,  as  the  most  perfect  model  of  devotion;  it 
118 


DISCRETION 
forbids  private  or  lay  persons  to  administerbaptism, 
and  enjoins  it  to  be  performed  in  the  face  of  the 
congregation  :  it  orders  the  communion  table  at 
the  Lord's  Supper  to  he  so  placed,  that  the  com- 
municants may  sit  about  it.  It  also  orders,  that  the 
sabbath  be  kept  with  the  greatest  strictness,  both 
publicly  and  privately;  that  marriage  he  so- 
lemnized by  a  lawful  minister  of  the  word,  who 
is  to  give  counsel  to,  and  pray  for  the  parties} 
that  the  sick  be  visited  by  the  minister  under 
whose  charge  they  are;  the  dead  to  lie  buried 
without  any  prayers  or  religious  ceremonies ;  that 
days  of  fasting  are  to  be  observed  when  the  judg- 
ments of  God  are  abroad,  or  when  some  import- 
ant blessings  arc  desired;  that  days  of  thanks- 
giving for  mercies  received  be  also  observed  ;  and, 
lastly,  that  singing  of  psalms  together  in  the  con- 
gregation is  the  duty  of  Christians.  In  an  ap- 
pendix to  this  Directory  it  is  ordered,  that  all  fes- 
tivals, vulgarly  called  holy  days,  are  to  be  abolish- 
ed ;  that  no  day  is  to  be  kept  but  the  Lord's  day ; 
and  that  as  no  place  is  capable  of  any  holiness 
under  pretence  of  consecration,  so  neither  is  it 
subject  to  pollution  by  any  superstition  formerly 
used  ;  and  therefore  it  is  held  requisite,  that  the 
places  of  public  worship  now  used  should  still  be 
continued  and  employed.  Should  the  reader  be 
desirous  of  perusing  this  Directorv  at  large,  he 
may  find  it  at  the  end  of  Nealc's  History  of  the 
Puritans. 

DISCIPLE,  a  scholar,  or  one  who  attends  the 
lectures  and  professes  the  tenets  of  another.  A 
disciple  of  Christ  is  one  who  believes  his  doc- 
trines, imbibes  his  spirit,  and  follows  his  exam- 
ple.    See  Christian. 

DISCIPLINE,  Church,  consists  in  putting 
church  laws  in  execution,  and  inflicting  the  penal- 
ties enjoined.     See  Church. 

DISCIPLINE,  Book  of,  in  the  history  of  the 
church  of  Scotland,  is  a  common  order  drawnupby 
the  assembly  of  ministers  in  1G50,  for  the  refor- 
mation and  uniformity  to  be  observed  in  the  disci- 
pline and  policy  of  the  church.  In  this  book  the  go- 
vernment of  the  church  by  prelates  is  set  aside  ; 
kirk  sessions  are  established  ;  the  superstitious  ob- 
servation of  fast  days  and  saint  days  is  condemned, 
and  other  regulations  for  the  government  of  the 
church  are  determined.  This  book  was  ap- 
proved by  the  privy  council,  and  is  called  the  first 
book  of  discipline. 

DISCONTENT,  uneasiness  at  our  present 
state. 

Man  never  appears  in  a  worse  light  than  when 
he  gives  way  to  this  disposition.  It  is  at  once  the 
strongest  proof  of  his  pride,  ignorance,  unbelief, 
and  rebellion  against  God.  Let  such  remember, 
that  discontent  is  a  reflection  on  God's  govern- 
ment ;  that  it  cannot  alter  the  state  of  things,  or 
make  them  better ;  that  it  is  the  source,  of  the 
greatest  misery ;  that  it  is  an  absolute  violation 
of  God's  laws,  Heb.  xiii.  5 ;  and  that  God  has 
often  punished  it  with  the  most  signal  judgments, 
Numb.  xi.     Ps.  cvii.     See  Contentment. 

DISCRETION,  prudent  behaviour,  arising 
from  a  knowledge  of,  and  acting  agreeably  to,  the 
difference  of  things.  "There  arc,"  says  Addison. 
No.  -2-25,  Spect.,  "many  more  shining  qualities 
in  the  mind  of  man,  hut  there  is  none  so  useful 
as  discretion  ;  it  is  this,  indeed,  which  gives  a 
value  to  all  the  rest,  which  sets  them  at  work  in 
their  proper  limes  and  places,  and  turns  them  to 
the,  advantage  of  the  person  whe  is  possessed  of 


DISPENSATION 
them.  Without  it  learning  is  pedantry,  and  wit 
impertinence;  virtue  itself  looks  like  weakness; 
the  best  parts  only  qualify  a  man  to  be  more 
sprightly  in  errors,  and  active  to  his  own 
prejudice. 

"Discretion  is  a  very  different  thing  from 
cunning:  cunning  is  only  an  accomplishment  of 
little,  mean,  ungenerous  minds.  Discretion  points 
out  the  noblest  ends  to  us,  and  pursues  the  most 
proper  and  laudable  methods  of  attaining  them  j 
cunning  has  only  private  selfish  aims,  and  sticks 
at  nothing  which  may  make  them  succeed.  Dis- 
cretion has  large  and  extended  views,  and,  like  a 
well-formed  eye,  commands  a  whole  horizon ; 
cunning  is  a  kind  of  short-sightedness  that  dis- 
covers the  minutest  objects  which  are  near  at 
hand,  but  not  able  to  discern  things  at  a  distance. 
Discretion,  the  more  it  is  discovered,  gives  a  great- 
er authority  to  the  person  who  possesses  it ;  cun- 
ning, when  it  is  once  detected,  loses  its  force,  and 
makes  a  man  incapable  of  bringing  about  even 
those  events  which  he  might  have  done,  had  he 
passed  only  for  a  plain  man.  Discretion  is  the 
perfection  of  reason,  and  a  guide  to  us  in  all  the 
duties  of  life ;  cunning  is  a  kind  of  instinct,  that 
only  looks  out  after  our  immediate  interest  and 
welfare.  Discretion  is  only  found  in  men  of 
strong  sense  and  good  understandings ;  cunning 
is  often  to  be  met  with  in  brutes  themselves,  and 
in  persons  who  are  but  the  fewest  removes  from 
them.  In  short,  cunning  is  only  the  mimic  of 
discretion,  and  may  pass  upon  weak  men,  in 
the  same  manner  as  vivacity  is  often  mistaken 
for  wit,  and  gravity  for  wisdom."  See  Pru- 
dence. 

DISDAIN,  contempt,  as  unworthy  of  one's 
choice.  It  is  distinguished  from  haughtiness 
tints:  Haughtiness  is  founded  on  the  high 
opinion  we  have  of  ourselves ;  disdain  on  the 
low  opinion  we  have  of  others. 

DISINTERESTED  LOVE.— See  Self- 
love. 

DISPENSATION,  the  act  of  dealing  out  any 
thing.  The  two  different  methods  of  revealing 
the  truths  of  the  Gospel  before  and  after  Christ's 
death  are  called  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
Dispensations.  The  dealing  of  God  with  his 
creatures  in  his  providence  is  called  a  dispensa- 
tion. The  state  of  supernatural  or  revealed  theo- 
logy may  also  be  divided  into  six  dispensations. 
1.  From  the  fall  of  Adam  to  the  flood.— 2.  From 
Noah  to  the  giving  the  law. — 3.  From  that 
time  to  the  time  of  David  and  the  prophets. — 4. 
From  David  to  the  Babylonish  captivity. — 5.  The 
period  from  that,  to  the  time  of  Christ,  finishes 
the  Old  Testament  dispensations. — G.  From 
Christ  to  the  end  of  time,  the  Gospel  dispensation. 
The  superiority  of  the  last  dispensation,  as  Dr. 
Watts  observes,  appears,  if  we  consider  that  it 
contains  the.  fairest  and  fullest  representation  of 
the  moral  law ;  and  which  is  more  particularly 
explained  here  than  in  any  of  the  former  dispen- 
sations.— 2.  In  this  dispensation,  the  Gospel  or 
covenant  of  grace  is  revealed  more  perfectly  and 
plainly  than  ever  before  ;  not  in  obscure  expres- 
sions, in  types  and  carnal  metaphors,  but  in  its 
own  proper  form  and  language. — 3.  The  rites 
and  ceremonies  under  this  dispensation  are  pre- 
ferable to  those  in  former  times,  and  that  in  this 
respect :  they  are  fewer,  clearer,  and  much  more 
easy. — 1.  The  Son  of  God,  who  was  the  real 
mediator  through  all  former  dispensations,  has 
119 


DISPUTATION 

condescended  to  becogie  the  visible  mediator  of 
this  dispensation. — 5.  This  dispensation  is  not 
confined  to  one  family,  or  to  one  nation,  or  to  a 
few  ages  of  men,  but  it  spreads  through  all  the 
nations  of  the  earth,  and  reaches  to  the  end  of 
time. — 6.  The  encouragements  and  persuasive 
helps  which  Christianity  gives  us  to  fulfil  the  du- 
ties of  the  covenant,  are  much  superior  to  those 
which  were  enjoyed  under  any  of  the  former 
dispensations. —  Watts's  Works,  vol.  i.  ser.  47. 8vo.; 
Gilfs  Body  of  Div.  Introd. ;  Robinson's  Sermons, 
p.  147 ;  Ridgley's  Div.  qu.  35. 

DISPERSION  of  mankind  was  occasioned  by 
the  confusion  of  tongues  at  the  overthrow  of  Ba- 
bel, Gen.  xi.  9.  As  to  the  manner  of  the  disper- 
sion of  the  posterity  of  Noah  from  the  plain  of 
Shinar,  it  was  undoubtedly  conducted  with  the 
utmost  regularity  and  order.  The  sacred  histo- 
rian informs  us,  that  they  were  divided  in  their 
lands :  every  one  according  to  his  tongue,  accord- 
ing to  his  family,  and  according  to  his  nation, 
Gen.  x.  5,  20,  31.  The  ends  of  this  dispersion 
were  to  populate  the  earth,  to  prevent  idolatry, 
and  to  display  the  divine  wisdom  and  power. 
See  Confusion-  of  Tongues. 

DISPOSITION,  that  temper  of  mind  which 
any  person  possesses. 

In  every  man,  says  Lord  Karnes,  there  is  some- 
thing original  that  serves  to  distinguish  him  from 
others,  that  tends  to  form  a  character,  and  to 
make  him  meek  or  fiery,  candid  or  deceitful,  re- 
solute or  timorous,  cheerful  or  morose.  Tliis 
original  bent,  termed  disposition,  must  be  distin- 
guished from  'A. principle:  the  latter,  signifying  a 
law  of  human  nature,  makes  part  of  the  common 
nature  of  man ;  the  former  makes  part  of  the  na- 
ture of  this  or  that  man. 

DISPUTATION,  Religious,  is  the  agitation 
of  any  religious  question,  in  order  to  obtain  clear 
and  adequate  ideas  of  it.  The  propriety  of  reli- 
gious disputation  or  controversial  divinity  has 
been  a  matter  of  doubt  with  many.  Some  art- 
fully decry  it,  in  order  to  destroy  free  enquiry. 
Some  hate  it  because  they  do  not  like  to  be  con- 
tradicted. Others  declaim  against  it,  to  save 
themselves  the  disgrace  of  ex  [losing  their  igno- 
rance, or  the  labour  of  examining  and  defending 
their  own  theses.  There  are  others  who  avoid 
it,  not  because  they  are  convinced  of  the  impro- 
priety of  the  thing  itself,  but  because  of  the  evil 
temper  with  which  it  is  generally  conducted. 

The  propriety  of  it,  however,  will  appear,  if  we 
consider  that  every  article  of  religion  is  denied  by 
some,  and  cannot  be  well  believed,  without  ex- 
amination, by  any.  Religion  empowers  us  to  in- 
vestigate, debate,  and  controvert  each  article,  in 
order  to  ascertain  the  evidence  of  its  truth.  The 
divine  writings,  many  of  them,  are  controversial, 
the  book  of  Job,  and  Paul's  epistles,  especially. 
The  ministry  of  our  Lord  was  a  perpetual  con- 
troversy, and  the  apostles  came  at  the  truth  by 
much  disputing,  Acts  xv.  7.  xvii.  17.  xix.  8.  To 
attend,  however,  to  religious  controversy  with  ad- 
vantage, the  following  rules  should  be  observed : 
1.  The  question  should  be  cleared  from  all  doubt- 
ful terms  and  needless  additions. — 2.  The  pre- 
cise point  of  enquiry  should  be  fixed. — 3.  That 
the  object  aimed  at  be  truth,  and  not  the  mere 
love  of  victory. — 4.  Beware  of  a  dogmatical  spi- 
rit, and  a  supposition  that  you  are  always 
right. — 5.  Let  a  strict  rein  be  kept  on  the  pas- 
sions when  you  are  hard  pu«bed.  Vide  Robin- 


DIVINATION 
ton's  Claude,  p.  245,  vol.  ii. ;  Watts  on  the  Mind, 
chap.  10;  Bcattie  on  Trdth,  347,  &c. :  Locke  on 
the  Understanding,  chap.  10.  vol.  iii. 

DISSENTERS,  those  who  separate  from  the 
established  church.  The  number  of  dissenters 
in  this  kingdom  is  very  considerable.  They  are 
divided  into  several  parties ;  the  chief  of  which 
are  the  Presbyterians.  Independents,  Baptists, 
Quakers,  and  Methodists.  See  those  articles,  as 
also  Nonconformists  and  Puritans. 

DISSIDENTS,  a  denomination  applied  in 
Poland  to  those  of  the  Lutheran,  Calvinistie,  and 
Greek  profession.  The  king  of  Poland  engages 
by  the  pacta  conventa  to  tolerate  them  in  the  free 
exercise  of  their  religion,  but  they  have  often  had 
reason  to  complain  of  the  violation  of  these  promises. 

DISSIMULATION,  the  act  of  dissembling. 
It  has  been  distinguished  from  simulation  thus  : 
Simulation  is  making  a  thing  appear  which  does 
not  exist ;  dissimulation  is  keeping  that  which 
exists  from  appearing.  Moralists  have  observed, 
that  all  dissimulation  is  not  hypocrisy.  A  vicious 
man,  who  endeavours  to  throw  a  veil  over  his  bad 
conduct,  that  he  may  escape  the  notice  of  men,  is 
not,  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word,  a  hypocrite, 
since  a  man  is  no  more  obliged  to  proclaim  his  se- 
cret vices  than  any  other  of  his  secrets.  The  hy- 
pocrite is  one  who  dissembles  for  a  bad  end,  and 
hides  the  snare  that  he  may  be  more  sure  of  his 
prey ;  and,  not  content  with  a  negative  virtue,  or 
not  appearing  the  ill  man  he  is,  makes  a  show  of 
positive  virtue,  and  appears  the  man  he  is  not. 
See  Hypocrisy. 

DISSOLUTION,  death,  or  the  separation  of 
tne  body  and  soul.  The  dissolution  of  the  world, 
is  an  awful  event  which  we  have  reason  to  believe, 
both  from  the  Old  Testament  and  the  New,  will 
certainly  take  place. — 1.  It  is  not  an  incredible 
thing,  since  nothing  of  a  material  nature  is  form- 
ed for  perpetual  duration. — 2.  It  will  doubtless  be 
under  the  direction  of  the  Supreme  Being,  as  its 
creation  was. — 3.  The  soul  of  man  will  remain 
unhurt  amidst  this  general  desolation. — 4.  It  will 
lie  an  introduction  to  a  greater  and  nobler  system 
in  the  government  of  God,  2  Pet.  iii.  13. — 5.  The 
consideration  of  it  ought  to  have  a  great  influence 
on  us  while  in  the  present  state,  2  Pet.  iii.  11, 
12.     See  Conflagration. 

DIVERSION,  something  that  unbends  the 
mind,  by  turning  it  off  from  care.  It  seems  to  be 
something  lighter  than  amusement,  and  less  forci- 
ble than  pleasure.  It  is  an  old  simile,  and  a  very 
just  one,  that  a  bow  kept  always  bent  will  grow 
feeble,  and  lose  its  force.  The  alternate  succes- 
sion of  business  and  diversion  preserves  the  body 
and  soul  in  the  happiest  temper.  Diversions, 
however,  must  be  lawful  and  good.  The  play- 
house, the  gaming-tabl°,  the  masquerade,  and 
midnight  assemblies,  must  beconsideredasinimical 
to  the  morals  and  true  happiness  of  man.  The 
most  rational  diversions  are  conversation,  reading, 
singing,  music,  riding,  &c.  They  must  be  mo- 
derate as  to  the  time  spent  in  them,  and  expense 
of  them;  seasonable,  when  we  have,  (as  Cicero 
observes,)  dispatched  our  serious  and  important 
affairs.  See  Grove's  Rcgulal ion  of  Diversions  ; 
Walts' s  Improvement  of  the  Mind,  vol.  ii.  sec.  1) ; 
Blair's  Sermons,  vol.  ii.  p.  17  ;  Banter's  Sermon 
on  Amusements;  PretuPa  Evening Amusements. 

DIVINATION  is  a  conjecture  or  surmise 
formed  concerning  some  future  event  from  some- 
thing which  is  supposed  w  be  a  presage  of  it ;  but 


DIVORCE 
between  which  there  is  no  real  connexion,  only 
what  the  imagination  of  the  diviner  is  pleased  to 
assign  in  order  to  deceive. 

Divination  of  all  kinds  being  the  offspring  of 
credulity,  nursed  by  imposture,  and  strengthened 
by  superstition,  was  necessarily  an  occult  science, 
retained  in  the  hands  of  the  priest  and  priest- 
esses, the  magi,  the  soothsayers,  the  augurs,  the 
visionaries,  the  priests  of  the  oracles,  the  false 
prophets,  and  other  like  professors,  till  the  coming 
of  Jesus  Christ,  when  the  light  of  the  Gospel 
dissipated  much  of  this  darkness.  The  vogue 
for  these  pretended  sciences  and  arts  is  nearly 
past,  at  least  in  the  enlightened  parts  of  the 
world.  There  are  nine  different  kinds  of  divi- 
nation mentioned  in  Scripture.  These  are,  1. 
Those  whom  Moses  calls  Mconon  of  Anan,  a 
cloud,  Deut.  xviii.  10.— 2.  Those  whom  the 
prophet  calls,  in  the  same  place,  Menacheseh, 
which  the  Vulgate  and  generality  of  interpreters 
render  Augur. — 3.  Those  who  in  the  same  place 
are  called  Mccascheph,  which  the  Septuagint  and 
Vulgate  translate  "a  man  given  to  ill  practices." — 

4.  Those  whom  in  the  same  chapter,  ver.  11,  he 
calls  Hhoher. — 5.  Those  who  consult  the  spirits, 
called  Python. — G.  Witches,  or  magicians,  called 
Judeoni. — 7.  Secromancers,  who  consult  the 
dead. — 8.  Such  as  consult  staves,  Hos.  iv.  12; 
railed  by  some  Rhabdomancy. — 9.  Hepaloscopy, 
or  the  consideration  of  the  liver. 

Different  kinds  of  divination  which  have  passed 
for  sciences,  we  have  had;  1.  Aeromancy,  di- 
vining by  the  air. — 2.  Astrology,  by  the  heavens. — 
3.  Augury,  by  the  flight  and  singing  of  birds, 
&c. — 4.  Chiromancy,  by  inspecting  the  hand. — 

5,  Geomancy,  by  observing  of  cracks  or  clefts  in 
the  earth. — 1>.  Haruspiey,  by  inspecting  the 
bowels  of  animals. — 7.  Horoscopy,  a  branch  of 
astrology,  marking  the  position  of  the  heavens 
when  a  man  is  born. — 8.  Hydromancy,  by 
water. — !).  Physiognomy,  by  the  countenance. 
(This,  however,  is  considered  by  sonic  as  of  a 
different  nature,  and  worthy  of  being  rescued 
from  the  rubbish  of  superstition,  and  placed 
among  the  useful  sciences.  Lavater  has  written 
a  celebrated  treatise  on  it.) — 10.  Pyromancy,  a 
divination  made  by  fire.  Thus  we  see  what  aVts 
have  been  practised  to  deceive,  and  how  design- 
ing men  have  made  use  of  all  the  four  elements 
to  impose  upon  weak  m'nds. 

DIVINE,  something  relating  to  God.  The 
word  is  also  used  figuratively  for  anv  thing  that 
is  excellent,  extraordinary,  and  that  seems  to  go 
beyond  the  power  of  nature  anil  the  capacity  of 
man.  It  also  signifies  a  minister,  or  clergyman. 
See  M in ist Fa. 

DIVINITY,  the  science  of  theology.  See 
TnF.oi.oriY. 

DIVISIONS,  ECCLESIASTICAL.  See 
Schism. 

DIVORCE,  is  the  dissolution  of  marriage,  or 
separation  of  man  and  wife.  Divorce  a  viensa 
el  thoro,  i.  e.  from  bed  and  boa>;!, — in  this  case 
the  wife  has  a  suitable  maintenance  allowed  her 
out  of  her  husband's  effects.  Divorce  a  vinculo 
matrimonii,  i.  e.  from  the  bonds  of  matrimony, 
is  strictly  and  properly  divorce.  This  happens 
either  in  consequence  of  criminality,  as  in  tho 
case  of  adultery,  or  through  some  essential  im- 
pediment ;  ;is  consanguinity,  or  affinity  within  the 
degrees  forbidden,  pre-contract,  impotency,  &c. 
of  which  impediments  the  canon  law  allows  do 


DOCTRINE 

less  than  14.  In  these  cases  the  woman  receives 
again  only  what  she  brought.  Sentences  which 
release  the  parties  a  vinculo  matrimonii,  on 
account  of  impuberty,  frigidity,  consanguinity 
within  the  prohibited  degrees,  prior  marriage,  or 
want  of  the  requisite  consent  of  parents  or  guard- 
ians, are  not  properly  dissolutions  of  the  marriage 
contract,  but  judicial  declarations  that  there  never 
was  any  marriage;  such  impediment  subsisting 
at  the  time  as  rendered  the  celebration  of  the 
marriage  rite  a  mere  nullity.  And  the  rite  itself 
contains  an  exception  of  these  impediments. 

The  law  of  Moses,  says  Dr.  Paley,  for  reasons 
of  local  expediency,  permitted  the  Jewish  husband 
to  put  away  his  wife ;  but  whether  for  every  cause, 
or  for  what  cause,  appears  to  have  been  contro- 
verted amongst  the  interpreters  of  those  times. 
Christ,  the  precepts  of  whose  religion  were  cal- 
culated for  more  general  use  and  observation,  re- 
vokes his  permission  as  given  to  the  Jews  for 
their  hardness  of  heart,  and  promulges  a  law 
which  was  thenceforward  to  confine  divorces  to 
the  single  cause  of  adultery  in  the  wife,  Matt. 
xix.  9.  Inferior  causes  may  justify  the  separation 
of  husband  and  wife,  although  they  will  not  au- 
thorise such  a  dissolution  of  the  marriage  contract 
as  would  leave  either  at  liberty  to  marry  again ; 
for  it  is  that  liberty  in  which  the  danger  and  mis- 
chief of  divorces  principally  consist.  The  law  of 
this  country,  in  conformity  to  our  Saviour's  in- 
junction, confines  the  dissolution  of  the  marriage 
contract  to  the  single  case  of  adultery  in  the  wife ; 
and  a  divorce  even  in  that  case  can  only  be  brought 
about  by  an  act  of  parliament,  founded  upon  a 
previous  sentence  in  the  spiritual  court,  and  a 
verdict  against  the  adulterer  at  common  law ; 
which  proceedings,  taken  together,  compose  as 
complete  an  investigation  of  the  complaint  as  a 
cause  can  receive.  See  Paley1  s  Mor.  and  Pol. 
Phil.  p.  273;  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lect.  7o. 

DOCETiE,  the  followers  of  Julius  Cassianus, 
one  of  the  Valentinian  sect,  towards  the  close 
of  the  second  century.  They  believed  and  taught 
that  the  actions  and  sufferings  of  Jesus  Christ 
were  not  in  reality,  but  only  in  appearance. 

DOCTRINE,  the  principles  or  positions  of 
any  sect  or  master.  As  the  doctrines  of  the  Bible 
.are  the  first  principles  and  the  foundation  of  reli- 
gion, they  should  be  carefully  examined  and  well 
understood.  The  Scriptures  present  us  with  a 
copious  fund  of  evangelic  truth,  which,  though 
it  has  not  the  form  of  a  regular  system,  yet  its 
parts  are  such,  that,  when  united,  make  the  most 
complete  body  of  doctrine  that  we  can  possibly 
have.  Every  Christian,  but  divines  especially, 
should  make  this  their  study,  because  all  the  va- 
rious doctrines  should  be  insisted  on  in  public, 
and  explained  to  the  people.  It  is  not,  however, 
as  some  suppose,  to  fill  up  every  part  of  a  minis- 
ter's sermon,  but  considered  as  the  basis  upon 
which  the  practical  part  is  to  be  built.  Some  of 
the  divines  in  the  last  century  overcharged  their 
discourses  with  doctrine,  especially  Dr.  Owen 
and  Dr.  Goodwin.  It  was  common  in  that  day 
to  make  thirty  or  forty  remarks  before  the  imme- 
diate consideration  of  the  text,  each  of  which 
was  just  introduced,  and  which,  if  enlarged  on, 
would  have  afforded  matter  enough  for  a  whole 
sermon.  A  wise  preacher  will  join  doctrine  and 
practice  together. 

Doctrines,  though  abused  by  some,  yet,  proper- 
ly considered,  will  influence  the  heart  and  life. 
121  Q 


DOMINICANS 
Thus  the  idea  of  God's  sovereignty  excites  suh 
mission;  his  power  and  justice  promote  fear;  his 
holiness,  humility  and  purity ;  his  goodness,  a 
ground  of  hope  ;  his  love  excites  joy  ;  the  obscu- 
rity of  his  providence  requires  patience ;  his  faith- 
fulness, confidence,  &c. 

DOMINICANS,  a  religious  order;  in  some 
places  called  Jacobins,  and  in  others  Predicants, 
or  preaching  friars.  The  Dominicans  take  their 
name  from  their  founder,  Dominic  de  Guzman,  a 
Spaniard,  born  in  1170,  at  Cabroga,  in  Old  Cas- 
tile :  he  was  first  canon  and  archdeacon  of  Ossu- 
na ;  and  afterwards  preached  with  great  zeal  and 
vehemence  against  the  Albigenses  in  Languedoc, 
where  he  laid  the  first  foundation  of  his  order.  It 
was  approved  of  in  1215  by  Innocent  III.  and 
confirmed  in  1216,  by  a  bull  of  Honorius  III. 
under  the  title  of  St.  Auguslin;  to  which  Domi- 
nic added  several  austere  precepts  and  observances, 
obliging  the  brethren  to  take  a  vow  of  absolute 
poverty,  and  also  the  title  of  preaching  friars,  be- 
cause public  instruction  was  the  main  end  of  their 
institution,  and  to  abandon  entirely  all  their  reve- 
nues and  possessions.  The  first  con  vent  was  found 
ed  at  Thoulouse,  by  the  bishop  thereof  and  Simon 
de  Montfort.  Two  years  afterwards  they  had  ano- 
ther at  Paris,  near  the  bishop's  house ;  and  some 
time  after,  a  third  in  the  Rue  St.  Jacques,  (St. 
James's  street,)  whence  the  denomination  of  Ja- 
cobins. Just  before  his  death,  Dominic  sent  Gil- 
ben  de  Fresney,  with  twelve  of  the  brethren  into 
England,  where  they  founded  their  first  monas- 
tery at  Oxford,  in  the  year  1221,  and  soon  after 
another  at  London.  In  the  year  i27G,  the  mayor 
and  aldermen  of  the  city  of  London  gave  them 
two  whole  streets,  by  the  river  Thames,  where 
they  erected  a  very  commodious  convent :  whence 
that  place  is  still  called  Blackfriars,  from  the 
name  by  which  the  Dominicans  were  called  in 
England.  St.  Dominic  at  first  only  took  the 
habit  of  the  regular  canons :  that  is,  a  black  cas- 
sock and  rochet:  but  this  he  quitted,  in  1210,  for 
that  which  they  have  ever  since  worn,  which,  it 
is  pretended,  was  shown  by  the  Blessed  Virgin 
herself  to  the  beatified  Renaud  d'Orleans.  This 
order  has  been  diffused  throughout  the  whole 
known  world.  They  reckon  three  popes  of  this 
order,  above  sixty  cardinals,  several  patriarchs,  a 
hundred  and  fifty  archbishops,  and  about  eight 
hundred  bishops,  besides  masters  of  the  sacred 
palace,  whose  office  has  been  constantly  discharg- 
ed by  a  religious  of  this  order  ever  since  St.  Do- 
minic, who  held  it  under  Honorius  III.  in  1218. 

Of  all  the  monastic  orders,  none  enjoyed  a 
higher  degree  of  power  and  authority  than  the 
Dominican  friars,  whose  credit  was  great,  and 
their  influence  universal.  But  the  measures  they 
used  in  order  to  maintain  and  extend  their  autho- 
rity were  so  perfidious  and  cruel,  that  their  infiu 
ence  began  to  decline  towards  the  beginning  of 
the  sixteenth  century.  The  tragic  story  of  Jet- 
zer,  conducted  at  Bern,  in  1509,  for  determining 
an  uninteresting  dispute  between  them  and  the 
Franciscans,  relating  to  the  immaculate  concep- 
tion, will  reflect  indelible  infamy  on  this  order.  In 
order  to  give  the  reader  a  view  of  the  impious 
frauds  which  have  sometimes  been  carried  on  in 
the  church  of  Rome,  we  shall  here  insert  an  ac- 
count of  this  stratagem. 

The  Franciscans  maintained  that  the  Virgin 
Mary  was  born  without  the  blemish  of  origins 
sin ;  the  Dominicans  asserted  the  contrary. 


DOMINICANS 

The  doctrine  of  the  Franciscans,  in  an  age  of 
darkness  and  superstition,  could  not  but  l>e  popu- 
lar; anil  hence  the  Dominicans  lost  ground  from 
day  to  day.  To  support  the  credit  of  their  order, 
they  resolved,  at  a  chapter  held  at  Vimpsen,  in 
the  vear  1504,  to  have  recourse  to  fictiti  >us  visions 
and  dreams,  in  which  the  people  at  that  time  had 
an  easy  faith;  and  thev  determined  to  make  Bern 
the  sc«ne  of  their  operations.  A  person  named 
Jetzer,  who  was  extremely  simple,  and  much  in- 
clined to  austeritits,  and  who  had  taken  their  habit 
as  a  lav-brother,  was  chosen  as  the  instrument  of 
the  delusions  they  were  contriving.  One  of  the 
four  Dominicans,  who  had  undertaken  the  ma- 
nagement of  this  plot,  conveyed  himself  secretly 
into  Jetzer' s  cell,  and  about  midnight  appeared  to 
him  in  a  horrid  figure,  surrounded  witn  howling 
dogs,  and  seemed  to  blow  fire  from  his  nostrils,  by 
the  means  of  a  box  of  combustibles  which  lie  held 
near  his  mouth.  In  this  frightful  form  he  ap- 
proached Jetzer's  bed,  told  him  that  he  was  the 
ghost  of  a  Dominican,  who  had  been  killed  at 
Paris,  as  a  judgment  of  Heaven  for  laying  aside 
his  monastic  habit;  that  he  was  condemned  to 
purgatory  for  this  crime;  adding,  at  the  same 
time,  that  by  his  means  he  might  be  rescued  from 
his  misery,  which  was  beyond  expression.  This 
story,  accompanied  with  horrible  cries  and  howl- 
in  gs,  frightened  poor  Jetzer  out  of  the  little  wits 
he  had,  and  engaged  him  to  promise  to  do  all  that 
was  in  his  power  to  deliver  the  Dominican  fiom 
his  torment.  Upon  this  the  impostor  told  him, 
that  nothing  but  the  most  extraordinary  mortifi- 
cations, such  as  the  discipline  of  the  uhip,  per- 
formed during  eight  days  by  the  whole  monastery, 
and  Jetzer's  lying  prostrate  in  the  form  of  one 
crucified  in  the  chapel  during  mass,  could  contri- 
bute to  his  deliverance.  He  added,  that  the  per- 
formance of  these  mortifications  would  draw  down 
upon  Jetzer  the  peculiar  protection  of  the  Blessed 
Virgin  ;  and  concluded  by  saying,  that  he  would 
appear  to  him  again,  accompanied  with  two  other 
spirits.  Morning  was  no  sooner  come,  than  Jet- 
zer gave  an  account  of  this  apparition  to  the  rest 
of  the  convent,  who  all  unanimously  advised  him 
to  undergo  the  discipline  that  was  enjoined  him, 
and  every  one  consented  to  bear  his  share  of  the 
task  imposed.  The  deluded  simpleton  obeyed, 
and  was  admired  as  a  saint  by  the  multitudes  that 
crowded  about  the  convent ;  while  the  four  friars 
that  managed  the  imposture,  magnified  in  the 
most  pompous  manner,  the  miracle  of  this  appari- 
tion, in  their  sermons,  and  in  their  discourses. 
The  night  after,  the  apparition  was  renewed  with 
the  addition  of  two  impostors,  dressed  like  devils, 
and  Jetzer's  faith  was  augmented  by  hearing  from 
the  spectre  all  the  secrets  of  his  life  and  thoughts, 
which  the  impostors  had  learned  from  his  confes- 
sor. In  tliis  and  some  subsequent  scenes  (the 
detail  of  whose  enormities,  for  the  sake  of  brevity, 
we  shall  here  omit)  the  impostor  talked  much  to 
Jetzer  of  the  Dominican  order,  which  he  said  was 
peculiarly  de;ir  to  the  Blessed  Virgin:  he  added, 
that  the  Virgin  knew  herself  to  be  conceived  in 
original  sin  ;  thct  the  doctors  who  taught  the  con- 
trary were  in  purgatory;  that  the  Blessed  Virgin 
abhorred  the.  Franciscans  for  making  her  equal  with 
her  son  ;  and  that  the  town  of  Bern  would  be  de- 
stroyed for  harbouring  such  plagues  within  her 
wall?.  In  one  of  these  apparitions  Jetzer  imagined 
that  the  voice  of  the  spectre  resembled  that  of  the 
prior  of  the  convent,  and  he  was  not  mistaken  ; 
122 


DOMINICANS 

but,  not  suspecting  a  fraud,  he  gave  little  attention 
to  this.  The  prior  appeared  in  various  forms, 
sometimes  in  that  of  St.  Barbara,  at  ethers  in  that 
of  St.  Bernard  :  at  length  he  assumed  that  of  the 
Virgin  Mary,  and,  for  that  purpose,  clothed  him- 
self in  the  habits  that  were  employed  to  adorn 
the  statue  of  the  Virgin  in  the  great  festivals. 
The  little  images,  that  on  these  days  are  set  on 
the  altars,  were  made  use  of  for  angels,  which, 
being  tied  to  a  cord  that  passed  through  a  pulley 
over  Jetzer's  head,  rose  up  and  down,  and  danced 
about  the  pretended  Viigin,  to  increase  the  delu- 
sion. The  Virgin,  thus  equipped,  addressed  a 
long  discourse  to  Jetzer,  in  which,  among  other 
things,  she  told  him  that  she  was  conceived  in 
original  sin,  though  she  had  remained  but  a  short 
time  under  that  blemish.  She  gave  him,  as  a 
miraculous  proof  of  her  presence,  a  host,  or  con- 
secrated wafer,  which  turned  from  white  to  red 
in  a  moment;  and  after  various  visits,  in  which 
the  greatest  enormities  were  transacted,  the  Vir- 
gin-prior told  Jetzer  that  she  would  give  him  the 
most  affecting  and  undoubted  marks  of  her  son's 
love,  by  imprinting  on  him  the  five  uounds  that 
pierced  Jesus  on  the  cross,  as  she  had  done  before 
to  St.  Lucia  and  St.  Catherine.  Accordingly, 
she  took  his  hand  by  force,  and  struck  a  large 
nail  through  it,  which  threw  the  poor  dupe  into 
the  greatest  torment.  The  next  night  this  mas- 
culine virgin  brought,  as  she  pretended,  some  of 
the  linen  in  which  Christ  had  been  buried,  to 
soften  the  wound  ;  and  gave  Jetzer  a  soporific 
draught,  which  had  in  it  the  blood  of  an  unbap- 
tised  child,  some  grains  of  incense  and  of  conse- 
crated sait,  some  quicksilver,  the  hairs  of  the  eye- 
brows of  a  child ;  all  which,  with  some  stupifying 
and  poisonous  ingredients,  were  mingled  toge- 
ther by  the  prior  with  magic  ceremonies,  and  a 
solemn  dedication  of  himself  to  the  devil  in  hope 
of  his  succour.  The  draught  threw  the  poor 
wretch  into  a  sort  of  lethargy,  during  which  the 
monks  imprinted  on  his  body  the  other  four 
wounds  of  Christ  in  such  a  manner  that  he  felt 
no  pain.  When  he  awakened,  he  found,  to  his 
unspeakable  joy,  those  impressions  on  his  body, 
and  came  at  last  to  fancy  himself  a  representative 
of  Christ  in  the  various  parts  of  liis  passion.  He 
was,  in  this  state,  exposed  to  the  admiring  multi- 
tude on  the  principal  altar  of  the  convent,  to  the 
great  mortification  of  the  Franciscans.  The 
Dominicans  gave  him  some  other  draughts,  that 
threw  him  into  convulsions ;  which  were  followed 
by  a  pijie  into  the  mouths  of  two  images,  one  ol 
Mary,  and  another  of  the  child  Jesus,  the  former 
of  which  had  tears  painted  upon  its  cheeks  in  a 
lively  manner.  The  little  Jesus  asked  its  mother, 
by  means  of  this  voice  (which  was  that  of  the 
priors,)  why  she  wept  1  and  she  answered  that 
her  tears  were  owing  to  the  impious  manner  in 
which  the  Franciscans  attributed  to  her  the  ho- 
nour that  was  due  to  him,  in  saying  that  she  was 
conceived  and  born  without,  sin. 

The  apparitions,  false  prodigies,  and  abomina- 
ble stratagems  of  these  Dominicans  were  repeat- 
ed every  night ;  and  the  matter  was  at  length  so 
grossly  over-acted,  that,  simple  as  Jetzer  was,  he 
at  last  discovered  it,  and  had  almost  killed  the 
prior,  who  appeared  to  him  one  night  in  the  form 
of  the  Virgin  with  a  crown  on  her  head.  The 
Dominicans,  fearing,  by  this  discovery,  to  lost 
the  fruits  of  their  imposture,  thought  the  best 
method  would  be  to  own  the  whole  matter  to  Jet 


DONATISTS 

tier,  and  to  engage  him,  by  the  most  seducing 
promises  of  opulence  and  glory,  to  carry  on  the 
cheat.  Jctzer  was  persuaded,  or  at  least  appear- 
ed to  be  so.  But  the  Dominicans  suspecting  that 
he  was  not  entirely  gained  over,  resolved  to  poi- 
son him ;  but  his  constitution  was  so  vigorous, 
that,  though  they  gave  him  poison  five  several 
times,  he  was  not  destroyed  by  it.  One  day  they 
sent  him  a  loaf  prepared  with  some  spices,  which 
growing  green  in  a  day  or  two,  he  threw  a  piece 
of  it  to  a  wolf's  whelps  that  were  in  the  monas- 
tery, and  it  killed  them  immediately.  At  another 
time  they  poisoned  the  host,  or  consecrated  wafer ; 
but,  as  he  vomited  it  up  soon  after  he  had  swal- 
lowed it,  he  escaped  one*  more.  In  short,  there 
were  no  means  of  securing  him,  which  the  most 
detestable  impiety  and  barbarity  could  invent, 
that  they  did  not  put  in  practice  ;  till  finding,  at 
last,  an  opportunity  of  getting  out  of  the  convent, 
he  threw  himself  into  the  hands  of  the  magis- 
trates, to  whom  he  made  a  full  discovery  of  tliis 
infernal  plot.  The.  affair  being  drought  to  Rome, 
commissaries  were  sent  from  thence  to  examine 
the  matter;  and  the  whole  cheat  being  fully 
proved,  the  four  friars  were  solemnly  degraded 
from  their  priesthood,  and  were  burnt  alive  on 
the  last  day  of  May,  1509.  Jetzer  died  some  time 
after  at  Constance,  having  poisoned  himself,  as 
was  believed  by  some.  Had  his  life  been  taken 
away  before  he  had  found  an  opportunity  of 
making  the  discovery  already  mentioned,  this 
execrable  and  horrid  plot,  which  in  many  of  its 
circumstances  was  conducted  with  art,  would 
have  been  handed  down  to  posterity  as  a  stupen- 
dous miracle. 

The  Dominicans  were  perpetually  employed 
in  stigmatising  with  the  name  of  heresy  numbers 
of  learned  and  pious  men ;  in  encroaching  upon 
the  rights  and  properties  of  others,  to  augment 
their  possessions ;  and  in  laving  the  most  iniqui- 
tous snares  and  stratagems,  for  the  destruction  of 
their  adversaries.  They  were  the  principal  coun- 
sellors by  whose  instigation  and  advice  Leo  X. 
was  determined  to  the  public  condemnation  of 
Luther.  The  papal  see  never  had  more  active 
and  useful  abettors  than  this  order,  and  that  of 
the  Jesuits. 

DOMINION  OF  GOD,  is  his  absolute  right 
to.  and  authority  over,  all  his  creatures,  to  do 
with  them  as  he  pleases.  It  is  distinguished  from 
his  power  thus  :  his  dominion  is  a  right  of  mak- 
ing what  he  pleases,  and  possessing  what  he  makes, 
and  of  disposing  of  what  he  possesses ;  whereas 
his  -power  is  an  ability  to  make  what  he  has  a 
right  to  create,  to  hold  what  he  possesses,  and  to 
execute  what  he  has  purposed  or  resolved. 

DONATISTS.  ancient  schismatics,  in  Afri- 
ca, so  denominated  from  their  leader,  Donatus. 
They  had  their  origin  in  the  year  311,  when,  in 
the  room  of  Mensurius,  who  died  in  that  year,  on 
his  return  to  Rome,  Cecilian  was  elected  bishop 
of  Carthage,  and  consecrated,  without  the  con- 
currence of  the  Numidian  bishops,  by  those  of 
Africa  alone,  whom  the  people  refused  to  acknow- 
ledge, and  to  whom  they  opposed  Majorinus, 
who  accordingly  was  ordained  by  Donatus  bishop 
of  Casaj  Nigra?.  They  were  condemned  in  a 
council  held  at  Rome,  two  years  after  their  sepa- 
ration; and  afterwards  in  another  at  Aries,  the 
year  following;  and  again  at  Milan,  before  Con- 
stantine  the  Great,  in  316,  who  deprived  them  of 
tlieir  churches,  and  sent  their  seditious  bishops 
123 


DORT 
into  banishment,  and  punished  some  of  them 
with  death.  Their  cause  was  espoused  by  an- 
other Donatus,  called  the  Great,  the  principal 
bishop  of  that  sect,  who,  with  numbers  of  his  fol- 
lowers, was  exiled  by  order  of  Constans.  Many 
of  them  were  punished  with  great  severity. — See 
Circumceuliones.  However,  after  the  acces- 
sion of  Julian  to  the  throne  in  302,  they  were 
permitted  to  return,  and  restored  to  their  former 
liberty.  Gratian  published  several  edicts  against 
them,  and  in  377  deprived  them  of  their  churches, 
and  prohibited  all  their  assemblies.  But,  not- 
withstanding the  severities  they  suffered,  it  ap- 
pears that  they  had  a  very  considerable  number 
of  churches  towards  the  close  of  this  century; 
but  at  this  time  they  began  to  decline  on  account 
of  a  schism  among  themselves,  occasioned  by  the 
election  of  two  bishops  in  the  room  of  Parmenian, 
the  successor  of  Donatus :  one  party  elected  Pri- 
mian,  and  were  called  Primianists;  and  another, 
Maximinian,  and  were  called  Maximinianists. 
Their  decline  was  also  precipitated  by  the  zealous 
opposition  of  St.  Augustine,  and  by  the  violent 
measures  which  were  pursued  against  them  by 
order  of  the  emperor  Honorius,  at  the  solicitation 
of  two  councils  held  at  Carthage,  the  one  in  404, 
and  the  other  in  411.  Many  of  them  were  fined, 
their  bishops  were  banished,  and  some  put  to 
death.  This  sect  revived  and  multiplied  under 
the  protection  of  the  Vandals,  who  invaded 
Africa  in  427,  and  took  possession  of  this  pro- 
vince ;  but  it  sunk  again  under  new  severities, 
when  their  empire  was  overturned,  in  534.  Ne- 
vertheless, they  remained  in  a  separate  body  till 
the  close  of  this  century,  when  Gregory,  the  Ro- 
man pontiff,  used  various  methods  for  suppressing 
them:  his  zeal  succeeded,  and  there  are  few 
traces  to  be  found  of  the  Donatists  after  this 
period.  They  were  distinguished  by  other  ap- 
pellations, as  Circumcelliones,  Montenses  or 
Mountaineers,  Campetes,  Rupites,  &c.  They 
held  three  councils,  that  of  Cita  in  Numidia,  and 
two  at  Carthage. 

The  Donatists,  it  is  said,  held  that  baptism 
conferred  out  of  the  church,  that  is,  out  of  their 
sect,  was  null ;  and  accordingly  they  re-baptized 
those  who  joined  their  party  from  other  churches , 
they  also  re-ordained  their  ministers.  Donatus 
seems  likewise  to  have  embraced  the  doctrine  of 
the  Arians ;  though  St.  Augustine  affirms  that 
the  Donatists  in  this  point  kept  clear  of  the  errors 
of  their  leader. 

DORT,  Synod  of;  a  national  Synod,  sum- 
moned by  authority  of  the  States-General,  the  pro- 
vinces of  Holland,  Utrecht  and  Overyssel  ex- 
cepted, and  held  at  Dort,  1618.  The  most 
eminent  divines  of  the  United  Provinces,  and 
deputies  from  the  churches  of  England,  Scotland, 
Switzerland,  Bremen,  Hessia,  and  the  Palatinate, 
assembled  on  this  occasion,  in  order  to  decide  the 
controversy  between  the  Calvinists  and  Armi- 
nians.  The  synod  had  hardly  commenced  its 
deliberations  before  a  dispute  on  the  mode  of  pro- 
ceeding drove  the  Arminian  party  from  the  as- 
sembly. The  Anninians  insisted  upon  beginning 
with  a  refutation  of  the  Calvinistic  doctrines, 
especially  that  of  reprobation ;  whilst  the  synod 
determined,  that,  as  the  remonstrants  were  ac 
cused  of  departing  from  the  reformed  faith,  they 
ought  first  to  justify  themselves  by  a  scriptural 
proof  of  their  own  opinions.  All  meens  to  per- 
suade the  Arruinians  to  submit  to  this  procedure 


DOXOLOGY 
having  failed,  they  were  banished  the  synod  for 
their  refusal.  The  synod,  however,  proceeded  in 
their  examination  of  the  Arminian  tenets,  con- 
demned their  opinions,  and  excommunicated  their 
persons ;  whether  justly  or  unjustly,  let  the 
reader  determine.  Surely  no  one  can  be  an  ad- 
vocate for  the  persecution  which  followed,  and 
which  drove  these  men  from  their  churches  and 
country  into  exile  and  poverty.  The  authority 
of  this  synod  was  far  from  being  universally  ac- 
knowledged, either  in  Holland  or  in  England. 
The  provinces  of  Friesland,  Zealand,  Utrecht, 
Guclderland,  and  Groningen,  could  not  be  per- 
suaded to  adopt  their  decisions ;  and  they  were 
opposed  by  king  James  I.  and  archbishop  Laud, 
in  England. 

DOSITHEANS,  an  ancient  sect  among  the 
Samaritans,  in  the  first  century  of  the  Christian 
sera:  so  called  from  Dositheus,  who  endeavoured 
to  persuade  the  Samaritans  that  he  was  the  Mes- 
siah foretold  by  Moses.  He  had  many  followers, 
and  his  sect  was  still  subsisting  at  Alexandria  in 
the  time  of  the  patriarch  Eulogius,  as  appears 
from  a  decree  of  that  patriarch  published  by  Pho- 
tius.  In  that  decree,  Eulogius  accuses  Dosi- 
theus of  injuriously  treating  the  ancient  patriarchs 
and  prophets,  and  attributing  to  himself  the  spirit 
of  prophecy.  He  makes  him  contemporary  with 
Simon  Magus;  and  accuses  him  of  corrupting 
the  Pentateuch,  and  of  composing  several  books 
directly  contrary  to  the  law  of  God. 

DOUBTS  and  Fears,  are  terms  frequently 
used  to  denote  the  uncertainty  of  mind  we  are  in 
respecting  our  interest  in  the  divine  favour.  The 
causes  of  our  doubts  may  be  such  as  these :  per- 
sonal declension;  not  knowing  the  exact  time, 
place,  or  means  of  our  conversion;  improper 
views  of  the  character  and  decrees  of  God ;  the 
fluctuation  of  religious  experience  as  to  the  enjoy- 
ment of  God  in  prayer,  hearing,  &c;  the  depth 
of  our  affliction;  relapses  into  sin;  the  fall  of  pro- 
fessors ;  and  the  hidings  of  God's  face.  While 
some  are  continually  harassed  with  doubts  and 
fears,  there  are  others  who  tell  us  they  know  not 
what  it  is  to  doubt;  yea,  who  think  it  a  sin  to 
doubt ;  so  prone  are  men  to  run  to  extremes,  as 
if  there  were  no  medium  between  constant  full 
assurance  and  perpetual  doubt.  The  true  Chris- 
tian, perhaps,  steers  between  the  two.  He  is  not 
alwa\%  doubting,  nor  is  he  always  living  in  the 
full  exercise  of  faith.  It  is  not  unlawful  at  cer- 
tain seasons  to  doubt.  "  It  is  a  sin,"  says  one, 
"  for  a  believer  to  live  so  as  not  to  have  "his  evi- 
dences clear;  but  it  is  no  sin  for  him  to  be  so 
honest  and  impartial  as  to  doubt,  when  in  fact  his 
evidences  are  not  clear."  Let  the  humble  Chris- 
tian, however,  beware  of  an  extreme.  Prayer, 
conversation  with  experienced  Christians,  read- 
ing the  promises,  and  consideration  of  the  divine 
goodness,  will  have  a  tendency  to  remove  unne- 
cessary doubts. 

DCXOLOGY,  a  hymn  used  in  praise  of  the 
Almighty,  distinguished  by  the  titles  of  the 
Greater  and  the  Less.  Both  the  doxologies  are 
used  in  the  church  of  England ;  the  former  being 
repeated  alter  every  psalm,  and  the  latter  used  in 
the  communion  service.  Doxology  the  Greater, 
or  the  angelic  hymn,  was  of  great  note  in  the  an- 
cient church.  It  began  with  the  words  the  angels 
sung  at  the  birth  ot  Christ,  "Clory  to  God,"  &c. 
Doxology  the  Less,  was  anciently  only  a  single 
sentence  without  a  response,  running  in  these 


DRUIDS 
words :  "  Glory  be  to  the  Father,  and  to  the  f^n, 
and  to  the  Holy  Ghost,  world  without  end, 
amen."  Part  of  the  latter  clause,  "as  it  was  in 
the  beginning,  is  now,  and  ever  shall  be,"  &c. 
was  inserted  some  time  after  the  first  com[)osition. 
DRAGOONING,  one  of  the  methods  used  by 
papists  after  the  revocation  of  the  ed;ct  of  Nantz, 
under  Lewis  XIV.,  for  converting  refractory  here- 
tics, and  bringing  them  within  the  pale  of  their 
church.  If  the  reader's  feelings  will  suffer  him 
to  peruse  the  account  of  these  barbarities,  he  will 
find  it  under  the  article  Persecution,  in  this 
work. 

DREAD,  is  a  degree  of  permanent  fear,  an 
habitual  and  painful  apprehension  of  some  tre- 
mendous event.  It  keeps  the  mind  in  a  perpetual 
alarm,  in  an  eager  watchfulness  of  every  circum- 
stance that  bears  any  relation  to  the  evil  appre- 
hended. 

DRUIDS,  the  priests  or  ministers  of  religion 
among  the  ancient  Gauls,  Britons,  and  Germans. 
They  were  chosen  out  of  the  best  families  ;  and 
the  honours  of  their  birth,  joined  with  those  of 
their  function,  procured  them  the  highest  venera- 
tion among  the  people.  They  were  versed  in 
astrology,  geometry,  natural  philosophy,  politics, 
and  geography  ;  they  were  the  interpreters  of  re- 
ligion, and  the  judges  of  all  affairs  indifferently. 
Whoever  refused  obedience  to  them  was  declared 
impious  and  accursed.  We  know  but  little  as  to 
their  peculiar  doctrines,  only  that  they  believed 
the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and,  as  is  generally 
also  supposed,  the  transmigration  of  it  to  other 
bodies ;  though  a  late  author  makes  it  appear 
highly  probable  that  they  did  not  believe  this  last, 
at  least  not  in  the  sense  of  the  Pythagoreans.  The 
chief  settlement  of  the  Druids  in  Britain  was  in 
the  isle  of  Anglesey,  the  ancient  Mona,  which 
they  might  choose  for  this  purpose,  as  it  is  well 
stored  with  precious  groves  of  their  favourite  oak. 
They  were  divided  into  several  classes  or  branches, 
such  as  the  priests,  the  poets,  the  augurs,  the 
civil  judges,  and  instructors  of  youth.  Strabo, 
however,  does  not  comprehend  all  these  different 
orders  under  the  denomination  of  druids :  he 
only  distinguishes  three  kinds ;  bardi,  poets  ;  the 
vatcs,  priests  and  naturalists;  and  the  druids, 
who,  besides  the  study  of  nature,  applied  them- 
selves likewise  to  morality. 

Their  garments  were  remarkably  long;  and 
when  employed  in  religious  ceremonies,  they  like- 
wise wore  a  white  surplice.  They  generally  car- 
ried a  wand  in  their  hands,  and  wore  a  kind  of 
ornament,  enchased  with  gold,  about  their  necks, 
called  the  druid's  egg.  They  had  one  chief,  or 
arch-druid,  in  every  nation,  who  acted  as  high 
priest,  or  pontifex  maximus.  He  had  absolute 
authority  over  the  rest,  and  commanded,  decreed, 
and  punished  at  pleasure.  They  worshipped  the 
Supreme  Being  under  the  name  of  Esusot  He~ 
sits,  and  the  symbol  of  the  oak  ;  and  had  no  other 
temple  than  a  wood  or  a  grove,  where  all  their  re- 
ligious rites  were  performed.  Nor  was  any  person 
permitted  to  enter  that  sacred  recess  unless  he  car- 
ried with  him  a  chain  in  token  of  his  absolute 
dependence  on  the  Deity.  Indeed,  their  whole 
religion  originally  consisted  in  acknowledging 
that  the  Supreme  Being,  who  made  his  abode 
in  these  sacred  groves,  governed  the  universe; 
and,  that  every  creature  ought  to  obey  liis  law* 
and  pay  him  divine  homage.  They  considered 
the  oak  as  the  emblem,  or  rather  the  peculiar  re« 


DUNKERS 
eidence,  of  the  Almighty ;  and  accordingly  chap- 
lets  of  it  were  worn,  both  by  the  druids  and  peo- 
ple, in  their  religious  ceremonies :  the  altars  were 
strewed  with  its  leaves,  and  encircled  with  its 
branches.  The  fruit  of  it,  especially  the  mistle- 
toe, was  thought  to  contain  a  divine  virtue,  and  to 
be  the  peculiar  gift  of  Heaven.  It  was,  there- 
fore, sought  for  on  the  sixth  day  of  the  moon 
with  the  greatest  earnestness  and  anxiety  :  and 
when  found,  was  hailed  with  such  rapture  of  joy, 
as  almost  exceeds  imagination  to  conceive.  As 
Boon  as  the  druids  were  informed  of  the  fortunate 
discovery,  they  prepared  every  thing  ready  for 
the  sacrifice  under  the  oak,  to  which  they  fastened 
two  white  bulls  by  the  horns ;  then  the  arch- 
druid,  attended  by  a  prodigious  number  of  people, 
ascended  the  tree,  dressed  in  white ;  and,  with  a 
consecrated  golden  knife,  or  pruning-hook,  crop- 
ped the  mistletoe,  which  he  received  in  his  robe, 
amidst  the  rapturous  exclamations  of  the  people. 
Having  secured  this  sacred  plant,  he  descended 
the  tree ;  the  bulls  were  sacrificed  ;  and  the  Deity 
invoked  to  bless  his  own  gift,  and  render  it  effica- 
cious in  those  distempers  in  which  it  should  be 
administered. 

DRUNKENNESS,  intoxication  with  strong 
liquor.  It  is  either  casual  or  habitual ;  just  as  it 
is  one  thing  to  be  drunk,  and  another  to  be  a 
drunkard.  The  evil  of  drunkenness  appears  in 
the  following  bad  effects  :  1.  It  betrays  most  con- 
stitutions either  to  extravagance  of  anger,  or  sins 
of  lewdness. — 2.  It  disqualifies  men  for  the  du- 
ties of  their  station,  both  by  the  temporary  disor- 
der of  their  faculties,  and  at  length  by  a  constant 
incapacity  and  stupefaction. — 3.  It  is  attended 
with  expense,  which  can  often  be  ill  spared. — 4. 
It  is  sure  to  occasion  uneasiness  to  the  family  of 
the  drunkard. — 5.  It  shortens  life. — 6.  It  is  a 
most  pernicious  awful  example  to  others. — 7.  It  is 
hardly  ever  cured. — 8.  It  is  a  violation  of  God's 
word,  Prov.  xx.  1.  Eph.  v.  18.  Is.  v.  II.  Rom. 
xiii.  13.  "  The  appetite  for  intoxicating  liquors  ap- 
pears tome,"  says  Paley,  "  to  be  almost  always 
acquired.  One  proof  of  which  is,  that  it  is  apt  to 
return  only  at  particular  times  and  places;  as 
after  dinner,  in  the  evening,  on  the  market-day, 
in  such  a  company,  at  such  a  tavern."  How 
careful,  then,  should  we  be,  lest  we  form  habits 
of  this  kind,  or  choose  company  who  are  addicted 
to  it ;  how  cautious  and  circumspect  should  we 
act,  that  we  be  not  found  guilty  of  a  sin  which 
degrades  human  nature,  banishes  reason,  insults 
God,  and  exposes  us  to  the  greatest  evils  !  Palei/s 
Mor.  Phil.  vol.  ii.  ch.  2.  FlaveVs  Works,  vol.  ii. 
p.  349 ;  Buck's  Anecdotes,  vol.  i.  p.  82,  5th  edi- 
tion ;  LanonCs  Ser.  vol.  i.  ser.  15,  10. 

DULCINISTS,  the  followers  of  Dulcinus,  a 
layman  of  Novara  in  Lombardy,  about  the  be- 
ginning of  the  fourteenth  century.  He  taught 
that  the  law  of  the  Father,  which  had  continued 
till  Moses,  was  a  law  of  grace  and  wisdom ;  but 
that  the  law  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  began 
with  himself,  in  1307,  was  a  law  entirely  of  love, 
which  would  last  to  the  end  of  the  world. 

DUNKERS,  a  denomination  which  took  its 
rise  in  the  year  1724.  It  was  founded  by  a  Ger- 
man, who,  weary  of  the  world,  retired  to  an 
agreeable  solitude  within  fifty  miles  of  Philadel- 
phia, for  the  more  free  exercise  of  religious  con- 
templation. Curiosity  attracted  followers,  and  his 
mmple  and  engaging  manners  made  them  pro- 
selytes. They  soon  settled  a  little  colony,  called 
125 


DUNKERS 

Euphrate,  in  allusion  to  the  Hebrews,  who  used 
to  sing  psalms  on  the  border  of  the  river  Eu- 
phrates. This  denomination  seems  to  have  ob- 
tained their  name  from  their  baptizing  their  nev* 
converts  by  plunging.  They  are  also  called  tum- 
blers, from  the  man  ner  in  which  they  performed  ba  p- 
tism,  which  is  by  putting  the  person,  while  kneel- 
ing, head  first  under  water,  so  as  to  resemble  the 
motion  of  the  body  in  the  act  of  tumbling.  They 
use  the  trine  immersion,  with  laying  on  the 
hands  and  prayer,  even  when  the  person  baptized 
is  in  the  water. 

Their  habit  seems  to  be  peculiar  to  themselves, 
consisting  of  a  long  tunic,  or  coat,  reaching  down 
to  their  heels,  with  a  sash  or  girdle  round  the 
waist,  and  a  cap,  or  hood,  hanging  from  the 
shoulders,  like  the  dress  of  the  Dominican  friars. 
The  men  do  not  shave  the  head  or  beard.  The 
men  and  women  have  separate  habitations  and 
distinct  governments.  For  these  purposes  they 
have  erected  two  large  wooden  buildings,  one  of 
which  is  occupied  by  the  brethren,  the  other  by 
the  sisters  of  the  society;  and  in  each  of  them 
there  is  a  banqueting  room,  and  an  apartment  for 
public  worship ;  for  the  brethren  and  sisters  do 
not  meet  together,  even  at  their  devotions.  They 
live  chiefly  upon  roets  and  other  vegetables,  the 
rules  of  their  society  not  allowing  them  flesh,  ex 
cept  on  particular  occasions,  when  they  hold  what 
they  call  a  love-feast ;  at  which  time  the  brethren 
and  sisters  dine  together  in  a  large  apartment, 
and  eat  mutton  ;  but  no  other  meat.  In  each  of 
their  little  cells  they  have  a  bench  fixed,  to  serve 
the  purpose  of  a  bed,  and  a  small  block  of  wood 
for  a  pillow.  The  Dunkers  allow  of  no  inter- 
course between  the  brethren  and  sisters,  not  even 
by  marriage.  The  principal  tenets  of  the  Dunkers 
appear  to  be  these  :  that  future  happiness  is  only 
to  be  attained  by  penance  and  outward  mortifica- 
tion in  this  life  ;  and  that,  as  Jesus  Christ  by  his 
meritorious  sufferings,  became  the  Redeemer  of 
mankind  in  general,  so  each  individual  of  the  hu- 
man race,  by  a  life  of  abstinence  and  restraint, 
may  work  out  his  own  salvation.  Nay,  they  go 
so  far  as  to  admit  of  works  of  supererogation, 
and  declare  that  a  man  may  do  much  more  than 
he  is  in  justice  or  equity  obliged  to  do,  and  that 
his  superabundant  works  may  therefore  be  ap- 
plied to  the  salvation  of  others.  This  denomina 
tion  deny  the  eternity  of  future  punishments,  and 
believe  that  the  dead  have  the  Gospel  preached  to 
them  by  our  Saviour,  and  that  the  souls  of  the 
just  are  employed  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  those 
who  have  had  no  revelation  in  this  life.  They 
suppose  the  Jewish  sabbath,  sabbatical  year,  and 
year  of  jubilee,  arc  typical  of  certain  periods,  after 
the  general  judgment,  in  which  the  souls  of  those 
who  are  not  then  admitted  into  happiness  are 
purified  from  their  corruption.  If  any  within 
those  smaller  periods  are  so  far  humbled  as  to 
acknowledge  the  perfections  of  God,  and  to  own 
Christ  as  their  only  Saviour,  they  arc  received  to 
felicity;  while  those  who  continue  obstinate  are 
reserved  in  torments  until  the  grand  period  typi- 
fied by  the  jubilee  arrives,  in  which  all  shall  be 
made  happy  in, the  endless  fruition  of  the  Deity. 
They  also  deny  the  imputation  of  Adam's  sin  to 
his  posterity.  They  disclaim  violence  even  in 
cases  of  self-defence,  and  suffer  themselves  to  be 
defrauded  or  wronged  rather  than  go  to  law. 

Their  church  government  and  discipline  are 
the  same  with  the  English  Baptists,  except  that 

L  2 


EBIONITES 
every  brother  is  allowed  to  speak  in  the  congre- 
gation ;  and  their  best  speaker  is  usually  ordained 
to  De  the  minister.  They  have  deacons  and  dea- 
conesses Erom  among  their  ancient  widows  and 
exhoiters,  who  are  ail  licensed  to  use  their  gifts 
statedly.  They  have,  in  the  United  States  pro- 
bably forty  or  fifty  churches,  to  be  found,  for  the 
most  part,  in  the  states  west  of  the  Allegheny. 

DUTCH  (REFORMED)  CHURCH' IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES.— The  city  and 
state  of  New  York  was  first  settled  by  this  people. 
The  oldest  church  was  formed  about  the  year 
163d.  The  first  minister  was  the  Rev.  Evorardus 
Bogardus.  The  place  of  worship  first  erected 
was  in  the  fort  at  New  York,  i»  1G 12 ;  the  se- 
cond in  what  is  now  called  the  Bower}'.  Others 
were  soon  formed  in  Albany,  Esopus,  on  Long 
Island,  Sec  The  Dutch  Reformed  was  the  es- 
tablished religion  of  the  colony  till  IGo-l,  when 


ECCLESIASTICAL 
New  York  was  surrendered  to  the  English.  The 
church  was  dependent  for  the  ordination  of  its 
ministers,  &c.  on  the  Classis  of  Amsterdam,  m 
Holland,  till  1737,  when  the  first  Classis  was 
formed  in  this  country.  Its  government  is  com- 
mitted to  Consistories,  Classes,  and  Synods. 
There  are  in  connexion  with  this  body  one  hun- 
dred and  fifty  pastors,  one  hundred  and  eighty- 
five  churches,  and  eleven  thousand  seven  hundred 
communicants.  They  have  a  College  and  Theo- 
logical Seminary  under  their  control  at  New 
Brunswick,  New  Jersey. — B. 

DUTY,  any  action,  or  course  of  actions, 
which  flow  from  the  relation  we  stand  in  to  God 
or  man :  that  which  a  man  is  bound  to  per- 
form by  any  natural  or  legal  obligation.  The 
various  moral,  relative,  and  spiritual  duties,  are 
considered  in  their  places  in  this  work. 


iii. 


EASTER,  the  day  on  which  the  Christian 
church  commemorates  our  Saviour's  resurrec- 
tion. It  is  called  by  the  Greeks  Pasga  ;  and  by 
the  Latins  Pascha,  a  Hebrew  word,  signifying 
passage,  applied  to  the  Jewish  feast  of  the  Pass- 
over. It  is  called  Easter  in  English,  from  the 
Saxon  goddess  Eostre,  whose  festival  was  held 
in  April.  The  Asiatic  churches  kept  their  Easter 
upon  the  very  same  day  that  the  Jews  observed  their 
passover,  and  others  on  the  first  Sunday  after  the 
first  full  moon  in  the  new  year.  This  controver- 
sy was  determined  in  the  council  of  Nice,  when 
it  was  ordained  that  Easter  should  be  kept  upon 
one  and  the  same  day,  which  should  always  be 
Sunday,  in  all  Christian  churches  in  the  world. 

EBIONITES,  ancient  heretics,  who  rose  in 
the  church  in  the  very  first  age  thereof,  and  form- 
ed themselves  into  a  sect  in  the  second  century, 
denying  the  divinity  of  Jesus  Christ.  Origen 
takes  them  to  have  been  so  called  from  the  He- 
brew word  ebion,  which  in  that  language  signifies 
■poor;  because,  says  he,  they  were  poor  in  sense 
and  wanting  understanding.  Eusebius,  with  a 
view  to  the  same  etymology,  is  of  opinion  they 
were  thus  called,  as  having  poor  thoughts  of  Je- 
sus Christ,  taking  him  for  no  more  than  a  mere 
man.  It  is  more  probable  the  Jews  gave  this  ap- 
pellation to  the  Christians  in  general  out  of  con- 
tempt ;  because,  in  the  first  times,  there  were  few 
but  poor  people  that  embraced  the  Christian  reli- 
gion. The  Ebionites  were  little  else  than  a 
branch  of  the  Nazarenes;  only  that  they  altered 
and  corrupted,  in  many  things,  the  purity  of  the 
faith  held  among  the  first  adherents  to  Christian- 
ity. For  this  reason,  Origen  distinguishes  two 
kinds  of  Ebionites  in  his  answer  to  Celsus :  the 
one  believed  that  Jesus  Christ  was  born  of  a  vir- 
gin; and  the  other,  that  he  was  born  after  the 
manner  of  other  men.  The  first  were  orthodox 
In  every  thing,  except  that  to  the  Christian  doc- 
trine they  joined  the  ceremonies  of  the  Jewish 
law,  with  the  Jews,  Samaritans,  and  Nazarenes, 
together  with  the  traditions  of  the  Pharisees. 
They  differed  from  the  Nazarenes,  however,  in 
several  things,  chiefly  as  to  what  regards  the  au- 
thority of  the  sacred  writings;  for  the  Nazarenes 
received  all  for  Scripture  contained  in  the  Jewish 
eauou;  whereas  the  Ebionites  rejected  all  the 
136 


prophets,  and  held  the  very  names  of  David,  Solo- 
mon, Isaiah,  Jeremiah,  and  Ezekiel,  in  abhor- 
rence. They  also  rejected  all  St.  Paul's  epistles, 
whom  they  treated  with  the  utmost  disrespect. 
They  received  nothing  of  the  Old  Testament 
but  the  Pentateuch.  They  agreed  with  the 
Nazarenes,  in  using  the  Hebrew  Gospel  of  St. 
Matthew,  otherwise  called  the  Gospel  of  the 
twelve  apostles ;  but  they  corrupted  their  copy  in 
abundance  of  places;  and  particularly  had  left 
out  the  genealogy  of  our  Saviour,  which  was 
preserved  entire  in  that  of  the  Nazarenes,  and 
even  in  those  used  by  the  Corinthians.  Besides 
the  Hebrew  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  the  Ebion- 
ites had  adopted  several  other  books  under  the 
title  of  St.  James,  John,  and  the  other  apostles ; 
they  also  made  use  of  the  travels  of  St.  Peter, 
which  are  supposed  to  have  been  written  by  St. 
Clement;  but  had  altered  them  so,  that  there 
was  scarce  any  thing  of  truth  left  in  them.  They 
even  made  that  saint  tell  a  number  cf  falsehoods, 
the  better  to  authorize  their  own  practices. 

ECCLESIASTICAL,  an  appellation  giver, 
to  whatever  belongs  to  the  church ;  thus  we  say 
ecclesiastical  politv,  jurisdiction,  history,  &c. 

ECCLESIASTICAL  HISTORY,  a  na»- 
ration  of  the  transactions,  revolutions,  and  events 
that  relate  tothechurch.  Astothe  utility  of  church 
history,  Dr.  Jorlin,  who  was  an  acute  writer  en 
this  subject,  shall  here  speak  for  us  :  he  observes. 
1.  That  it  will  show  us  the  amazing  progress  ox 
Christianity  through  the  Roman  empire,  through 
the  East  and  West,  although  the  powers  of  the 
world  cruelly  opposed  it.  2.  Connected  with 
Jewish  and  Pagan  history,  it  will  show  us  the 
total  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  the  overthrow  of 
the  Jewish  church  and  state ;  and  the  continu- 
ance of  that  unhappy  nation  for  1700  years, 
though  dispersed  over  the  face  of  the  earth,  and 
oppressed  at  different  times  by  Pagans,  Chris- 
tians, and  Mahometans.  3.  It  shows  us  that 
the  increase  of  Christianity  produced,  in  the 
countries  where  it  was  received,  the  overthrow 
and  extinction  of  paganism,  which,  after  a  feeble 
resistance,  perished  about  the  sixth  century.  4. 
It  shows  us  how  Christianity  has  been  continued 
and  delivered  down  from  the  apostolical  to  the 
present  age.    5.  It  shows  us  the  various  opinion* 


ECTHESIS 

which  prevailed  at  different  times  amongst  the 
fathers  and  other  Christians,  and  how  theydeparted 
more  or  less  from  the  simplicity  of  the  Gospel. 
6.  It  will  enable  us  to  form  a  true  judgment  of 
the  merits  of  the  fathers,  and  of  the  use  which  is 
to  be  made  of  them.  7.  It  will  show  us  the  evil 
of  imposing  unreasonable  terms  of  communion, 
and  requiring  Christians  to  profess  doctrines  not 
propounded  in  Scriptural  words,  but  inferred  as 
consequences  from  passages  of  Scripture,  which 
one  may  call  systems  of  consequential  divinity. 
8.  It  will  show  us  the  origin  and  progress  of 
popery;  and,  lastly,  it  will  show  us — 9.  The 
origin  and  progress  of  the  Reformation.  See 
Dr.  Jortin's  Charge  on  the  Use  and  Impor- 
tance of  Ecclesiastical  History,  in  his  Works,  vol. 
ii.  ch.  2. 

For  ecclesiastical  historians,  see  Eusebius's 
Eccl.  Hist,  with  Valesius's  notes;  Baronii  An- 
nates Eccl.;  Spondani  Annates  Sacri;  Parei 
Universalis  Hist.  Er.c. ;  Lampe,  Dupin,  Span- 
heim,  and  Mosheim's  Eccl.  Hist.;  Fuller's  and 
Warner's  Eccl.  Hist,  of  England;  Jortin's  Re- 
marks on  Eccl.  Hist.;  Millar's  Propagation  of 
Christianity;  Gillies' s  Historical  Collections;  Dr. 
Erskine's  Sketches,  and  Robinson's  Researches. 
The  most  recent  are,  Dr.  Campbell's,  Gregory's, 
Milner's,  and  Dr.  Howeis's;  all  which  have  their 
excellencies.  See  also  Bogue  and  Rennet's  His- 
tory of  the  Dissenters.  For  the  history  of  the 
church  under  the  Old  Testament,  the  reader 
may  consult  Miller's  History  of  the  Church; 
Prideaux'  s  and  Shuckford's  Connections;  Dr. 
Watts's  Scripture  History;  and  Fleury's  His- 
tory of  the  Israelites. 

ECLECTICS,  a  name  given  to  some  ancient 
philosophers,  who,  without  attaching  themselves 
".0  any  particular  sect,  took  what  they  judged 
good  and  solid  from  each.  One  Potamon,  of 
Alexandria,  who  lived  under  Augustus  and  Tibe- 
rius, and  who,  weary  of  doubting  of  all  things, 
with  the  Sceptics  and  Pyrrhonians,  was  the  per- 
son who  formed  this  sect. 

ECLECTICS,  or  modern  Platonics,  a  sect 
which  arose  in  the  Christian  church  towards  the 
close  of  the  second  century.  They  professed  to 
make  truth  the  only  object  of  their  inquiry,  and 
to  be  ready  to  adopt  from  all  the  different  systems 
and  sects  such  tenets  as  they  thought  agreeable 
to  it.  They  preferred  Plato  to  the  other  philoso- 
phers, and  looked  upon  his  opinions  concerning 
God,  the  human  soul,  and  things  invisible,  as 
conformable  to  the  spirit  and  genius  of  the  Chris- 
tian doctrine.  One  of  the  principal  patrons  of 
this  system  was  Ammonius  Saccas,  who  at  this 
time  laid  the  foundation  of  that  sect,  afterwards 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  the  New  Platonics 
in  the  Alexandrian  school. 

ECSTACY,  or  Extacv;  a  transport  of  the 
mind,  which  suspends  the  functions  of  the  senses 
by  the  intense  contemplation  of  some  extraordi- 
nary object. 

ECTHESIS,  a  confession  of  faith,  the  form  of 
an  edict,  published  in  the  year  639,  by  the  empe- 
ror Heraclius,  with  a  view  to  pacify  the  troubles 
occasioned  by  the  Eutychian  heresy  in  the  east- 
ern church.  However,  the  same  prince  revoked 
it,  on  being  informed  that  pope  Severinus  had 
condemned  it,  as  favouring  the  Monothelites ; 
declaring,  at  the  same  time,  that  Sergius,  patri- 
arch of  Constantinople,  was  the  author  of  it.  See 
Euty;hians. 
127 


ELDER 

EDIFICATION  :  this  word  signifies  a  build 
ing  up.  Hence  we  call  a  building  an  edifice. 
Applied  to  spiritual  things,  it  signifies  the  im- 
proving, adorning,  and  comforting  the  mind  ;  and 
a  Christian  may  be  said  to  be  edified  when  he  is 
encouraged  and  animated  in  the  ways  and  works 
of  the  Cord.  The  means  to  promote  our  own 
edification  are,  prayer,  self-examination,  reading 
the  Scripture?,  hearing  the  Gospel,  meditation, 
attendance  on  all  appointed  ordinances.  To 
edify  others,  there  should  be  love,  spiritual  con- 
versation, forbearance,  faithfulness,  benevolent 
exertions,  and  uniformity  of  conduct. 

EFFRONTES,  a  sect  of  heretics,  in  1534, 
who  scraped  their  foreheads  with  a  knife  till  it 
bled,  and  then  poured  oil  into  the  wound.  This 
ceremony  served  them  instead  of  baptism.  They 
are  likewise  said  to  have  denied  the  divinity  of 
the  Holy  Spirit. 

EICETiE,  a  denomination  in  the  year  680 
who  affirmed  that,  in  order  to  make  prayer  ac- 
ceptable to  God,  it  should  be  performed  dancing. 

EJACULATION,  a  short  prayer,  in  which 
the  mind  is  directed  to  God  on  any  emergency. 
See  Prayer. 

ELCESAITES,  ancient  heretics,  who  made 
their  appearance  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Tra- 
jan, and  took  their  name  from  their  leader,  Elce- 
sai.  They  kept  a  mean  between  the  Jews, 
Christians,  and  Pagans :  they  worshipped  but 
one  God,  observed  the  Jewish  sabbath,  circumci- 
sion, and  the  other  ceremonies  of  the  law ;  yet 
they  rejected  the  Pentateuch  and  the  prophets ; 
nor  had  they  any  more  respect  for  the  writings 
of  the  apostles. 

ELDER  (VpsovSuTspos,)  an  overseer,  ruler, 
leader. 

Elders,  or  seniors,  in  ancient  Jewish  polity, 
were  persons  the  most  considerable  for  age,  expe- 
rience, and  wisdom.  Of  this  sort  were  the  70 
men  whom  Moses  associated  with  himself  in  the 
government :  such  likewise  afterwards  were  those 
who  held  the  first  place  in  the  synagogue  as  pre- 
sidents. Elders,  in  church  history,  were  origi- 
nally those  who  held  the  first  place  in  the  assem- 
blies of  the  primitive  Christians.  The  word  pres- 
byter is  often  used  in  the  New  Testament  in  this 
signification  ;  hence  the  first  councils  of  Chris- 
tians were  called  Presbyteria,  or  councils  of 
elders.  Elders,  in  the  presbyterian  discipline,  are 
officers  who,  in  conjunction  with  the  ministers 
and  deacons,  compose  the  kirk  sessions,  who  for- 
merly used  to  inspect  and  regulate  matters  of  reli- 
gion and  discipline ;  but  whose  principal  business 
now  is  to  take  care  of  the  poor's  funds.  They 
are  chosen  from  among  the  people,  and  are  re- 
ceived publicly  with  some  degree  of  ceremony. 
In  Scotland  there  is  an  indefinite  number  of 
elders  in  each  parish,  generally  above  twelve.  See 
Presbyterians. 

It  has  long  been  a  matter  of  dispute,  whether 
there  are  any  such  officers  as  lay-elders  mention- 
ed in  Scripture.  On  the  one  side  it  is  observed, 
that  these  officers  arc  no  where  mentioned  as 
being  alone  or  single,  but  always  as  being  many 
in  every  congregation.  They  are  also  mentioned 
separately  from  the  brethren.  Their  office,  more 
than  once,  is  described  as  being  distinct  from  thai 
of  preaching,  not  only  in  Rom.  xii.,  where  lie 
that  ruleth  is  expressly  distinguished  from  him 
that  exhortelh  or  teacheth,  but  also  in  that  pas- 
sage, 1  Tim.  v.  17.    On  the  other  side  it  is  said 


EMULATION 
that,  from  the  above-mentioned  passages,  nothing 
can  be  collected  with  certainty  to  establish  this 
opinion;  neither  can  it  be  inferred  from  any 
other  passage  that  churches  should  he  furnished 
with  sue!)  officers,  though  perhaps  prudence,  in 
some  circumstances,  may  make  them  expedient. 
"  I  incline  to  think,"  says  Dr.  Guise,  on  the  pas- 
sage, 1  Tim.  v.  17,  "that  the  apostle  intends 
only  preaching  ciders,  when  he  directs  double 
honour  to  be  paid  to  the  elders  that  rule  well, 
especially  those  who  labour  in  the  word  and  doc- 
trine ;  and  that  the  distinction  lies  not  in  the 
order  of  officers,  but  in  the  degree  of  their  dili- 
gence, faithfulness,  and  eminence  in  laboriously 
fulfilling  their  ministerial  work ;  and  so  the  em- 
phasis is  to  be  laid  on  the  word  labour  in  the 
word  and  doctrine,  which  has  an  especially  an- 
nexed to  it." 

ELECTION:  This  word  has  different  mean- 
ings.— 1.  It  signifies  God's  taking  a  whole  na- 
tion, community,  or  body  of  men,  into  external 
covenant  with  himself,  by  giving  them  the  ad- 
vantage of  revelation  as  the  rule  of  their  belief  and 
practice,  when  other  nations  are  without  it. 
Deut.  vii.  6. — 2.  A  temporary  designation  of 
6ome  person  or  persons  to  the  filling  up  some 
particular  station  in  the  visible  church,  or  office 
in  civil  life.  John  vi.  70 ;  1  Sam.  x.  2-4. — 3.  That 
gracious  and  almighty  act  of  the  Divine  Spirit, 
whereby  God  actually  and  visibly  separates  his 
people  from  the  world  by  effectual  calling.  John 
xv.  11). — i.  That  eternal,  sovereign,  uncondi- 
tional, particular,  and  immutable  act  of  God, 
whereby  he  selected  some  from  among  all  man- 
kind, and  of  every  nation  under  heaven,  to  be 
redeemed  and  everlastingly  saved  by  Christ. 
Eph.  i.  4;  2  Thess.  ii.  13.  See  Decree,  and 
Predestination'. 

ELOQ.UENCE,  PULPIT.  "The  chief 
characteristics  of  the  eloquence  suited  to  the  pul- 
pit are  these  two, — gravity  and  warmth.  The 
serious  nature  of  the  subjects  belonging  to  the 

Eulpit  requires  gravity ;  their  importance  to  man- 
incl  requires  warmth.  It  is  far  from  being  either 
easy  or  common  to  unite  these  characters  of  elo- 
quence. The  grave,  when  it  is  predominant,  is 
apt  to  run  into  a  dull,  uniform  solemnity.  The 
warm,  when  it  wants  gravity,  borders  on  the 
theatrical  and  light.  The  union  of  the  two  must 
be  studied  by  all  preachers,  as  of  the  utmost  con- 
sequence, both  in  the  composition  of  their  dis- 
courses, and  in  their  mariner  of  delivery.  Gravity 
and  warmth  united,  form  that  character  of  preach- 
ing, which  the  French  call  onction:  the  affecting, 
penetrating,  interesting  manner,  flowing  from  a 
strong  sensibility  of  heart  in  the  preacher,  the  im- 
portance of  those  truths  which  he  delivers,  and 
an  earnest  desire  that  they  may  make  full  im- 
pression on  the  hearts  of  his  hearers."  See  De- 
clamation, Sermons. 

EMULATION,  a  generous  ardour  kindled 
by  the  praiseworthy  examples  of  others,  which 
impels  us  to  imitate,  to  rival,  and,  if  possible,  to 
excel  them.  This  passion  involves  in  it  esteem 
of  the  person  whose  attainments  or  conduct  we 
emulate,  of  the  qualities  and  actions  in  which  we 
emulate  him,  and  a  desire  of  resemblance,  toge- 
ther with  a  joy  springing  from  the  hope  of  suc- 
cess. The  word  comes  originally  from  the  Greek 
KpiA.A.%,  contest;  whence  the  Latin  ccmulus,  and 
thence  our  emulation.  Plato  makes  emulation 
the  daughter  of  envy  ;  if  so,  there  is  a  great  dif- 
128 


ENTHUSIASM 
ference  between  the  mother  and  the  offspring; 
the  one  being  a  virtue  and  the  other  a  vice.  Em- 
ulation admires  great  actions,  and  strives  to  imi- 
tate them ;  envy  refuses  them  the  praises  that  are 
their  due  ;  emulation  is  generous,  and  only  thinks 
of  equalling  or  surpassing  a  rival;  envy  is  low, 
and  only  seeks  to  lessen  him.  It  would,  there- 
fore, be  more  proper  to  suppose  emulation  the 
daughter  of  admiration;  admiration  being  a  prin- 
cipal ingredient  in  the  composition  of  h. 

ENCRATITES,  a  sect  in  the  second  century, 
who  abstained  from  marriage,  wine,  and  animals. 

ENDOWMENT,  ECCLESIASTICAL* 
a  term  used  to  denote  the  settlement  of  a  pension 
upon  a  minister,  or  the  building  of  a  church,  or 
the  severing  a  sufficient  portion  of  tithes  for  a 
vicar,  when  the  benefice  is  appropriated. 

Among  the  Dissenters,  they  are  benefactions 
left  to  their  place  or  congregation,  for  the  support 
of  their  ministers.  Where  the  congregation  is 
poor  or  small,  these  have  been  found  beneficial ; 
but  in  many  cases  they  have  been  detrimental. 
Too  often  has  it  tended  to  relax  the  exertions  of 
the  people ;  and  when  such  a  fund  has  fallen  into 
the  hands  of  an  unsuitable  minister,  it  has  pre- 
vented his  removal;  when,  had  he  derived  no 
support  from  his  people,  necessity  would  have 
caused  him  to  depart,  and  make  room  for  one 
more  worthy. 

ENERGICI,  a  denomination  in  the  sixteenth 
century;  so  called  because  they  held  that  the 
eucharist  was  the  energy  and  virtue  of  Jesus 
Christ ;  not  his  body,  nor  a  representation  thereof! 

ENERGUMENS,  persons  supposed  to  be  pos- 
sessed with  the  devil,  concerning  whom  there 
were  many  regulations  among  the  primitive 
Christians.  They  were  denied  baptism  and  the 
eucharist;  at  least  this  was  the  practice  of  some 
churches ;  and  though  they  were  under  the  care 
of  exorcists,  yet  it  was  thought  a  becoming  act 
of  charity  to  let  them  have  the  public  prayers  of 
the  church,  at  which  they  were  permitted  to  be 
present. 

ENTHUSIASM.  To  obtain  just  definitions 
of  words  which  are  promiscuously  used,  it  must 
be  confessed,  is  no  small  difficulty.  This  word, 
it  seems,  is  used  both  in  a  good  and  a  bad  sense. 
In  its  best  sense  it  signifies  a  divine  afflatus  or 
inspiration.  It  is  also  taken  for  that  noble  ardour 
of  mind  which  leads  us  to  imagine  any  thing  sub- 
lime, grand,  or  surprising.  In  its  worse  sense  it 
signilies  any  impression  on  the  fancy,  or  agitation 
of  the  passions,  of  which  a  man  can  give  no  ra- 
tional account.  It  is  generally  applied  to  re- 
ligious characters,  and  is  said  to  be  derived 
(M,  Touv  iv  iwrtxii  ^a.vo/Mvcv)  from  the  wild  gestures 
and  speeches  of  ancient  religionists,  pretending 
to  more  than  ordinary  and  more  than  true  com- 
munications with  the  gods,  and  particularly  ■» 
Su<ri».(,  in  the  act  or.  at  the  time  of  sacrificing. 
In  this  sense,  then,  it  signifies  that  impulse  of  the 
mind  which  leads  a  man  to  suppose  he  has  some 
remarkable  intercourse  with  the  Deity,  while  at 
the  same  time  it  is  nothing  more  than  the  effects 
of  a  heated  imagination,  or  a  sanguine  constitu- 
tion. 

That  the  Divine  Being  permits  his  people  to 
enjoy  fellowship  with  him,  and  that  he  can  work 
upon  the  minds  of  his  creatures  when  and  how 
he  pleases,  cannot  be  denied.  But,  then,  what 
is  the  criterion  bv  which  we  are  to  judge,  in  or- 
der to  distinguisn  it  from  enthusiasm!     it  is  ne- 


EON  IAN  S 

cessiry  there  should  be  some  rule,  for  without  it  the 
greatest  extravagancies  would  be  committed,  the 
most  notorious  impostors  countenanced,  and  the 
most  enormous  evils  ensue.  Now,  this  criterion  is 
the  word  of  God ;  from  which  we  learn,  that  we 
are  to  expect  no  new  revelations,  no  extraordinary 
gifts,  as  in  the  apostles'  time ;  that  whatever  opi- 
nions, feelings,  views,  or  impressions  we  may 
have,  if  they  are  inconsistent  with  reason,  if  they 
do  not  tend  to  humble  us,  if  they  do  not  influ- 
ence our  temper,  regulate  our  lives,  and  make  us 
just,  pious,  honest,  and  uniform,  they  cannot 
come  from  God,  but  are  evidently  the  effusions  of 
an  enthusiastic  brain.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the 
mind  be  enlightened,  if  the  will  which  was  per- 
verse be  renovated,  detached  from  evil,  and  in- 
clined to  good ;  if  the  powers  be  roused  to  exer- 
tion for  the  promotion  of  the  divine  glory,  and 
the  good  of  men ;  if  the  natural  corruptions  of  the 
heart  be  suppressed  ;  if  peace  and  joy  arise  from 
a  view  of  the  goodness  of  God,  attended  with  a 
spiritual  frame  of  mind,  a  heart  devoted  to  God, 
and  a  holy,  useful  life;  however  this  may  be 
branded  with- the  name  of  enthusiasm,  it  certain- 
ly is  from  God,  because  bare  human  efforts,  un- 
assisted by  him,  could  never  produce  such  effects 
as  these.  Theol.  Misc.  vol.  ii.  p.  43;  Locke  on 
Underst.  vol.  ii.  ch.  19;  Sped.  No.  201,  vol.  iii. ; 
Wesley' 8  Serm.  on  Enthusiasm ;  Mrs.  H.  More's 
Hints  towards  forming  the  Character  of  a  Young 
Princess,  vol.  ii.  p.  240;  Natural  History  of  En- 
thusiasm. Anon. 

ENVY,  a  sensation  of  uneasiness  and  dis- 
quiet, arising  from  the  advantages  which  others 
are  supposed  to  possess  above  us,  accompanied 
with  malignity  towards  those  who  possess  them. 
"  This,''  says  a  good  writer,  "  is  universally  ad- 
mitted to  be  one  of  the  blackest  passions  in  the 
human  heart.  No  one,  indeed,  is  to  be  condemned 
for  defending  his  rights,  and  showing  displeasure 
against  a  malicious  enemy ;  but  to  conceive  ill-will 
at  one  who  has  attacked  none  of  our  rights,  nor 
done  us  any  injury,  solely  because  he  is  me  ~°. 
prosperous  than  we  are,  is  a  disposition  altogether 
unnatural.  Hence  the  character  of  an  envious 
man  is  universally  odious.  All  disclaim  it ;  and 
they  who  feel  themselves  under  the  influence  of 
this  passion,  carefully  conceal  it.  The  chief 
grounds  of  envy  mav  be  reduced  to  three :  ac- 
complishments of  mind ;  advantages  of  birth, 
rank,  and  fortune ;  and  superior  success  in  world- 
ly pursuits.  To  subdue  this  odious  disposition, 
•Jet  us  consider  its  sinful  and  criminal  nature;  the 
mischiefs  it  occasions  to  the  world ;  the  unhappi- 
ness  it  produces  to  him  who  possesses  it ;  the  evil 
causes  that  nourish  it,  such  as  pride  and  indolence ; 
let  us,  moreover,  bring  often  into  view  those  reli- 
gious considerations  which  regard  us  as  Chris- 
tians ;  how  unworthy  we  are  in  the  sight  of  God ; 
how  much  the  blessings  we  enjoy  are  above  what 
we  deserve.  Let  us  learn  reverence  and  submis- 
sion to  that  divine  government  which  has  appoint- 
ed to  every  one  such  a  condition  as  is  fittest  for 
him  to  possess ;  let  us  consider  how  opposite  the 
Christian  spirit  is  to  envy  ;  above  all,  let  us  offer 
up  our  prayers  to  the  Almighty,  that  he  would 
purify  our  hearts  from  a  passion  which  is  so  base 
and  so  criminal." 

EONIANS,  the  followers  of  Eon,  a  wild 
fanatic,  of  the  province  of  Bretagne,  in  the  twelfth 
century:  lie  concluded,  from  the  resemblance  be- 
tween cum,  in  the  form  for  exorcising  malignant 

*2y  « 


EPISCOPACY 
spirits,  viz.  "  per  eum  qui  venturus  est  judieare 
vivos  et  mortuos,"  and  his  own  name  Eon,  that 
he  was  the  son  of  God,  and  ordained  to  judge  the 
quick  and  dead.  Eon  was,  however,  solemnly 
condemned  by  the  council  at  Rheims,  in  1148, 
and  ended  his  days  in  a  prison.  He  left  behind 
him  a  number  of  followers,  whom  persecution  and 
death,  so  weakly  and  cruilly  employed,  could  not 
persuade  to  abandon  his  cause,  or  to  renounce  an 
absurdity,  which,  says  Mosheim,  one  would  think, 
could  never  have  gained  credit  but  in  such  a  place 
as  Bedlam. 

EOQ.UINIANS,  a  denomination  in  the  six- 
teenth century;  so  called  from  one  Eoquinus, 
their  master,  who  taught  that  Christ  did  not  die 
for  the  wicked,  but  for  the  faithful  only. 

EPICUREANS,  the  disciples  of  Epicurus, 
who  flourished  about  A.  M.  3700.  This  sect 
maintained  that  the  world  was  formed  not  by  God, 
nor  with  any  design,  but  by  the  fortuitous  con- 
course of  atoms.  They  denied  that  God  governs 
the  world,  or  in  the  least  condescends  to  interfere 
with  creatures  below :  they  denied  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul,  and  the  existence  of  angels; 
they  maintained  that  happiness  consisted  in  plea- 
sure ;  but  some  of  them  placed  this  pleasure  in 
the  tranquillity  and  joy  of  the  mind  arising  from 
the  practice  of  morai  virtue,  and  which  is  thought 
by  some  to  have  been  the  true  principle  of  Epicu- 
rus; others  understood  him  in  the  gross  sense, 
and  placed  all  their  happiness  in  corporeal  plea- 
sure. When  Paul  was  at  Athens,  he  had  con- 
ferences with  the  Epicurean  philosophers,  Acts 
xvii.  18.  The  word  Epicurean  is  used,  at  pre- 
sent, for  an  indolent,  effeminate,  and  voluptuous 
person,  who  only  consults  his  private  and  parti- 
cular pleasure.     See  Acadkmics. 

EPIPHANY,  a  Christian  festival,  otherwise 
called  the  manifestation  of  Christ  to  the  Gentiles, 
observed  on  the  6th  of  January,  in  honour  of  thfi 
appearance  of  our  Saviour  to  the  three  magi,  or 
wise  men,  who  came  to  adore  and  bring  him  pre- 

EPISCOPACY,  that  form  of  church  govern- 
ment in  which  diocesan  bishops  are  established  as 
distinct  from  and  superior  to  priests  or  presbyters. 

The  controversy  respecting  episcopacy  com- 
menced soon  after  the  Reformation ;  and  has  been 
agitated  with  great  warmth,  between  the  Episco- 
palians on  the  one  side,  and  the  Presbyterians  and 
Independents  on  the  other.  Among  the  Protest- 
ant churches  abroad,  those  which  were  reformed 
by  Luther  and  his  associates  are  in  general  epis- 
copal; whilst  such  as  follow  the  doctrines  of  Cal- 
vin, have  for  the  most  part  thrown  off  the  order 
of  bishops  as  one  of  the  corruptions  of  popery.  In 
England,  however,  the  controversy  has  been  con- 
sidered as  of  greater  importance  than  on  the  con- 
tinent. It  has  been  strenuously  maintained  by 
one  party,  that  the  episcopal  order  is  essential  to 
the  constitution  of  the  church  ;  and  hy  others, 
that  it  is  a  pernicious  encroachment  on  the  rights 
of  men,  for  which  there  is  no  authority  in  Scrip- 
ture.    We  will  just  briefly  state  their  arguments. 

I.  Episcopacy,  arguments  for.  1.  Some  argue 
that  the  nature  of  the  ofiice  which  the  apostles 
bore  was  such,  that  the  edification  of  the  church 
would  require  they  should  have  some  successors 
in  those  ministrations  which  are  not  common  to 
Gospel  ministers. — 2.  That  Timothy  and  Titus 
were  bishops  of  Ephesus  and  Crete,  whow;  busi- 
ness it  was  to  exercise  such  extraordinary  ii£ts  u» 


EPISCOPACY 
jurisdiction  as  are  now  claimed  bv  diocesan 
bishops,  1  Tim.  i.  3.  iii.  1,  2.  2  Tim.  ii.  2. 
Tit.  i.  5,  <fcc.  iii.  10. — 3.  Some  have  argued 
from  the  mention  of  angels,  i.  e.  as  they  un- 
derstand it.  of  diocesan  bishops,  in  the  seven 
churches  of  Asia,  particularly  the  angel  of  Ephe- 
sus,  though  there  were  many  ministers  employed 
in  it  long  before  the  date  of  that  epistle,  Acts  xx. 
17. — 1.  It  is  urged  that  some  of  the  churches 
which  wen;  formed  in  large  cities  during  the  lives 
of  the  apostles,  and  especially  that  at  Jerusalem, 
consisted  of  such  vast  numbers  as  could  not  pos- 
sibly assemble  at  one  place. — 5.  That  in  the  wri- 
ters who  succeeded  the  inspired  penmen,  there  is  a 
multiplied  and  concurring  evidence  to  prove  the 
apostolic  institution  of  episcopacy. 

II.  Episcopacy,  arguments  against.  1.  To 
the  above  it  is  answered,  that  as  the  office  of  the 
apostles  was  such  as  to  require  extraordinary  and 
miraculous  endowments  for  the  discharge  of  many 
parts  of  it,  it  is  impossible  that  they  can  have  any 
successors  in  those  services  who  are  not  empow- 
ered for  the  execution  of  them  as  the  apostles 
themselves  were  ;  and  it  is  maintained,  that  so  far 
as  ordination,  confirmation,  and  excommunication, 
may  be  performed  without  miraculous  gifts,  there 
is  nothing  in  them  hut  whatsccms  to  suit  the  pas- 
toral office  in  general. 

2.  That  Timothy  and  Titus  had  not  a  stated  re- 
sidence in  these  churches,  but  only  visited  them 
for  a  time,  2  Tim.  iv.  9,  13.  Tit.  iii.  12.  It  also 
appears,  from  other  places  in  which  the  journeys 
of  Timothy  and  Titus  are.  mentioned,  that  they 
were  a  kind  of  itinerant  officers,  called  evange- 
lists, who  were  assistants  to  the  apostles;  for  there 
is  great  reason  to  believe  the  firstepistle  to  Timo- 
thy was  written  prior  to  those  from  Rome  in  the 
time  of  Paul's  imprisonment,  as  some  think  the 
second  was  also.  To  which  we  may  add,  that  it 
seems  probable,  at  least,  that  they  had  very  extra- 
ordinary gifts  to  furnish  them  for  their  superior 
offices,  1  Tim.  iv.  14.  Eph.  iv.  11.  2  Tim.  iv.  5. 
And  though  Timothy  was  with  Paul  when  he 
took  his  leave  of  the  elders  of  Ephesus  (Acts  xx.) 
the  apostle  gives  not  the  least  hint  of  any  extra- 
ordinary power  with  which  he  was  invested,  nor 
says  one  word  to  engage  their  obedience  to  him  ; 
which  is  a  very  strong  presumption  that  no  such 
relation  did  subsist,  or  was  to  take  place. 

3.  As  to  the  angels  of  the  seven  churches  in 
Asia,  it  is  certain  that,  for  any  thing  which  ap- 
)>ears  in  our  Lord's  epistles  to  them  (Rev.  ii.  and 
iii.)  they  might  tie  no  more  than  the  pastors  of 
single  congregations  with  their  proper  assistants. 

4.  To  the  fourth  argument  it  is  answered,  1. 
That  the  word  Pupi*Jsj  may  only  signify  great 
numbers,  and  may  not  be  intended  to  express 
that  there  were  several  times  ten  thousand,  in  an 
exact  anil  literal  sense :  compare  Luke,  ch.  .xii. 
ver.  1.  (Greek.) — 2.  That  no  sufficient  proof  is 
brought  from  Scripture  of  there  being  such  num- 
bers of  people  in  any  particular  place  as  this  sup- 
poses ;  for  the  myriads  of  believing  Jews  spoken 
of  in  the  preceding  text,  as  well  as  the  num- 
bers mentioned,  Acts  ii.  41.  iv.  4,  might  very 
probably  be  those  who  were  gathered  together  at 
those  great  feasts  frcoi  distant  places,  of  which 
few  might  have  their  staled  residence  in  that  city. 
Se*.  Acts,  viii.  1. — 3.  If  the  number  were  so 
great  as  the  objection  supposes,  there  might  be, 
for  any  thing  which  appears  in  Scripture,  several 
bishops  in  the  same  citv,  as  there  are,  among 

130 


EPISCOPACY 

those  who  do  not  allow  of  diocesan  episcopacy, 
several  co-ordinate  pastors,  overseers,  or  bishops; 
and  though  Eusebiusdocs  indeed  pretend  to  give 
us  a  catalogue  of  the  bishops  of  Jerusalem,  it  Lsta 
be  remembered  how  the  Christians  had  been  dis- 
persed from  thence  for  a  considerable  time,  at  and 
after  the  Roman  war,  and  removed  into  other 
parts,  which  must  necessarily  very  much  increase 
the  uncertainty  which  Eusebius  himself  owns 
there  was,  as  to  the  succession  of  bishops  in  mo6t 
of  the  ancient  sees. 

5.  As  to  the  ancient  writers,  it  is  observed, 
that  though  Clemens  Romanus  recommends  to 
the  Corinthians  the  example  of  the  Jewish  church, 
where  the  high  priest,  ordinary  priest,  and  Le-' 
vitea,  knew  and  observed  their  respective  offices, 
yet.  he  never  mentions  presbyters  and  bishops  as 
distinct,  nor  refers  the  contending  Corinthians  to 
any  one  ecclesiastical  head  as  the  centre  of  unity, 
which  he  probably  would  have  done  if  there  had 
been  any  diocesan  bishops  among  them  ;  nay,  he 
seems  evidently  to  speak  of  presbyters  as  exer- 
cising the  episcopal  office.  See  sec.  xxxix.  of  his 
epistle. — 2.  As  for  Irena'us,  it  does  not  appear  that 
he  made  any  distinction  between  bishops  and 
presbyters.  He  does  indeed  mention  the  suc- 
cession of  bishops  from  the  apostles,  which  is  re- 
concilable with  the  supposition  of  their  being  pa- 
rochial, nor  altogether  irreconcilable  with  the 
supposition  of  joint,  pastors  in  those  churches. — 
3.  It  is  allowed  that  Ignatius  in  many  places  dis- 
tinguishes between  bishops  and  presbyters,  and 
requires  obedience  to  bishops  from  the  whole 
church ;  but  as  he  often  supposes  each  of  the 
churches  to  which  he  wrote  to  meet  in  one  place, 
and  represents  them  as  breaking  one  loaf,  and 
surrounding  one  altar,  and  charges  the  bishop  to 
know  all  his  flock  by  name,  it  is  most  evident 
that  he  must  speak  of  a  parochial  and  not  a  dio- 
cesan bishop.— 4.  Polycarp  exhorts  the  Chris- 
tians at  Philippi  to  be  subject  to  the  presbyters 
and  deacons,  but  says  not  one  word  about  any 
u:"hop. — 5.  Justin  Martyr  speaks  of  the  president, 
but  then  he  represents  him  as  being  present  at 
every  administration  of  the  eucharist,  which  he 
also  mentions  as  always  making  a  part  of  their 
public  worship;  so  that  the  bishop  here  must 
have  only  been  the  pastor  of  one  congregation. — 
6.  Tertullian  speaks  of  approved  elders ;  but 
there  is  nothing  said  if  them  that  proves  a  dio- 
cesan, since  all  he  says  might  be  applied  to  a  pa- 
rochial bishop. — 7.  Though  Clemens  Alexan- 
drinus  speaks  of  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons, 
yet  it  cannot  be  inferred  from  hence  that  the  bi- 
shops of  whom  he  speaks  were  any  thing  more 
than  parochial. — 8.  Origen  speaks  distinctly  of 
bishops  and  presbyters,  but  unites  them  both,  as 
it  seems,  under  the  common  name  of  priests, 
saying  nothing  of  the  power  of  bishops  as  ex- 
tending beyond  one  congregation,  and  rather  in- 
sinuates the  contrary,  when  he  speaks  of  offenders 
as  brought  before  the  whole  church  to  be  judged 
by  it. — !).  The  apostolic  constitutions  frequently 
distinguish  between  bishops  and  presbyters ;  but 
these  constitutions  cannot  be  depended  on,  as 
they  are  supposed  to  be  a  forgery  of  the  fourth 
century. — 10.  It  is  allowed  that,  in  succeeding 
ages,  the  difference  between  bishops  and  presby- 
ters came  to  be  more  and  more  magnified,  and 
various  churches  came  under  the  care  of  the  same 
bishops ;  nevertheless,  Jerome  does  expressly 
speak  of  bishops  and  presbyters  as  of  the  same 


EPISCOPAL 

order;  and  Gregory  Nazianzen  speaks  of  the 
great  and  affecting  distinction  between  mini- 
sters in  prerogative  of  place,  and  other  tyrannical 
privileges  (as  he  calls  them,)  as  a  lamentable  and 
destructive  thing. 

III.  Episcopacy,  how  introduced.  It  is  easy 
to  apprehend  how  episcopacy,  as  it  was  in  the 
primitive  church,  with  those  alterations  which  it 
afterwards  received,  might  be  gradually  intro- 
duced. The  apostles  seem  to  ha\  e  taught  chiefly 
in  large  cities ;  they  settled  ministers  there,  who, 
preaching  in  country  villages,  or  smaller  towns, 
increased  the  number  of  converts  :  it  would  have 
been  most  reasonable  that  those  new  converts, 
which  lay  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the 
large  towns,  should,  when  they  grew  numerous, 
have  formed  themselves  into  distinct  churches, 
under  the  care  of  their  proper  pastors  or  bishops, 
independently  of  any  of  their  neighbours;  but 
the  reverence  which  would  naturally  be  paid  to 
men  who  had  conversed  with  the  apostles,  and 
perhaps  some  desire  of  influence  and  dominion, 
from  which  the  hearts  of  very  good  men  might 
not  be  entirely  free,  and  which  early  began  to 
work,  (John  iii.  9.  2.  Thess.  ii.  7,)  might  easily 
lay  a  foundation  for  such  a  subordination  in  the 
ministers  of  new  erected  churches  to  those  which 
were  most  ancient :  and  much  more  easily  might 
the  superiority  of  a  pastor  to  his  assistant  presby- 
ters increase,  till  it  at  length  came  to  that  great 
difference  which  we  own  was  early  made,  and 
probably  soon  carried  to  an  excess.  And  if  there 
were  that  degree  of  degeneracy  in  the  church, 
and  defection  from  the  purity  and  vigour  of  reli- 
gion,  which  the  learned   Vltringa  supposes  to 

•  have  happened  between  the  time  of  Nero  and 
Trajan,  it  would  be  less  surprising  that  those 
evil  principles,  which  occasioned  episcopal,  and 
at  length  the  papal  usurpation,  should  before  that 
time  exert  some  considerable  influence. 

IV.  Episcopacy,  reduced,  plan  of.  Archbi- 
shop Usher  projected  a  plan  for  the  reduction  of 
episcopacy,  by  which  he  would  have  moderated 
it  in  such  a  manner  as  to  have  brought  it  very 
near  the  presbyterian  government  of  the  Scotch 
church;  the  weekly  parochial  vestry  answering 
to  their  church  session ;  the  monthly  synod  to  be 
held  by  the  Chorepiscopi,  answering  to  their 
presbyteries;  the  diocesan  synod  to  their  provin- 
cial, and  the  national  to  their  general  assembly. 
The  meeting  of  the  dean  and  chapter,  practised 
in  the  church  of  England,  is  but  a  faint  shadow 
of  the  second,  the  ecclesiastical  court  of  the  third, 
and  the  convocation  of  the  fourth.  Bingham's 
(Jrigincs  Ecclesiastic<c  ;  Still  ingfieet's  Origines 
Sacra: ;  Boyse  and  Howe  on  Epis.;  Benson's 
Dissertation  concerning  the  first  Sett,  of  the 
Christian  Church;  King's  Const.  ofUie  Church; 
Doddridge's  Lectures,  lee  195;  Clarkson  and 
Dr.  Maurice  on  Episcopacy;  Enc.  Brit. 

EPISCOPAL  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA. 
The  number  of  EniscopalLans  among  the  original 
settlers  of  tliis  country  was  small.  In  Maryland 
and  Virginia,  however,  many  churches  were  early 
formed,  "and  had  legal  establishments  for  their 
support.  To  the  northward  and  eastward  of 
these  states,  when  the  revolutionary  war  com- 
menced, there  were  but  about  eighty  parochial 
clergymen.  No  organization  of  the  episcopal 
fhnrch  in  this  country  took  place  till  after  the 
war.  The  Rev.  Samuel  Seabury,  D.  D.  of  Con- 
aecticut  was  consecrated  at  Aberdeen,  in  Scct- 
131 


EQUITY 
land,  in  Nov.  1784,  by  the  Scotch  bishops  ;  bishop 
WJiite  of  Pennsylvania,  and  bishop  Provost  of 
New  York,  by  the  archbishop  of  Canterbury  in 
Feb.  1787.  Since  that  time,  the  number  of 
Episcopalians  in  the  United  States  has  been  con- 
stantly upon  the  increase.  The  body  now 
(1844)  includes  27  dioceses,  22  bishops,  and 
about  1100  ministers.  They  have  colleges 
more  or  less  under  their  control  in  the  following 
places  :  Washington  college  in  Hartford,  Con. ; 
Columbia  college  in  New  York  city ;  Geneva, 
N.  Y.  ;  Kemper  college,  Missouri;  William  and 
Mary,  Virginia ;  and  Kenyon  college,  Ohio. 
They  have  theological  seminaries  at  New  York 
city ;  near  Alexandria,  District  of  Columbia ; 
end  at  Gambier,  Ohio. — B. 

EPISCOPALIAN,  one  who  prefers  the, 
erascopal  government  and  discipline  to  all  others. 

EPISTLES  OF  BARNABAS.    See  Bar 

N^BAS. 

EQ.UANIMITY  is  an  even  Ui  iform  state  of 
mind  amidst  all  the  vicissitudes  of  time  and 
changes  of  circumstances  to  which  we  are  sub- 
ject in  the  present  state.  One  of  this  disposition 
is  not  dejected  when  under  adversity,  nor  elated 
when  in  the  height  of  prosperity  :  he  is  equally 
affable  to  others,  and  contented  in  himself.  The 
excellency  of  this  disposition  is  beyond  all  praise. 
It  may  be  considered  as  the  grand  remedy  for  all 
the  diseases  and  miseries  of  life,  and  the  only 
way  by  which  we  can  preserve  the  dignity  of  our 
characters  as  men  and  as  Christians. 

EQUITY  is  that  exact  rule  of  righteousness 
or  justice  which  is  to  be  observed  between  man 
and  man.  Our  Lord  beautifully  and  compre- 
hensively expresses  it  in  these  words:  "All 
things  whatsoever  ye  would  that  men  should  do 
unto  you,  do  ye  even  so  to  them,  for  this  is  the 
law  and  the  prophets,"  Mat.  vii.  12.  This  golden 
rule,  says  Dr.  Watts,  has  many  excellent  proper- 
ties in  it.  1.  It  is  a  rule  that  is  easy  to  be  under- 
stood, and  as  easy  to  be  applied  by  the  meanest 
and  weakest  understanding,  Isa.  xxxv.  8. — 2.  It 
is  a  very  short  rule,  and  easy  to  be  remembered  : 
the  weakest  memory  can  retain  it ;  and  the  mean- 
est of  mankind  may  carry  this  about  with  them, 
and  have  it  ready  upon  all  occasions. — 3.  This 
excellent  precept  carries  greater  evidence  to  the 
conscience,  and  a  stronger  degree  of  conviction 
in  it,  than  any  other  rule  of  moral  virtue. — 4.  It 
is  particularly  fitted  for  practice,  because  it  in- 
cludes in  it  a  powerful  motive  to  stir  us  up  to  do 
what  it  enjoins.—  5.  It  is  such  a  rule  as,  if  well 
applied,  will  almost  always  secure  our  neighbour 
from  injury,  and  secure  us  from  guilt  if  we  should 
chance 'to  hurt  him. — 6.  It  is  a  rule  as  much  fitted 
to  awaken  us  to  sincere  repentance,  upon  the 
transgression  of  it,  as  it  is  to  direct  us  to  our  pre- 
sent duty. — 7.  It  is  a  most  extensive  rule,  with 
regard  to  all  the  stations,  rarks,  and  characters  of 
mankind,  for  it  is  perfectly  suited  to  them  all.— 
8.  It  is  a  most  comprehensive  rule  with  regard  to 
all  the  actions  and  duties  that  concern  our  neigh- 
bours. It  teaches  us  to  regulate  our  temper 
and  behaviour,  and  promote  tenderness,  benevo- 
lence, gentleness,  &c. — 9.  It  is  also  a  rule  of  the 
highest  prudence  with  regard  to  ourselves,  and 
promotes  our  own  interest  in  the  best  manner. — 
10.  This  rule  is  fitted  to  make  the  whole  world  as 
happy  as  the  present  state  of  things  will  admit. 
See  Watts's  Sermons,  ser.  33.  v,  i. ;  Evans's  Ser. 
ser.28;  Morning  Exercises  at  Cripplcgate^er.  IU. 


ESTABLISHMENTS 

EQUIVOCATION,  the  using  a  term  or  ex- 
pression that  has  a  double  meaning.  Equivoca- 
tions arc  said  to  he  expedients  to  save  telling  the 
truth,  and  yet  without  telling  a  falsity  ;  hut  if  an 
intention  to  deceive  constitute  the  essence  of  a 
lie,  which  in  general  it  dues,  I  cannot  conceive 
how  it  can  be  done  without  incurring  guilt,  as  it 
is  certainly  an  intention  to  deceive. 

ERASTIANS,  so  called  from  Erastus,  a 
German  divine  of  the  sixteenth  century.  The 
pastoral  office,  according  to  him,  was  only  per- 
suasive, like  a  professor  of  science  over  his  stu- 
dents, without  any  power  of  the  keys  annexed. 
The  Lord's  Supper  and  other  ordinances  of  the 
Gospel  were  to  he  free  and  open  to  all.  The 
minister  might  dissuade  the  vicious  and  unquali- 
fied from  the  communion;  but  might  not  refuse  it, 
or  inflict  any  kind  of  censure ;  the  punishment 
of  all  offences,  either  of  a  civil  or  religious  na- 
ture, being  referred  to  the  civil  magistrate. 

ERROR,  a  mistake  of  our  judgment,  giving 
assent  to  that  which  is  not  true.  Mr.  Locke  re- 
duces the  causes  of  error  to  four.  1.  Want  of 
proofs. — 2.  Want  of  ability  to  use  them. — 3. 
Want  of  will  to  use  them.— 4.  Wrong  measures 
of  probability.  In  a  moral  and  scriptural  sense  it 
signifies  sin.     See  Six. 

ESSENES,  a  very  ancient  sect  that  was 
spread  abroad  through  Syria,  Egypt,  and  the 
neighbouring  countries.  They  maintained  that 
religion  consisted  wholly  in  contemplation  and 
silence.  Some  of  them  passed  their  lives  in  a 
state  of  celibacy ;  others  embraced  the  state  of 
matrimony,  which  they  considered  as  lawful, 
when  entered  into  with  the  sole  design  of  propa- 
gating the  species,  and  not  to  satisfy  the  demand 
of  lust.  Some  of  them  held  the  possibility  of 
appeasing  the  Deity  by  sacrifices,  though  different 
from  that  of  the  Jews;  and  others  maintained 
that  no  offering  was  acceptable  to  God  but  that  of  a 
serene  and  composed  mind,  addicted  to  the  con- 
templation of  divine  things.  They  looked  upon 
the  law  of  Moses  as  an  allegorical  system  of  spi- 
ritual and  mysterious  truths;  and  renounced,  in 
ts  explication,  all  regard  to  the  outward  letter. 

ESTABLISHMENTS,  Religious.  By  a 
religious  establishment  is  generally  understood 
such  an  intimate  connexion  between  religion  and 
civil  government  as  is  supposed  to  secure  the  best 
interests  and  great  end  of  both.  This  article, 
like  many  others,  has  afforded  matter  of  Consider- 
able dispute.  In  order  that  the  reader  may  judge 
lor  himself,  we  shall  take  a  view  of  both  sides  of 
the  question. 

The  partisans  for  religious  establishments  ob- 
serve, that  they  have  prevailed  universally  in  every 
age  and  nation.  The  ancient  patriarchs  formed 
no  extensive  nor  permanent  associations  but  such 
as  arose  from  the  relationships  of  nature.  Every 
father  governed  his  own  family,  and  their  ofl'sprine 
submitted  to  his  jurisdiction.  He  presided  in  their 
education  and  discipline,  in  their  religious  wor- 
ship, and  in  their  general  government.  His 
knowledge  and  experience  handed  down  to  them 
their  laws  and  their  customs,  both  civil  and  re- 
ligious;  an. I  his  authority  enforced  them.  The 
offices  of  prophet,  priest,  and  king,  were  thus 
united  in  the  same  patriarch, Gen.  xviiL  19.  xvii. 
anil  x\i.  xiv.  IS.  The  Jews  enjoyed  a  religious 
establishment  dictated  and  ordained  by  God.  In 
•.uniing  our  attention  to  the  heathen  nations,  we 
•hall  find  the  same  incorporation  of  religious  with 
132 


ESTABLISHMENTS 
civil  government,  Gen.  xlvii.  22.  2  Kings  xttL 
27,  29.  Every  one  who  is  at  all  acquainted  with 
the  history  of  Greece  and  Rome,  knows  that  re- 
ligion was  altogether  blended  with  the  policy  of 
the  state.  The  Koran  may  be  considered  as  the 
religious  creed  and  civil  code  of  all  the  Ma- 
hometan tribes.  Among  the  Celts,  or  the  original 
inhabitants  of  Europe,  the  druids  were  both  their 
priests  and  their  judges,  and  their  judgment  was 
final.  Among  the  Hindoos,  the  priests  and  so- 
vereigns are  of  different  tribes  or  casts,  but  the 
priests  are  superior  in  rank ;  and  in  China,  tlie 
emperor  is  sovereign  pontiff,  and  presides  in  all 
public  acts  of  religion. 

Again ;  it  is  said,  that,  although  there  is  no 
form  of  church  government  absolutely  prescribed 
in  the  New  Testament,  yet  from  the  associating 
law.  on  which  the  Gospel  lays  so  much  stress,  by 
the  respect  for  civil  government  it  so  earnestly  en- 
joins, and  by  the  practice  which  followed  and 
finally  prevailed,  Christia-ns  cannot  be  said  to  dis- 
approve, but  to  favour  religious  establishments. 

Religious  establishments,  also,  it  is  observed, 
are  founded  in  the  nature  of  man,  and  inter- 
woven with  all  the  constituent  principles  of  human 
society :  the  knowledge  and  profession  of  Chris- 
tianity cannot  be  upheld  without  a  clergy ;  a  clergy 
cannot  be  supported  without  a  legal  provision; 
and  a  legal  provision  for  the  clergy  cannot  be  con- 
stituted without  the  preference  of  one  sect  of 
Christians  to  the  rest.  An  established  church  ir 
most  likely  to  maintain  clerical  respectability  and 
usefulness,  by  holding  out  a  suitable  encourage- 
ment to  young  men  to  devote  themselves  early  to 
the  service  of  the  church ;  and  likewise  enables 
them  to  obtain  such  knowledge  as  shali  qualify 
them  for  the  important  work. 

They  who  reason  on  the  contrary  side  observe, 
that  the  patriarchs  sustaining  civil  as  well  as  re- 
ligious offices,  is  no  proof  at  all  that  religion  was 
incorporated  with  the  civil  government,  in  tiro 
sense  above  referred  to ;  nor  is  there  the  least  hint 
of  it  in  the  sacred  Scriptures.  That  the  case  of 
the  Jews  can  never  be  considered  in  point,  as 
they  were  under  a  theocracy,  and  a  ceremonial 
dispensation  that  was  to  pass  away,  and  conse- 
quently not  designed  to  be  a  model  for  Christian 
nations.  That  whatever  was  the  practice  of 
heathens  in  this  respect,  this  forms  no  argument 
in  favour  of  that  system  which  is  the  very  oppo- 
site to  paganism.  The  church  of  Christ  is  of  « 
spiritual  nature,  and  ought  not,  yea  cannot,  in 
fact,  be  incorporated  with  the  state  without  sus- 
taining material  injury.  In  the  three  first  and 
purest  ages  of  Christianity,  the  church  was  a 
stranger  to  any  alliance  with  temporal  powers; 
and,  so  far  from  needing  their  aid,  religion  never 
flourished  so  much  as  while  they  were  combined 
to  suppress  it.  As  to  the  support  which  Chris- 
tianity, when  united  to  civil  government,  yields 
to  the  peace  and  good  order  of  society,  it  is  ob- 
served, that  this  benefit  will  be  derived  from  it, 
at  least,  in  as  great  a  degree  without  an  esta- 
blishment as  with  it.  Religion,  if  it  have  any 
power,  operates  on  the  conscience  of  men ;  and, 
resting  solely  on  the  belief  of  invisible  realities,  it 
can  derive  no  weight  or  solemnity  from  human 
sanctions.  Human  establishments,  it  is  said, 
have  been,  and  are,  productive  of  the  greater 
evils ;  for  in  this  case  it  is  requisite  to  give  the 
preference  to  some  particular  system;  ami  as  the 
magistrate  is  no  better  judge  of  religion  than 


ETERNITY 
Others,  the  chances  are  as  great  of  his  lending  his 
sanction  to  the  false  as  the  true.  The  thousands 
that  have  been  persecuted  and  suffered  in  conse- 
quence of  establishments,  will  always  form  an 
argument  against  them.  Under  establishments 
also,  it  is  said,  corruption  cannot  be  avoided. 
Emolument  must  be  attached  to  the  national 
church,  which  may  be  a  strong  inducement  to 
its  ministers  to  defend  it,  be  it  ever  so  remote 
from  the  truth.  Thus,  also,  error  becomes  per- 
manent;  and  that  set  of  opinions  which  happens 
to  prevail  when  the  establishment  is  formed,  con- 
tinues, in  spite  of  superior  light  and  improvement, 
to  be  handed  down,  without  alteration,  from  age 
to  age.  Hence  the  disagreement  between  the 
public  creed  of  the  church  and  the  private  senti- 
ments of  its  ministers.  As  to  the  provision  made 
for  the  clergy,  this  may  be  done  without  an  esta- 
blishment, as  matter  of  fact  shows  in  hundreds  of 
instances.  Dissenting  ministers,  or  those  who 
do  not  hold  in  establishments,  it  is  observed,  are 
not  without  means  of  obtaining  knowledge ;  but, 
on  the  contrary,  many  of  them  are  equal  to  their 
brethren  in  the  establishment  for  erudition  and 
sound  learning.  It  is  not  to  be  dissembled  nei- 
ther, that  among  those  who,  in  general,  cannot 
agree  with  human  establishments,  there  are  as 
pious  and  useful  members  of  society  as  others. 
Finally,  though  all  Christians  should  pay  respect 
to  civil  magistrates  as  such,  and  all  magistrates 
ought  to  encourage  the  church,  yet  no  civil  ma- 
gistrates have  any  power  to  establish  any  particu- 
lar form  of  religion  binding  upon  the  consciences 
of  the  subject;  nor  are  magistrates  even  represent- 
ed in  the  Scriptures  as  officers  or  rulers  of  the 
church.  Should  the  reader  be  desirous  of  prose- 
cuting the  subject  further,  he  may  consult  War- 
burton's  Alliance  between  Church  and  State; 
Christie's  Essay  on  Establishments ;  Palei/s 
Mor.  Phil.  v.  ii.  c.  10;  Bishop  Laic's  Theory 
of  Religion ;  Watts' s  Civil  Power  in  Things 
Sacred,  third  volume  of  his  work ;  Hall's  Liberty 
of  the  Press,  sec.  5;  Conders  Protestant  Non- 
conformity; Mrs.  H.  More's  Hints  on  forming 
the  Character  of  a  Young  Princess,  vol.  ii.  p. 
350 ;  but  especially  Ranken  and  Graham's  pieces 
on  the  subject;  the  former  for,  and  the  latter 
against  establishments. 

ESTEEM  is  that  high  and  exalted  thought 
of,  and  value  for  any  thing  which  arises  from  a 
sense  of  its  own  intrinsic  worth  and  excellency. 
Esteem  is  higher  than  simple  approbation,  which 
is  a  decision  of  the  judgment ;  it  is  the  commence- 
ment of  affection  ;  it  is  a  degree  of  love  for  others, 
en  account  of  their  pleasing  qualities,  though 
they  should  not  immediately  interest  ourselves,  by 
which  it  is  distinguished  from  gratitude.  Our 
esteem  of  God  manifests  itself  in  never  mention- 
ing his  name  without  reverence;  in  bowing  the 
knee ;  in  prayer  and  praise ;  in  all  the  several 
forms  of  outward  devotion,  and  in  quick  resent- 
ment of  any  dishonour  done  to  him.  Our  high 
esteem  or  veneration  of  any  man  appears  in  an 
humble,  respectful  behaviour  toward  him,  speak- 
ing his  praises,  imitating  his  excellencies,  and 
resenting  his  dishonour. 

ETERNITY,  with  respect  to  God,  is  a  dura- 
tion without  beginning  or  end.  As  it  is  the  at- 
tribute of  lnaman  nature,  it  is  a  duration,  that 
has  a  beginning,  but  will  never  have  an  end.  "  It 
is  a  duration,"  says  a  lively  writer,  "  that  excludes 
all  number  and  computation :  days,  and  months, 
133 


ETERNITY 

and  years,  yea,  and  ages,  are  lost  in  it,  like  drops 
in  the  ocean !  Millions  of  millions  of  years,  as 
many  years  as  there  are  sands  on  the  sea-shore, 
or  particles  of  dust  in  the  globe  of  the  earth,  and 
those  multiplied  to  the  highest  reach  of  number, 
all  these  are  nothing  to  eternity.  They  do  not 
bear  the  least  imaginable  proportion  to  it,  foi 
these  will  come  to  an  end,  as  certainly  as  a  day ; 
but  eternity  will  never,  never,  never,  come  to  an 
end  !  It  is  a  line  without  end  !  it  is  an  ocean 
without  a  shore !  Alas !  what  shall  I  say  of  it  ? 
it  is  an  infinite  unknown  something,  that  neither 
human  thought  can  grasp,  nor  human  language 
describe!"  Orton  on  Eternity ;  ShozDcr  on  do.; 
Davis's  Sermons,  ser.  11;  Saurin's  Sermons, 
vol.  iii.  p.  370. 

ETERNITY  OF  GOD  is  the  perpetual  con- 
tinuance of  his  being,  without  beginning,  end, 
or  succession.  That  he  is  without  beginning, 
says  Dr.  Gill,  may  be  proved  from,  1.  His  neces- 
sary self-existence,  Exod.  hi.  14. — 2.  From  his 
attributes,  several  of  which  are  said  to  be  eternal, 
Rom.  i.  20;  Acts  xv.  18;  Ps.  ciii.  17;  Jer.  xxxi. 
3. — 3.  From  his  purposes,  which  are  also  said  to 
be  from  eternity,  Isa.  xxv.  1 ;  Eph.  iii.  11 ;  Rom. 
ix.  11;  Eph.  i.  4. — 4.  From  the  covenant  of 
grace,  which  is  eternal,  2  Sam.  xxiii.  5 ;  Mic.  v.  2. 

That  he  is  without  end,  may  be  proved  from, 

1.  His  spirituality  and  simplicity,  Rom.  i.  23.— 

2.  From  his  independency,  Rom.  ix.  5. — 3.  From 
his  immutability,  2  Pet.  i.  24,  25;  Mai.  iii.  6; 
Ps.  iii.  26,  27. — 4.  From  his  dominion  and  go- 
vernment, said  never  to  end,  Jer.  x.  10 ;  Ps.  x. 
16 ;  Dan.  iv.  3. 

That  he  is  without  succession,  or  any  distinc- 
tions of  time  succeeding  one  to  another,  as  mo- 
ments, minutes,  &c.  may  be  proved  from,  1.  Hia 
existence  before  such  were  in  being,  Isa.  xliii. 
13. — 2.  The  distinctions  and  differences  of  time 
are  altogether  ascribed  to  him,  and  not  as  suc- 
ceeding one  another ;  he  is  the  same  yesterday, 
to-day,  and  for  ever,  Heb.  xiii.  8 ;  Rev.  i.  4. — 3. 
If  his  duration  were  successive,  or  proceeded  by 
moments,  days,  and  years,  then  there  must,  have 
been  some  first  moment,  day.  and  year,  when  he 
began  to  exist,  which  is  incompatible  with  the 
idea  of  his  eternity;  and,  besides,  one- day  would 
be  but  one  day  with  him,  and  not  a  thousand, 
contrary  to  the  express  language  of  Scripture,  2 
Pet.  iii.  8. — 4.  He  would  not  be  immense,  immu- 
table, and  perfect,  if  this  were  the  case;  for  ho 
would  be  older  one  minute  than  he  was  before, 
which  cannot  be  said  of  him.— 5.  His  know- 
ledge proves  him  without  successive  duration,  for 
he  knows  all  things  past,  present,  and  to  come  : 
"  he  sees  the  present  without  a  medium,  the  past 
without  recollection,  and  the  future  without  fore- 
sight. To  him  all  truths  are  but  one  idea,  all 
places  but  one  point,  and  all  times  but  ore  mo- 
ment." Gill's  Body  of  Divinity  ;  Paley's  Nat. 
Theol.  p.  480 ;  Charnock  on  the  Divine  Perfec- 
tions; Clarke  on  ditto;  Watts's  Ontology,  chap.  4. 

ETERNITY  OF  THE  WORLD.  It  was 
the  opinion  of  Aristotle  and  others,  that  the 
world  was  eternal.  But  that  the  present  system 
of  things  had  a  beginning,  seems  evident,  if  we 
consider  the  following  things. — 1.  We  may  not 
only  conceive  of  many  possible  alterations  which 
might  be  made  in  the  form  of  it,  but  we  see  it  in- 
cessantly changing;  whereas  an  eternal  being, 
forasmuch  as  it  is  self-existent,  is  always  the 
same. — 2.  We  havj  no  credible  history  of  trans- 
M 


EUCHARIST 
unions  more   remote   than   six   thousand  years 
from  the  present  time;  for  as  to  the  pretence  that 

some  nations  have  made  to  histories  of  greater 
antiquity,  as  the  Egyptians,  Chaldeans,  Fluent- 
dans,  Chinese,  &c.,  they  are  evidently  convicted 

of  falsehood  in  the  works  referred  to  at  the  bot- 
tom of  tliis  article. — 3.  We  can  trace  the  inven- 
tion of  the  most  useful  arts  and  sciences :  which 
had  probably  been  carried  further,  and  invented 
sooner,  had  the  world  been  eternal. — 1.  The 
origin  of  the  most  considerable  nations  of  the 
earth  may  be  traced,  i.  e.  the  time  when  they  first 
inhabited  the  countries  where  they  now  dwell ; 
and  it  appears  that  most  of  the  western  nations 
came  from  the  east. — 5.  If  the  world  be  eternal, 
it  is  hard  to  account  for  the  tradition  of  its  begin- 
ning, which  has  almost  every  where  prevailed, 
though  under  different  forms,  among  both  polite 
and  barbarous  nations. — b'.  We  have  a  most  an- 
cient and  credible  history  of  the  beginning  of  the 
world  ;  I  mean  the  history  of  Moses,  with  which 
no  book  in  the  world,  in  point  of  antiquity,  can 
contend.  St  Ming  fleet' s  Orig.  Sacra,  p.  15, 106  ; 
Winder's  Hist,  of  Knowledge,  vol.  ii.  passim ; 
Pearson  on  the  Creed,  p.  58;  Doddridge's  Lec- 
tures, lecture  21;  Till 'otson's  Sermons,  ser.  1; 
Clarke  at  Boi/lc's  Lectures,  p.  22,  23;  Dr.  Coll- 
yer's  Scripture  Pacts,  ser.  2. 

ETHICS,  the  doctrine  of  manners,  or  the 
science  of  moral  philosophy.  The  word  is  form- 
ed from  n5o5,  mores,  "manners,"  by  reason  the 
scope  or  object  thereof  is  to  form  the  manners. 
See  Morals. 

ETHNOPHRONES,  a  sect  of  heretics  in 
the  seventh  century,  who  made  a  profession  of 
Christianity,  but  joined  thereto  all  the  ceremonies 
end  follies  of  paganism,  as  judicial  astrology,  sor- 
tileges, auguries,  and  other  divinations. 

E  VAiNGELIST,  one  who  publishes  glad 
tidings ;  a  messenger  or  preacher  of  good  news. 
The  persons  denominated  evangelists  were  next 
in  order  to  the  apostles,  and  were  sent  by  them, 
not  to  settle  in  any  particular  place,  but  to  travel 
among  the  infant  churches,  and  ordain  ordinary 
officers,  and  finish  what  the  apostles  had  begun. 
Of  this  kind  were  Philip  the  deacon,  Mark, 
Silas,  &.c.  Acts  xxi.  8.  The  title  of  evangelist  is 
more  particularly  given  to  the  four  inspired  wri- 
ters of  our  Saviour's  life. 

EVANGELICAL,  agreeable  to  the  doctrines 
of  Christianity.  The  term  is  frequently  applied 
to  those  who  do  not  rely  upon  moral  duties  as  to 
their  acceptance  with  God  ;  but  are  influenced  to 
action  from  a  sense  of  the  love  of  God,  and  de- 
pend upon  the  merits  of  Christ  for  their  ever- 
lasting salvation. 

El/CIIARIST,  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's 
BUpper.  The  word  properly  signifies  giving 
thanks.  As  to  the  manner  of  celebrating  the 
Cucharist  among  the  ancient  Christians,  after 
the  customary  oblations  were  made,  the  deacon 
orought  water  to  the  bishops  and  presbyters 
standing  round  the  table  to  wash  their  hands ; 
according  to  that  passage  of  the  Psalmist,  "I 
will  wash  my  hands  in  innoceney,  and  so  will  I 
compass  thy  altar,  0  Lord."  Then  the  deacon 
cried  out  aloud,  "  Mutually  embrace  and  kiss  each 
other  ;"  which  being  done,  the  whole  congregation 
prayed  for  the  universal  peace  and  welfare  of  the 
church,  for  the  tranquillity  and  repose  of  the 
world,  for  the  prosperity  of  the  age,  for  whole- 
some weather,  and  for  all  ranks  and  degrees  of 
134  * 


EVIDENCE 
men.  After  this  followed  mutual  salutations  of 
the  minister  and  people ;  and  then  the  bishop  oi 
presbyter,  having  sanctified  the  elements  by  a 
solemn  benediction,  broke  the  bread,  and  deliver 
ed  it  to  the  deacon,  who  distributed  it  to  the  com- 
municants, and  after  that  the  cup.  The  sacra- 
mental wine  was  usually  diluted  or  mixed  with 
water.  During  the  time  of  administration  they 
sang  hymns  and  psalms;  and  having  concluded 
with  prayer  and  thanksgiving,  the  people  saluted 
each  other  with  a  kiss  of  peace,  and  so  the  assem- 
bly broke  up. 

EUCHITES,  or  Euchit;e,  a  sect  of  ancient 
heretics,  who  were  first  formed  into  a  religious 
body  towards  the  end  of  the  fourth  century, 
though  their  doctrine  and  discipline  subsisted  in 
Syria,  Egypt,  and  other  eastern  countries,  before 
the  birth  of  Christ :  they  were  thus  called  because 
they  prayed  without  ceasing,  imagining  that 
prayer  alone  was  sufficient  to  save  them.  Thev 
were  a  sort  of  mystics,  who  imagined,  according 
to  the  oriental  notion,  that  two  souls  resided  in 
man,  the  one  good  and  the  other  evil ;  and  who 
were  zealous  in  expelling  the  evil  soul  or  demon, 
and  hastening  the  return  of  the  good  Spirit  of 
God,  by  contemplation,  prayer,  and  singing  of 
hymns.  They  also  embraced  opinions  nearly 
resembling  the  Manichean  doctrine,  and  which 
they  derived  from  the  tenets  of  the  oriental  phi- 
losophy. The  same  denomination  was  used  in 
the  twelfth  century  to  denote  certain  fanatics 
who  infested  the  Greek  and  Eastern  churches, 
and  who  were  charged  with  believing  a  double 
Trinity,  rejecting  wedlock,  abstaining  from  flesh, 
treating  with  contempt  the  sacraments  of  baptism 
and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  the  various  branches 
of  external  worship,  and  placing  the  essence  of 
religion  solely  in  external  prayer ;  and  maintain- 
ing the  efficacy  of  perpetual  supplications  to  the 
Supreme  Being  for  expelling  an  evil  being  or 
genius,  which  dwelt  in  the  breast  of  every  mor- 
tal. This  sect  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by  a 
person  called  Lucopetrus,  whose  chief  disciple 
was  named  Tychichus.  By  degrees  it  became  a 
general  and  invidious  appellation  for  persons  of 
eminent  piety,  and  zeal  for  genuine  Christianity, 
who  opposed  the  vicious  practices  and  insolent 
tyranny  of  the  priesthood,  much  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  Latins  comprehended  all  the  ad- 
versaries of  the  Roman  pontiff  under  the  general  t 
terms  of  Albigenses  and  Waldenses. 

EUDOX1ANS,  a  sect  in  the  fourth  century; 
so  called  from  their  leader,  Eudoxius,  patriarch 
of  Antioch  and  Constantinople,  a  great  defender 
of  the  i\rian  doctrine.  The  Eudoxians  believed 
that  the  Son  was  created  out  of  nothing  ;  that  he 
had  a  will  distinct  and  different  from  that  of  the 
Father,  &c.  They  held  many  other  tenets  of 
the  Aliens  and  Eunomians. 

EVIDENCE,  is  that  perception  of  truth  which 
arises  either  from  the  testimony  of  the  senses,  or 
from  an  induction  of  reason.  The  evidences  of 
revelation  are  divided  into  internal  and  external. 
That  is  called  internal  evidence  which  is  drawn 
from  the  consideration  of  those  declarations  and 
doctrines  which  are  continued  in  it;  and  that  is 
called  external,  which  arises  from  some  other  cir- 
cumstances referring  to  it,  such  as  predictions 
concerning  it,  miracles  wrought  by  tLose  who 
teach  it,  its  success  in  the  world,  &fi.  See  Evi- 
dences of  Christianity,  art.  Christianity. 

Moral  Evidence  is  that  which,  though  it  docs 


EVIL 
not  exclude  a  mere  abstract  possibility  of  things 
being  otherwise,  yet  shuts  out  every  reasonable 
ground  of  suspecting  that  they  are  so. 

Evidences  of  Grace  are  those  dispositions  and 
acts  which  prove  a  person  to  be  in  a  converted 
state;  such  as  an  enlightened  understanding;  love 
to  God  and  his  people ;  a  delight  in  God's  word ; 
worship  and  dependence  on  him;  spirituality  of 
mind  ;  devotedness  of  life  to  the  service  of  God, 
&c.  Seed's  Post.  Ser.  ser.  2 ;  Ditton  on  the  Re- 
surrection; Bellamy  on  Religion,  p.  184;  Gam- 
bear's  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Moral  Evi- 
dence, 1(>3. 

EVIL  is  distinguished  into  natural  and  moral. 
Satural  evil  is  whatever  destroys  or  any  way 
disturos  the  perfection  of  natural  beings  ;  such  as 
blindness,  diseases,  death,  &c.  Moral  evil  is  the 
disagreement  between  the  actions  of  a  moral 
agent,  and  the  rule  of  those  actions,  whatever  it 
is.  Applied  to  a  choice,  or  acting  contrary  to 
the  moral  or  revealed  laws  of  the  Deity,  it  is  term- 
ed wickedness  or  sin.  Applied  to  acting  contrary 
to  the  mere  rule  of  fitness,  a  fault.  See  article 
Sin. 

_  EVIL  SPEAKING,  the  using  language 
either  reproachful  or  untrue  respecting  others, 
and  thereby  injuring  them.  It  is  an  express 
command  of  Scripture,  "  To  speak  evil  of  no 
man,"  Titus  hi.  2;  James  iv.  11.  By  which, 
however,  we  are  not  to  understand  that  there  are 
no  occasions  on  which  we  are  a<t  liberty  to  speak 
of  others  that  which  may  be  considered  as  evd. 

1.  Persons  in  the  administration  of  justice  may 
speak  words  which  in  private  intercourse  would 
be  reproachful. — 2.  God's  ministers  may  inveigh 
against  vice  with  sharpness  and  severity,  both 
privately  and  publicly.  Is.  lviii.  1 ;  Tit.  i.  13. — 
3.  Private  persons  may  reprove  others  when  they 
commit  sin.  Lev.  xix.  17. — 4.  Some  vehemence 
of  speech  may  be  used  in  defence  of  truth,  and 
impugning  errors  of  bad  consequence.  Jude  3. — 
5.  It  may  be  necessary,  upon  some  emergent  oc- 
casions, with  some  heat  of  language,  to  express 
disapprobation  of  notorious  wickedness.  Acts  viii. 
23.  Yet  in  all  these  the  greatest  equity,  modera- 
tion, and  candour,  should  be  used :  and  we  should 
take  care,  1.  Never  to  speak  in  severe  terms  with- 
out reasonable  warrant  or  apparent  just  cause; — 

2.  Nor  beyond  measure; — 3.  Nor  out  of  bad 
principles  or  wrong  ends ;  for  ill-will,  contempt, 
revenge,  envy,  to  compass  our  own  ends ;  from 
wantonness,  or  negligence,  but  from  pure  charity 
for  the  good  of  those  to  whom  or  of  whom  we 
epeak. 

This  is  an  evil,  however,  which  greatly 
abounds,  and  which  is  not  sufficiently  watched 
against ;  for  it  is  not  when  we  openly  speak  evil 
of  others  only  that  we  are  guilty,  but  even  in 
speaking  what  is  true  we  are  in  danger  of  speak- 
ing evil  of  others.  There  is  sometimes  a  malig- 
nant pleasure  manifested;  a  studious  recollection 
of  every  tiling  that  can  be  brought  forward;  a 
delight  in  hearing  any  thing  spoken  against 
others ;  a  secret  rejoicing  in  knowing  that  ano- 
ther's fall  will  be  an  occasion  of  our  rise.  All 
this  is  base  to  an  extreme. 

The  impropriety  and  sinfulness  of  evil  speak- 
ing will  appear,  if  we  consider,  1.  That  it  is  en- 
tirely opposite  to  the  whole  tenor  of  the  Christian 
religion. — 2.  Expressly  condemned  and  prohi- 
bited as  evil.  Ps.  lxiv.  3;  James  iv.  51. — 3.  No 
practice  hath  more  severe  punishments  denounced 
133 


EUSEBIANS 
against  it.  I  Cor.  v.  11.  vi.  10. — 4.  It  is  an  evi- 
dence of  a  weak  and  distempered  mind. — 5.  It  is 
even  indicative  of  ill-breeding  and  bad  manners. — 
6.  It  is  the  abhorrence  of  all  wise  and  good  men. 
Ps.  xv.  3. — 7.  It  is  exceedingly  injurious  to  so- 
ciety, and  inconsistent  with  the  relations  we  bear 
to  each  other  as  Christians.  James  hi.  6. — 8.  It 
is  branded  with  the  epithet  ot  folly.  Prov.  xviii. 
6,  7.  9.  It  is  perverting  the  design  of  speech. — 
10.  It  is  opposite  to  the  example  of  Christ,  whom 
we  profess  to  follow.  See  Slander.  Barrow's 
Works,  vol.  i.  sec.  16;  Tillolson's  Ser.  sec.  42; 
Jack's  Ser.  on  Evil  Speaking. 

EULOGY,  eulogia,  a  term  made  use  of  in 
reference  to  the  consecrated  bread.  When  the 
Greeks  have  cut  n  a  loaf  or  piece  of  bread  to  con- 
secrate, it,  they  break  the  rest  into  little  bits,  and 
distribute  it  among  the  persons  who  have  not  yet 
communicated,  or  send  it  to  persons  that  arc  ab- 
sent ;  and  these  pieces  of  bread  are  what  they 
call  eulogies.  The  word  is  Greek,  eu^oy.*, 
formed  of  fu,  bene,  '  well,'  and  Kiy^,  dico,  '  1  say, 
speak;'  q.  d.  benedictum,  'blessed.' 

The  Latin  church  has  had  something  like  eu- 
logies for  a  great  many  ages;  and  thence  arose 
the  use  of  their  holy  bread'.  The  name  eulogy 
was  likewise  given  to  loaves  or  cakes  brought  to 
church  by  the  faithful  to  have  them  blessed. 
Lastly,  the  use  of  the  term  passed  hence  to  mere 
presents  made  to  a  person  without  any  benedic- 
tion. 

EUNOMIANS,  a  sect  in  the  fourth  century. 
They  were  a  branch  of  Arians,  and  took  their 
name  from  Eunomius,  bishop  of  Cyzieus._  Cave, 
in  his  Historia  Literaria,  vol.  i.  p.  223,  gives  the 
following  account  of  their  faith.  "  There  is  one 
God,  uncreated  and  without  beginning ;  who  has 
nothing  existing  before  him,  for  nothing  can  exist 
before  what  is  uncreated  ;  nor  with  him,  for  what 
is  uncreated  must  be  one;  nor  in  him,  lor  God  is 
a  simple  and  uncompounded  being.  This  one 
simple  and  eternal  being  is  God,  the  creator  and 
ordainer  of  all  things :  first,  indeed,  and  princi- 
pally of  his  only  begotten  Son  ;  and  then  through 
him  of  all  other  things.  For  God  begat,  created, 
and  made  the  Son  only  by  his  direct  operation 
and  power,  before  all  things,  and  every  other 
creature ;  not  producing,  however,  any  being  like 
himself,  or  imparting  any  of  his  own  proper  sub- 
stance to  the  Son ;  tor  God  is  immortal,  uniform, 
indivisible;  and  therefore  cannot  communicate 
any  part  of  his  own  proper  substance  to  another. 
He  alone  is  unbegotten  ;  and  it  is  impossible  that 
any  other  being  should  be  formed  of  an  unbe- 
gotten substance.  He  did  not  use  his  own  sub- 
stance in  begetting  the  Son,  but  his  will  only ; 
nor  did  he  beget  him  in  the  likeness  of  his  sub- 
stance, but  according  to  his  own  good  pleasure  ; 
he  then  created  the  Holy  Spirit,  the  first  and 
greatest  of  all  spirits,  by  His  own  power,  in  deed 
and  operation  mediately;  yet  by  the  immediate 
power  and  operation  of  the  Son.  Alter  the  Holy 
Spirit,  he  created  all  other  things,  in  heaven  and 
in  earth,  visible  and  invisible,  corporeal  and  in- 
corporeal, mediately  by  himself,  by  the  power  and 
operation  of  the  Son,  &c."  The  reader  will  evi- 
dently see  how  near  these  tenets  are  to  those  of 
Arianism.     See  Arians. 

EUSEBIANS,  a  denomination  given  to  the 
Arians,  on  account  of  the  favour  and  countenance 
which  Eusebius,  bishop  of  Ca>sarca,  showed  and 
procured  for  them  at  their  first  rise. 


EXAMPLE 

EUSTATHI ANS,  a  name  given  to  the  Ca- 
l.iolics  of  Antioch,  in  the  fourth  century,  on  oc- 
casion ot" their  refusing  to  acknowledge  any  other 
bishop  beside  St.  Eustathius,  deposed  by  the 
Arians. 

EUSTATHIANS,  a  sect  in  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, so  denominated  from  their  founder,  Eusta- 
thius, a  monk,  so  foolishly  fond  of  his  own  profes- 
sion, thnt  he  condemned  all  other  conditions  of 
lite.  Whether  this  Eustathius  were  the  same 
with  the  bishop  of  Sebastia,  and  chief  of  the 
Semi-arians,  is  not  easy  to  determine.  He  ex- 
cluded married  people  from  salvation  ;  prohibited 
his  followers  from  praying  in  their  houses,  and 
obliged  them  to  quit  all  they  had,  as  incompatible 
with  the  hopes  of  heaven.  He  drew  them  out  of 
the  other  assemblies  of  Christians,  to  hold  secret 
ones  with  him.  and  made  them  wear  a  particular 
habit ;  he  appointed  them  to  fast  on  Sundays ; 
and  taught  them  that  the  ordinary  fasts  of  the 
church  were  needless  after  they  had  attained  to  a 
certain  degree  of  purity,  which  he  pretended  to. 
He  showed  great  horror  for  chapels  built  in  ho- 
nour of  martyrs,  and  the  asemblies  held  therein. 
He  was  condemned  at  the  council  of  Gangra,  in 
Paphlagonia,  held  between  the  vear  3:2b*  and  341. 

EUTUCH1TES,  a  denomination  in  the  third 
century;  so  called  from  the  Greek  jut-dx*'",  which 
signifies  to  live  without  pain,  or  in  pleasure. 
Among  other  sentiments,  they  held  that  our  souls 
are  placed  in  our  bodies  only  to  honour  the  an- 
gels who  created  them ;  and  that  we  ought  to  re- 
joice equally  in  all  events,  because  to  grieve 
would  be  to  dishonour  the  angels,  their  creators. 

EUTYCHIANS,  ancient  heretics  who  de- 
nied the  duplicity  of  natures  in  Christ;  thus  de- 
nominated from  Eutyches,  the  archimandrite,  or 
abbot  of  a  monastery,  at  Constantinople,  who  be- 

fan  to  propagate  his  opinion  about  A.  D.  448. 
le  did  not,  however,  seem  quite  steady  and  con- 
sistent in  his  sentiments ;  for  he  appeared  to  al- 
low of  two  natures,  even  before  the  union,  which 
was  apparently  a  consequence  he  drew  from  the 
principles  of  the  Platonic  philosophy,  which  sup- 
ikjscs  a  pre-cxistence  of  souls ;  accordingly  he  be- 
lieved that  the  soul  of  Jesus  Christ  had  been 
united  to  the  Divinity  before  the  incarnation ; 
but  then  he  allowed  no  distinction  of  natures  in 
Jesus  Christ  since  his  incarnation.  This  heresy 
was  first  condemned,  in  a  synod  held  at  Con- 
stantinople, by  Flavian,  in  448:  approved  by  the 
council  of  Ephesus,  called  con  renins  lalronum, 
in  449;  and  re-examined  and  fulminated  in  the 
general  council  of  Chalcedon,  in  451.  The  Eu- 
tychians  were  divided  into  several  branches,  as 
the  Agnoetw,  Tkcodosians,  Scverinns,  &c.  &C. 
&x.  Eutychians  was  also  the  name  of  a  sect, 
half  Arian,  and  half  Eunomian,  which  arose  at 
Constantinople  in  the  fourth  century. 

EXALTATION  OF  CHRIST  consisted 
in  his  rising  again  from  the  dead  on  the  third 
day,  in  ascending  up  into  heaven,  in  sitting  at 
the  right  hand  of  God  the  Father,  and  in  coming 
to  judge  the  world  at  the  last  day.  See  articles 
Uksurhkction',  Ascension,  Intercession,  and 
Judgment-Day. 

EXAMINATION,  Self.  See  Self-exami- 
nation. 

EXAMPLE,  a  copy  or  pattern.  In  a  moral 
sense,  is  cithir  taken  for  a  type,  instance,  or  pre- 
cedent for  our  admonition,  thai  we  may  be  cau- 
tioned against  the  faults  or  crimes  which  others 
136 


EXARCH 

have  committed,  by  the  bad  consequences  which 
have  ensued  from  them ;  or  example  is  taken  for 
a  pattern  for  our  imitation,  or  a  model  for  us  to 
copy  after. 

That  good  examples  have  a  peculiar  powei 
above  naked  precepts,  to  dispose  us  to  the  prac- 
tice of  virtue  and  holiness,  may  appear  by  con- 
sidering, "  1.  That  they  most  clearly  express  to 
us  the  nature  of  our  duties  in  their  subjects  and 
sensible  effects.  General  precepts  form  abstract 
ideas  of  virtue;  but  in  examples  virtues  are  most 
visible  in  all  their  circumstances. — 2.  Precepts 
instruct  us  in  what  things  are  duty,  but  exam- 
ples show  us  that  they  are  possible. — 3.  Exam- 
ples, by  secret  and  lively  incentive,  urge  us  to 
imitation.  We  are  touched  in  another  manner 
by  the  visible  practice  of  good  men,  which  re- 
proaches our  defects,  and  obliges  us  to  the  same 
zeal,  which  laws,  though  wise  and  good,  will  not 
effect." 

The  life  of  Jesus  Christ  forms  the  most  beau 
tiful  example  the  Christian  can  imitate.  Unlike 
all  others,  it  was  absolutely  perfect  and  uniform, 
and  every  way  accommodated  to  our  present 
state.  In  him  we  behold  all  light  without  a 
shade,  all  beautv  without  a  spot,  all  the  purity  of 
the  law,  and  the  excellency  of  the  Gospel.  Here 
we  see  piety  without  superstition,  and  morality 
without  ostentation  ;  humility  without  meanness, 
and  fortitude  without  temerity  ;  patience  without 
apathy,  and  compassion  without  weakness ;  zeal 
Without  rashness,  and  beneficence  without  prodi- 
gality. The  obligation  we  are  under  to  imitate 
this  example  arises  from  duty,  relationship,  en- 
gagement, interest,  and  gratitude.  See  article 
Jesus  Christ. 

Those  who  set  bad  examples  should  consider 
1.  That  they  are  the  ministers  of  the  devil's  de 
signs  to  destroy  souls. — 2.  That  they  are  acting  in 
direct  opposition  to  Christ,  who  came  to  save,  and 
not  to  destroy. — 3.  That  they  are  adding  to  the 
misery  and  calamities  which  are  already  in  the 
wjiid. — 4.  That  the  effects  of  their  example  may 
be  incalculable  on  the  society  to  the  end  of  time, 
and  perhaps  in  eternity ;  for  who  can  tell  what  may 
be  the  consequence  of  one  sin,  on  a  family,  a  na- 
tion, or  posterity'? — 5.  They  are  acting  contrary 
to  the  divine  command,  and  thus  exposing  them- 
selves to  final  ruin.  Mansil/on's  Ser.  vol.  ii.  ser. 
9.  Eng.  tran.;  Clarke's  Looking  Glass,  ch.  48; 
Tillotson's  Ser.  ser.  189,  190;  Barrmr's  W'orks, 
vol.  iii.  ser.  2  and  3  ;  Flarel's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  29, 
30  ;  Mason's  Ser.  vol  ii.  ser.  17. 

EXARCH,  an  officer  in  the  Greek  church, 
whose  business  it  is  to  visit  the  provinces  allotted 
to  him,  in  order  to  inform  himself  of  the  lives  and 
manners  of  the  clergy,  take  cognizance  of  eccle- 
siastical causes ;  the  manner  of  celebrating  divine 
service;  the  administration  of  the  sacraments, 
particularly  confession;  the  observance  of  the 
canons  :  monastic  discipline  ;  affairs  of  marriages, 
divorces,  &c. ;  but,  above  nil,  to  take  an  account 
of  the  several  revenues  which  the  patriarch  re- 
ceives from  several  churches,  and  particularly 
as  to  what  regards  collecting  the  same.  The  ■ex- 
arch, after  having  enriched  himself  in  his  post. 
frequently  rises  to  the  patriarchate  himself.  Ex- 
arch is  also  used,  in  the  eastern  church  antiquity, 
for  a  general  or  superior  over  several  monasteries, 
the  same  that  we  call  archimandrite;  being  ex- 
empted by  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople  from 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop. 


EXCOMMUNICATION 

EXCISION,  the  cutting  off  a  person  from 
fellowship  with  the  community  to  which  he  be- 
longs, by  way  of  punishment  for  some  sin  com- 
mitted. The  Jews,  Selden  informs  us,  reckon 
up  thirty-six  crimes,  to  which  they  pretend  this 
punishment  is  due.  The  rabbins  reckon  three 
kinds  of  excision  :  one,  which  destroys  only  the 
body ;  another,  which  destroys  the  soul  only  ;  and 
a  third,  which  destroys  both  body  and  soul.  The 
first  kind  of  excision  they  pretend  is  untimely 
death ;  the  second  is  an  utter  extinction  of  the 
soul ;  and  the  third  a  compound  of  the  two  for- 
mer; thus  making  the  soul  mortal  or  immortal, 
says  Selden,  according  to  the  degree  of  misbeha- 
viour and  wickedness  of  the  people.  See  next 
article. 

EXCOMMUNICATION,  a  penalty,  or  cen- 
sure, whereby  persons  who  are  guilty  of  any  no- 
torious crime  or  offence,  are  separated  from  the 
communion  of  the  church,  and  deprived  of  all 
spiritual  advantages. 

Excommunication  is  founded  upon  a  natural 
right  which  all  societies  have  of  excluding  out 
of  their  body  such  as  violate  the  laws  thereof,  and 
it  was  originally  instituted  for  preserving  the  pu- 
rity of  the  church  ;  but  ambitious  ecclesiastics 
converted  it  by  degrees  into  an  engine  for  pro- 
moting their  own  power,  and  inflicted  it  on  the 
most  frivolous  occasions. 

In  the  ancientchurch,  the  power  of  excommuni- 
cation was  lodged  in  the  hands  of  the  clergy,  who 
distinguished  it  into  the  greater  and  less.  The  less 
consisted  in  excluding  person?  from  the  partieipa  • 
tion  of  the  eucharist,  and  the  prayers  of  the  faithful ; 
but  they  were  not  expelled  the  church.  The  greater 
excommunication  consisted  in  absolute  and  entire 
seclusion  from  the  church,  and  the  participation 
of  all  its  rights :  notice  of  which  was  given  by 
circular  letters  to  the  most  eminent  churches  all 
over  the  world,  that  they  might  all  confirm  this 
act  of  discipline,  by  refusing  to  admit  the  delin- 
quent to  their  communion.  The  consequences 
were  very  terrible.  The  person  so  excommuni- 
cated, was  avoided  in  all  civil  commerce  and  out- 
ward conversation.  No  one  was  to  receive  him 
into  his  house,  nor  cat  at  the  same  table  with 
nim ;  and,  when  dead,  he  was  denied  the  solemn 
rites  of  burial. 

The  Jews  expelled  from  their  synagogue  such 
as  had  commi'.ted  any  grievous  crime.  See  John 
ix.  22.  xii.  42.  xvi.  2,  and  Joseph.  Antiq.  Jud. 
lib.  9.  cap.  22,  and  lib.  lti.  cap.  2.  Goodwyn,  in 
his  Moses  and  Aaron,  distinguishes  three  degrees 
or  kinds  of  excommunication  among  the  Jews. 
The  first  he  finds  intimated  in  John  ix.  22;  the 
second  in  1  Cor.  v.  5 ;  and  the  third  in  1  Cor. 
xvi.  22. 

The  Romish  pontifical  takes  notice  of  three 
kinds  of  excommunication.— -1.  The  minor,  in- 
curred by  those  who  have  any  correspondence 
with  an  excommunicated  person. — 2.  The  major, 
which  falls  upon  those  who  disobey  the  commands 
of  the  holy  see,  or  refuse  to  submit  to  certain 
points  of  discipline  :  in  consequence  of  which  they 
are  excluded  from  the  church  militant  and  tri- 
umphant, and  delivered  over  to  the  devil,  and  his 
angels. — 3.  Anathema,  which  is  properly  vhat 
pronounced  by  the  pope  against  heretical  princes 
and  countries.  In  former  ages,  these  papal  ful- 
minations  were  most  terrible  things ;  but  latterly 
they  were  formidable  to  none  but  a  few  petty 
States  of  Italy. 

137  S 


EXCOMMUNICATION 

Excommunication,  in  the  Greek  church,  cuts 
eff  the  offender  from  all  communion  with  the 
three  hundred  and  eighteen  fathers  of  the  first 
council  of  Nice,  and  with  the  saints ;  consigns 
him  over  to  the  devil  and  the  traitor  Judas,  and 
condemns  his  body  to  remain  after  death  as  hard 
as  a  flint  or  piece  of  steel,  unless  he  humble  him- 
self, and  make  atonement  for  his  sins  by  a  sincere 
repentance.  The  form  abounds  with  dreadful 
imprecations;  and  the  Greeks  assert,  that,  if  a 
person  dies  excommunicated,  the  devil  enters  into 
the  lifeless  corpse :  and,  therefore,  in  order  to 
prevent  it,  the  relations  of  the  deceased  cut  his 
body  in  pieces,  and  boil  them  in  wine.  It  is  a  cus- 
tom with  the  patriarch  of  Jerusalem  annually  to 
excommunicate  ti"  i  pope  and  the  church  of  Rome ; 
on  which  occasion,  together  with  a  great  deal  of 
idle  ceremony,  he  drives  a  nail  into  the  ground 
with  a  hammer,  as  a  mark  of  malediction. 

The  form  of  excommunication  in  the  church 
of  England  anciently  ran  thus  :  "  By  the  authority 
of  God  the  Father  Almighty,  the  Son,  and  Holy 
Ghost,  and  of  Mary  the  blessed  mother  of  God, 
we  excommunicate,  anathematize,  and  sequester 
from  the  holy  mother  church,"  &c.  The  causes 
of  excommunication  in  England  are,  contempt  of 
the  bishops'  court,  heresy,  neglect  of  public  wor- 
ship and  the  sacraments,  incontinency,  adultery, 
simony,  &c.  It  is  described  to  be  twofold  ;  the 
less  is  an  ecclesiastical  censure,  excluding  the 
party  from  the  participation  of  the  sacrament; 
the  greater  proceeds  farther,  and  excludes  him  not 
only  from  these,  but  from  the  company  of  all 
Christians;  but  if  the  judge  of  any  spiritual  court 
excommunicate  a  man  for  a  cause  of  which  he 
has  not  the  legal  cognizance,  the  party  may  have 
an  action  against  him  at  common  law,  and  he  is 
also  liable  to  be  indicted  at  the  suit  of  the  king. 

Excommunication  in  the  church  of  Scotland 
consists  only  in  an  exclusion  of  openly  profane 
and  immoral  persons  from  baptism  and  the  Lord's 
Supper  ;  but  is  seldom  publicly  denounced,  as,  in- 
deed, such  persons  generally  exclude  themselves 
from  the  latter  ordinance  at  least ;  but  it  is  attend- 
ed with  no  civil  incapacity  whatever. 

Among  the  Independents  and  Baptists,  the 
persons  who  are  or  should  be  excommunicated, 
are  such  as  are  quarrelsome  and  litigious,  Gal.  v. 
12;  such  as  desert  their  privileges,  withdraw  them- 
selves from  the  ordinances  of  God,  and  forsake 
his  people,  Jude  11) ;  such  as  are  irregular  and  im- 
moral in  their  lives,  railers,  drunkards,  extortion- 
ers, tornicators,  and  covetous,  Eph.  v.  5;  1  Cor. 
v.  11. 

"  The  exclusion  of  a  person  from  any  Christian 
church  does  not  affect  his  temporal  estate  and 
civil  affairs;  it  does  not  subject  him  to  fines  or 
imprisonments  ;  it  interferes  not  with  the  busi- 
ness of  a  civil  magistrate  ;  it  makes  no  change  in 
the  natural  and  civil  relations  between  husbands 
and  wives,  parents  and  children,  masters  and  ser- 
vants; neither  does  it  deprive  a  man  of  the  liberty 
of  attending  public  worship;  it  removes  him, 
however,  from  the  communion  of  the  church,  and 
the  privileges  dependent  on  it :  this  is  done  that 
he  may  be.  ashamed  of  his  sin,  and  be  brought  to 
repentance  ;  that  the  honour  of  Christ  may  be 
vindicated,  and  that  stumbling  blocks  may  be  re- 
moved out  of  the  way." 

Though  the  act  of  exclusion  be  not  performed 
exactly  in  the  same  manner  in  every  church,  yet 
(according  to  the  congregational  plan)  the  power 
m  2 


EXISTENCE 
cf  excision  lies  in  the  church  itself.  The  officers 
take  the  sense  of  the  members  assembled  together; 
ami  after  the  matter  has  been  properly  investigat- 
ed, and  all  necessary  steps  taken  to  reclaim  the 
offender,  the  church  proceeds  to  the  actual  exclu- 
sion of  the  person  from  among  them,  by  signifying 
their  judgment  or  opinion  that  the  person  is  un- 
worthy of  a  place  in  God's  house.  In  the  con- 
clusion of  this  article,  however,  we  must  add,  that 
too  great  caution  cannot  be  observed  in  procedures 
of  this  kind ;  every  thing  should  be  done  with  the 
greatest  meekness,  deliberation,  prayer,  and  a 
deep  sense  of  our  own  unworthmess ;  with  a 
compassion  for  the  offender,  and  a  iixed  design  of 
embracing  every  opportunity  of  doing  him  good, 
ny  reproving,  instructing,  and,  if  possible,  restor- 
ing him  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  privileges  he  has 
forfeited  by  his  conduct.     See  Church. 

EXCU3ATI,  a  term  formerly  used  to  denote 
slaves,  who,  flying  to  any  church  for  sanctuary, 
were  excused  and  pardoned  by  their  masters. 

EXHORTATION,  the  act  of  laying  such 
motives  before  a  person  as  may  excite  him  to  the 
performance  of  any  duty.  It  differs  only  from 
suasion  in  that  the  latter  principally  endeavours 
to  convince  the  understanding,  and  the  former  to 
work  on  the  affections.  It  is  considered  as  a  great 
branch  of  preaching,  though  not  confined  to  that, 
as  a  man  may  exhort,  though  he  do  not  preach ; 
though  a  man  can  hardly  be  said  to  preach  if  he 
do  not  exhort.  It  seems,  however,  that  there  are 
some,  who  believing  the  inability  of  man  to  do 
any  thing  good,  cannot  reconcile  the  idea  of  ex- 
horting men  to  duty,  being,  as  they  suppose,  a 
contradiction  to  address  men  who  have  no  power 
to  act  of  themselves.  But  they  forget, — 1.  That 
the  Great  Author  of  our  being  has  appointed  this 
as  a  mean  for  inclining  the  will  to  himself,  Is.  lv. 
6,  7;  Luke  xiv.  17,  23. — 2.  That  they  who  thus 
address  do  not  suppose  that  there  is  any  virtue  in 
the  exhortation  itself,  but  that  its  energy  depends 
on  God  alone,  1  Cor;  xv.  10. — 3.  That  the 
Scripture  enjoins  ministers  to  exhort  men,  i,hat 
is,  to  rouse  them  to  duty,  by  proposing  suitable 
motives,  Is.  Iviii.  1 ;  1  Tim.  vi.  2 ;  Heb.  iii.  13 ; 
Rom.  xii.  8. — I.  That  it  was  the  constant  prac- 
tice of  prophets,  apostles,  and  Christ  himself,  Is. 
i.  17 ;  Jer.  iv.  11 ;  Ezek.  xxxvii. ;  Luke  xii.  3 ; 
Luke  iii.  18  ;  Acts  xi.  23.  "  The  express  words," 
says  a  good  divine,  "  of  scriptural  invitations,  ex- 
hortations, and  promises,  prove  more  effectual  to 
encourage  those  who  are  ready  to  give  up  their 
hopes,  than  all  the  consolatory  topics  that  can 
possibly  be  substituted  in  their  place.  It  is,  there- 
fore, much  to  be  lamented  that  pious  men,  by  ad- 
hering to  a  supposed  systematical  exactness  of 
expression,  should  clog  their  addresses  to  sinners 
with  exceptbns  and  limitations,  which  the  Spirit 
of  God  did  not  see  good  to  insert.  They  will  not 
say  that  the  omission  was  an  oversight  in  the  in- 
spired writers ;  or  admit  the  thought  for  a  mo- 
ment, that  they  can  improve  on  their  plan  :  why 
then  cannot  they  be  satisfied  to  'speak  according 
to  the  oracles  of  God,'  without  affecting  a  more 
entire  consistency?  Great  mischief  has  thus 
been  done  by  very  different  descriptions  of  men, 
who  undesignedly  concur  in  giving  Satan  an 
occasion  of  suggesting  to  the  trembling  inquirer 
that  perhaps  he  may  persevere  in  asking,  seeking, 
and  knocking,  with  the  greatest  earnestness  and 
importunity,  and  yet  finally  be  cast  awav." 

EXISTENCE  of  GOD.  The  methods  usual- 
133 


EXISTENCE 
ly  followed  in  proving  the  existence  of  God  are 
two-  the  first  called  argumentum  a  priori, 
which  beginning  with  the  cause  descends  to  the 
effect;  the  other  argumentum  a  posteriori, 
which,  from  a  consideration  of  the  effect,  ascends 
to  the  cause.  The  former  of  these  hath  been 
particularly  laboured  by  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke ;  but 
after  all  he  has  said,  the  possibility  of  any  one's 
being  convinced  by  it  hath  been  questioned.  The 
most  general  proofs  are  the  following :  1.  "  All 
nations,  Heathens,  Jews,  Mahometans,  and 
Christians,  harmoniously  consent  that  there  is  a 
God  who  created,  preserves,  and  governs  all 
things.  To  this  it  has  tren  objected,  that  there 
have  been,  at  different  times  and  places,  men  who 
were  atheists,  and  deniers  of  a  God.  But  these 
have  been  so  few,  and  by  their  opinions  have 
shown  that  they  rather  denied  the  particular  pro- 
vidence than  the'  existence  of  God,  that  it  can 
hardly  be  said  to  be  an  exception  to  the  argu- 
ment stated.  And  even  if  men  were  bold  enough 
to  assert  it,  it  would  not  be  an  absolute  proof 
that  they  really  believed  what  they  said,  since  it 
might  proceed  from  a  wish  that  there  were  no 
God  to  whom  they  must  be  accountable  for  their 
sin,  rather  than  a  belief  of  it,  Ps.  xiv.  1.  It  has 
also  been  objected,  that  whole  nations  have  been 
found  in  Africa  and  America  who  have  no  notion 
of  a  Deity:  but  this  is  what  has  never  been 
proved;  on  the  contrary,  upon  accurate  inspec- 
tion, even  the  most  stupid  Hottentots,  Salda- 
nians,  Greenlanders,  Kamtschatkans,  and  savage 
Americans,  are  found  to  have  some  idea  of  a  God, 

2.  "  It  is  argued  from  the  law  and  light  of  Na- 
ture, or  from  the  general  impression  of  Deity  on 
the  mind  of  every  man,  i.  e.  an  indistinct  idea  of 
a  Being  of  infinite  perfection,  and  a  readiness  to 
acquiesce  in  the  truth  of  his  existence,  whenever 
they  understand  the  terms  in  which  it  is  express- 
ed. Whence  could  this  proceed,  even  in  the  minds 
of  such  whose  affections  and  carnal  interests  dis- 
pose them  to  believe  the  contrary,  if  there  were 
no  impression  naturally  in  their  hearts  7  It  has 
been  observed  by  some  writers,  that  there  are  no 
innate  ideas  in  the  minds  of  men,  and  particularly 
concerning  God  ;  but  this  is  not  so  easily  proved, 
since  an  inspired  apostle  assures  us  that  even  the 
Gentiles,  destitute  of  the  law  of  Moses,  have  the 
'  ^ork  of  the  law  written  in  their  hearts,'  Rom. 
ii.  15. 

3.  "  The  works  of  creation  plainly  demonstrate 
the  existence  of  a  God.  The  innumerable  alter- 
ations and  manifest  dependence,  every  where  ob- 
servable in  the  world,  prove  that  the  things  which 
exist  in  it  neither  are  nor  could  be  from  eternity. 
It  is  self-evident  that  they  never  could  form  them- 
selves out  of  nothing,  or  in  any  of  their  respective 
forms ;  and  that  chance,  being  nothing  but  the 
want  of  design,  never  did  nor  could  form  or  put 
into  order  any  thing ;  far  less  such  a  marvellous 
and  well  connected  system  as  our  world  is. 
Though  we  should  absurdly  fancy  matter  to  be 
eternal,  yet  it  could  not  change  its  own  form,  or 
produce  life  or  reason.  Moreover,  when  we  con- 
sider the  diversified  and  wonderful  forms  of 
creatures  in  the  world,  and  how  exactly  those 
form-;  and  stations  correspond  with  their  resj«c- 
tiveends  and  uses;  when  we  consider  the  mar- 
vellous and  exact  machinery,  form,  and  motions 
of  our  own  bodies;  and  especially  when  we  con- 
sider the  powers  of  our  soul,  its  desires  after  an 
infinite  good,  and  its  close  union  with,  and  in- 


EXISTENCE 
comprehensible  operations  on  our  bodies,  we  are 
obliged  to  admit  a  Creator  of  infinite  wisdom, 
power,  and  goodness. 

4.  "  It  is  argued  from  the  support  and  govern- 
ment of  the  world.     Who  can  consider  the  mo- 
tions of  the  heavenly  luminaries,  exactly  calcu- 
lated for  the  greatest  advantage  to  our  earth,  and 
its  inhabitants;  the  exact  balancing  and  regu- 
lating of  the  meteors,  winds,  rain,    snow,   hail, 
vapour,  thunder,  and  the  like;  the  regular  and 
never-failing  return  of  summer  and  winter,  seed- 
time and  harvest,  day  and  night;  the  astonishing 
and  diversified  formation  of  vegetables  ;  the  pro- 
pagation of  herbs,  almost  every  where,  that  are 
most  effectual  to  heal  the  distempers  of  animal 
bodies   in  that  place ;  the  almost  infinite  diver- 
sification of  animals  and  vegetables,   and  their 
pertinents,    that,   notwithstanding    an    amazing 
similarity,    not  any  two   are  exactly  alike,  but 
every  form,  member,  or  even  feather  or  hair  of 
animals,  and  every  pile  of  grass,  stalk  of  corn, 
herb,  leaf,  tree,  berry,  or  other  fruit,  hath  some- 
thing peculiar  to  itself:  the  making  of  animals  so 
sagaciously  to    prepare    their   lodgings,   defend 
themselves,  provide  for  their  health,  produce  and 
protect,  and  procure  food   for  their  young;  the 
direction  of  fishes  and  fowls  to  and  in  such  mar- 
vellous and  long  peregrinations,  at  such  seasons, 
and  to  such  places,  as  best  correspond  with  their 
own  preservation  and  the  benefit  of  mankind ; 
the  stationing  of  brute  animals  by  sea  or  land,  at 
less  or  greater  distances,  as  are  most  suited  to  the 
safety,  subsistence,  or  comfort  of  mankind,  and 
preventing  the  increase  of  prolific  animals,  and 
making  the  less  fruitful  ones,  which  are  used,  ex- 
ceedingly  to  abound ;    the   so  diversifying   the 
countenances,  voices,  and  hand-writings  of  men, 
as  best  secures  and  promotes  their  social  advan- 
tages ;  the  holding  of  so  equal  a  balance  between 
males  and  females,  while  the  number  of  males, 
whose  lives  are  peculiarly  endangered  in  war, 
navigation,  &c,  are  generally  greatest ;  the  pro- 
longing of  men's  lives,  when  the  world  needed  to 
be  peopled,  and  now  shortening  them  when  that 
necessity  hath  ceased  to  exist;  the  almost  uni- 
versal provision  of  food,  raiment,  medicine,  fuel, 
&c.,   answerable    to    the    nature  of   particular 
places,  cold  or  hot,  moist  or  dry;  the  manage- 
ment of  human  affairs  relative  to  societies,  eo- 


EXORCISM 

in  their  respective  periods,  and  of  the  fulfilmcni 
of  which  there  are  at  present  thousa  nds  of  demon- 
strative and  sensible  documents  in  the  world, 
could  proceed  from  any  but  an  all-seeing  and  in- 
finitely wise  God. 

7.  "  The  existence  of  God  further  appears  from 
the  fearful  punishments  which  have  been  inflicted 
upon  persons,  and  especially  upon  nations,  when 
their  immoralities  became  excessive,  and  that  by 
very  unexpected  means  and  instruments ;  as  in 
the  drowning  of  the  old  world ;  destruction  of 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah ;  plagues  of  Pharaoh  and 
his  servants ;  overthrow  of  Sennacherib  and  his 
army  ;  miseries  and  ruin  of  the  Canaanites,  Jews, 
Syrians,  Assyrians,  Chaldeans,  Persians,  Egyp- 
tians, Greeks,  Romans,  Saracens,  Tartars,  and 
others. 

8.  "Lastly,  the  existence  of  God  may  be  ar- 
gued from  the  terror  and  dread  which  wound  the 
consciences  of  men,  when  guilty  of  crimes  which 
other  men  do  not  know,  or  are  not  able  to  punish 
or  restrain :  as  in  the  case  of  Caligula,  Nero,  and 
Domitian,  the  Roman  emperors ;  and  this  while 
they  earnestly  labour  to  persuade  themselves  or 
others  that  there  is  no  God.  Hence  their  being 
afraid  of  thunder,  or  to  be  left  alone  in  the  dark, 
&c." 

As  to  the  modus  of  the  divine  existence, 
would  be  presumption  to  attempt  to  explain. 
That  he  exists,  is  clear  from  the  foregoing  argu- 
ments; but  the  manner  of  that  existence  is  not 
for  us  to  know.  Many  good  men  have  uttered 
great  absurdities  in  endeavouring  to  explain  it, 
and  after  all  none  of  them  have  succeeded.  The 
wisest  of  men  never  made  the  attempt.  Moses 
began  his  writings  by  supposing  the  being  of  a 
God ;  he  did  not  attempt  to  explain  it.  Although 
many  of  the  inspired  writers  asserted  his  exist- 
ence, and,  to  discountenance  idolatry,  pleaded 
for  his  perfections,  yet  no  one  of  them  ever  pre- 
tended to  explain  the  manner  of  his  being.  Oui 
duty  is  clear.  We  are  not  commanded  nor  ex- 
pected to  understand  it.  All  that  is  required  i? 
this :  "  He  that  cometh  to  God  must  believe  that 
he  is,  and  that  he  is  a  rewarder  of  them  that  dili- 
gently seek  him."  Heb.  xi.  6.  See  Gill's  Body 
of  Div.  b.  i. ;  Charnock's  Works,  vol.  i. ;  Ridg- 
ley's  Div.  ques.  2 ;  Brown's  System  of  Die. ; 
Pierre's   Studies   of  Nature;  Sturm's  Refkc 


vernment,  peace,  war,  trade,  &c,  in  a  manner    tions ;  Spect.de  la  Nat. ;  Bonnet's  Philosophi 


different  from,  and  contrary  to,  the  carnal  policy 
of  those  concerned  ;  and  especially  the  strangely 
similar  but  diversified  erection,  preservation,  and 
government  of  the  Jewish  and  Christian  churches; 
who,  I  say,  can  consider  all  these  things,  and  not 
acknowledge  the  existence  of  a  wise,  merciful, 
and  good  God,  who  governs  the  world,  and  every 
thiug  in  if? 

5.  "  It  is  proved  from  the  miraculous  events 
which  have  happened  in  the  world :  such  as  the 
overflowing  of  the  earth  by  a  flood ;  the  confusion 
of  languages;  the  burning  of  Sodom  and  the  ci- 
ties about  by  fire  from  heaven ;  the  plagues  of 
Egypt;  the  dividing  of  the  Red  Sea;  raining 
manna  from  heaven,  and  bringing  streams  of 
water  from  flinty  rocks;  the  stopping  of  the 
course  of  the  sun,  &c.  &c. 

G.  "  His  existence  no  less  clearly  appears  from 
the  exact  fulfilment  of  so  many  and  so  particu- 
larly circumstantiated  predictions,  published  long 
before  the  event  took  place.  It  is  impossible  that 
these  predictions,  which  were  so  exactly  fulfilled 
131) 


cat  Researches ;  and  writers  enumerated  under 
the  article  Atheism. 

EXORCISM,  the  expelling  of  devils  from 
persons  possessed,  by  means  of  conjurations  and 
prayers.  The  Jews  made  great  pretences  to  this 
power.  Josephus  tells  several  wonderful  tales  of 
the  great  success  of  several  exorcists.  One  Elea- 
zer,  a  Jew,  cured  many  dsemoniacs,  he  says,  by 
means  of  a  root  set  in  a  ring.  This  root,  with 
the  ring,  was  held  under  the  patient's  nose,  and 
the  devil  was  forthwith  evacuated.  The  most 
part  of  conjurors  of  this  class  were  impostors, 
each  pretending  to  a  secret  nostrum  or  charm 
which  was  an  overmatch  for  the  devil.  Our  Sa- 
viour communicated  to  his  disciples  a  real  power 
over  daemons,  or  at  least  over  the  diseases  said 
to  be  occasioned  by  daemons.     See  Demoniac. 

Exorcism  makes  a  considerable  part  of  the 
superstition  of  the  church  of  Rome,  the  ritual  of 
which  forbids  the  exorcising  any  person  without 
the  bishop's  leave.  The  ceremony  is  performed 
a  the  lower  end  of  the  church,  towards  the  door. 


EXPERIENCE 
The  exorcist  first  signs  the  possessed  person  with 
the  sign  of  the  cross,  makes  him  kneel,  and 
sprinkles  him  with  holy  water.  Then  follow 
the  litanies,  psalms,  and  prayer;  after  which  the 
exorcist  asks  the  devil  his  name,  and  abjures  him 
by  the  mysteries  of  the  Christian  religion  not  to 
afflict  the  person  any  more ;  then,  laving  his 
right  hand  on  the  demoniac's  head,  he  repeats 
the  form  of  exorcism,  which  is  this:  "1  exorcise 
thee,  unclean  spirit,  in  the  name  of  Jesus  Christ  : 
tremble,  0  Satan,  thou  enemy  of  the  faith,  thou 
foe  of  mankind,  who  hast  brought  death  into  the 
world;  who  hast  deprived  men  of  life,  and  hast 
rebelled  against  justice;  thou  seducer  of  mankind, 
thou  root  of  all  evil,  thou  source  of  avarice,  dis- 
cord, and  envy."  The  Romanists  likewise  ex- 
orcise houses  and  other  places  supposed  to  he 
haunted  by  unclean  spirits;  and  the  ceremony  is 
much  the  same  as  that  for  a  person  possessed. 

EXORDIUM.     SeeSKRMOx. 

EXPEDIENCY,  the  fitness  or  propriety  of  a 
mean  to  the  attainment  of  an  end.  See  Obli- 
gation. 

EXPERIENCE,  knowledge  acquired  by  long 
use  without  a  teacher.  It  consists  in  the  ideas 
of  things  which  we  have  seen  or  read,  which  the 
judgment  has  reflected  on,  to  form  for  itself  a 
rule  or  method. 

Christian  experience  is  that  religious  know- 
ledge which  is  acquired  by  an)'  exercises,  enjoy- 
ments, or  sufferings,  either  of  body  or  mind. 
Nothing  is  more  common  than  to  ridicule  and 
despise  what  is  called  religious  experience  as 
m°re  enthusiasm.  But  if  religion  consist  in 
feeling,  we  would  ask,  how  it  can  possibly  exist 
without  experience  ?  We  are  convinced  of,  and 
admit  the  propriety  of  the  term,  when  applied  to 
those  branches  of  science  which  are  not  founded 
on  speculation  or  conjecture,  but  on  sensible  trial. 
Why,  then,  should  it  be  rejected  when  applied 
to  religion"?  It  is  evident  that,  however  beautiful 
religion  may  be  in  name,  its  excellency  and  ener- 
gy are  only  truly  known  and  displayed  as  expe- 
rienced. A  system  believed,  or  a  mind  merely 
informed,  will  produce  little  good,  except  the  heart 
be  affected,  and  we  feel  its  influence.  To  expe- 
perience,  then,  the  religion  of  Christ,  we  must 
not  only  be  acquainted  with  its  theory,  but  enjoy 
its  power  ;  subduing  our  corruptions,  animating 
our  affections,  and  exciting  us  to  duty.  Hence 
the  Scripture  calls  experience  tasting,  Ps.  xxxiv. 
9 ;  feeling,  &c.  1  Thess.  ii.  13,  &c.  That  our 
experience  is  always  absolutely  pure  in  the  pre- 
sent state,  cannot  be  expected.  "  The  best  ex- 
perience," says  a  good  writer,  "may  be  mixed 
with  natural  affections  and  passions,  impressions 
on  the  imagination,  self-righteousness,  or  spiritual 
pride ;"  but  this  is  no  reason  that  all  experience 
is  to  he  rejected,  for  upon  this  ground  nothing 
could  be  received,  since  nothing  is  absolutely  per- 
fect. It  is,  however,  to  be  lamented,  that  while  the 
best  of  men  have  a  mixture  in  their  experience, 
there  are  others  whose  experience  (so  called)  is 
entirely  counterfeit.  They  have  been  alarmed, 
have  changed  the  ground  of  their  confidence, 
have  had  their  imaginations  heated  and  delighted 
by  impressions  and  visionary  representations ; 
they  have  recollected  the  promises  of  the  Gospel, 
as  if  spoken  to  them  with  peculiar  appropriation, 
to  certify  them  that  their  sins  were  forgiven; 
and  having  seen  and  heard  such  wonderful  things, 
they  think  they  must  doubt  no  more  of  their  adop- 
140 


EXPERIENCE 
tion  into  the  family  of  Go.J-.  They  hpve  also  fre- 
quently heard  all  experience  profanely  ridiculed 
as  enthusiasm ;  and  this  betrays  them  into  the 
opposite  extreme,  so  that  they  are  emboldened  to 
despise  every  caution  as  the  result  of  enmity  to 
internal  religion,  and  to  act  as  if  there  were  no 
delusive  or  counterfeit  experience.  But  the  event 
too  plainly  shows  their  awful  mistake,  and  that 
they  grounded  their  expectations  U|>on  the  ac- 
count given  of  the  extraordinary  operations  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  on  the  minds  of  prophets,  rather  than 
on  the  promises  of  his  renewing  influence  in  the 
hearts  of  believers.  When,  therefore,  they  lose 
the  impressions  with  which  they  once  were  elated, 
they  relapse  nearly  into  their  old  course  of  life, 
their  creed  and  confidence  alone  excepted." 

Christian  experience  may  be  considered  as 
genuine,  1.  When  it  accords  with  the  revelation 
of  God's  mind  and  will,  or  what  he  has  revealed 
in  his  word.  Any  thing  contrary  to  this,  how- 
ever pleasing,  cannot  be  sound,  or  produced  by 
divine  agency. — 2.  When  its  tendency  is  to  pro- 
mote humility  in  us :  that  experience,  by  which 
we  learn  our  own  weakness,  and  subdues  pride, 
must  be  good. — 3.  When  it  teaches  us  to  bear 
with  others,  and  to  do  them  good. — i.  When  it 
operates  so  as  to  excite  us  to  be  ardent  in  our  de- 
votion, and  sincere  in  our  regard  to  God.  A 
powerful  experience  of  the  divine  favour  will  lead 
us  to  acknowledge  the  same,  and  to  manifest  our 
gratitude  both  by  constant  praise  and  genuine 
piety. 

Christian  experience,  however,  may  be  abused. 
There  are  some  good  people  who  certainly  have 
felt  and  enjoyed  the  power  of  religion,  and  yet 
have  not  always  acted  with  prudence  as  to  their 
experience.  1.  Some  Doast  of  their  experiences, 
or  talk  of  them  as  if  they  were  very  extraordinary ; 
whereas,  were  they  acquainted  with  others,  they 
would  find  it  not  so.  That  a  man  may  make 
mention  of  his  experience,  is  no  way  improper, 
but  often  useful;  but  to  hear  persons  always 
talking  of  themselves,  seems  to  indicate  a  spirit  of 
pride,  and  that  their  experience  cannot  be  very 
deep. — 2.  Another  abuse  of  experience  is,  de- 
pendence on  it.  We  ought  certainly  to  take  en- 
couragement from  past  circumstances,  if  we  can ; 
but  if  we  are  so  dependent  on  past  experience1  as 
to  preclude  present  exertions,  or  always  expect  to 
have  exactly  the  same  assistance  in  every  state, 
trial,  or  ordinance,  we  shall  be  disappointed.  God 
has  wisely  ordered  it,  that  though  he  never  will 
leave  his  people,  yet  he  will  suspend  or  bestow 
comfort  in  his  own  time;  for  this  very  reason, 
that  we  may  rely  on  him,  and  not  on  the  circum- 
stance or  ordinance. — 3.  It  is  an  abuse  of  expe- 
rience, when  introduced  at  improper  tunes,  and 
before  improper  persons.  It  is  true,  we  ought 
never  to  be  ashamed  of  our  profession ;  but  to  be 
always  talking  to  irreligious  people  respecting  ex- 
perience, which  they  know  nothing  of,  is,  as  our 
Saviour  says,  casting  pearls  before  swine.  Bun- 
yan's  Pilgrim's  Progress;  Buck's  Treatise  on 
Experience;  Gornall's  Christian  Armour ;  Dr, 
Owen  on  Psalm  exxx ;  Edwards  on  the  Affec- 
tions, and  his  Thoughts  on  the  Revival  of  Reli- 
gion in  New  England ;  Dor/iei/s  Contempla- 
tions. 

EXPERIENCE  MEETINGS,  are  assem- 
blies  of  religious  persons,  who  meet  for  the  pur- 
pose of  relating  their  experience  to  each  other. 
It  has  been  doubted  by  some  whether  these  meet- 


FAITH 

tngs  are  of  any  great  utility ;  and  whether  they 
do  not  in  some  measure  force  people  to  say  more 
than  is  true,  and  puff  up  those  with  pride  who 
are  able  to  communicate  their  ideas  with  facility  ; 
but  to  this  it  may  be  answered,  1.  That  the 
abuse  of  a  thing  is  no  proof  of  the  evil  of  it. — 2. 
That  the  most  eminent  saints  of  old  did  not  ne- 
glect this  practice,  Ps.  Ixvi.  16 ;  Mai.  iii.  1G. — 3. 
That  by  a  wise  and  prudent  relation  of  expe- 
rience, the  Christian  is  led  to  see  that  others 
have  participated  of  the  same  joys  and  sorrows 
with  himself;  he  is  excited  to  love  and  serve 
God;  and  animated  to  perseverance  in  duty,  by 
finding  that  others,  of  like  passions  with  himself, 
are  zealous,  active,  and  diligent. — 4.  That  the 
Scriptures  seem  to  enjoin  the  frequent  intercourse 


FAITH 

of  Christians  for  the  purpose  of  strengthening 
each  other  in  religious  services,  Heb.  x.  24,  25 ; 
Col.  iii.  10;  Matt,  xviii.  20.     See  Conference. 

EXPIATION,  a  religious  act,  by  which  sa- 
tisfaction or  atonement  is  made  for  some  crime, 
the  guilt  removed,  and  the  obligation  to  punish- 
ment cancelled,  Lev.  xvi.     Sec  Propitiation. 

EXPOSITIONS.     See  Commentaries. 

EXTORTION,  the  act  or  practice  of  gaining 
or  acquiring  any  thing  by  force.  Extortioners  are 
included  in  the  list  of  those  who  are  excluded 
from  the  kingdom  of  heaven.  1  Cor.  x.  6. 

EXTREME  UNCTION,  one  of  the  sacra- 
ments of  the  Romish  church,  the  fifth  in  order, 
administered  to  people  dangerously  sick,  by  anoint- 
ing them  with  holy  oil,  and  prajing  over  them. 


F. 


FAITH  is  that  assent  which  we  give  to  a  pro- 
position advanced  by  another,  the  truth  of  which 
we  do  not  immediately  perceive  from  our  own 
reason  and  experience;  or  it  is  a  judgment. or  as- 
sent of  the  mind,  the  motive  whereof  is  not  any 
intrinsic  evidence,  but  the  authority  or  testimony 
of  some  other  who  reveals  or  relates  it.  The 
Greek  word  n.a-Tis,  translated  faith,  comes  from 
the  verb  iisia»),  to  persuade;  the  nature  of  faith 
being  a  persuasion  and  assent  of  the  mind,  arising 
from  testimony  or  evidence. 

1.  Divine  faith,  is  that  founded  on  the  au- 
thority of  God,  or  it  is  that  assent  which  we  give 
to  what  is  revealed  by  God.  The  objects  of  this, 
therefore,  are  matters  of  revelation. 

2.  Human  faith,  is  that  whereby  we  believe 
what  is  told  us  by  men.  The  objects  hereof  are 
matters  of  human  testimony  or  evidence. 

3.  Historical  faith,  is  that  whereby  we  assent 
to  the  truths  of  revelation  as  a  kind  of  certain  and 
infallible  record,  James  ii.  17,  or  to  any  fact  re- 
corded in  history. 

4.  The  faith  of  miracles,  is  the  persuasion  a 
t«rson  has  of  his  being  able,  by  divine  power,  to 
effect  a  miracle  on  another,  Matt.  xvii.  20;  1  Cor. 
xiii.  2  :  or  another  on  himself,  Acts,  xiv.  9.  This 
obtained  chiefly  in  the  time  of  Christ  and  his 
apostles. 

G.  A  temporary  faith,  is  an  assent  to  evan- 
gelical truths,  as  both  interesting  and  desirable, 
but  not  farther  than  they  are  accompanied  with 
temporal  advantages ;  and  which  is  lost  when 
such  advantages  diminish  or  are  removed,  Matt, 
xi.  24;  Luke  viii.  13. 

G.  Faith  in  respect  to  futurity,  is  a  moral  prin- 
ciple, implying  such  a  conviction  of  the  reality 
and  importance  of  a  future  state,  as  is  sufficient 
to  regulate  the  temper  and  conduct. 

7.  Faith  in  Christ,  or  saving  faith,  is  that 
principle  wrought  in  the  heart  by  the  Divine 
Spirit,  whereby  we  are  persuaded  that  Christ  is 
the  Messiah  ;  and  possess  such  a  desire  and  ex- 
pectation of  the  blessings  he  has  promised  in  his 
Gospel,  as  engages  the  mind  to  fix  its  dependence 
on  him,  and  subject  itself  to  him  in  all  the  ways 
of  holy  obedience,  and  relying  solely  on  his  grace 
for  everlasting  life.  These  are  the  ideas  which 
are  generally  annexed  to  the  definition  of  saving 
faith ;  but,  accurately  speaking,  faith  is  an  act  of 
the  understanding,  giving  credit  to  the  testimony 
of  the  Gospel ;  and  desire,  expectation,  confi- 
141 


dence,  &c,  are  rather  the  effects  of  it,  than  faith 
itself,  though  inseparably  connected  with  it. 
Much  has  been  said  as  to  the  order  or  place  in 
which  faith  stands  in  the  Christian  system,  some 
placing  it  before,  others  after  repentance.  Per- 
haps the  following  remarks  on  the  subject  may 
be  considered  as  consistent  with  truth  and  Scrip- 
ture :  1.  Regeneration  is  the  work  of  God  en- 
lightening the  mind,  and  changing  the  heart,  and 
in  order  of  time  precedes  faith. — 2.  Faith  is  thw 
consequence  of  regeneration,  and  implies  the  per- 
ception of  an  object.  It  discerns  the  evil  of  sin, 
the  holiness  of  God,  gives  credence  to  the  testi- 
mony of  God  in  his  word,  and  seems  to  precede 
repentance,  since  we  cannot  repent  of  that  of 
which  we  have  no  clear  perception,  or  no  concern 
about. — 3.  Repentance  is  an  after-thought,  or 
sorrowing  for  sin,  the  evil  nature  of  which  faith 
perceives,  and  which  immediately  follows  faith. — 
4.  Conversion  is  a  turning  from  sin,  which  faith 
sees,  and  repentance  sorrows  for,  and  seems  to 
follow,  and  to  be  the  end  of  all  the  rest. 

As  to  the  properties  or  adjuncts  of  faith,  we 
may  observe,  1.  That  it  is  the  first  and  principal 
grace  :  it  stands  first  in  order,  and  takes  the  pre- 
cedence of  other  graces,  Mark  xvi.  1G  ;  Heb.  xi. 
6. — 2.  It  is  every  way  precious  and  valuable,  1 
Pet.  ii.  1. — 3.  It  is  called  in  Scripture,  one  faith  ; 
for  though  there  are  several  sorts  of  faith,  there  is 
but  one  special  or  saving  faith,  Eph.  iv.  5. — 4.  It 
is  also  denominated  common  faith ;  common  to 
all  the  regenerate,  Tit.  i.  4. — 5.  It  is  true,  real, 
and  unfeigned.  Acts  viii.  37 ;  Rom.  x.  10. — G.  It 
cannot  be  finally  lost  as  to  the  grace  of  it,  Phil.  i. 
G;  Luke  xxii.  32. — 7.  It  is  progressive,  Luke 
xvii.  5;  2  Thess.  i.  3. — 8.  It  appropriates  and 
realizes,  or,  as  the  apostle  says,  is  the  substance 
of  things  hoped  for,  and  the  evidence  of  things 
not  seen,  Heb.  xi.  1. 

The  evidences  or  effects  of  faith,  are,  1.  Love 
to  Christ,  1  Pet.  i.  8 ;  Gal.  v.  6. — 2.  Confidence, 
Eph.  iii.  12. — 3.  Joy,  Rom.  v.  11 ;  Phil.  i.  25. — 
4.  Prayer,  Heb.  iv.  1G. — 5.  Attention  to  his  or- 
dinances, and  profit  by  them,  Heb.  iv.  2. — 6. 
Zeal  in  the  promotion  of  his  glory,  1  Cor.  xv.  58; 
Gal.  vi.  9. — 7.  Holiness  of  heart  and  life,  Matt, 
vii.  20;  1  John  ii.  3;  Acts  xv.  9;  James  ii.  18, 
20,  22.  See  articles  Assurance  and  Justifica- 
tion, in  this  work;  and  Polhill  on  Precious 
Faith;  hamberVs  Sermons,  13,  14,  &c.  ;  Scott's 
Nature  and  Warrant  of  Faith ;  Rom  a  in  c's  Life 


FALL 

Walk,  and  Triumph  of  Faith ;  Rotherham's 
Essay  on  Faith;  Dare's  Letters  on  Fai/h;  A. 
Hall  on  the  Faith  and  Influence  of  the  Gospel; 
Goodwin's  Works,  vol.  iv. 

FAITH,  ARTICLE  OF.     See  Article. 

FAITH,  CONFESSION  OF.  Sec  Con- 
fession. 

FAITH,  IMPLICIT.   Sre  Implicit  Faith. 

FAITHFULNESS.    See  Fidelity. 

FAITHFULNESS,  MINISTERIAL.  See 
Pastor. 

FAITHFULNESS  OF  GOD,  is  that  per- 
fection of  his  nature  whereby  he  infallibly  fulfils 
his  designs,  or  performs  his  word.  It  appears, 
says  Dr.  Gill,  in  the  performance  of  what  he  has 
s:iid  with  respect  to  the  world  in  general,  that  it 
shall  not  be  destroyed  by  a  flood,  as  it  once  was, 
and  for  a  token  of  it,  has  set  his  bow  in  the  clouds; 
that  the  ordinances  of  heaven  should  keep  their 
due  course,  which  they  have  done  for  almost 
(J000  years,  exactly  and  punctually;  that  all 
his  creatures  snouid  oe  supported  and  provided 
for,  and  the  elements  all  made  subservient  to  that 
end,  which  we  find  do  so  according  to  Ms  so- 
vereign pleasure,  Gen.  ix  ;  Isa.  liv.  i);  Ps.  cxlv; 
Deut.  xi.  14,  15;  2  Pet.  iii. 

8.  It  appears  in  the  fulfilment  of  what  he  has 
said  with  respect  to  Christ.  "Whoever  will  take 
the  pains  to  compare  the  predictions  of  the  birth, 
poverty,  life,  sufferings,  death,  resurrection,  and 
ascension  of  Christ,  with  the  accomplishment  of 
the  samp,  will  find  a  striking  demonstration  of 
the  faithfulness  of  God. 

3.  It  appears  in  the  performance  of  the  pro- 
mises which  he  has  made  to  his  people.  In  re- 
spect to  temporal  blessings,  1  Tim.  iv.  8;  Psal. 
Ixxxiv.  11;  Is.  xxxiii.  16. — 2.  To  spiritual,  1 
Cor.  i.  9.  In  supporting  them  in  temptation,  1 
Cor.  x.  13.  Encouraging  them  under  persecu- 
tion, 1  Pet.  iv.  12,  13 ;  Isa.  xli.  10.  Sanctifying 
a  mictions,  Heb.  xii.  4  to  12.  Directing  them  in 
difficulties,  1  Thess.  v.  24.  Enabling  them  to 
persevere,  Jer.  xxxi.  40.  Bringing  them  to  glory, 
1  John  ii.  25. 

4.  It  appears  in  the  fulfilling  of  his  threaten- 
ings.  The  curse  came  upon  Adam  according  as 
it  was  threatened.  He  fulfilled  his  threatening 
to  the  old  world  in  destroying  it.  He  declared 
that  the  Israelites  should  be  subject  to  his  awful 
displeasure,  if  they  walked  not  in  his  ways;  it 
was  accordingly  fulfilled,  Deut.  xxviii.  See  IM- 
MUTABILITY. 

FALL  OF  MAN,  the  loss  of  those  perfec- 
tions and  that  happiness  which  his  Maker  be- 
stowed on  him  at  his  creation,  through  transgres- 
sion of  a  positive  command,  given  for  the  trial  of 
man's  obedience,  and  as  a  token  of  his  holding 
every  thing  of  God,  as  Lord  paramount  of  the 
creation,  with  the  use  of  every  thing  in  it,  exclu- 
sive of  the  fruit  of  one  tree.  This  positive  law  he 
broke  by  eating  the  forbidden  fruit ;  first  the 
woman,  then  the  man :  and  thus  the  condition  or 
law  of  the  covenant  being  broken,  the  covenant 
itself  was  broken.  The  woman  was  enticed  by 
an  evil  genius,  under  the  semblance  of  a  serpent, 
as  appears  from  its  reasoning  the  woman  into  the 
transgression  of  the  law,  of  which  a  brute  beast  is 
incapable.  Hence  the  evil  genius  is  called  a  mur- 
derer and  a  liar  from  the  beginning,  John  viii.  1 1. 
Rom.  v.  12;  the  old  serpent,  Rev.  xii.  9.  xx.  2. 
Moses  relates  this  history,  from  what  appeared 
citernally  to  sense ;  both,  therefore,  are  to  be  I 
112 


FALL 

conjoined,  the  serpent  as  the  instrument,  and  the 
devd  as  the  primary  cause.  Man  suffered  him- 
self to  be  seduced  by  perverse  and  confused  no- 
tions of  good  and  evil,  prompted  by  a  desire  of  a 
greater  degree  of  perfection,  and  swayed  by  his 
sensual  appetite,  in  contradiction  to  his  reason, 
Gen.  iii.  6.  And  thus  it  appears  possible,  how, 
notwithstanding  the  divine  image  with  which 
man  is  adorned,  he  might  fall ;  for,  though  inclu- 
ding in  it  knowledge,  it  did  not  exclude  from  it 
confused  notions,  which  are  those  arising  from 
sense  and  imagination,  especially  when  off  our 
guard  and  inattentive,  blindly  following  the  pre- 
sent impression.  Fronr  this  one  sin  arose  an- 
other, and  then  another,  from  the  connexion  of 
causes  and  effects,  till  this  repetition  brought  on 
a  habit  of  sin,  consequently,  a  state  of  moral  sla- 
very ;  called  by  divines  a  death  in  sin,  a  spiritual 
death,  a  defect  of  power  to  act  according  to  the 
law,  and  from  the  motive  of  the  divine  perfections, 
as  death  in  srcneral  is  such  a  defect  of  power  of 
action ;  and  this  defect  or  inability,  with  all  its 
consequences,  man  entailed  on  his  posterity,  re- 
maining upon  them,  till  one  greater  man  remove 
this,  and  reinstate  them  in  all  they  forfeited  in 
Adam. 

In  the  fall  of  man  we  may  observe,  1.  The 
greatest  infidelity. — 2.  Prodigious  pride. — 3.  Hor- 
rid ingratitude. — 1.  Visible  contempt  of  God's 
majesty  and  justice. — 5.  Unaccountable  folly. — 
6.  A  cruelty  to  himself  and  to  all  his  posterity. 
Infidels,  however,  have  treated  the  account  of  the 
fall  and  its  effects,  with  contempt,  and  considered 
the  whole  as  absurd  ;  but  their  objections  to  the 
manner  have  been  ably  answered  by  a  variety  of 
authors ;  and  as  to  the  effects,  one  would  hardly 
think  any  body  could  deny.  For,  that  man  is  a 
fallen  creature,  is  evident,  if  we  consider  his  mi- 
sery as  an  inhabitant  of  the  natural  world  ;  the 
disorders  of  the  globe  we  inhabit,  and  the  dreadful 
scourges  with  which  it  is  visited  ;  the  deplorable 
and  shocking  circumstances  of  our  birth ;  the 
painful  and  dangerous  travail  of  women ;  our  na- 
tural uncleanlincss,  helplessness,  ignorance,  and 
nakedness ;  the  gross  darkness  in  which  we  na- 
turally are,  both  with  respect  to  God  and  a  future 
state :  the  general  rebellion  of  the  brute  creation 
against  us ;  the  various  poisons  that  lurk  in  the 
animal,  vegetable  and  mineral  world,  ready  to 
destroy  us;  the  heavy  curse  of  toil  and  sweat,  to 
which  we  are  liable  ;  the  innumerable  calamities 
of  life,  and  the  pangs  of  death.  Again,  it  is  evi- 
oent,  if  we  consider  him  as  a  citizen  of  the  moral 
world ;  his  commission  of  sin ;  his  omission  of 
duty;  the  triumph  of  sensual  appetites  ever  his 
intellectual  faculties ;  the  corruption  of  the  ]>owers 
that  constitute  a  good  head,  the  understanding, 
imagination,  memory  and  reason  ;  the  depravity 
of  the  powers  which  form  a  good  heart,  the  will, 
conscience,  and  affections;  his  manilest  aliena- 
tion from  Gc<1;  his  amazing  disregard  even  of  his 
nearest  relatives;  his  unaccountable  unconcern 
about  himself;  his  detestable  tempers;  the  gene- 
ral out-breaking  of  human  corruption  in  all  indi- 
viduals ;  the  universal  overflowing  of  it  in  all  na- 
tions. Some  striking  proofs  of  this  depravity  may 
be  seen  in  the  general  propensity  of  mankind  to 
vain,  irrational,  or  cruel  diversions;  in  the  uni- 
versality of  the  most  ridiculous,  impious,  inhuman, 
and  diabolical  sins ;  in  the  aggravating  circum- 
stances attending  the  display  of  this  corruption; 
in  the  rnary  ineUcctuul  endeavours  to  stem  its 


FASTING 

torrent ;  in  the  obstinate  resistance  it  makes  to 
divine  grace  in  the  unconverted ;  the  amazing 
struggles  of  good  men  with  it ;  the  testimony 
of  the  heathens  concerning  it ;  and  the  preposte- 
rous conceit  which  the  unconverted  have  of  their 
own  goodness.  Diet,  of  the  Bible;  Fletcher's 
Appeal  to  Matters  of  Fact ;  Berry  Street  Lec- 
tures, vol.  i.  180,  189;  South' s  Sermons,  vol.  i. 
124,  150;  Bates's  Harmony  of  Div.  Att.  p.  98  ; 
Boston's  Fourfold  State,  part  i. 

FALSEHOOD,  untruth,  deceit.  See  Lying. 

FALSE  CHR1STS.     See  Messiah. 

FAMILIARS  OF  THE  INQ.UIS1TION, 
persons  who  assist  in  apprehending  such  as  are 
accused,  and  carrying  them  to  prison.  They  are 
assistants  to  the  inquisitor,  and  called  familiars, 
because  they  belong  to  his  family.  In  some  pro- 
vinces of  Italy  they  arc  called  cross-bearers;  and 
and  in  others  the  scholars  of  St.  Peter  the  Mar- 
tyr; and  wear  a  cross  before  them  on  the  outside 
garment.  They  are  properly  bailiffs  of  the  inqui- 
sition ;  and  the  vile  office  is  esteemed  so  honour- 
able, that  noblemen  in  the  kingdom  of  Portugal 
have  been  ambitious  of  belonging  to  it.  Nor  is 
this  surprising,  when  it  is  considered  that  Inno- 
cent III.  granted  very  large  indigencies  and  pri- 
vileges to  these  familiars  ;  and  that  the  same  ple- 
nary indulgence  is  granted  by  the  pope  to  every 
single  exercise  of  this  office,  as  was  granted  by  the 
Lateran  council  to  those  who  succoured  the  Holy 
Land.  When  several  persons  are  to  be  taken  up 
at  the  same  time,  these  familiars  are  commanded 
to  order  matters  that  they  may  know  nothing  of 
one  another's  being  apprehended  ;  and  it  is  re- 
lated, that  a  father  and  his  three  sons  and  three 
daughters,  who  lived  together  in  the  same  house, 
were  carried  prisoners  to  the  inquisition  without 
knowing  any  thing  of  one  another's  being  there 
till  seven  years  afterwards,  when  they  that  were 
alive  were  released  by  an  act  of  faith.  See  art. 
Act  of  Faith. 

FAMILY  PRAYER.    See  Prayer. 

FAMILY  OF  LOVE,  or  Familists.  See 
Love.  * 

FANATICS,  wild  enthusiasts,  visionary  per- 
sons, who  pretend  to  revelation  and  inspiration. 
The  ancients  called  those  fanatici  who  passed 
their  time  in  temples  (fana)  and  being  often 
seized  with  a  kind  of  enthusiasm,  as  if  inspired  by 
the  Divinity,  showed  wild  and  antic  gestures,  cut- 
ting and  slashing  their  arms  with  knives,  shaking 
the  head,  &c.  Hence  the  word  was  applied 
among  us  to  the  Anabaptists,  Quakers,  &c.  at 
their  lirst  rise,  and  is  now  an  epithet  given  to  mo- 
dern prophets,  enthusiasts,  &c;  and  we  believe 
unjustly  to  those  who  possess  a  considerable  de- 
gree of  zeal  and  fervency  of  devotion. 

FARNOVIANS,  a  sect  of  Socinians,  so  call- 
ed from  Stanislaus  Farnovius,  who  separated 
from  the  other  Unitarians  in  the  year  1568.  He 
asserted  that  Christ  had  been  engendered  or  pro- 
duced out  of  nothing  by  the  Supreme  Being,  be- 
fore the  creation  of  this  terrestrial  globe,  and  warn- 
ed his  disciples  against  paying  religious  worship 
to  the  Divine  Spirit.  This  sect  did  not  last  long; 
for  having  lost  their  chief,  who  died  in  1615,  it 
was  scattered  and  reduced  to  nothing. 

FASTING,  abstinence  from  food,  more  par- 
ticularly that  abstinence  which  is  used  on  a  reli- 
gious account. 

The  Jews  had  every  year  a  stated  and  solemn 
fast  on  the  10th  day  of  the  month  Tisri,  wliich 
143 


FASTING 

generally  answered  to  the  close  of  our  September 
This  solemnity  was  a  day  of  strict  rest  and  fasting 
to  the  Israelites.  Many  of  them  spent  the  day 
before  in  prayer,  and  such  like  penitential  exer- 
cises. On  the  day  itself,  at  least  in  later  times, 
they  made  a  tenfold  confession  of  their  sins,  and 
were  careful  to  end  all  their  mutual  broils.  See 
Lev.  xvi.  Numb.  xxix.  7,  12.  Lev.  xxiii.  23, 
32.  Individuals  also  fasted  on  any  extraordinary 
distress.  Thus  David  fasted  during  the  sickness 
of  his  adulterous  child,  2  Sam.  xii.  21 ;  Ahab, 
when  he  was  threatened  with  ruin,  1  Kings  xii 
27 ;  Daniel,  when  he  understood  that  the  Jewist 
captivity  drew  to  an  end ;  9th  and  10th  chapters 
of  Nehemiah,  Joshua,  &c. 

However  light  some  think  of  religious  fasting, 
it  seems  it  has  been  practised  by  most  nations 
from  the  remotest  antiquity.  The  Egyptians, 
Phoenicians,  and  Assyrians,  had  their  fasts  as 
well  as  the  Jews.  Porphyry  affirms  that  the 
Egyptians,  before  their  stated  sacrifices,  always 
fasted  a  great  many  days ;  sometimes  for  six 
weeks.  The  Greeks  observed  their  fasts  much  in 
the  same  manner.  At  Rome,  kings  and  empe- 
rors fasted  themselves.  Numa  Pompilius,  Julius 
Caesar,  Augustus,  Vespasian,  and  others,  we  are 
told,  had  their  stated  fest  days ;  and  Julian  the 
apostate  was  so  exact  in  this  observation,  that  ho 
outdid  the  priests  themselves.  The  Pythago- 
reans frequently  fasted  rigidly  for  a  long  time; 
and  Pythagoras,  their  master,  continued  his  fast, 
it  is  said,  for  forty  days  together.  The  Brach- 
mans,  and  the  Chinese,  have  also  their  stated  fasts. 

Every  one  knows  how  much  fasting  has  been 
considered  as  an  important  rite  in  the  church  of 
Rome,  and  the  extremes  they  have  run  into  in 
this  respect.  See  article  Abstinence.  The 
church  of  England  also  has  particular  seasons 
for  fasting,  especially  that  of  Lent,  which  is  to 
be  observed  as  a  time  of  humiliation  before  Easter, 
the  general  festival  of  our  Saviour's  resurrection- 
Fast  days  are  also  appointed  by  the  legislature 
upon  any  extraordinary  occasions  of  calamity, 
war,  &c.     See  art.  Rogation,  Lent. 

Religious  fasting  consists,  1.  "  In  abstinence 
from  every  animal  indulgence,  and  from  food,  as 
far  as  health  and  circumstances  will  admit. — 2. 
In  the  humble  confession  of  our  sins  to  God, 
with  contrition  or  sorrow  for  them. — 3.  An  earn- 
est deprecation  of  God's  displeasure,  and  humble 
supplication  that  he  would  avert  his  judgments. — 
4.  An  intercession  with  God  for  such  spiritual 
and  temporal  blessings  upon  ourselves  and  others 
which  are  needful."  It  does  not  appear  that  our 
Saviour  instituted  any  particular  fast,  but  left  it 
optional.  Any  state  of  calamity  and  sorrow, 
however,  naturally  suggests  this.  The  propriety 
of  it  may  appear,  1.  From  many  examples  re- 
corded in  Scripture. — 2.  By  plain  and  undenia- 
ble inferences  from  Scripture,  Matt.  vi.  16. — 3. 
From  divine  commands  given  on  some  occasions, 
though  there  are  no  commands  which  prescribe  it 
as  a  constant  duty. — 4.  It  may  be  argued  from  its 
utility.  The  end  or  uses  of  it  are  these : — 1.  A 
natural  expression  of  our  sorrow. — 2.  A  help  to 
devotional  exercises. — 3.  Keeping  the  body  in 
subjection. — 4.  May  be  rendered  subservient  tc 
charity.  How  far  or  how  long  a  person  should 
abstain  from  food,  depends  on  circumstances. 
The  great  end  to  be  kept  in  view  is,  humiliation 
for,  and  abstinence  from  sin.  "  If,"  says  Mar- 
shall, "abstinence  divert  our  nunds,  by  reason 


FATHERS 
of  a  gnawing  appetite,  then  you  had  better  eat 
sparing,  as  Daniel  in  his  greatest  fast."  Dan.  x. 
2,  3.  They,  however,  who  in  times  of  public 
distress,  when  the  judgments  of  God  are  in  the 
earth,  and  when  his  providence  seems  to  call  for 
humiliation,  will  not  relinquish  any  of  their  scn- 
BUel  enjoyments,  nor  deny  themselves  in  the  least, 
cannot  be  justified;  since  good  men  in  all  ages, 
more  or  less,  have  humbled  themselves  on  such 
occasions ;  and  reason  as  well  as  Scripture  evi- 
dently prove  it  to  be  our  duty,  Matt.  ix.  15.  1 
Cor.  vii.  5.  Bcnnet's  Christ.  Oral.  vol.  ii.  p.  18, 
25 ;  Til/o/son's  Ser.  ser.  3D ;  Simpsons  Essay 
on  Peasting;  Marshall  on  Sane.  p.  273,  274. 

FATE  (fitum)  denotes  an  inevitable  necessi- 
ty depending  upon  a  superior  cause.  The  word 
is  formed  afindo,  "from  speaking,1'  and  prima- 
rily implies  the  same  with  effatum,  viz.  a  word  or 
decree  pronounced  by  God,  or  a  fixed  sentence 
whereby  the  Deity  has  prescribed  the  order  of 
things,  and  allotted  to  every  person  what  shall 
befal  him.  The  Greeks  called  it  s.^p^.v,,  as  it 
were  a  chain  or  necessary  series  of  things  indis- 
solubly  linked  together.  It  is  also  used  to  ex- 
press a  certain  unavoidable  designation  of  things, 
by  which  all  agents,  both  necessary  and  volun- 
tary, are  swayed  and  directed  to  their  ends.  Fate 
ts  divided  into  physical  and  divine.  1.  Physical 
fate  is  an  order  and  series  of  natural  causes  ap- 
propriated to  their  effects:  as,  that  fire  warms; 
bodies  communicate  motion  to  each  other,  &c. ; 
and  the  effects  of  it  are  all  the  events  and  pheno- 
mena of  nature. — 2.  Divine  fate  is  what  is  more 
usually  called  providence.  See  Providence, 
Necessity. 

FATHERS,  a  term  applied  to  ancient  authors 
who  have  preserved  in  their  writings  traditions 
of  the  church.  Thus  St.  Chrysostoni,  St.  Basil, 
&c.  are  called  Greek  fathers,  and  St.  Augustine, 
and  St.  Ambrose,  Latin  fathers.  No  author  who 
wrote  later  than  the  twelfth  century  is  dignified 
with  the  title  of  father. 

Some  suppose  that  the  study  of  the  fathers  is 
barren  and  unimproving ;  that  though  there  are 
some  excellent  things  interspersed  in  their  writ- 
ing1') yet  the  instruction  to  be  derived  from  them 
will  hardly  repay  the  toil  of  breaking  up  the 
ground ;  that  a  life-time  would  hardly  suffice  to 
read  them  with  care,  and  digest  them  completely. 
Others  have  such  a  high  opinion  of  the  fathers, 
as  to  be  almost  afraid  of  interpreting  Scripture 
against  their  decision.  They  suppose,  that  as 
some  of  them  were  companions,  disciples,  or  suc- 
cessively followers  of  the  apostles,  it  is  highly 
probable  that  they  must  have  been  well  informed ; 
that  their  sentiments  must  be  strongly  illustrative 
of  the  doctrines  of  the  New  Testament ;  and  that 
as  controversies  have  increased,  and  dogmas  re- 
ceived since  their  time,  they  must  be  much  less 
entangled  with  decisions  merely  human  than 
more  recent  commentators.  Perhaps  it  is  best  to 
steer  between  these  two  opinions.  If  a  person 
have  ability,  inclination,  and  opportunity  to  wade 
through  them,  let  him ;  but  if  not,  referring  to 
them  occasionally  may  suffice.  One  caution, 
however,  is  necessary,  which  is  this ;  that  though 
the  judgment  of  antiquity  in  some  disputable 
points  certainly  may  be  useful,  yet  we  ought 
never  to  put  them  on  the  same  footing  as  the 
Scriptures.  In  many  cases  they  may  be  consi- 
dered as  competent  witnesses ;  but  we  must  not 
confide  in  their  verdict  os  judges.  Jot  tin' a 
144 


FEAST 
Works,  vol.  vii.  chap.  2 ;  KetCs  Ser.  at  Hampton 
Lecture,  ser.  1;  ll'a'burton's  Julian  ;  Simpson* 
Strictures  on  Religious  Opinions,  latter  end, 
Daillt's  Use  of  the  fathers,  p.  167;  Law's 
Theory;  Dr.  Clark's  View  of  the  Succession  of 
Sacred  Literature,  p.  312. 

FAULT,  a  slight  defect  or  crime,  which  sub- 
jects a  person  to  blame,  but  not  to  punishment ; 
a  deviation  from,  or  transgression  of  a  rule  in 
some  trifling  circumstance. 

FAVOUR  OF  GOD.     See  Grace. 

FEAR,  is  that  uneasiness  of  mind  which  arises 
from  an  apprehension  of  danger,  attended  with  a 
desire  of  avoiding  it.  "  Fear,"  says  Dr.  Watts, 
"  shows  itself  by  paleness  of  the  cheek,  sinking 
of  the  spirits,  trembling  of  the  limbs,  hurry  and 
confusion  of  the  mind  and  thoughts,  agonies  of 
nature,  and  fainting.  Many  a  person  has  died 
with  fear.  Sometimes  it  rouses  all  nature  to  exert 
itself  in  speedy  flight,  or  other  methods  to  avoid 
the  approaching  evil ;  sudden  terror  has  perform- 
ed some  almost  incredibles  of  this  kind." 

Fear  is  of  different  kinds  :  1.  There  is  an  ido- 
latrous and  superstitious  fear,  which  is  called 
5:m{»(io«ii,  a  fear  of  demons,  which  the  city  of 
Athens  was  greatly  addicted  to.  "I  perceive," 
says  the  Apostle  Paul,  "  that  in  all  things  ye  are 
too  superstitious,"  or  given  to  the  fear  and  wor- 
ship of  false  deities. — 2.  There  is  an  external  fear 
of  God,  an  outward  show  and  profession  of  it, 
which  is  taught  by  the  precepts  of  men :  as  in  the 
men  of  Samaria,  who  pretended  to  fear  the  Lord, 
as  the  priest  instructed  them,  and  yet  served  their 
own  gods ;  and  such  an  external  fear  of  God, 
Job's  friends  supposed  was  all  that  he  had,  and 
that  even  he  had  cast  that  off. — 3.  There  is  an 
hypocritical  fear,  when  men  make  a  profession 
of  religion;  but  only  serve  him  for  seme  sinister 
end  and  selfish  view,  which  Satan  insinuated  was 
Job's  case.  "Doth  Job  fear  God  for  nought!" 
Job  i.  9. — 4.  There  is  a  servile  fear,  which  they 
possess  who  serve  God  from  fear  of  punishment, 
and  not  from  love  to  him. — 5.  There  is  a  filial 
/car^ueh  as  that  of  a  son  to  his  father.  Fear 
is  sinful  when — 1.  It  proceeds  from  unbelief  or 
distrust  of  God :  2.  When  it  ascribes  more  to 
the  creature  than  is  due ;  or  when  we  fear  our 
enemies  without  considering  they  are  under  God : 
3.  When  we  fear  that  in  God  that  is  not  in  him, 
or  that  he  will  break  his  promise,  &c. :  4.  When 
our  fear  is  immoderate,  so  as  to  distract  us  in 
duty.     See  next  article. 

FEAR  OF  GOD,  is  that  holy  disposition  oi 
gracious  habit  formed  in  the  soul  by  the  Holy 
Spirit,  whereby  we  are  inclined  to  obey  ail  God's 
commands;  and  evidences  itself,  1.  By  a  dread 
of  his  displeasure. — 2.  Desire  of  his  favour. — 
3.  Regard  for  his  excellencies. — 4.  Submission  to 
his  will.— 5.  Gratitude  tor  his  benefits. — 6".  Sin- 
cerity in  his  worship. — 7.  Conscientious  obedience 
to  his  commands,  Prow  viii.  13.  Job.  xxviii.  28. 
Bales' s  Works,  page  913;  Gill's  Body  of  Divinity, 
vol.  iii.  book  i. 

FEAR  OF  DEATH.     See  Death. 

FEARS.     See  Doubts. 

FEAST,  in  a  religious  sense,  is  a  ceremony  of 
feasting  and  thanksgiving. 

The  principal  feasts  of  the  Jews  were  the  feasts 
of  trumpets,  of  expiation,  of  tabernacles,  of  the 
dedication,  of  the  passover,  of  Pentecost,  and 
that  of  purification. — Feasts,  and  the  ceremonies 
thereof,  have  made  great  part  of  the  religion  of 


PEELINGS 
tlmost  all  nations  and  sects  ;  hence  the  Greets, 
the  Romans,  Mahometans,  and  Christians,  have- 
not  been  without  them. 

Feasts,  among  us,  are  either  immoveable  or 
moveable.  Immoveable  feasts  are  those  constantly 
celebrated  on  the  same  day  of  the  year.  The 
principal  of  these  are  Christmas-day,  Circum- 
cision, Epiphany,  Candlemas,  or  Purification ; 
Lady-day,  or  the  Annunciation,  called  also  the 
Incarnation  and  Conception ;  All  Saints  and  All 
Souls ;  besides  the  days  of  the  several  apostles, 
as  St.  Thomas,  St.  Paul.  Moveable  feasts  are 
those  which  are  not  confined  to  the  same  day  of 
the  year.  Of  these  the  principal  is  Easter,  which 
gives  law  to  all  the  rest,  all  of  them  following  and 
keeping  their  proper  distances  from  it  Such  are 
Palm  Sunday,  Good  Friday,  Ash  Wednesday, 
Sexagesima,  Ascension-day,  Pentecost,  and  Tri- 
nity Sunday. 

Besides  these  feasts,  which  are  general,  and 
enjoined  |»y  the  church,  there  are  others  local  and 
occasional,  enjoined  by  the  magistrate,  or  volun- 
tarily set  on  foot  by  the  people;  such  are  the  days 
of  thanksgiving  for  delivery  from  war,  plagues, 
&c. ;  such  also  are  the  vigils  or  wakes  in 
commemoration  of  the  dedication  of  particular 
churches. 

The  prodigious  increase  of  feasting  days  in  the 
Christian  church  commenced  towards  the  close 
of  the  fourteenth  century,  occasioned  by  the  dis- 
covery that  was  made  of  the  remains  of  martyrs, 
and  other  holy  men,  for  the  commemoration  of 
whom  they  were  established.  These,  instead  of 
being  set  apart  for  pious  exercises,  were  abused 
in  indolence,  voluptuousness,  and  criminal  prac- 
tices. Many  of  them  were  instituted  on  a  pagan 
model,  and  perverted  to  similar  purposes.  See 
Holy  Day. 

FEAST  OF  ASSES.  This  was  a  festival 
in  the  Romish  church,  and  was  celebrated  at 
Beauvais.  They  chose  a  young  woman,  the 
handsomest  in  the  town ;  made  her  ride  on  an  ass 
richly  harnessed,  and  placed  in  her  arms  a  pretty 
infant.  In  this  state,  followed  by  the  bishop  and 
clergy,  she  marched  in  procession  from  the  cathe- 
dral to  the  church  of  St.  Stephen ;  entered  into 
the  sanctuary,  placed  herself  near  the  altar,  and 
then  celebrated  mass ;  not  forgetting  to  explain 
the  fine  qualities  of  the  animal,  and  exhorting 
him  to  make  a  devout  genuflection,  with  a  va- 
riety of  other  fooleries. 

FEELINGS,  RELIGIOUS,  are  those  sen- 
sations or  emotions  of  the  mind  produced  by  the 
views  we  have  of  religion.  While  some  enthu- 
siasts boast  of,  depend  on,  and  talk  much  of  their 
feelings,  there  are  others  who  are  led  to  discard 
the  term,  and  almost  to  abandon  the  idea  of  re- 
ligious feeling ;  but  it  is  evident,  that  however 
many  have  been  misguided  and  deceived  by 
feelings,  yet  there  is  no  such  thing  as  religion 
without  this.  For  instance ;  religion  consists  in 
contrition,  repentance,  and  devotion :  now,  what 
is  contrition  but  a  feeling  of  sorrow  for  sin? 
what  is  repentance  but  a.  feeling  of  hatred  to  it, 
with  a  relinquishing  of  it?  what  is  devotion  but 
a  feeling  of  love  to  God  and  his  ways ?  Who 
can  separate  the  idea  of  feel  ing  from  any  of  these 
acts?  The  fact  is  this;  ndigious  feelings,  like 
every  thing  else,  have  been  abused ;  and  men, 
to  avoid  the  imputation  of  fanaticism,  have  run 
into  the  opposite  evil  of  lukewarmness,  and 
been  content  with  a  system  without  feeling  its 
145  *  T 


FILTAL 

energy.  See  Affection,  Enthusiasm,  Ex- 
perience. 

FELLOWSHIP,  joint  interest,  or  the  havi  ag 
one  common  stock.  The  fellowship  of  the  saints 
is  twofold :— 1.  With  God,  1  John  i.  3 ;  1  Cor. 
i.  9 ;  xiii.  14. — 2.  With  one  another,  1  John  i.  7. 

Fellowship  with  God,  consists  in  knowledge  of 
his  will,  Job  xxii.  '21 ;  John  xviii.  3.  Agreement, 
Amos  iii.  2.  Strength  of  affection,  Rom.  viii.  38, 
39.  Enjoyment  of  his  presence,  Ps.  iv.  6.  Con- 
formity to  his  image,  1  John  ii.  6  ;  i.  6. 

Fellowship  of  the  saints,  may  be  considered  as 
a  fellowship  of  duties,  Rom.  xii.  6 ;  1  Cor.  xii.  1 ; 
1  Thess.  v.  17,  18;  James  v.  1G.  Of  ordinances, 
Heb.  x.  24 ;  Acts  ii.  4G.  Of  graces,  love,  joy,  &jc. 
Heb.  x.  24;  Mai.  iii.  16;  2  Cor.  viii.  4.  Of  in- 
terest spiritual,  and  sometimes  temporal,  Rom. 
xii.  4,  13 ;  Heb.  xiii.  1G.  Of  sufferings,  Rom. 
xv.  1,  2;  Gal.  vi.  1,2;  Rom.  xii.  15.  Of  eternal 
glory,  Rev.vii.  9.     See  Communion. 

FIDELITY,  faithfulness,  or  the  conscientious 
discharge  of  those  duties  of  a  religious,  personal, 
and  relative  nature,  which  we  are  bound  to  per- 
form. See  an  excellent  sermon  on  the  subject  in 
Dr.  Erskinc's  Sermons,  vol.  ii.  p.  304. 

FIFTH  MONARCHY  MEN,  were  a  set 
of  enthusiasts,  in  the  time  of  Cromwell,  who  ex- 
pected the  sudden  appearance  of  Christ,  to  esta- 
blish on  earth  a  new  monarchy  or  kingdom.  In 
consequence  of  this  illusion,  some  of  them  aimed 
at  the  subversion  of  all  human  government.  In 
ancient  history  we  read  of  four  great  monarchies, 
the  Assyrian,  Persian,  Grecian,  and  the  Roman; 
and  these  men,  believing  that  this  new  spiritual 
kingdom  of  Christ  was  to  be  the  fifth,  came  to 
bear  the  name  by  which  they  were  called.  Their 
leader  was  Thomas  Venner,  a  wine-cooper  who 
in  his  little  conventicle  in  Coleman-street,  warm- 
ed his  admirers  with  passionate  expectations  of 
a  fifth  universal  monarchy,  under  the  personal 
reign  of  King  Jesus,  upon  earth,  and  that  the 
saints  were  to  take  the  kingdom  to  themselves. 
To  introduce  this  imaginary  kingdom,  they 
marched  out  of  their  meeting-house  towards  St. 
Paul's  church-yard,  on  Sunday,  Jan.  6th,  1660, 
to  the  number  of  about  fifty  men,  well  armed, 
and  with  a  resolution  to  subvert  the  present  go- 
vernment, or  to  die  in  the  attempt.  They  pub- 
lished a  declaration  of  the  design  of  their  rising, 
and  placed  sentinels  at  proper  places.  The  lord 
mayor  sent  the  trained  bands  to  disperse  them, 
whom  they  quickly  routed,  but  in  the  evening 
retired  to  Caen  Wood,  between  Highgate  and 
Hampstead.  On  Wednesday  morning  they  re- 
turned, and  dispersed  a  party  of  the  king's 
soldiers  in  Threadneedlc-street.  In  Wood- 
street  they  repelled  the  trained  bands,  and  some 
of  the  horse  guards ;  but  Venner  himself  was 
knocked  down,  and  some  of  his  company  slain : 
from  hence  the  remainder  retreated  to  Cripple- 
gate,  and  took  possession  of  a  house,  which  they 
threatened  to  defend  with  a  despefate  resolu- 
tion ;  but  nobody  appearing  to  countenance  their 
frenzy,  they  surrendered  after  they  had  lost  about 
half  their  number.  Venner,  and  one  of  his  offi- 
cers, were  hanged  before  their  meeting-house 
door  in  Coleman-street,  Jan.  19th;  and  a  few 
days  after  nine  more  were  executed  in  divers 
parts  of  the  city. 

FILIAL  PIETY,  is  the  affectionate  attach- 
ment of  children  to  their  parents,  including  in  it 
love,  reverence,  obedience,  and  relief.  Justly  has 
N 


FOOL 
it  been  observed,  that  these  great  duties  arc 
prompted  equally  by  nature,  and  by  gratitude,  in- 
dependent of  the  injunctions  of  religion ;  for 
where  shall  we  find  the  person  who  hath  received 
from  any  one  benefits  so  great,  or  so  many,  as 
children  from  their  parents?  And  it  may  be 
truly  said,  that  if  persons  are  undutiful  to  their 
parents,  they  seldom  prove  good  to  any  other  re- 
lation.    See  article  CHILDREN. 

FILIATION  OF  THE  SON  OF  GOD. 
See  Sox  df  God. 

FIRE  PHILOSOPHERS.     See  Theoso- 

PHISTS. 

FIRST  FRUITS,  among  the  Hebrews,  were 
oblations  of  part  of  the  fruits  of  the  harvest,  offer- 
ed to  God  as  an  acknowledgment  of  his  sove- 
reign dominion.  There  was  another  sort  of  first 
fruits  which  was  paid  to  God.  When  bread  was 
kneaded  in  a  family,  a  portion  of  it  was  set  apart, 
and  given  to  the  priest  or  Levite  who  dwelt  in 
the  place.  If  there  were  no  priest  or  Levite 
(here,  it  was  cast  into  the  oven  and  consumed  by 
the  fire.  These  offerings  made  a  considerable 
part  of  the  revenues  of  the  priesthood,  Lev. 
xxiii.;  Exodus  xxii.  29 ;  xxiii.  19 ;  Numbers  xv. 
19,  20. 

The  first  fruits  of  the  Spirit  are  such  commu- 
nications of  his  grace  on  earth,  as  fully  assure 
us  of  the  full  enjoyment  of  God  in  heaven,  Rom. 
viii.  23.  Christ  is  called  the  first  fruits  of  them 
that  slept ;  for  as  the  first  fruits  were  earnests  to 
the  Jews  of  the  succeeding  harvest,  so  Christ  is 
the  first  fruits  of  the  resurrection,  or  the  earnest 
of  a  future  resurrection  ;  that  as  he  rose,  so  shall 
believers  also  rise  to  happiness  and  life.  1  Cor. 
xv.  20. 

First  fruits  are  mentioned  in  ancient  writers 
as  one  part  of  the  church  revenue. 

First  fruits,  in  the  church  of  England,  are  the 
profits  of  every  spiritual  benefice  for  the  first  year, 
according  to  the  valuation  thereof  in  the  king's 
book. 

FIVE  POINTS,  are  the  five  doctrines  con- 
troverted between  the  Arminians  and  Calvinists. 
See  Calvinists. 

FLACIANS,  the  followers  of  Matthias  Fla- 
Cius  Illyricus,  who  flourished  in  the  sixteenth 
century.  Pie  taught  that  original  sin  is  the  very 
substance  of  human  nature;  and  that  the  fall  of 
man  was  an  event  which  extinguished  in  the 
human  mind  every  virtuous  tendency,  every 
noble  faculty,  and  left  nothing  behind  it  but  uni- 
versal darkness  and  corruption. 

FLAGELLANTES.     See  Whippers. 

FLATTERY,  a  servile  and  fawning  beha- 
viour, attended  with  servile  compliances  and  ob- 
sequiousness, in  order  to  gain  a  person's  favour. 

FLEMINGIANS,  or  Flandrians,  a  sect  of 
rigid  Anabaptists,  who  acquired  this  name  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  because  most  of  them  were 
natives  of  Flanders,  by  way  of  distinction  from 
tfte  Waterlandians.     See  Waterlandians. 

FOLLY,  according  to  Mr.  Locke,  consists  in 
the  drawing  of  false  conclusions  from  just  princi- 
ples, by  which  it  is  distinguished  from  madness, 
which  draws  just  conclusions  from  false  princi- 
ples. But  this  seems  too  confined  a  definition. 
Folly,  in  its  most  general  acceptation,  denotes  a 
weakness  of  intellect  or  apprehension,  or  some 
partial  absurdity  in  sentiment  or  conduct.  See 
Evil,  Sin. 

FOOL,  one  who  has  not  the  use  of  reason  or 
14C 


FOREKNOWLEDGE 
judgment.  In  Scripture,  wicked  peisons  a. a 
often  called  fools  or  foolish,  because  such  act  con- 
trary to  reason,  trust  to  their  own  hearts,  violate 
the  laws  of  God,  and  prefer  things  vile,  trifling, 
and  temporal,  to  such  as  are  important,  divine, 
and  eternal. 

FOOLISH  SPEAKING,  such  kind  of  con- 
versation, as  includes  folly,  and  can  no  ways  be 
profitable  and  interesting,  Eph.  v.  4.  Facetious- 
ncss,  indeed,  is  allowable,  when  it  ministers  to 
harmless  divertisement,  and  delight  to  conversa- 
tion ;  when  it  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  exposing 
things  which  are  base  and  vile ;  when  it  has  for 
its  aim  the  reformation  of  others ;  when  used  by 
way  of  defence  under  unjust  reproach.  But  all 
such  kind  of  speaking  as  includes  profane  jest- 
ing, loose,  wanton,  scurrilous,  injurious,  unsea- 
sonable, vain-glorious  talk,  is  strictly  forbidden. 
See  Barroic's  excellent  Sermon  on  this  subject  in 
his  Works,  vol.  i.  ser.  14. 

FORBEARANCE,  is  the  act  of  patiently 
enduring  provocation  or  offence.  The  following 
may  be  considered  as  the  most  powerful  incen- 
tives to  the  exercise  of  this  disposition  :  1.  The 
consideration  that  we  ourselves  often  stand  in 
need  of  it  from  others,  Gal.  vi.  1. — 2.  The  ex- 
press command  of  Scripture,  Eph.  iv.  2 ;  Col.  iii. 
13. — 3.  The  felicity  of  this  disposition.  It  is 
sure  to  bring  happiness  at  last,  while  resentment 
only  increases  our  own  misery. — 4.  That  it  is 
one  of  the  strongest  evidences  we  can  give  of  the 
reality  of  our  religion,  John  xiii.  35. — 5.  The 
beautiful  example  of  Christ,  Heb.  xii.  3 ;  1  Pet. 
ii.  21—23. 

FORBEARANCE  OF  GOD.  See  Pa- 
tience of  God. 

FOREKNOWLEDGE  OF  GOD,  is  his 
foresight  or  knowledge  of  every  thing  that  is  to 
come  to  pass,  Acts  ii.  23.  This  foreknowledge, 
says  Charnock,  was  from  eternity.  Seeing  ne 
knows  things  possible  in  his  power,  and  things 
future  in  his  will,  if  his  power  and  resolves  were 
from  eternity,  his  knowledge  must  be  so  too  ;  or 
else  we  must  make  him  ignorant  of  his  own  power, 
and  ignorant  of  his  own  will  from  eternity,  and 
consequently  not  from  eternity  blessed  and  per> 
feet.  His  knowledge  of  possible  things  must  run 
parallel  with  his  will.  If  he  willed  from  eternity, 
he  knew  from  eternity  what  he  willed ;  but  that 
he  did  will  from  eternity  wo  must  grant,  unless 
we  would  render  him  changeable,  and  conceive 
him  to  be  made  in  time  of  not  willing,  willing. 
The  knowledge  God  hath  in  time  was  always 
one  and  the  same,  because  his  understanding  is 
his  proper  essence,  as  perfect  as  his  essence,  and 
of  an  immutable  nature. 

"  To  deny  this  is  (says  Saurin)  to  degrade  the 
Almighty ;  for  what,  pray,  is  a  God  who  created 
beings,  and  who  could  not  foresee  what  would 
result  from  their  existence  1  A  God,  who  formed 
spirits  united  to  bodies  by  certain  laws,  and  who 
did  not  know  how  to  combine  these  laws  so  as  to 
foresee  the  effects  they  would  produce  ?  A  God 
forced  to  suspend  his  judgment]  A  God  who 
every  day  learns  something  new,  and  who  doth 
not  know  to-day  what  will  happen  to-morrow  1 
A  God  who  cannot  tell  whether  peace  will  be 
concluded,  or  war  continue  to  ravage  the  world  \ 
whether  religion  will  be  received  in  a  certain 
kingdom,  or  whether  it  will  be  banished ;  whether 
the  right  heir  will  succeed  to  the  crown,  or 
whether  the  crown  will  be  6et  on  the  head  of  an 


FORNICATION 

usurper  1  For  according  to  the  different  determi- 
nations of  the  wills  of  men,  of  king,  or  people,  the 
prince  will  make  peace,  or  declare  war ;  religion 
will  be  banished  or  admitted ;  the  tyrant  or  the 
lawful  king  will  occupy  the  throne:  for  if  God 
cannot  foresee  how  the  volitions  of  men  will  be 
determined,  he  cannot  foresee  any  of  those  events. 
What  is  this  but  to  degrade  God  from  his  Deity, 
and  to  make  the  most  perfect  of  all  intelligences  a 
being  involved  in  darkness  and  uncertainty  like 
ourselves?"     See  Omniscience. 

FORGIVENESS,  the  pardon  of  any  offence 
committed  against  us.  This  is  a  virtue  which  our 
Lord  expressly  inculcates,  not  as  extending  to  our 
friends  only,  but  to  our  enemies.  "Ye have  heard," 
saith  he,  "  Thou  shall  love  thy  neighbour,  and 
hate  thine  enemy  ;  but  I  say  unto  you,  love  your 
enemies,"  &c  "  This,"  says  an  ingenious  writer, 
"  was  a  lesson  so  new,  and  utterly  unknown,  till 
taught  by  his  doctrine,  and  e  nforced  by  his  example, 
that  the  wisest  moralists  of  the  wisest  nations  and 
ages  represented  the  desire  of  revenge  as  a  mark 
of  a  noble  mind ;  but  how  much  more  magnani- 
mous, how  much  more  beneficial  to  mankind,  is  for- 
giveness !  It  is  more  magnanimous,  because  every 
generous  and  exalted  disposition  of  the  human 
mind  is  requisite  to  the  practice  of  it ;  and  it  is 
the  most  beneficial,  because  it  puts  an  end  to  an 
eternal  succession  of  injuries  and  retaliations." 
Let  us,  therefore,  learn  to  cherish  this  noble  dis- 
position; let  the  bitterest  enemy  we  have  be 
6oftened  by  its  effects ;  let  us  consider  also  how 
friendly  it  is  to  our  own  happiness,  and  how 
much  it  prevents  the  unhappiness  of  others. 
"The  feuds  and  animosities,  in  families,  and  be- 
tween neighbours,  which  disturb  the  intercourse 
of  human  life,  and  collectively  compose  half  the 
misery  of  it,  have  their  foundation  in  the  want 
of  a  forgiving  temper,  and  can  never  cease  but  by 
the  exercise  of  this  virtue  on  one  side,  or  on  both.' ' 
Palcy's  Mor.  Phil.  vol.  i.  p.  271 ;  Soame  Jenyns's 
Int.  Evid.  p.  67,  G8 ;  Clarke's  Ser.  ser.  2.  vol.  x. ; 
Tillotson's  Ser.  vol.  viii.  p.  254. 

FORGIVENESS  OF  SINS.  See  Pardon, 
Mercy. 

FORMALIST,  one  who  places  too  much 
dependence  on  outward  ceremonies  of  religion,  or 
who  is  more  tenacious  of  the  form  of  religion  than 
the  power  of  it. 

FORMS  OF  PRAYER.     See  Prayer. 

FORNICATION,  whoredom,  or  the  act  of 
incontinency  between  single  persons ;  for  if  either 
of  the  parties  be  married,  it  is  adultery.  While 
the  Scriptures  give  no  sanction  to  those  austeri- 
ties which  have  been  imposed  on  men  under  the 
idea  of  religion,  so,  on  the  other  hand,  they  give 
no  liberty  tor  the  indulgence  of  any  propensity 
that  would  cither  militate  against  our  own  inte- 
rest or  that  of  others.  It  is  in  vain  to  argue  the 
innoeency  of  fornication  from  the  natural  pas- 
sions implanted  in  us,  since  "marriage  is  honour- 
able in  all,"  and  wisely  appointed  for  the  preven- 
tion of  those  evils  which  would  otherwise  ensue ; 
and,  besides,  the  existence  of  any  natural  pro- 
pensity in  us,  is  no  proof  that  it  is  to  be  gratified 
without  any  restriction.  That  fornication  is  both 
unlawful  and  unreasonable,  may  be  easily  in- 
ferred, if  we  consider,  1.  That  our  Saviour  ex- 
pressly declares  this  to  be  a  crime,  Mark  vii.  21 — 
23.  2.  That  the  Scriptures  declare  that  fornica- 
tors cannot  inherit  the  kingdom  of  God,  1  Cor. 
tl  9 j  Heb.  xii.  1G;  Gal.  v.  19—22.  3.  Fonii- 
147 


FORTUNE 
cation  sinks,  into  a  mere  brutal  commerce,  a 
gratification  which  was  designed  to  be  the  cement 
of  a  sacred,  generous,  and  tender  friendship.  4. 
It  leaves  the  maintenance  and  education  of  chil- 
dren, as  to  the  father  at  least,  utterly  unsecured. 
5.  It  strongly  tempts  the  guilty  mother  to  guard 
herself  from  infamy  by  methods  of  procuring 
abortion,  which  not  only  destroy  the  child,  but 
often  the  mother.  6.  It  disqualifies  the  deluded 
creatures  to  be  either  good  wives,  or  mothers,  in 
any  future  marriage,  ruining  that  modesty  which 
is  the  guardian  of  nuptial  happiness.  7.  It  abso- 
lutely disqualifies  a  man  for  the  best  satisfactions ; 
those  of  truth,  virtue,  innocent  gratifications,  ten- 
der and  generous  friendship.  8.  It  often  per- 
petuates a  disease  which  may  be  accounted  one 
of  the  sorest  maladies  of  human  nature,  and  the 
effects  of  which  are  said  to  visit  the  constitution 
of  even  distant  generations. 

FORTITUDE  is  a  virtue  or  quality  of  the 
mind  generally  considered  the  same  with  courage ; 
though,  in  a  more  accurate  sense,  they  seem  to 
be  distinguishable.  Courage  resists  danger,  for- 
titude supports  pain.  Courage  may  be  a  virtue 
or  vice,  according  to  the  circumstances ;  fortitude 
is  always  a  virtue :  we  speak  of  desperate  courage, 
but  not  of  desperate  fortitude.  A  contempt  or 
neglect  of  dangers  may  be  called  courage;  but 
fortitude  is  the  virtue  of  a  rational  and  conside- 
rate mind,  and  is  founded  in  a  sense  of  honour, 
and  a  regard  to  duty. 

Christian  fortitude  may  be  defined,  that  state 
of  mind  which  arises  from  truth  and  confidence 
in  God ;  enables  us  to  stand  collected  and  undis- 
turbed in  the  time  of  difficulty  and  danger ;  and 
is  at  an  equal  distance  from  rashness  on  the  one 
hand,  and  pusillanimity  on  the  other.  Fortitude 
takes  different  names,  according  as  it  acts  in  op- 
position to  different  evils:  but  some  of  those 
names  are  applied  with  considerable  latitude. 
With  respect  to  danger  in  general,  fortitude  has 
been  called  intrepidity ;  with  respect  to  the  dan- 
gers of  war,  valour ;  with  respect  to  pain  of  body, 
or  distress  of  mind,  patience;  with  respect  to  la- 
bour, activity;  with  respect  to  injury,  forbear- 
ance ;  with  respect  to  our  condition  in  general, 
magnanimity. 

Christian  fortitude  is  necessary  to  vigilance 
patience,  self-denial,  and  perseverance;  and  is 
requisite  under  affliction,  temptation,  persecution, 
desertion,  and  death.  The  noble  cause  in  which 
the  Christian  is  engaged;  the  glorious  Master 
whom  he  serves ;  the  provision  that  is  made  for  his 
security ;  the  illustrious  examples  set  before  him ; 
the  approbation  of  a  good  conscience ;  and  the 
crand  prospect  he  has  in  view,  are  all  powerful 
motives  to  the  exercise  of  this  grace.  Watts' » 
Ser.  ser.  31;  Evans's  Ser.  ser.  19.  vol.  i. ; 
Steele's  Christian  Hero ;  Mason's  Ser.  vol.  i. 
ser.  v. 

FORTUNE,  a  name  which,  among  the  an- 
cients, seemed  to  have  denoted  a  principle  of  for- 
tuity, whereby  things  came  to  pass  without  being 
necessitated  thereto  ;  but  what  and  whence  that 
principle  is,  they  do  not  seem  to  have  ever  pre- 
cisely thought.  It  does  not  appear  that  the  an- 
tiquity of  the  word  is  very  high.  It  is  acknow- 
ledged, on  all  hands,  that  Tuxn,  from  whence  the 
Romans  took  their  fortana,  was  a  term  invented 
long  after  the  times  of  Hesiod  and  Homer,  in 
whose  writings  it  no  where  occurs.  The  philo- 
soplucal  sense  of  the  word  coincides  with  what  Ls 


FRANCISCANS 
vulgarly  railed  chance.  It  is  difficult  to  ascertain 
what  it  denotes  in  the  minds  of  those  who  now 
use  the  word.  It  has  been  justly  observed,  that 
they  who  would  substitute  the  name  of  provi- 
dence in  lieu  of  that  of  fortune,  cannot  give  any 
tolerable  sense  to  half  the  phrases  wherein  the 
word  occurs. 

FRAME.  This  word  is  used  to  denote  any 
state  of  mind  a  man  may  be  in ;  and,  in  a  re- 
ligious sense,  is  often  connected  with  the  word 
feeling,  or  used  synonymously  with  it.  See 
Feel,  t  no. 

"If  our  frames  are  comfortable,"  says  one, 
"we  may  make  them  the  matter  of  our  praise, 
but  not  of  our  pride ;  we  may  make  them  our 
pleasure,  but  not  our  portion ;  we  may  make 
them  the  matter  of  our  encouragement,  but  not 
the  ground  of  our  security.  Arc  our  frames  dark 
and  uncomfortable?  they  should  humble  us,  but 
not  discourage  us;  they  should  quicken  us,  but 
not  obstruct  us  in  our  application  for  necessary 
and  suitable  grace ;  they  should  make  us  see  our 
own  emptiness,  but  not  make  us  suspect  the  fulness 
of  Christ;  they  should  make  us  see  our  own 
unworthiness,  but  not  make  us  suspect  the  wil- 
lingness of  Christ;  they  should  make  us  see  our 
own  weakness,  but  not  cause  us  to  suspect  the 
strength  of  Christ;  they  should  make  us  suspect 
our  own  hearts,  but  not  the  firmness  and  freeness 
of  the  promises. 

FRANCISCANS,  a  religious  order  founded 
by  St.  Francis  in  the  year  1209.  Francis  was  the 
son  of  a  merchant  of  Assisi,  in  the  province  of 
Umbria,  who,  having  led  a  dissolute  life,  was  re- 
claimed by  a  fit  of  sickness,  and  afterwards  fell 
into  an  extravagant  devotion  that  looked  less  like 
religion  than  alienation  of  mind.  Soon  after  this, 
viz.  in  theyear  1208,  hearing  the  passage  repeated 
in  which  Christ  addresses  his  apostles,  Provide 
neither  gold,  nor  silver,  &c,  Matt.  x.  9,  10,  he 
was  led  to  consider  a  voluntary  and  absolute 
poverty  as  the  essence  of  the  Gospel,  and  to  pre- 
scribe, this  poverty  as  a  sacred  rule  both  to  him- 
self and  to  the  few  that  followed  him.  This  new 
society,  which  appeared  to  Innocent  III.  extreme- 
ly adapted  to  the  present  state  of  the  church,  and 
proper  to  restore  its  declining  credit,  was  solemnly 
approved  and  confirmed  by  Honorius  III.  in 
1223,  and  had  made  a  considerable  progress  be- 
fore the  death  of  its  founder  in  1226.  Francis, 
through  an  excessive  humility,  would  not  suffer 
the  monks  of  his  order  to  be  called  fralrcs,  i.  e. 
brethren  or  friars  ;  but  fraterculi,  i.  e.  little  bre- 
thren, or  friars  minor,  by  which  denomination 
they  have  been  generally  since  distinguished. 
The  Franciscans  ami  Dominicans  were  zealous 
and  active  friends  to  the  papal  hierarchy,  and  in 
return  were  distinguished  by  peculiar  privileges 
and  honourable  employments.  The  Franciscans, 
in  particular,  were  invested  with  the  treasure  of 
ample  and  extensive  indigencies,  the  distribution 
of  which  was  committed  to  them  by  the  popes  as 
a  mean  of  subsistence,  and  a  rich  indemnification 
for  their  voluntary  poveity.  In  consequence  of 
this  grant,  the  rule  of  the  founder,  which  abso- 
lutely prohibited  both  personal  and  collective  pro- 
perty, so  that  neither  the  individual  nor  the  com- 
munity were  to  possess  either  fund,  revenue,  or 
any  worldly  goods,  was  considered  as  too  strict 
and  severe,  and  dispensed  with  soon  after  his 
death.  In  1231,  Gregory  IX  published  an  in- 
terpretation of  this  rule,  nungating  its  rigour ; 
148 


FRATERNITY 
which  was  further  confirmed  by  Innocent  IV.  Ai 
1215,  and  by  Alexander  IV.in  1247.  These 
milder  operations  were  zealously  opposed  by  a 
branch  of  the  Franciscans,  called  the  spiritual ; 
and  their  complaints  were  regarded  by  Nicholas 
III.  who,  in  1279,  published  a  famous  constitution, 
confirming  the  rule  of  St.  Francis,  and  contain- 
ing  an  elaborate  explication  of  the  maxims  he  re- 
commended, and  the  duties  he  prescribed.  In 
1287,  Matthew,  of  Aqua  Sparta,  being  elected 
general  of  the  order,  discouraged  the  ancient  dis- 
cipline of  the  Franciscans,  and  indulged  his 
monks  in  abandoning  even  the  appearance  of 
poverty  ;  and  this  conduct  inflamed  the  indigna- 
tion of  the  spiritual  or  austere  Franciscans ;  so 
that,  from  the  year  1290,  seditions  and  schisms 
arose  in  an  order  that  had  been  so  famous  for  its 
pretended  disinterestedness  and  humility.  Such 
was  the  enthusiastic  frenzy  of  the  Franciscans, 
that  they  impiously  maintained  that  the  founder 
of  their  order  was  a  second  Christ,  in  all  respects 
similar  to  the  first,  and  that  their  institution  and 
discipline  were  the  true  Gospel  of  Jesus.  Ac- 
cordingly Albizi,  a  Franciscan,  of  Pisa,  published 
a  book  in  1383,  with  the  applause  of  his  order, 
entitled  the  Book  of  the  Conformities  of  St.  Fran- 
cis with  Jesus  Christ.  In  the  beginning  of  this 
century  the  whole  Franciscan  order  was  divided 
into  two  parties ;  the  one,  embracing  the  severe 
discipline  and  absolute  poverty  of  St.  Francis, 
were  called  spirituals;  and  the  other,  who  in- 
sisted on  mitigating  the  austere  injunctions  of 
their  founder,  were  denominated  brethren  of  the 
community.  These  wore  long,  loose,  and  good 
habits,  with  large  hoods  ;  the  former  were  clad  in 
a  strait,  coarse,  and  short  dress,  pretending  tha 
this  dress  was  enjoined  by  St.  Francis,  and  that 
no  power  on  earth  had  a  right  to  alter  it.  Neither 
the  moderation  of  Clement  V.  nor  the  violence  of 
John  XXII.  could  appease  the  tumult  occasioned 
by  these  two  parties;  however,  their  rage  sub- 
sided from  the.  year  1329.  In  13G8  these  two 
parties  were  formed  into  two  large  bodies,  com- 
prehending the  whole  Franciscan  order,  viz.  the 
conventual  brethren,  and  the  brethren  of  the  ob- 
servance, or  observation,  from  whom  sprang  the 
Capuchins  and  Recollets.  The  general  opinion 
is,  that  the  Franciscans  came  into  England  in  the 
year  1224,  and  had  their  first  house  at  Canter- 
bury, and  their  second  at  London ;  but  there  is 
no  certain  account  of  their  being  here,  till  king 
Henry  VII.  built  two  or  three  houses  for  them. 
At  the  dissolution  of  the  monasteries,  the  con- 
ventual Franciscans  had  about  fifty-five  houses, 
which  were  under  seven  custodies  or  wardenships, 
viz.  those  of  London,  Worcester,  York,  Cam- 
bridge, Bristol,  Newcastle,  and  Oxford. 

FRATERNITY,  in  the  Roman  Catholic 
countries,  signifies  a  society  for  the  improvement 
of  devotion.  Of  these  there  are  several  sorts,  as, 
1.  The  Fraternity  of  the  Rosary,  founded  by  St. 
Dominic.  It  is  divided  into  two  branches,  called 
the  common  rosary,  and  the  perpetual  rosary;  the 
former  of  who.n  are  obliged  to  confess  and  com- 
municate every  first  Sunday  in  the  month,  and 
the  latter  to  repeat  the  rosary  continually.— 2. 
The  Fraternity  of  the  Scapulary,  whom  it  is  pre- 
tended, according  to  the  Sabbatine  bull  of  pope 
John  XXII.  the  E.essed  Virgin  has  promised  to 
deliver  out  of  hell  the  first  Sunday  after  their 
death.— 3.  The  Fraternity  of  St.  Francis's  girulfl 
are  clothed  with  a  sack  of  grey  colour,  which  they 


FRATRICELLI 

tie  with  a  cord ;  and  in  processions  walk  bare- 
footed, carrying  in  their  hands  a  wooden  cross. — i. 
That  of  St.  Austin's  leathern  girdle,  comprehends 
a  great  many  devotees.  Italy,  Spain,  and  Portu- 
gal, are  the  countries  where  are  seen  the  greatest 
number  of  these  fraternities,  some  of  which  as- 
sume the  name  of  arch-fraternity.  Pope  Cle- 
ment VII.  instituted  the  arch-fraternity  of  charity, 
which  distributes  bread  every  Sunday  among  the 
•  poor,  and  gives  portions  to  forty  poor  girls  on  the 
feast  of  St.  Jerome,  their  patron.  The  Fraternity 
of  Death  buries  such  dead  as  are  abandoned  by 
their  relations,  and  causes  masses  to  be  celebrated 
for  them. 

FRATRICELLI,  an  enthusiastic  sect  of 
Franciscans,  which  rose  in  Italy,  and  particularly 
in  the  marquisate  of  Ancona,  about  the  year  1294. 
The  word  is  an  Italian  diminutive,  signifying 
fraterculi,  or  "little,  brothers,"  and  was  here 
used  as  a  term  of  derision,  as  they  were  most  of 
them  apostate  monks,  whom  the  Italians  call fra- 
telli,  or  fratricelli.  For  this  reason,  the  term 
fratricelli,  as  a  nick-name,  was  given  to  many 
other  sects,  as  the  Catharists,  the  Waldenses,  &c. 
however  different  in  their  opinions  and  their  con- 
duct. But  this  denomination,  applied  to  the 
austere  part  of  the  Franciscans,  was  considered 
as  honourable.  See  Franciscans. 

The  founders  of  this  sect  were  P.  Maurato  and 
P.  <\e  Fossombroni,  who  having  obtained  of  pope 
Celestin  V.  a  permission  to  live  in  solitude  after 
the  manner  of  hermits,  and  to  observe  the  rule  of 
St.  Francis  in  all  its  rigour,  several  idle  vagabond 
monks  joined  them,  who,  living  after  their  own 
fancies,"  and  making  all  perfection  to  consist  in 
poverty,  were  soon  condemned  by  pope  Boniface 
VIII.  and  his  successor,  and  the  inquisitors  or- 
dered to  proceed  against  them  as  heretics,  which 
commission  they  executed  with  their  usual  bar- 
barity. Upon  this,  retiring  into  Sicily,  Peter  John 
Oliva  de  Serignan  had  no  sooner  published  his 
comment  on  the  Apocalypse,  than  they  adopted 
his  tenets.  They  held  the  Romish  church  to  be 
Babylon,  and  proposed  to  establish  another  far 
more  perfect  one :  they  maintained  that  the  rule 
of  St.  Francis  was  the  evangelical  rule  observed 
by  Jesus  Christ  and  his  apostles.  They  foretold 
the  reformation  of  the  church,  and  the  restoration 
of  the  true  Gospel  of  Christ  by  the  genuine  fol- 
lowers of  St.  Francis ;  and  declared  their  assent 
to  almost  all  the  doctrines  which  were  published 
under  the  name  of  the  abbot  Joachim,  in  the  "  In- 
troduction to  the  Everlasting  Gospel,"  a  book  pub- 
lished in  1250,  and  explained  by  one  of  the  spi- 
ritual friars,  whose  name  was  Gerhard.  Among 
other  errors  inculcated  in  this  book,  it  is  pretended 
that  St.  Francis  was  the  angel  mentioned  in  Rev. 
xiv.  G,  and  had  promulgated  to  the  world  the  true 
and  everlasting  Gospel ;  that  the  Gospel  of  Christ 
was  to  be  abrogated  in  1260,  and  to  give  place  to 
this  new  and  everlasting  Gospel,  which  was  to  be 
substituted  in  its  room  ;  and  that  the  ministers  of 
this  great  reformation  were  to  be  humble  and 
barefooted  friars,  destitute  of  all  worldly  employ- 
ments. Some  say,  they  even  elected  a  pope  of 
their  church ;  at  least  they  appointed  a  general 
with  superiors,  and  built  monasteries,  &c.  Be- 
sides the  opinions  of  Oliva,  they  held  that  the  sa- 
craments of  the  church  were  invalid,  because 
those  who  administered  them  had  no  longer  any 
power  or  jurisdiction.  They  were  condemned 
again  by  pope  John  XXII.,  in  consequence  of 
WJ 


FRENCH 
whose  cruelty  they  regarded  him  as  the  true  anti- 
christ ;  but  several  of  them,  returning  into  Ger- 
many, were  sheltered  by  Lewis,  duke  of  Bavaria, 
the  emperor. 

There  are  authentic  records,  from  which  it  ap- 
pears that  no  less  than  2000  persons  were  burnt  by 
the  Inquisition,  from  the  year  1318  to  the  time  of 
Innocent  VI.  for  their  inflexible  attachment  to  the 
order  of  St.  Francis.  The  severities  against  them 
were  again  revived,  towards  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  by  pope  Nicholas  V.  and  his  suc- 
cessors. However,  all  the  persecutions  which  this 
sect  endured  were  not  sufficient  to  extinguish  it ; 
for  it  subsisted  until  the  times  of  the  Reformation 
in  Germany,  when  its  remaining  votaries  adopted 
the  cause  and  embraced  the  doctrine  and  discip- 
line of  Luther. 

FRAUDS,  PIOUS.     See  Pious  Frauds. 

FREE  AGENCY  is  the  power  of  following 
one's  inclination ;  or  whatever  the  soul  does  with 
full  bent  of  preference  and  desire.  Many  and 
long  have  been  the  disputes  on  tliis  subject ;  not 
that  man  has  been  denied  to  be  a  free  agent,  but 
the  dispute  has  been  in  what  it  consists.  See  ar- 
ticles Liberty  and  "Will.  A  distinction  is  made 
by  writers  between  free  agency,  and  what  is  called 
the  Arminian  notion  of  tree  will.  The  one  con- 
sists merely  in  the  power  of  following  our  pre- 
vailing inclination;  the  other  in  a  supposed  power 
of  acting  contrary  to  it,  or  at  least  of  changing  it. 
The  one  predicates  freedom  of  the  man ;  the  other 
of  a  faculty  in  man ;  which  Mr.  Locke,  though 
an  anti-necessarian,  explodes  as  an  absurdity. 
The  one  goes  merely  to  render  us  accountable 
beings ;  the  other  arrogantly  claims  a  part,  yea, 
the  very  turning  point  of  salvation.  According 
to  the  latter,  we  need  only  certain  helps  or  assist- 
ances, granted  to  men  in  common,  to  enable  us 
to  choose  the  path  of  life ;  but,  according  to  the 
former,  our  hearts  being  by  nature  wholly  de- 
praved, we  need  an  almighty  and  invincible 
Power  to  renew  them.     See  Necessity. 

FREE-THINKER,  an  appellation  given  to 
those  persons  who  deny  revelation  or  the  Chris- 
tian religion.  One  of  the  most  admirable  and 
pointed  addresses  to  free-thinkers  any  where  to 
be  met  with,  may  be  found  in  the  dedication  to 
Warburton's  Divine  Legation  of  Moses.  See 
also  an  admirable  paper  in  the  Guardian,  No. 
70;  and  article  Deists. 

FRENCH  CHURCH.    See  Church  Gal- 

LICAN. 

FRENCH  PROPHETS.  They  first  ap- 
peared in  Dauphiny  and  Vivarais.  In  the  yeai 
1688,  five  or  six  hundred  Protestants  of  both 
sexes  gave  themselves  out  to  be  prophets,  and  in- 
spired of  the  Holy  Ghost.  They  soon  became 
so  numerous,  that  there  were  many  thousands  of 
them  inspired.  They  were  people  of  all  ages  and 
sexes  without  distinction,  though  the  greatest  part 
of  them  were  boys  and  girls  from  six  or  seven  to 
twenty-five  years  of  age.  They  had  strange  fits, 
which  came  upon  them  with  tremblings  and  faint- 
ings  as  in  a  swoon,  which  made  them  stretch  out 
their  arms  and  legs,  and  stagger  several  times  be- 
fore they  dropped  down.  They  struck  themselves 
with  their  hands,  they  fell  on  their  backs,  shut 
their  eyes,  and  heaved  with  their  breasts.  They 
remained  a  while  in  trances,  and,  coming  out  of 
them  with  twitchings,  uttered  all  which  came  in 
their  mouths.  They  said  they  saw  the  heavens 
open,  the  angels,  paradise,  and  hell.  Those  who 
N  2 


FRIAR 
were  just  on  the  point  of  receiving  the  spirit  of 
prophecy,  dropped  down  not  only  in  the  assem- 
blies, crying  out  mercy,  but  in  the  fields,  and  in 
their  own  houses.  The  least  of  their  assemblies 
made  up  four  or  five  hundred,  and  some  of  them 
amounted  to  even  three  or  four  thousand  persons. 
When  the  prophets  had  for  a  while  been  under 
agitations  of  body,  they  began  to  prophesy.  The 
burben  of  their'  prophecies  was — Amend  your 
lives  ;  repent  ye :  ihe  end  of  all  things  draws 
nigh !  The  bills  resounded  with  their  loud  cries 
for  mercv,  and  imprecations  against  the  priests, 
the  church,  the  pope,  and  against  the  anti-chris- 
tian  dominion,  with  predictions  of  the  approach- 
ing full  of  popery.  All  they  said  at  these  times 
was  heard  and  received  with  reverence  and  awe. 

In  the  year  1706.  three  or  four  of  these  pro- 
phets came  over  into  England,  and  brought  their 
prophetic  spirit  along  with  them,  which  disco- 
vered itself  in  the  same  ways  and  manners,  by 
ecstacies,  and  agitations,  and  inspirations  under 
them,  as  it  had  done  in  France  ;  and  they  propa- 
gated the  like  spirit  to  others,  so  that  before  the 
year  was  out,  there  were  two  or  three  hundred 
of  these  prophets  in  and  about  London,  of  both 
sexes,  of  all  ages,  men,  women,  and  children ; 
and  they  had  delivered,  under  inspiration,  four  or 
live  hundred  prophetic  warnings. 

The  great  things  they  pretended  by  their  spirit 
was,  to  give  warning  of  the  near  approach  of  the 
kingdom  of  God,  the  happy  limes  of  the  church, 
the  millennium  stale.  Their  message  was,  (and 
they  were  to  proclaim  it  as  heralds  to  the  Jews, 
and  every  nation  under  heaven,  beginning  at 
England,")  that  the  grand  jubilee,  tie  acceptable 
year  of  the  Lord,  the.  accomplishment  of  those 
numerous  Scriptures  concerning  the  new  heaven, 
and  the  new  earth,  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah, 
the  marriage  of  the  Lamb,  the  first  resurrection, 
or  the  new  Jerusalem  descending  from  above, 
were  now  even  at  the  door ;  that  this  great  opera- 
tion was  to  be  wrought  on  the  part  of  man  by 
spirit  ual  arms  only,  proceeding  from  the  mouths 
at'  those  who  should,  hy  inspiration,  or  the 
mighty  gift  of  the  Spirit,  be  sent  forth  in  great 
numbers  to  labour  in  the  vineyard;  that  this 
mission  of  his  servants  should  be  witnessed  to  by 
sicms  and  wonders  from  heaven,  by  a  deluge  of 
judgments  on  the  wicked  universally  throughout 
the  world,  as  famine,  pestilence,  earthquakes, 
&c. ;  that  the  exterminating  angels  shall  root  out 
the  tares,  and  there  shall  remain  upon  the  earth 
only  good  corn  ;  and  the  works  of  men  heing 
thrown  down,  there  shall  be  but  one  Lord,  one 
faith,  one  heart,  one  voice  among  mankind.  They 
declared  that  all  the  great  things  they  spoke  of 
would  be  manifest  over  the  whole  earth  within 
the  term  of  three  years. 

These  prophets  also  pretended  to  the  gift  of 
languages,  of  discerning  the  secrets  of  the  heart, 
the  gift  <>f  ministration  of  the  same  spirit  to  others 
by  the  laying  on  of  the  hands,  and  the  gift  of 
healing.  To  prove  they  were  really  inspired  by 
t'ne  Holy  Ghost,  they  alleged  the  complete  joy 
and  satisfaction  they  experienced,  the  spirit  of 
prayer,  which  was  poured  forth  upon  them,  and 
the  answer  of  their  prayer  to  God. 

FRIAR  (Brother,)  a  term  common  to  the 
monks  of  all  orders.  In  a  more  peculiar  sense, 
it  is  restrained  to  such  monks  as  are  not  priests; 
for  those  in  orders  arc  usually  dignified  with  the 
appella  ion  of  father. 
150 


FUNERAL 

FRIENDSHIP,  a  mutual  attachment  sub- 
sisting  between  two  persons,  and  arising  not 
merely  from  the  general  principle  of  benevolence, 
from  emotions  of  gratitude  for  favours  received, 
from  views  of  interest,  nor  from  instinctive  affec- 
tion or  animal  passion;  but  from  an  opinion  en- 
tertained by  each  of  them  that  the  other  is  adorn- 
ed with  some  able  or  respectable  qualities.  Vari- 
ous have  been  the  opinions  respecting  friendship. 
Some  have  asserted  that  there  is  no  such  thing 
in  the  world  ;  others  have  excluded  it  from  the 
list  of  Christian  virtues ;  while  others,  believing 
the  possibility  of  its  existence,  suppose  that  it  is 
very  rare.  To  the  two  former  remarks  we  may 
reply,  that  there  is  every  reason  to  believe  that 
there  has  been,  and  is  such  a  thing  as  friendship. 
The  Scriptures  present  us  both  with  examples 
of,  and  precepts  concerning  it.  David  and  Jona- 
than, Paul  and  Timothy,  our  Lord  and  Lazarus, 
as  well  as  John,  are  striking  instances  of  friend- 
ship. Solomon  exhorts  us,  in  language  so  ener- 
getic, as  at  once  shows  it  to  be  our  duty  to  culti- 
vate it.  "  Thine  own  friend  and  thy  father's 
friend  forsake  not;"  "Make  sure  of  thy  friend, 
for  faithful  are  the  wounds  of  a  friend,"  &c.  The 
genius  and  injunctions  of  the  Christian  religion 
seem  also  to  inculcate  this  virtue  ;  for  it  not  only 
commands  universal  benevolence  to  men,  but 
promotes  the  strongest  love  and  friendship  be- 
tween those  whose  minds  are  enlightened  by 
divine  grace,  and  who  behold  in  each  other  the 
image  of  their  Divine  Master.  As  friendship, 
however,  is  not  enjoyed  by  every  one,  and  as  the 
want  of  it  arises  often  from  ourselves,  we  shall 
here  subjoin,  from  an  eminent  writer,  a  few  re- 
marks by  way  of  advice  respecting  it. — 1.  We 
must  not  expect  perfection  in  any  with  whom  we 
contract  fellowship. — 2.  We  must  not  be  hurt  by 
differences  of  opinion  arising  in  intercourse  with 
our  friends. — 3.  It  is  material  to  the  preservation  of 
friendship,  that  openness  of  temper  and  obliging 
manners  on  both  hands  be  cultivated. — 4.  We 
must  not  listen  rashly  to  evil  reports  against 
our  friends. — 5.  We  must  not  desert  our  friends 
in  danger  or  distress.  Blair's  Serm.  ser.  17,  vol. 
iv. ;  Bp.  Porteus's  Serm.  vol.  i.  ser.  15.;  W. 
Mclmoth's  Translation  of  Cicero's  Laclius,  in  a 
Note. 

FRIENDS,  SOCIETY  OF.  Sec  Quake r& 

FRUGALITY,  is  the  keeping  due  bounds  in 
expences ;  it  is  the  happy  mean  between  parsi- 
mony on  the  one  hand,  and  prodigality  on  the 
other.  The  example  of  Christ,  John  vi.  12 ;  the 
injunctions  of  God's  word,  Luke  xv.  1.  Prov. 
xviii.  9;  the  evil  effects  of  inattention  to  it,  Luke 
xi.  1,  13 ;  the  peace  and  comfort  which  arise  from 
it,  together  with  the  good  which  it  enables  us  to 
do  others,  should  operate  as  motives  to  excite  us 
to  the  practice  of  it.  Wood's  Scrvi.  on  Fru- 
gality, 1795;  Robinson's  Mor.  Ex.  ex.  3 ;  Ridg- 
ley's  Body  of  Din.  546,  3d  edition. 

FUNERAL  RITES,  ceremonies  accompa- 
nying the  interment  or  burial  of  any  person. 

The  first  people  who  seemed  to  Gave  paid  any 
attention  to  their  dead  were  the  Egyptians.  They 
took  great  care  in  embalming  their  bodies,  and 
building  proper  repositories  for  them.  This  gave 
birth  to  those  wonders  of  the  world,  the  Egyptian 
pyramids.  On  the  death  of  any  person  among 
them,  the  parents  and  friends  put  on  mournful 
habits,  and  abstained  from  all  banquets  and  en- 
tertainments.    This  mourning  lasted  from  forty 


FUNERAL 
to  seventy  (lavs,  during  which  time  they  em- 
balmed the  body.  Before  the  dead  were  allowed 
to  be  deposited  in  the  tomb,  they  underwent  a 
solemn  judgment.  If  any  one  stepped  forth,  ac- 
cused them,  and  proved  that  the  deceased  had  led 
an  evil  life,  the  judges  pronounced  sentence,  and 
the  body  was  precluded  from  burial.  Even  their 
sovereigns  underwent  this  judicature;  and  Dio- 
dorus  Siculus  asserts,  that  many  kings  had  been 
deprived  of  the  honours  of  burial,  and  that  the 
terrors  of  such  a  fate  had  a  salutary  influence  on 
the  virtue  of  their  kings. 

The  funeral  rites  among  the  Hebrews  were 
solemn  and  magnificent.  The  relations  and 
friends  rent  their  clothes;  and  it  was  usual  to 
bend  the  dead  person's  thumb  into  the  hand,  and 
to  fasten  it  in  that  posture  with  a  string,  be- 
cause the  thumb  then  having  the  figure  of 
the  name  of  God,  they  thought  the  devil  would 
not  approach  it.  They  made  a  funeral  oration 
at  the  grave,  after  which  they  prayed ;  then, 
turning  the  face  of  the  deceased  towards  heaven, 
they  said,  "  Go  in  peace." 

The  Greeks  used  to  put  a  piece  of  money  in 
the  mouth  of  the  deceased,  which  was  thought 
to  be  the  fare  over  the  infernal  river :  they  ab- 
stained from  banquets ;  tore,  cut,  or  shaved  their 
hair;  sometimes  throwing  themselves  on  the 
ground,  and  rolling  in  the  dust;  beating  their 
breasts,  and  even  tearing  their  flesh  with  their 
nails. 

The  funeral  rites  among  the  Romans  were 
very  numerous. — They  kept  the  deceased  seven 
days,  and  washed  him  every  day  with  hot  water, 
and  sometimes  with  oil,  if  possibly  he  might  be 
revived,  in  case  he  were  only  in  a  slumber;  and 
every  now  and  then  his  friends,  meeting,  made 
a  horrible  shout  with  the  same  view ;  but  if  they 
found  he  did  not  revive,  he  was  dressed  and  em- 
balmed, with  a  performance  of  a  variety  of  sin- 
gular ceremonies,  and  at  last  brought  to  the  fune- 
ral pile,  and  burnt;  after  which  his  ashes  were 
gathered,  inclosed  in  an  urn,  and  deposited  in  the 
sepulchre  or  tomb. 

The  ancient  Christians  testified  their  abhor- 
rence of  the  pagan  custom  of  burning  their  dead, 
and  always  deposited  the  body  entire  in  the 
ground ;  and  it  was  usual  to  bestow  the  honour 
of  embalming  upon  the  martyrs,  at  least,  if  not 
upon  others.  They  prepared  the  body  for  burial 
by  washing  it  with  water,  and  dressing  it  in  a 
funeral  attire.  This  was  performed  by  near  re- 
lations, or  persons  of  such  dignity  as  the  circum- 
stances of  the  deceased  required.  Psalmody,  or 
singing  of  psalms,  was  the  great  ceremony  used 
in  all  funeral  processions  among  the  ancient 
Christians. 

In  the  Romish  church,  when  a  person  is  dead, 
they  wash  the  body,  and  put  a  crucifix  in  his 
nand.  At  the  feet  stands  a  vessel  of  holy  water,  and 
a  sprinkler,  that  they  who  come  in  may  sprinkle 
both  themselves  and  the  deceased.  In  the  mean 
time  some  priest  stands  by  the  corpse,  and  prays 
for  the  deceased  till  it  is  laid  in  the  earth.  In  the 
funeral  procession  the  exorcist  walks  first,  carry- 
ing the  holy  water:  next  the  cross  bearer;  after- 
wards the  rest  of  the  clergy :  and,  last  of  all,  the 
officiating  priest.  The)'  all  sing  the  miserere, 
and  some  other  psalms;  and  at  the  end  of  each 
psalm  a  requiem.  It  is  said,  that  the  faces  of  de- 
ceased laymen  must  be  turned  towards,  the  altar 
ivhen  thev  are  placed  in  the  churcli,  and  those  of 
J51 


FUTURE 

the  clergy  towards  the  people.  The  corpse  is 
placed  in  the  church,  surrounded  with  lighted 
tapers.  After  the  office  for  the  dead,  mass  is 
said ;  then  the  officiating  priest  sprinkles  the 
corpse  thrice  with  holy  water,  and  as  often  throws 
incense  on  it.  The  body  being  laid  in  the  grave, 
the  friends  and  the  relations  of  the  deceased 
sprinkle  the  grave  with  holy  water. 

The  funeral  ceremonies  of  the  Greek  church 
are  much  the  same  with  those  of  the  Latin.  It 
needs  only  to  be  observed,  that,  after  the  funeral 
service,  they  kiss  the  crucifix,  and  salute  the 
mouth  and  forehead  of  the  deceased ;  after  which, 
each  of  the  company  eats  a  bit  of  bread,  and 
drinks  a  glass  of  wine  in  the  church,  wishing  the 
soul  a  good  repose,  and  the  afflicted  family  all 
consolation.  Bingham's  Antiq.  b.  2;  Enc.  Brit.; 
Bu.rtorf's  Synag.  p.  502. 

FUTURE  STATE,  a  term  made  use  of  in 
relation  to  the  existence  of  the  soul  after  death. 
That  there  is  such  a  state  of  existence,  we  have 
every  reason  to  believe;  "for  if  we  suppose," 
says  a  good  writer,  "the  events  of  this  life  to  have 
no  reference  to  another,  the  whole  state  of  man 
becomes  not  only  inexplicable,  but  contradictory 
and  inconsistent.  The  powers  of  the  inferior 
animals  are  perfectly  suited  to  their  station. 
They  know  nothing  higher  than  their  present 
condition.  In  gratifying  their  appetites,  they  fulfil 
their  destiny,  and  pass  away. — Man,  alone,  comes 
forth  to  act  a  part  which  carries  no  meaning,  and 
tends  to  no  end.  Endowed  with  capacities  which 
extend  far  beyond  his  present  sphere,  fitted  by  his 
rational  nature  for  running  the  race  of  immo»- 
tality,  he  is  stopped  short  in  the  very  entrance  of 
his  course.  He  squanders  his  activity  on  pur- 
suits which  he  discerns  to  be  vain.  He  languishes 
for  knowledge  which  is  placed  beyond  his  reach. 
He  thirsts  after  a  happiness  which  he  is  doomed 
never  to  enjey.  Ho  sees  and  laments  the  disas- 
ters of  his  state,  and  yet.  upon  this  supposition, 
can  find  nothing  to  remedy  them.  Has  the  eter- 
nal God  any  pleasure  in  sporting  himself  with 
such  a  scene  of  misery  and  folly,  as  this  life  (if  it 
had  no  connexion  with  another,)  must  exhibit  to 
his  eye  ?  Did  he  call  into  existence  this  magnifi- 
cent universe,  adorn  it  with  so  much  beauty  and 
splendour,  and  surround  it  with  those  glorious 
luminaries  which  we  behold  in  the  heavens,  only 
that  some  generations  of  mortal  men  might  arise 
to  behold  these  wonders,  and  then  disappear  for 
ever?  How  unsuitable  in  this  case  were  the 
habitation  to  the  wretched  inhabitant !  How  in- 
consistent the  commencement  of  his  being,  and. 
the  mighty  preparation  of  his  powers  and  facul- 
ties, with  his  despicable  end!  How  contradic- 
tory, in  fine,  were  every  thing  which  concerns 
the  state,  of  man,  to  the  wisdom  and  perfection  of 
his  Maker !" 

But  that  there  is  such  a  state  is  clear  from  many 
passages  of  the  New  Testament,  John  v.  24 ; 
Acts  vii.  9;  Rom.  viii.  10,  11;  2  Cor.  v.  1,  2; 
Phil.  i.  21 ;  1  Thess.  iv.  14.  v.  10 ;  Luke  xvi. 
22,  &c.  But  though  these  texts  prove  the  point, 
yet  some  have  doubted  whether  there  be  any 
where  in  the  Old  Testament  any  reference  to  a 
future  state  at  all.  The  case,  it  is  said,  appears 
to  be  this :  the  Mosaic  covenant  contained  no 
promises  directly  rc.ating  to  a  future  state :  pro- 
bably, as  Dr.  Warburton  asserts,  and  argues  at 
large,  because  Moses  was  secure  of  an  equal  jrrth 
ridence,  and  therefore  needed  not  subsidiary  sano 


GENERATION 

lions  taken  from  a  future  state,  without  the  belief 
of  which  the  doctrine  of  an  universal  providence 
cannot  ordinarily  be  vindicated,  nor  the  general 
sanctions  of  religion  secured.  But,  in  opposition 
to  this  sentiment,  as  Doddridge  observes,  "it  is 
evident  that  good  men,  even  before  Moses,  were 
animated  by  views  of  a  future  state,  Heb.  xi.  13, 
16;  as  he  himself  plainly  was,  24  to  2Gth  verse; 
and  that  the  promises  of  heavenly  felicity  were 
contained  even  in  the  covenant  made  with  Abra- 
ham, which  the  Mosaic  could  not  disannul.  Suc- 
ceeding providences  also  confirmed  the  natural 
arguments  in  its  favour,  as  every  remarkable  in- 
terposition would  do ;  and  when  general  promises 
were  made  to  the  obedient,  and  an  equal  provi- 
dence relating  to  the  nation  established  on  na- 
tional confonnity  to  the  Mosaic  institution,  and 
not  merely  to  the  general  precepts  of  virtue;  as 
such  an  equal  providence  would  necessarily  in- 
volve many  of  the  best  men  in  national  ruin,  at 
a  time  when,  by  preserving  their  integrity  in  the 
midst  of  general  apostacy,  their  virtue  was  most 
conspicuous :  such  good  men,  in  such  a  state, 
would  have  vast  additional  reasons  for  expecting 
future  rewards,  beyond  what  could  arise  from 
principles  common  to  the  rest  of  mankind ;  so 


GENERATION 

that  we  cannot  wonder  that  we  find  in  the  writ- 
ings of  the  prophets  many  strong  expressions  of 
such  an  expectation,  particularly  Gen.  xlix.  18  ; 
Ps.  xvi.  9  to  11 ;  xvii.  last  verse;  lxxiii.  17,  27; 
Eccl.  ii.  15,  1G,  &c;  vii.  12,  15;  Is.  iii.  10,  11; 
Ezek.  xviii.  19,  21 ;  Job  xix.  23,  37;  Dan.  xii.  2; 
Is.  xxxv.  8;  xxvi.  19.  The  same  thing  may  also 
be  inferred  from  the  particular  promises  made  to 
Daniel,  Dan.  xii.  13 ;  to  Zcrubbabel,  Hag.  ii.  23 ; 
and  to  Joshua,  the  high  priest,  Zech.  iii.  7 ;  as 
well  as  from  those  historical  facts  recorded  in  the 
Old  Testament  of  the  murder  of  Abel,  the  trans- 
lation of  Enoch  and  Elijah,  the  death  of  Moses, 
and  the  story  of  the  Witch  of  Endor,  and  from 
what  is  said  of  the  appearance  of  angels  to,  and 
their  converse  with  good  men."  Sec  articles  In- 
termediate State,  Resurrection,  and  Soi'L; 
also,  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lee.  216;  Warbur- 
ton's  Divine  Legation  of  Moses,  vol.  ii.  p.  553- 
568;  Dr.  Addington's  Dissertations  on  the  Re- 
ligious Knowledge  of  the  Ancient  Jews  and 
Patriarchs,  containing  an  Inquiry  into  the  Evi- 
dences of  their  Belief  and  Expectation  of  a 
Future  Stale;  Blair's  Sermons,  ser.  15,  vol.  1; 
Robinson's  Claude,  vol.  i.  p.  132;  W.  Jones's 
Works,  vol.  vi.  ser.  12;  Logan's  Ser.  vol.  ii.  p.  413. 


G. 


GAIANITiE,  a  denomination  which  derived 
its  name  from  Gaian,  a  bishop  of  Alexandria,  in 
the  sixth  century,  who  denied  that  Jesus  Christ, 
after  the  hypostatieal  union,  was  subject  to  any 
of  the  infirmities  of  human  nature. 

GALILEANS,  a  sect  of  the  Jews  which 
arose  in  Judea  some  years  alter  the  birth  of  our 
Saviour.  They  sprang  from  one  Judas,  a  native 
of  Gaul-am,  in  Upper  Galilee,  upon  the  occasion 
of  Augustus  appointing  the  people  to  be  muster- 
ed, which  they  looked  upon  as  an  instance  of  ser- 
vitude which  all  true  Israelites  ought  to  oppose. 
They  pretended  that  God  alone  should  be  owned 
9S  master  and  lord,  and  in  other  respects  were  of 
the  opinion  of  the  Pharisees ;  but  as  they  judged 
it  unlawful  to  pray  for  infidel  princes,  they  sepa- 
rated themselves  from  the  rest  of  the  Jews,  and 
performed  their  sacrifices  apart.  As  our  Saviour 
and  his  apostles  were  of  Galilee,  they  were  sus- 
pected to  be  of  the  s?ct  of  the  Galileans ;  and 
it  was  on  this  principle,  as  St.  Jerome  observes, 
that  the  Pharisees  laid  a  snare  for  him,  asking, 
Whether  it  were  lawful  to  give  tribute  to  Caesar? 
that  in  case  he  denied  it,  they  might  have  an  oc- 
casion of  accusing  him. 

GAZARES,  a  denomination  which  appeared 
about  1 197,  at  Gazare,  a  town  of  Dalmatia.  They 
held  almost  the  same  opinions  with  the  Albi- 
genses;  but  their  distinguishing  tenet  was,  that 
no  human  power  had  a  right  to  sentence  men  to 
death  for  anv  crime  whatever. 

GEMARA     See  Talmud. 

GENERAL  CALL.    See  Calling. 

GENERATION,  ETERNAL,  is  a  term 
used  as  descriptive  of  the  Father's  communicating 
the  Divine  Nature  to  the  Son.  The  Father  is 
said  by  some  divines  to  have  produced  the  Word, 
or  Son,  from  all  eternity,  by  way  of  generation ; 
on  which  occasion,  the  word  generation  raises  a 
peculiar  idea;  that  procession  which  is  really 
effected  in  the  way  of  understanding,  is  called 
152 


generation,  because,  in  virtue  thereof,  the  Word 
becomes  like  to  Plim  from  whom  he  takes  the  ori- 
ginal; or,  as  St.  Paul  expresses  it,  the  figure  or 
image  of  his  substance ;  i.  e.  of  his  being  and  nature. 
And  hence  it  is,  they  say,  that  the  second  person 
is  called  the  Son;  and  that  in  such  a  way  and 
manner  as  never  any  other  was,  is,  or  can  be,  be- 
cause of  his  own  divine  nature,  he  being  the  true, 
proper,  and  natural  Son  of  God,  begotten  by  him 
before  ail  worlds.  Thus  he  is  called  his  own  Son, 
Rom.  viii.  3  ;  his  only  begotten  Son,  John  iii.  16. 
Many  have  attempted  to  explain  the  manner  of 
this  generation  by  different  similitudes ;  but  as 
they  throw  little  or  no  light  upon  the  subject,  we 
shall  not  trouble  the  reader  with  them.  Some, 
however,  suppose  that  the  term  Son  of  God  refers 
to  Christ  as  mediator ;  and  that  his  sonship  does 
not  lie  in  his  divine  or  human  nature  separately 
considered,  but  in  the  union  of  both  in  one  per- 
son. See  Luke  i.  35  ;  Matt.  iv.  3 ;  John  i.  49 ; 
Matt.  xvi.  16 ;  Acts  ix.  20,  22 ;  Rom.  i.  4.  It  is 
observed,  that  it  is  impossible  that  a  nature  pro- 
perly divine  should  be  begotten,  since  begetting, 
whatever  idea  is  annexed  to  it,  must  signify  some 
kind  of  production,  derivation,  and  inferiority ; 
consequently,  that  whatever  is  produced  must 
have  a  beginning,  and  whatever  had  a  beginning 
was  not  from  eternity,  as  Christ  is  said  to  be,  Isa. 
ix.  6;  Col.  i.  16,  17.  That  the  sonship  of  Christ 
respects  him  as  mediator  will  be  evident,  if  we 
compare  John  x.  30.  with  John  xiv.  28.  In  the 
former  it  is  said,  "  I  and  my  Father  are  one ;" 
in  the  latUr,  "My  Father  is  greater  than  1." 
These  declarations,  however  opposite  they  seem, 
equally  respect  him  as  he  is  the  Son;  but  if  his 
sonship  primarily  and  properly  signify  the  gene- 
ration of  his  divine  nature,  it  will  be  difficult,  if 
not  impossible,  according  to  that  scheme,  to  make 
them  harmonize.  Considered  as  a  distinct  per- 
son in  the  Godhead,  without  res(>ect  to  his  office 
as  mediator,  it  is  impossible  that,  in  the  same 


GENTLENESS 

view,  he  should  be  both  equal  and  inferior  to  his 
Father.  Again ;  he  expressly  tells  us  himself, 
that  "  the  Son  can  do  nothing  of  himself;  that 
the  Father  showeth  him  a'A  things  that  he  doth ; 
and  that  he  giveth  him  to  have  life  in  himself," 
John  v.  19,  20,  26.  Which  expressions,  if  applied 
to  him  as  God,  not  as  mediator,  will  reduce  us  to 
the  disagreeable  necessity  of  subscribing  either  to 
the  creed  of  Arius,  and  maintain  him  to  be  God 
of  an  inferior  nature,  and  thus  a  plurality  «f 
Gods,  or  to  embrace  the  doctrine  of  Soeinus,  who 
allows  him  only  to  be  a  God  by  office.  But  if 
this  title  belong  to  him  as  a  mediator,  every  diffi- 
culty is  removed.  Anil,  lastly,  it  is  observed,  that 
though  Jesus  be  God,  and  the  attributes  of  eter- 
nal existence  ascribed  to  him,  yet  the  two  attri- 
butes, eternal  and  son,  are  not  once  expressed  in 
the  same  text  as  referring  to  eternal  generation. 
See  article  Son  of  God  ;  Oioen  on  the  Person 
of  Christ ;  Pearson  on  the  Creed ;  Ridgley's 
Body  of  Divinity,  p.  73,  76,  3d.  edition  ;  Gill's 
ditto,  p.  205,  vol.  i.  8vo.  edition ;  Lambert's 
Sennons,  ser.  13,  text,  John  xi.  35;  Hodson's 
Essay  on  the  Eternal  Filiation  of  the  Son  of 
God;   Watts' s  Works,  vol.  v.  p.  77. 

GENEROSITY,  the  disposition  which 
prompts  us  to  bestow  favours  which  are  not  the 
purchase  of  any  particular  merit.  It  is  different 
from  humanity.  Humanity  is  an  exquisite  feel- 
ing we  possess  in  relation  to  others,  so  as  to 
grieve  for  their  sufferings,  resent  their  injuries, 
or  to  rejoice  at  their  prosperity  ;  and  as  it  arises 
from  sympathy,  it  requires  no  great  self-denial  or 
sell-command ;  but  generosity  is  that  by  which 
we  are  led  to  prefer  some  other  person  to  our- 
selves, and  to  sacrifice  any  interest  of  our  own  to 
the  interest  of  another. 

GENIUS,  a  good  or  evil  spirit  or  daemon,  who 
the  ancients  supposed  was  set  over  each  person  to 
direct  his  birth,  accompany  him  in  liis  life,  and  to 
be  his  guard. 

Genius  signifies  that  aptitude  which  a  man  na- 
turally possesses  to  perform  well  and  easily  that 
which  others  can  do  but  indifferently,  and  with  a 
great  deal  of  pain. 

GENTILE,  in  matters  of  religion,  a  Pagan, 
or  worshipper  of  false  gods.  The  origin  of  this 
woru  is  deduced  from  the  Jews,  who  called  all 
those  who  were  not  of  their  name,  DMJ  gojini, 
i.e..  gentes,  which  in  the  Greek  translation  of  the 
Old  Testament  is  rendered  r»  t4v<t,  in  which 
sense  it  frequently  occurs  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment ;  as  in  Matt.  vi.  32.  "  All  these  things  the 
nations  or  Gentiles  seek." — Whence  the  Latin 
church  also  used  gentes  in  the  same  sense  as  our 
Gentiles,  especially  in  the  New  Testament.  But 
the  word  gentes  soon  got  another  signification, 
and  no  longer  meant  all  such  as  were  not  Jews, 
but  those  only  who  were  neither  Jews  nor  Chris- 
tians, but  followed  the  superstitions  of  the  Greeks 
and  Romans,  &c.  In  this  sense  it  continued 
among  the  Christian  writers,  till  their  manner  of 
speech,  together  with  their  religion,  was  publicly, 
and  by  authority,  received  in  the  empire,  when 
gentiles,  from  gentes,  came  into  use;  and  then 
both  words  had  two  significations :  viz.  in  trea- 
tises or  laws  concerning  religion,  they  signified 
Pagans,  neither  Jews  nor  Christians;  and  in 
civil  affairs  they  aie  used  for  all  such  as  were  not 
Romans.     See  Heathen,  Paganism. 

GENTLENESS,  softness  or  mildness  of  dis- 
position and  behaviour.  Little  as  this  disposition 
153  U 


GERMAN 
is  thought  of  by  many,  we  find  it  considered  in 
Scripture  as  a  characteristic  of  the  true  Christian. 
"  The  wisdom  that  is  from  above,"  saith  St. 
James,  '  is  gentle,"  iii.  17.  "  This  gentleness, 
indeed,  is  to  be  distinguished  from  passive  tame- 
ness  of  spirit,  and  from  unlimited  compliance  with 
the  manners  of  others.  That  passive  tameness, 
which  submits  without  a  struggle  to  every  en- 
croachment of  the  violent  and  assuming,  forms  no 
part  of  Christian  duty ;  but,  on  the  contrary,  is 
destructive  of  general  happiness  and  order.  That 
unlimited  complaisance  which  on  every  occasion 
falls  in  with  the  opinions  and  manners  of  others, 
is  so  far  from  being  a  virtue,  that  it  is  itself  a 
vice,  and  the  parent  of  many  vices.  It  over- 
throws all  steadiness  of  principle,  and  produces 
that  sinful  conformity  with  the  world  which 
taints  the  whole  character.  In  the  present  cor- 
rupted state  of  human  manners,  always  to  assent 
and  to  comply,  is  the  very  worst  maxim  we  can 
adopt.  True  gentleness,  therelbre,  is  to  be  care- 
fully distinguished  from  the  mean  spirit  of  cow- 
ards and  the  fawning  assent  of  sycophants.  It 
renounces  no  just  right  from  fear;  it  gives  up  no 
important  truth  from  flattery :  it  is,  indeed,  not 
only  consistent  with  a  firm  mind,  but  it  necessa- 
rily requires  a  manly  spirit  and  a  fixed  principle, 
in  order  to  give  it  any  real  value.  It  stands  op- 
posed to  harshness  and  severity,  to  pride  and  arro- 
gance, to  violence  and  oppression  :  it  is  properly 
that  part  of  charity  which  makes  us  unwilling  to 
give  pain  to  any  of  our  brethren.  Compassion 
prompts  us  to  relieve  their  wants;  forbearance 
prevents  us  from  retaliating  their  injuries;  meek- 
ness restrains  our  angry  passions ;  candour  our 
severe  judgments ;  but  gentleness  corrects  what- 
ever is  offensive  in  our  manner,  and,  by  a  constant 
train  of  humane  attentions,  studies  to  alleviate 
the  burden  of  common  misery." 

GENUFLECTION,  the"  act  of  bowing  or 
bending  the  knee,  or  rather  of  kneeling  down. 
The  Jesuit  Rosweyd,  in  his  Onomasticon,  shows 
that  genuflection,  or  kneeling,  has  been  a  very 
ancient  custom  in  the  church,  and  even  ur.derthe 
Old  Testament  dispensation  ;  and  that  this  prac- 
tice was  observed  throughout  all  the  year,  ex- 
cepting on  Sundays,  and  during  the  time  from 
Easter  to  Whitsuntide,  when  kneeling  was  for- 
bidden by  the  council  of  Nice.  Others  have 
shown,  that  the  custom  of  not  kneeling  on  Sun- 
days had  obtained  from  the  time  of  the  apostles,  as 
appears  from  St.  Irenams  and  Tertullian;  and 
the  Ethiopic  church,  scrupulously  attached  to  the 
ancient  ceremonies,  still  retains  that  of  not  kneel- 
ing at  divine  service.  The  Russians  esteem  it  an 
indecent  posture  to  worship  God  on  the  knees. 
The  Jews  usually  prayed  standing.  Baronius  is 
of  opinion  that  genuflection  was  not  established" 
in  the  year  of  Christ  5S,  from  that  passage  in 
Acts  xx.  36,  where  St.  Paul  is  expressly  men- 
tioned to  kneel  down  at  prayer;  but  Saurin 
shows  that  nothing  can  be  thence  concluded. 
The  same  author  remarks,  also,  that  the  primi- 
tive Christians  carried  the  practice  of  genuflection 
so  far,  that  some  of  them  had  worn  cavities  in  the 
floor  where  they  prayed;  and  St.  Jerome  relates 
of  St.  James,  that  he  had  contracted  a  hardness 
on  his  knees  equal  to  that  of  camels. 

GERMAN  (REFORMED)  CHURCH. 
The  members  of  this  denomination  were  among 
the  early  settlers  in  Pennsylvania.  They  are 
descended    from    the    Reformed  or  Calvinistic 


GLASSITES 
Church  in  Germany.  They  remained  in  a  scat- 
tered state,  till  1746,  when  the  R.ev.  Michael 
Schlatter,  who  was  sent  from  Europe  for  the 
purpose,  collected  them  together.  They  are  found 
principally  in  Pennsylvania;  a  few  in  Maryland, 
Virginia,  Ohio,  and  other  states.  Their  church 
government  is  essentially  presbyterian,  though 
their  highest  judicature  is  termed  a  synod.  Tfie 
synod  of  the  German  Reformed  Church  is  com- 
posed of  seven  classes — east  Pennsylvania,  Le- 
banon, Susquehanna,  west  Pennsylvania,  Zion, 
Maryland,  and  Virginia.  The  synod  of  Ohio, 
not  in  immediate  connexion  with  the  general  sy- 
nod, on  account  of  its  distance,  have  in  their 
connexion  14  ordained  ministers,  and  one  candi- 
date, and  about  100  synod  congregations.  There 
is,  in  addition,  an  independent  body,  called  a  sy- 
nod of  the  German  Reformed  Church,  in  the 
eastern  part  of  Pennsylvania. — B. 

GHOST,  HOLY.    See  Holy  Ghost. 

GIFT  OF  TONGUES,  an  ability  given  to 
the  apostles  of  readily  and  intelligibly  speaking  a 
variety  of  languages  which  they  had  never  learnt. 
This  was  a  most  glorious  and  important  attesta- 
tion of  the  Gospel,  as  well  as  a  suitable,  and,  in- 
deed, in  their  circumstances,  a  necessary  furni- 
ture for  the  mission  for  which  the  apostles  and 
their  assistants  were  designed.  Nor  is  there  any 
reason,  with  Dr.  Middleton,  to  understand  it  as 
merely  an  occasional  gift,  so  that  a  person  might 
speak  a  language  most  fluently  one  hour,  and  be 
entirely  ignorant  of  it  in  the  next ;  which  neither 
agrees  with  what  is  said  of  the  abuse  of  it,  nor 
would  have  been  sufficient  to  answer  the  end 
proposed.  See  Acts  ii.  See  Gill  and  Henry  in 
loc. ;  Jortin's  Remarks,  vol.  i.  p.  15 — 21 ;  Essay 
on  the  Gift  of  Tongues;  Middleton' s  Misccl. 
Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  37!> ;  Doddridge's  Lect.  lee.  141. 

GlLBERTINES,  a  religious  order ;  thus 
called  from  St.  Gilbert,  of  Sempringham,  in  the 
County  of  Lincoln,  who  founded  the  same  about 
the  year  1148;  the  monks  of  which  observed  the 
rule  of  St.  Augustine,  and  were  accounted  canons, 
and  the  nuns  that  of  St.  Benedict.  The  founder 
of  this  order  erected  a  double  monastery,  or  rather 
two  different  ones,  contiguous  to  each  other ;  the 
one  for  men,  the  other  for  women,  but  parted  by  a 
very  high  wall.  St.  Gilbert  himself  founded  thir- 
teen monasteries  of  this  order ;  viz.  four  for  men 
alone,  and  nine  for  men  and  women  together, 
which  had  in  them  700  brethren,  and  1500  sis- 
ters. At  the  dissolution,  there  were  about 
twenty-five  houses  of  this  order  in  England  and 
Wales. 

GLASSITES.  The  Glassites  are  so  denomi 
nated  from  Mr.  John  Glas,  their  founder,  who 
.was  a  minister  of  the  established  kirk  of  Scot- 
land ;  but  his  followers  are  more  generally  known, 
out  of  Scotland,  by  the  appellation  of  Sandema- 
nians,  from  Mr.  Robert  Sandeman.  See  San- 
dkmanians. 

Mr.  Glas,  about  the  year  1727,  having  offend- 
ed some  of  his  brethren  by  certain  peculiar  no- 
tions, both  of  justifying  faith,  and  of  the  nature 
of  Christ's  kingdom,  as  being  not  of  this  world, 
was  arraigned  as  an  offender  before  the  presby- 
tery of  wliich  he  was  a  member,  and  afterwards 
prosecuted  before  the  prowncial  synod  of  Angus 
and  Mearns  ;  and  having  been  in  the  course  of 
that  prosecution,  called  in  by  the  synod  to  answer 
certain  queries,  be  gave  such  answers  as  were  by 
his  judges  deemed  inconsistent  with  the  standard  | 
151 


GLASSITES 

of  the  national  religion  ;  e.g.  being  interrogated, 
"  Is  it  your  opinion  that  there  is  no  warrant  for  a 
national  church  under  the  New  Testament?" 
he  answered,  "  It  is  my  opinion  ;  for  I  can  see  no 
churches  instituted  by  Christ  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment,  beside  the  universal,  but  congregational 
churches.  Neither  do  I  see  that  a  nation  can  be 
a  church,  unless  it  could  be  made  a  congregation, 
as  was  the  nation  of  Israel  &c."  Interrogated, 
"Is  it  your  opinion  that  a  single  congregation  of 
believers,  with  their  pastor,  are  not  under  the 
ecclesiastical  jurisdiction  and  authority  of  supe- 
rior church  judicatures,  nor  censurable  by  them, 
either  as  to  doctrine,  worship,  or  practice?"  He 
answered,  "  A  congregation  or  church  of  Jesus 
Christ,  with  its  presbytery,  is,  in  its  discipline, 
subject  to  no  jurisdiction  under  heaven."  And 
being  interrogated,  "Do  you  think  yourself 
obliged  in  conscience  to  teach  and  publish  these 
your  opinions,  differing  from  the  received  doc- 
trines of  this  church,  unto  the  people?"  he  an- 
swered, "  I  think  myself  obliged  in  conscience  to 
declare  every  truth  of  Christ,  and  keep  nothing 
back ;  but  to  speak  ail  the  words  of  this  life ;  and 
to  teach  his  people  to  observe  all  things  whatsoever 
he  commands,  so  far  as  I  can  understand :  and 
that  notwithstanding  of  others  differing  from  me, 
and  my  being  exposed  to  hazard  in  the  declaring 
of  them."  For  these,  and  other  opinions  of  a  simi- 
lar nature  and  tendency,  the  synod  suspended 
Mr.  Glas  from  the  exercise  of  his  office,  in  April 
1728;  and,  in  the  same  year,  he  published  "an 
explication  of  that  proposition,"  contained  in  the 
foregoing  answer,  "  a  congregation,  or  church  of 
Jesus  Christ  with  its  presbytery  is,  in  its  disci- 
pline, subject  to  no  jurisdiction  under  heaven." 
Mr.  Glas  having  persisted,  not  only  in  the  ex- 
ercise of  his  office  as  a  minister  of  Christ,  not- 
withstanding the  sentence  of  suspension,  but  also 
in  the  opinions  expressed  in  his  answers  above 
referred  to,  the  synod  of  Angus  and  Mearns,  after 
a  great  deal  of  previous  procedure,  by  a  plu- 
rality of  votes,  but  not  without  protests  entered 
*>y  some  of  their  brethren,  in  October  1728,  "de- 
posed him  from  the  office  of  the  holy  ministry; 
prohibiting  and  discharging  him  to  exercise  the 
same,  or  any  part  thereof,  in  all  time  coming,  un- 
der the  pain  of  the  highest  censures  of  the  church. 
From  this  sentence  Mr.  Glas  appealed  to  the  ge- 
neral asser.  ibly  of  the  church  of  Scotland.  In  the 
mean  time  he  continued  the  exercise  of  his  minis- 
try; and  from  among  his  numerous  followers, 
(for  his  popularity  was  then  great,  notwithstand- 
ing the  peculiarity  of  some  of  his  opinions}  he 
formed  a  congregation  on  his  own  principles  in  a 
parish  near  Dundee,  of  which  he  had  been  ori- 
ginally ordained  pastor. 

In  the  year  1729,  Mr.  Glas  published  a  treatise 
entitled  The  Testimony  of  the  King  of  Mar- 
tyrs, as  expressed  in  the  answer  of  Jesus  Christ 
to  Pilate,  "  My  kingdom  is  not  of  this  world."  In 
that  treatise  he  has  pretty  fully  illustrated  his  sen- 
timents on  the  points  of  dispute  between  the  sy 
nod  and  him.  This  appeal  from  the  synod  being 
referred  to  the  commission  of  assembly,  they, 
after  hearing  his  speech  in  defence  (published  in 
his  Works,  vol.  i.)  affirmed  the  sentence  of  deposi- 
tion pronounced  by  the  synod.  Notwithstanding 
this  deposition,  Mr.  Glas  co?'t'mued  the  exercise 
of  his  ministry,  though  deprived  of  his  stipend, 
and  not  only  preached  occasionally  in  most  of  the 
principal  towns  of  Scotland,  but  erected  churches, 


GNOSTICS 
wherever  he  found  a  competent  number  of  per- 
sons who  adopted  and  coincided  with  his  opinions. 
In  vindication  of  this  course  he  alleged,  that  his 
conduct  in  this  matter  was  the  legitimate  conse- 
quence of  the  principles  he  had  embraced,  and 
until  those  principles  were  refuted  by  fair  reason- 
ing, it  was  not  to  be  expected  that  the  sentence 
of  the  synod  could  loose  him  from  the  obligation 
laid  upon  him  by  the  law  of  Christ  to  preach  the 

fospel.  Soon  after  the  erection  of  the  church  at 
)undee,  smaller  congregations  were  put  into 
church  order  at  different  places ;  such  as  Edin- 
burgh, Perth,  Montrose,  Aberdeen,  Glasgow, 
Paisley,  &c.  Glas,  as  has  been  observed,  pub- 
lished a  variety  of  tracts  and  treatises  at  different 
periods,  all  of  them  discovering  talents  of  the 
highest  order  ;  and  among  others  who  were  led 
by  the  force  of  his  arguments  to  adopt  his  pecu- 
liar views,  was  a  Mr.  Robert  Sandeman,  ori- 
ginally educated  and  destined  for  the  ministry  of 
the  established  church,  who  having  embraced 
Mr.  Glas's  principles,  was  soon  after  ordained  an 
elder  of  the  church  at  Perth,  from  whence  he  af- 
terwards moved  to  Edinburgh.  He  soon  entered 
warmly  into  controversy  with  Mr.  Hervey  and 
others,  and  became  more  conspicuous  than  his 
master,  and  in  some  points  has  evidently  pushed 
Mr.  Glas's  peculiar  sentiments  to  a  greater  ex- 
treme than  he  ever  carried  them,  if  we  may  judge 
from  his  published  works.  For  the  distinguishing 
doctrinal  tenets  usually  ascribed  to  the  Glassites, 
see  the  article  on  Sandemanism.  Adam's  Re- 
ligious World  Displayed,  vol.  iii. — B. 

GLORY,  praise,  or  honour,  attributed  to  God. 
in  adoration  or  worship.  The  state  of  felicity 
prepared  for  the  righteous.     See  Heaven. 

The  glory  of  God  is  the  manifestation  of  the 
divine  perfections  in  creation,  providence,  and 
grace.  We  may  be  said  to  give  glory  to  God 
when  we  confess  our  sins,  when  we  love  him  su- 
premely, when  we  commit  ourselves  to  him,  are 
zealous  in  his  service,  improve  our  talents,  walk 
humbly,  thankfully,  and  cheerfully  before  him, 
and  recommend,  proclaim,  or  set  forth  his  excel- 
lencies to  others,  Jos.  vii.  10;  Gal.  ii.  20;  John 
xv.  8;  Ps.  1.  23;  Matt.  v.  16. 

GNOSIMACHI,  a  name  which  distinguished 
those  in  the  seventh  century  who  were  professed 
enemies  to  the  Gnosis ;  i.  e.  the  studied  know- 
ledge or  science  of  Christianity,  which  they  rested 
wholly  on  good  works ;  calling  it  a  useless  labour 
to  seek  for  knowledge  in  the  Scripture.  In  short, 
they  contended  for  the  practice  of  morality  in  all 
simplicity,  and  blamed  those  who  aimed  at  im- 
proving and  perfecting  it  by  a  deeper  knowledge 
and  insight  into  the  doctrines  and  mysteries  of 
religion.  The  Gnosimachi  were  the  very  reverse 
of  the  Gnostics. 

GNOSTICS,  (from  rvo,<rT.xo«,  knowing,)  an- 
cient heretics,  famous  from  the  first  rise  of  Chris- 
tianity, principally  in  the  east.  It  appears  from 
several  passages  of  Scripture,  particularly  1  John 
ii.  18 ;  1  Tim.  vi.  20 ;  Col.  ii.  8 ;  that  many  per- 
sons were  infected  with  the  Gnostic  heresy  in  the 
first  century;  though  the  sect  did  not  render 
itself  conspicuous,  either  for  numbers  or  reputa- 
tion, before  the  time  of  Adrian,  when  some  wri- 
ters erroneously  date  its  rise.  The  name  was 
adopted  by  this  sect,  on  the  presumption  that  they 
were  the  only  persons  who  had  the  true  know- 
ledge of  Christianity.  Accordingly  they  looked 
on  all  other  Christians  as  simple,  ignorant,  and 
155 


GNOSTICS 
barbarous  persons,  who  explained  and  interpre- 
ted the  sacred  writings,  in  a  low,  literal,  and  un- 
edifying  signification.  At  first,  the  Gnostics 
were  the  only  philosophers  and  wits  of  those 
times,  who  formed  for  themselves  a  peculiar  sys- 
tem of  theology,  agreeable  to  the  philosophy  of 
Pythagoras  and  Plato;  to  which  they  accommo- 
dated all  their  interpretations  of  Scripture.  But 
Gnostics  afterwards  became  a  generical  name, 
comprehending  divers  sects  and  parties  of  here- 
tics, who  rose  in  the  first  centuries ;  and  who, 
though  they  differed  among  themselves  as  to  cir- 
cumstances, yet  all  agreed  in  some  common  prin- 
ciples. They  corrupted  the  doctrine  of  the  Gos- 
pel by  a  profane  mixture  of  the  tenets  of  the 
oriental  philosophy,  concerning  the  origin  of  evil 
and  the  creation  of  the  world,  with  its  divine 
truths.  Such  were  the  Valentinians,  Simonians, 
Carpocratians,  Nicolaitans,  &c. 

Gnostics  sometimes  also  occurs  in  a  good 
sense,  in  the  ancient  ecclesiastical  writers,  par- 
ticularly Clemens  Alexandrinus,  who  in  the  per- 
son of  his  Gnostic  describes  the  characters  and 
qualities  of  a  perfect  Christian.  This  point  he 
labours  in  the  seventh  book  of  his  Slromata, 
where  he  shows  that  none  but  the  Gnostic,  or 
learned  person,  has  any  true  religion.  He 
affirms  that,  were  it  possible  for  the  knowledge 
of  God  to  be  separated  from  eternal  salvation,  the 
Gnostic  would  make  no  scruple  to  choose  the 
knowledge ;  and  that  if  God  would  promise  him 
impunity  in  doing  any  thing  he  has  once  spoken 
against,  or  offer  him  heaven  on  those  terms,  he 
would  never  alter  a  whit  of  his  measures.  In  this 
sense  the  father  uses  Gnostics,  in  opposition  to 
the  heretics  of  the  same  name ;  affirming  that  the 
true  Gnostic  is  grown  old  in  the  study  of  the 
holy  Scripture,  and  that  he  preserves  the  ortho- 
dox doctrine  of  the  apostles,  and  of  the  church ; 
whereas  the  false  Gnostic  abandons  all  the  apos- 
tolical traditions,  as  imagining  himself  wiser  than 
the  apostles. 

Gnostics  was  sometimes  also  more  particularly 
used  for  the  successors  of  the  Nicolaitans  and 
Carpocratians,  in  the  second  century,  upon  their 
laying  aside  the  names  of  the  first  authors.  Such 
as  would  be  thoroughly  acquainted  with  all  their 
doctrines,  reveries,  and  visions,  may  consult  St. 
Irenceus,  Tertullian,  Clemens  Alexandrinus, 
Origen,  and  St.  Epiphanius;  particularly  the 
first  of  these  writers,  who  relates  their  sentiments 
at  large,  and  confutes  them.  Indeed  he  dwells 
more  on  the  Valentinians  than  any  other  sect  of 
Gnostics;  but  he  shows  the  general  principles 
whereon  all  their  mistaken  opinions  were  found- 
ed, and  the  method  they  followed  in  explaining 
Scripture.  He  accuses  them  of  introducing  into 
religion  certain  vain  and  ridiculous  genealogies, 
i.  e.  a  kind  of  divine  processions  or  emanations, 
which  had  no  other  foundation  but  in  their  own 
wild  imagination.  The  Gnostics  confessed,  that 
these  sons,  or  emanations,  were  no  where  ex- 
pressly delivered  in  the  sacred  writings ;  but  in- 
sisted that  Jesus  Christ  had  intimated  them  in 
parables  to  such  as  could  understand  them.  They 
built  then  theology  not  only  on  the  Gospels  and 
the  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  but  also  on  the  law  of 
Moses  and  the  prophets.  These  last  were  pe- 
culiarly serviceable  to  them,  on  account  of  the 
allegories  and  allusions  with  which  they  abound, 
which  are  capable  of  different  interpretations; 
though  their  doctrine,  concerning  the  creation  of 


GNOSTICS 
the  world  by  one  or  more  inferior  beings  of  an 
evil  or  imperfect  nature,  led  them  to  deny  the 
divine  authority  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment, which  contradicted  this  idle  fiction,  and 
filled  them  with  an  abhorrence  of  Moses  and  the 
religion  he  taught ;  alleging,  that  he  was  actuated 
jy  the  malignant  author  ol  this  world,  who  con- 
sulted his  own  glory  and  authority,  and  not  the 
real  advantage  of  men.  Their  persuasion  that 
evil  resided  in  matter,  as  its  centre  and  source, 
made  them  treat  the  body  with  contempt,  dis- 
courage marriage,  and  reject  the  doctrine  of  the 
resurrection  of  the  body,  and  its  reunion  with  the 
immortal  spirit.  Their  notion,  that  malevolent 
genii  presided  in  nature,  and  occasioned  diseases 
and  calamities,  wars  and  desolations,  induced 
them  to  apply  themselves  to  the  study  of  magic, 
in  order  to  weaken  the  powers,  or  suspend  the 
influence  of  these  malignant  agents.  The  Gnos- 
tics considered  Jesus  Christ  as  the  Son  of  God, 
and  inferior  to  the  Father,  who  came  into  the 
world  for  the  rescue  and  happiness  of  miserable 
mortals,  oppressed  by  matter  and  evil  beings ;  but 
they  rejected  our  Lord's  humanity,  on  the  prin- 
ciple that  every  thing  corporeal  is  essentially  and 
intrinsically  evil;  and  therefore  the  greatest  part 
of  them  denied  the  reality  of  his  sufferings.  They 
set  a  great  value  on  the  beginning  of  the  Gospel 
of  St.  John,  where  they  fancied  they  saw  a  great 
deal  of  their  a?ons,  or  emanations,  under  the 
terms,  the  word,  the  life,  the  light,  &c.  They 
divided  all  nature  into  three  kinds  of  beings,  viz. 
hylic,  or  material;  psychic,  or  animal;  and 
pneumatic,  or  spiritual.  On  the  like  principle 
they  also  distinguished  three  sorts  of  men ;  mate- 
rial, animal,  and  spiritual.  The  first,  who  were 
material,  and  incapable  of  knowledge,  inevitably 
perished,  both  soul  and  body ;  the  third,  such  as 
the  Gnostics  themselves  pretended  to  be,  were  all 
certainly  saved ;  the  psychic,  or  animal,  who  were 
the  middle  between  the  other  two,  were  capable 
either  of  being  saved  or  damned,  according  to 
their  good  or  evil  actions.  With  regard  to  their 
moral  doctrines  and  conduct,  they  were  much 
divided.  The  greatest  part  of  this  sect  adopted 
very  austere  rules  of  life,  recommended  rigorous 
abstinence,  and  prescribed  severe  bodily  mortifi- 
cations, with  a  view  of  purifying  and  exalting  the 
mind.  However,  some  maintained  that  there 
was  no  moral  difference  in  human  actions;  and 
thus  confounding  right  with  wrong,  they  gave 
a  loose  rein  to  all  the  passions,  and  asserted  the 
innocence  of  following  blindly  all  their  motions, 
and  of  living  by  their  tumultuous  dictates. — 
They  supported  their  opinions  and  practice  by 
various  authorities :  some  referred  to  fictitious  and 
apocryphal  writings  of  Adam,  Abraham,  Zoroas- 
ter, Christ,  and  his  apostles;  others  boasted  that 
they  had  deduced  their  sentiments  from  secret 
doctrines  of  Christ,  concealed  from  the  vulgar; 
others  affirmed  that  they  arrived  at  superior  de- 
grees of  wisdom  by  an  innate  vigour  of  mind ; 
and  others  asserted  that  they  were  instructed  in 
these  mysterious  parts  of  theological  science  by 
Theudas,  a  disciple  of  St.  Paul,  and  by  Matthias, 
one  of  the  friends  of  our  Lord.  The  tenets  of 
the  ancient  Gnostics  were  revived  in  Spain,  in 
the  fourth  century,  by  a  sect  called  the  Priseil- 
lianists.  At  length  the  name  Gnostic,  which 
originally  was  glorious,  became  infamous,  by  the 
idle  opinions  and  dissolute  lives  of  the  persons 
who  bore  it. 
156 


GODLINESS 

GOD,  the  self-existent,  infinitely  perfect,  and 
infinitely  good  Being  who  created  and  preserves 
all  things  that  have  existence.  As  the  Divine 
Being  possesses  a  nature  far  beyond  the  compre- 
hension of  any  of  his  creatures,  of  course  that  na- 
ture is  inexplicable.  "  All  our  knowledge  of  ir> 
visible  objects  is  obtained  by  analogy ;  that  is,  by 
the  resemblance  which  they  bear  to  visible  objects ; 
but  as  there  is  in  nature  no  exact  resemblance  of 
the  nature  of  God,  an  attempt  to  explain  the  di- 
vine nature  is  absurd  and  impracticable.  All  si- 
militudes, therefore,  which  are  used  in  attempting 
to  explain  it,  must  be  rejected."  Yet,  though  we 
cannot  fully  understand  his  nature,  there  is  some- 
thing of  him  we  may  know.  He  hath  been  pleased 
to  discover  his  perfections,  in  a  measure,  by  the 
works  of  creation  and  the  Scriptures  of  truth ; 
these,  therefore,  we  ought  to  study,  in  order  that 
we  may  obtain  the  most  becoming  thoughts  of 
him.  For  an  account  of  the  various  attributes  or 
perfections  of  God,  the  reader  is  referred  to  those 
articles  in  this  work. 

There  are  various  names  given  to  the  Al- 
mighty in  the  Scriptures,  though,  properly  speak- 
ing, he  can  have  no  name ;  for  as  he  is  incom- 
prehensible, he  is  not  nominable ;  and  being  but 
one,  he  has  no  need  of  a  name  to  distinguish  nim ; 
nevertheless,  as  names  are  given  him  in  the  Scrip- 
ture, to  assist  our  ideas  of  his  greatness  and  per- 
fection, they  are  worthy  of  our  consideration. 
These  names  are  El,  which  denotes  him  the 
strong  and  powerful  God,  Gen.  xvii.  1.  Eloah, 
which  represents  him  as  the  only  proper  object 
of  worship,  Psal.  xlv.  6,  7.  Shaddai,  which  de- 
notes him  to  be  the  all-sufficient  and  almighty, 
Exod.  vi.  2.  IJhelejon,  which  represents  his  in- 
comparable excellency,  absolute  supremacy  over 
all,  and  his  peculiar  residence  in  the  highest  hea- 
vens, Psalm.  1.  11.  Ador.i,  which  makes  him  the 
great  connecter,  supporter,  lord,  and  judge,  of  all 
creatures,  Psal  ex.  1.  Jah,  which  may  denote  his 
self-existence,  and  giving  of  being  to  his  creatures, 
or  his  infinite  comeliness,  and  answerableness  to 
himself,  and  to  the  happiness  of  his  creatures, 
Exod.  xv.  2.  Ehjeh,  I  am,  or  I  will  be,  denotes 
his  self-existence,  absolute  independency,  immi> 
table  eternity,  and  all-sufficiency  to  his  people, 
Exod.  iii.  14.  Jehovah,  which  denotes  his  self- 
existence,  absolute  independence,  unsuccessive 
eternity,  and  his  effectual  and  marvellous  giving 
of  being  to  his  creatures,  and  fulfilling  his  pro- 
mises, Gen.  ii.  4,  &c. 

In  the  New  Testament,  God  is  called  Kurios, 
or  Lord,  which  denotes  his  self-existence,  and  his 
establishment  of,  and  authority  over  all  things; 
and  Theos,  which  represents  him  as  the  maker, 
pcrvader,  and  governing  observer  of  the  universe. 

GODFATHERS  AND  GODMOTHERS, 
persons,  who,  at  the  baptism  of  infants,  answer  for 
their  future  conduct,  and  solemnly  promise  that 
they  will  renounce  the  devil  and  all  his  works,  and 
follow  a  life  of  piety  and  virtue;  and  by  these  mean* 
lay  themselves  under  an  indispensable  obligation 
to  instruct  them,  and  watch  over  their  conduct. 

GODLINESS,  strictly  taken,  is  right  worship 
or  devotion :  but  in  general  it  imports  the  whole 
of  practical  religion,  1  Tim.  iv.  8;  2  Pet.  i.  6.  It 
is  difficult,  as  Saurin  observes,  to  include  an  ade- 
quate idea  of  it  in  what  is  called  a  definition.  "  It 
supposes  knowledge,  veneration,  affection,  de- 
pendence, submission,  gratitude,  and  obedience, 
or  it  may  be  reduced  to  these  four  ideas ;  knoio- 


GOODNESS 
ledge  in  themind,  by  which  it  isdistinguished  from 
the  visionsof  the  superstitious  ^rectitude  in  the  con- 
science, that  distinguishes  it  from  hypocrisy ;  sacri- 
ficem  the  life,  or  renunciation  of  the  world,  by  which 
it  is  distinguished  from  the  unmeaning  obedience 
of  him  who  goes  as  a  happy  constitution  leads  him ; 
and,  lastly,  zeal  in  the  heart,  which  differs  from 
the  languishing  emotions  of  the  lukewarm."  The 
advantages  of  this  disposition  are  honour,  peace, 
safety,  usefulness,  support  in  death,  and  prospect 
of  glory  ;  or,  as  the  apostle  sums  up  all  in  a  few 
words,  "  It  is  profitable  unto  all  things,  having 
the  promise  of  the  life  that  now  is,  and  of  that 
which  is  to  come."  1  Tim.  iv.  8.  Saurin's  Serm. 
vol.  v.  ser.  3.  Eng.  trans. ;  Barrow's  Works,  vol. 
i.  p.  9  ;  Scott's  Christian  Life ;  Scougal's  Life  of 
God  in  the  Soul  of  Man. 

GOOD,  in  general,  is  whatever  increases  plea- 
sure, or  diminishes  pain  in  us ;  or,  which  amounts 
to  the  same,  whatever  is  able  to  procure  or  preserve 
to  us  the  possession  of  agreeable  sensations,  and 
remove  those  of  an  opposite  nature.  Moral  good 
denotes  the  right  conduct  of  the  several  senses 
and  passions,  or  their  just  proportion  and  accom- 
modation to  their  respective  objects  and  rela- 
tions. 

Physical  good  is  that  which  has  either  generally, 
nr  for  any  particular  end,  such  qualities  as  are  ex- 
pected or  desired. 

GOOD  FRIDAY,  a  fast  of  the  Christian 
church,  in  memory  of  the  sufferings  and  death  of 
Jesus  Christ.  It  is  observed  on  the  Friday  in 
Passion  Week,  and  it  is  called,  by  way  of  emi- 
nence, good  ;  because  of  the  good  effects  of  our 
Saviour's  sufferings.  Among  the  Saxons  it  was 
called  Long  Friday ;  but  for  what  reason  does  not 
appear,  except  on  account  of  the  long  fasting  and 
long  offices  then  used.     See  Holy  Days. 

GOODNESS,  the  fitness  of  a  thing  to  pro- 
duce any  particular  end.  Perfection,  kindness, 
benevolence. 

GOODNESS  OF  GOD,  relates  to  the  abso- 
lute perfection  of  his  own  nature,  and  his  kindness 
manifested  to  his  creatures.  Goodness,  says  Dr. 
Gill,  is  essential  to  God,  without  which  he  would 
not  be  God,  Exod.  xxxiii.  19.  xxxiv.  6,  7.  Good- 
ness belongs  only  to  God,  he  is  solely  good,  Matt. 
xix.  17 ;  and  all  the  goodness  found  in  creatures  is 
only  an  emanation  of  the  divine  goodness.  He  is 
the  chief  good  ;  the  sum  and  substance  of  all  feli- 
city, Ps.  cxliv.  12,  15  ;  lxxiii.  25  ;  iv.  G,  7.  There 
is  nothing  but  goodness  in  God,  and  nothing  but 
goodness  comes  from  him,  1  John.  i.  5 ;  James  i. 
13,  14.  He  is  infinitely  good  ;  finite  minds  can- 
not comprehend  his  goodness,  Rom.  xi.  35,  36. 
He  is  immutably  and  unchangeably  good,  Zeph. 
iii.  17.  The  goodness  of  God  is  communicative 
and  diffusive,  Ps.  cxix.  68;  xxxiii.  5.  With  re- 
spect to  the  objects  of  it,  it  may  be  considered  as 
general  and  special.  His  general  goodness  is 
seen  in  all  his  creatures :  yea,  in  the  inanimate 
creation,  the  sun,  the  earth,  and  all  his  works ; 
and  in  the  government,  support,  and  protection  of 
the  world  at  large,  Ps.  xxxvi.  6.  cxlv.  His  special 
goodness  relates  to  angels  and  saints.  To  angels, 
in  creating,  confirming,  and  making  them  what 
they  are.  To  saints,  in  election,  calling,  justifi- 
cation, adoption,  sanctification,  perseverance,  and 
eternal  glorification.  Gill's  Body  of  Div.  vol.  i.  p. 
133.  8vo.  ed. ;  Charnock's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  574  ; 
Paley's  Nat.  Theol.  ch.  26 ;  South's  admirable 
Sermon  on  this  Subject,  vol.  viii.  scr.  3 ;  Tillot- 
157 


GOVERNMENT 

son's  Serm,.  scr.  143 — 146;  Abernethy's  Seirn. 
vol.  i.  No.  2. 

GOSPEL,  the  revelation  of  the  grace  of  God 
to  fallen  man  through  a  mediator.  It  is  taken 
also  for  the  history  of  the  life,  actions,  death,  re- 
surrection, ascension,  and  doctrine  of  Jesus  Christ, 
The  word  is  Saxon,  and  of  the  same  import  with 
the  Latin  crangelium,  which  signifies  glad 
tidinss  or  good  news.  It  is  called  the  Gospel  of 
his  Grace,  because  it  flows  from  his  free  lo\e, 
Acts  xx.  24.  The  Gospel  of  the  kingdovi,  as  it 
treats  of  the  kingdoms  of  grace  and  glory.  The 
Gospel  of  Christ,  because  he  is  the  author  and 
subject  of  it,  Rom.  i.  16.  The  Gospel  of  peace 
and  salvation,  as  it  promotes  our  present  com- 
fort, and  leads  to  eternal  glory,  Eph.  i.  13  ;  vi.  15 
The  glorious  Gospel,  as  in  it  the  glorious  perfec- 
tions of  Jehovah  are  displayed,  2  Cor.  iv.  4.  The 
everlasting  Gospel,  as  it  was  designed  from  eter- 
nity, is  permanent  in  time,  and  the  effects  of  it 
eternal,  Rev.  xiv.  6.  There  are  about  thirty  or 
forty  apocryphal  Gospels  ;  as  the  Gospel  of  St. 
Peter,  of  St.  Andrew,  of  St.  Barnabas,  the  eter- 
nal Gospel,  &c.  &c.  &c:  but  they  were  never 
received  by  the  Christian  church,  being  evidently 
fabulous  and  trifling.     See  Christianity. 

GOSPEL  CALL.     See  Calling. 

GOSPEL  A  LAW.  It  has  been  disputed 
whether  the  Gospel  consists  merely  of  promises, 
or  whether  it  can  in  any  sense  be  called  a  law. 
The  answer  plainly  depends  upon  adjusting  the 
meaning  of  the  words  Gospel  and  law :  if  the 
Gospel  be  taken  for  the  declaration  God  has 
made  to  men  by  Christ,  concerning  the  manner 
in  which  he  will  treat  them,  and  the  conduct  he 
expects  from  them,  it  is  plain  that  this  includes 
commands,  and  even  threatenings,  as  well  as  pro- 
mises ;  but  to  define  the  Gospel  so,  as  only  to  ex- 
press the  favourable  part  of  that  declaration,  is 
indeed  taking  the  question  for  granted,  and  con- 
fining the  woTd  to  a  sense  much  less  extensive 
than  it  often  has  in  Scripture :  compare  Rom.  ii. 
16;  2  Thess.  i.  8;  1  Tim.  i.  10,  11  ;  and  it  is 
certain,  that,  if  the  Gospel  be  put  for  all  the  parts 
of  the  dispensation  taken  in  connection  one  with 
another,  it  may  well  be  called,  on  the  whole,  a 
good  message.  In  like  manner  the  question, 
whether  the  Gospel  be  a  law  or  not,  is  to  be  deter- 
mined by  the  definition  of  the  law  and  of  the 
Gospel,  as  above.  If  law  signifies,  as  it  gene- 
rally does,  the  discovery  of  the  will  of  a  superior, 
teaching  what  he  requires  of  those  under  his  go- 
vernment, with  the  intimation  of  his  intention  of 
dispensing  rewards  and  punishments,  as  this 
rule  of  their  conduct  is  observed  or  neglected  ;  in 
this  latitude  of  expression,  it  is  plain,  from  the 
proposition,  that  the  Gospel,  taken  for  the  decla- 
ration made  to  men  by  Christ,  is  a  law,  as  in 
Scripture  it  is  sometimes  called,  James  i.  25; 
Rom.  iv.  15 ;  viii.  2.  But  if  lav/  be  taken,  in  the 
greatest  rigour  of  the  expression,  for  such  a  dis- 
covery of  the  will  of  God,  and  our  duty,  as  to 
contain  in  it  no  intimation  of  our  obtaining  the 
Divine  favour  otherwise  than  by  a  perfect  and 
universal  conformity  to  it,  in  that  sense  the  Gos- 
pel is  not  a  law.  See  Nf.onomians.  Witsius  on 
Cov.  vol.  iii.  ch.  I ;  Doddridge' s  Lectures,  lect. 
172 ;   Watts's  Orthodoxy  and  Chanty,  essay  2. 

GOVERNMENT  OF  GOD,  is  the  disposal 
of  his  creatures,  and  all  events  relative  to  them, 
according  to  his  infinite  justice,  power,  and  wis- 
dom.    His  moral  government  is  his  rendering  to 

a 


GRACE 
eery  man  according  to  his  actions,  considered  as 
good  or  evil.  See  Dominion  and  Sovereignty. 

GRACE.  There  are  various  senses  in  which 
this  word  is  used  in  Scripture;  but  the  general 
idea  of  it,  as  it  relates  to  God,  is  his  free  favour 
and  love.  As  it  respects  men,  it  implies  the 
happy  state  of  reconciliation  and  favour  with 
God  wherein  they  stand,  and  the  holy  endow- 
ments, qualities,  or  habits  of  faith,  hope,  love,  &c, 
which  they  possess.  Divines  have  distinguished 
grace  into  cor.  virion  or  general,  special  ox  particu- 
lar. Commcn  grace,  if  it  may  be  so  called,  is 
what  all  men  have ;  as  the  light  of  nature  and 
reason,  convictions  of  conscience,  &c,  Rom.  ii.  4  ; 
1  Tim.  iv.  10.  Special  grace,  is  that  which  is 
peculiar  to  some  people  only;  such  as  electing, 
redeeming,  justifying,  pardoning,  adopting,  esta- 
blishing, and  sanctifying  grace,  Rom.  viii.  30. 
This  special  grace  is  by  some  distinguished  into 
imputed  and  inherent :  imputed  grace  consists 
in  the  holiness,  obedience,  and  righteousness  of 
Christ,  imputed  to  us  for  our  justification ;  inhe- 
rent grace  is  what  is  wrought  in  the  heart  by  the 
Spirit  of  God  in  regeneration.  Grace  is  also  said 
to  be  irresistible,  efficacious,  and  victorious  ;  not 
but  that  there  are  in  human  nature,  in  the  first 
moments  of  conviction,  some  struggles,  opposi- 
tion, or  conflict ;  but  by  these  terms  we  are  to 
understand,  that,  in  the  end,  victory  declares  for 
the  grace  of  the  Gospel.  There  have  been  many 
other  distinctions  of  grace  ;  but  as  they  are  of  too 
frivolous  a  nature,  and  are  now  obsolete,  they 
need  not  a  place  here.  Growth  in  grace  is  the 
progress  we  make  in  the  divine  life.  It  discovers 
itself  by  an  increase  of  spiritual  light  and  know- 
ledge ;  by  our  renouncing  self,  and  depending 
more  upon  Christ ;  by  growing  more  spiritual  in 
duties;  by  being  more  humble,  submissive,  and 
thankful ;  by  rising  superior  to  the  corruptions 
of  our  nature,  and  rinding  the  power  of  sin  more 
weakened  in  us ;  by  being  less  attached  to  the 
world,  and  possessing  more  of  a  heavenly  disposi- 
tion. M'Laurin's  Essays,  essay  3  ;  Gill's  Body 
of  Die.  vol.  i.  p.  118,  Doddridge's  Led.  part 
viii.  prop.  139;  Pike  a-\d  Hayicard's  Cases  of 
Conscience ;  Saurin  on  Rom.  ix.  2t>,  27.  vol.  iv.; 
Booth's  Reign  of  Grace. 

GRACE  AT  MEALS,  a  short  prayer,  im- 
ploring the  divine  blessing  on  our  food,  and  ex- 
pressive of  gratitude  to  God  for  supplying  our  ne- 
cessities. The  propriety  of  this  act  is  evident 
from  the  divine  command,  1  Thess.  v.  IS;  1  Cor. 
x.  31 ;  1  Tim.  iv.  5.  From  the  conduct  of 
Christ,  Mark  viii.  6,  7.  From  reason  itself;  not 
to  mention  that  it  is  a  custom  practised  by  most 
nations,  and  even  not  neglected  by  heathens 
themselves.  The  English,  However,  seem  to  be 
very  deficient  in  this  duty. 

As  to  the  manner  in  which  it  ought  to  be  per- 
formed, as  Dr.  Watts  observes,  we  ought  to  have 
a  due  regard  to  the  occasion,  and  the  persons  pre- 
sent ;  the  neglect  of  which  hath  been  attended 
with  indecencies  and  indiscretions.  Some  have 
used  themselves  to  mutter  a  few  words  with  so 
low  a  voice,  as  though  by  some  secret  charm  they 
were  to  consecrate  the  food  alone,  and  there  was 
no  need  of  the  rest  to  join  with  them  in  the  peti- 
tions. Others  have  broke  out  into  so  violent  a 
sound,  as  though  they  were  bound  to  make  a 
thousand  peop'e  hear  them.  Some  perform  this 
part  of  worslj  p  with  so  slight  and  familiar  an 
uir,  as  though  they  had  no  sense  of  the  great 
1W 


GREEK 

God  to  whom  they  speak;  others  have  put  on 
an  unnatural  solemnity,  and  changed  their  natu- 
ral voice  into  so  different  and  awkward  a  tone, 
not  without  some  distortions  of  countenance,  that 
have  tempted  strangers  to  ridicule. 

It  is  the  custom  of  some  to  hurry  over  a  single 
sentence  or  two,  and  they  have  done,  before  half 
the  company  are  prepared  to  lift  up  a  thought  to 
heaven.  And  some  have  been  just  heard  to  be- 
speak a  blessing  on  the  church  and  the  king,  but 
seem  to  have  forgot  they  were  asking  God  to 
bless  their  food,  or  giving  thanks  for  the  food 
they  have  received.  Others,  again,  make  a  long 
prayer,  and,  among  a  multitude  of  other  petitions, 
do  not  utter  one  that  relates  to  the  table  before 
them. 

The  general  rules  of  prudence,  together  with  a 
due  observation  of  the  custom  of  the  place  where 
we  live,  would  correct  all  these  disorders,  and 
teach  us  that  a  few  sentences  suited  to  the  occar 
sion,  spoken  with  an  audible  and  proper  voice, 
are  sufficient  for  this  purpose,  especially  if  any 
strangers  are  present.  Walts' a  Works,  oct.  edi- 
tion, vol.  iv.  p.  1G0 ;  Law's  Serious  Call,  p.  60 ; 
Seed's  Post.  Scr.  p.  174. 

GRATITUDE,  is  that  pleasant  affection  of 
the  mind  which  arises  from  a  sense  of  favours 
received,  and  by  which  the  possessor  is  excited  to 
make  all  the  returns  of  love  and  service  in  his 
power.  "Gratitude,"  says  Mr.  Cogan  (in  his 
Treatise  on  the  Passions,)  "is  the  powerful  re- 
action of  i  well-disposed  mind,  upon  whom  bene- 
volence has  conferred  some  important  good.  It 
is  mostly  connected  with  an  impressive  sense  of 
the  amiable  disposition  of  the  person  by  whoa 
the  benefit  is  conferred,  and  it  immediately  pro- 
duces a  personal  affection  towards  him.  Wo 
shall  not  wonder  at  the  peculiar  strength  and 
energy  of  this  affection,  when  we  consider  that 
it  is  compounded  of  love  placed  upon  the  good 
communicated,  affection  for  the  donor,  and  joy  at 
the  reception.  Thus  it  has  goodness  for  its  ob- 
ject, and  the  most  pleasing,  perhaps  unexpected, 
exertions  of  goodness  for  its  immediate  cause. 
Thankfulness  refers  to  verbal  expressions  of 
gratitude."     See  Thankfulness. 

GRAVITY,  is  that  seriousness  of  mind, 
united  with  dignity  of  behaviour,  that  commands 
veneration  and  respect.  See  Dr.  Watts's  admi- 
rable Sermon  on  Gravity,  ser.  23,  vol.  i. 

GREATNESS  OF  GOD,  is  the  infinite 
glory  and  excellency  of  all  his  perfections.  His 
greatness  appears  by  the  attributes  he  possesses, 
Deut.  xxxii.  3,  4 ;  the  works  he  hath  made,  Ps. 
xix.  1 ;  by  the  awful  and  benign  providences  he 
displays,  Ps.  xcvii.  1,  2 ;  the  great  effects  he 
produces  by  his  word,  Gen.  i. ;  the  constant  en- 
ergy he  manifests  in  the  existence  and  support 
of  all  his  creatures,  Ps.  cxlv. ;  and  the  everlasting 
provision  of  glory  made  for  his  people,  1  Thess. 
iv.  17.  This  greatness  is  of  himself,  and  not  de- 
rived, Ps.  xxi.  13 ;  it  is  infinite,  Ps.  cxlv.  3 ;  not 
diminished  by  exertion,  but  will  always  remain 
the  same,  Mai.  iii.  0.  The  considerations  of  his 
greatness  should  excite  veneration,  Ps.  lxxxix. 
7;  admiration,  Jer.  ix.  G,  7;  humility,  Job  xiil 
5,  G;  dependence,  Is.  xxvi.  4;  submission,  Job 
i.  22;  obedience,  Deut.  iv.  39,  40.  Sec  Attri- 
butes, and  books  under  that  article. 

GREEK  CHURCH  comprehends  in  its  bo- 
som a  considerable  part  of  Greece,  the  Grecian 
Isles,  Wallachia,  Moldavia,  Egypt,  Abyssinia, 


GREEK 

Nubia,  Libya,  Arabia,  Mesopotamia,  Syria,  Cili- 
cia,  and  Palestine;  which  arc  all  under  the  juris- 
diction of  the  patriarchs  of  Constantinople,  Alex- 
andria, Antioch,  and  Jerusalem.  If  to  these  we 
add  the  whole  of  the  Russian  empire  in  Europe, 
great  part  of  Sineria  in  Asia,  Astracan,  Casan, 
and  Georgia,  it  will  be  evident  that  the  Greek 
church  has  a  wider  extent  of  territory  than  the 
Latin,  with  all  the  branches  which  have  sprung 
from  it ;  and  that  it  is  with  great  impropriety 
that  the  church  of  Rome  is  called  by  her  mem- 
bers the  catholic  or  universal  church.  That  in 
these  widely  distant  countries  the  professors  of 
Christianity  are  agreed  in  every  minute  article  of 
belief,  it  would  be  rash  to  assert ;  but  there  is 
certainly  such  an  agreement  among  them,  with 
respect  both  to  faith  and  to  discipline,  that  they 
mutually  hold  communion  with  each  other,  and 
are,  in  fact,  but  one  church.  It  is  called  the 
Greek  church,  in  contradistinction  to  the  Latin 
or  Roman  church;  as  also  the  Eastern,  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  Western  church.  We  shall 
here  present  the  reader  with  a  view  of  its  rise, 
tenets,  and  discipline. 

1.  Greek  church,  rise  and  separation  of.  The 
Greek  church  is  considered  as  a  separation  from 
the  Latin.  In  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century, 
the  controversy  relating  to  the  procession  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  (which  had  been  started  in  the  sixth 
century)  became  a  point  of  great  importance,  on 
account  of  the  jealousy  and  ambition  which  at 
that  time  were  blended  with  it.  Photius,  the 
patriarch  of  Jerusalem,  having  been  advanced  to 
that  see  in  the  room  of  Ignatius,  whom  he  pro- 
cured to  be  deposed,  was  solemnly  excommuni- 
cated by  pope  Nicholas,  in  a  council  held  at 
Rome,  and  his  ordination  declared  null  and  void. 
The  Greek  emperor  resented  this  conduct  of  the 
jtope,  who  defended  himself  with  great  spirit  and 
jesolution.  Photius,  in  his  turn,  convened  what 
he  called  an  oecumenical  council,  in  which  he 
pronounced  sentence  of  excommunication  and 
•  leposition  against  the  pope,  and  got  it  subscribed 
<>y  twenty-one  bishops  and  others,  amounting  in 
lumber  to  a  thousand.  This  occasioned  a  wide 
breach  between  the  sees  of  Rome  and  Constan- 
tinople. However,  the  death  of  the  emperor 
Michael,  and  the  deposition  of  Photius,  subse- 
quent thereupon,  seemed  to  have  restored  peace ; 
for  the  emperor  Basil  held  a  council  at  Constan- 
tinople in  the  year  869,  in  which  entire  satisfac- 
tion was  given  to  pope  Adrian ;  but  the  schism 
was  only  smothered  and  suppressed  a  while.  The 
Greek  church  had  several  complaints  against  the 
Latin ;  particularly  it  was  thought  a  great  hard- 
ship for  the  Greeks  to  subscribe  to  the  definition 
of  a  council  according  to  the  Roman  form,  pre- 
scribed by  the  pope,  since  it  made  the  church  of 
Constantinople  dependent  on  that  of  Rome,  and 
set  the  pope  above  an  oecumenical  council ;  but, 
above  all,  the  pride  and  haughtiness  of  the  Ro- 
man court  gave  the  Greeks  a  great  distaste ;  and 
as  their  deportment  seemed  to  insult  his  imperial 
majesty,  it  entirely  alienated  the  affections  of  the 
Emperor  Basil.  Towards  the  middle  of  the 
eleventh  century,  Michael  Cerularius,  patriarch 
of  Constantinople,  opposed  the  Latins  with  re- 
spect to  their  making  use  of  unleavened  bread  in 
the  eucharist,  their  observation  of  the  sabbath, 
and  fasting  on  Saturdays,  charging  them  with 
living  in  communion  with  the  Jews.  To  this 
pope  Leo  IX.  replied;  and,  in  his  apology  for  the 
159 


GREEK 
Latins,  declaimed  very  warmly  against  the  falsa 
doctrine  of  the  Greeks,  and  interposed,  at  the 
same  time,  the  authority  of  his  see.  He  likewise, 
by  his  legates,  excommunicated  the  patriarch  in 
the  church  of  Santa  Sophia,  which  gave  the  last 
shock  to  the  reconciliation  attempted  a  long  time 
after,  but  to  no  purpose ;  for  from  that  time  the 
hatred  of  the  Greeks  to  the  Latins,  and  of  the 
Latins  to  the  Greeks,  became  insuperable,  inso- 
much that  they  have  continued  ever  since  sepa- 
rated from  each  other's  communion. 

II.  Greek  church,  tenets  of.  The  following 
are  some  of  the  chief  tenets  held  by  the  Greek 
church : — They  disown  the  authority  of  the  pope, 
and  deny  that  the  church  of  Rome  is  the  true 
catholic  church.  They  do  not  baptize  their  chil- 
dren till  they  are  three,  four,  five,  six,  ten,  nay 
sometimes  eighteen  years  of  age :  baptism  is  per- 
formed by  trine  immersion.  They  insist  that  the 
sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper  ought  to  be  ad- 
ministered in  both  kinds,  and  they  give  the  sacra- 
ment to  children  immediately  after  baptism.  They 
grant  no  indulgences,  nor  do  they  lay  any  claim 
to  the  character  of  infallibility,  like  the  church  of 
Rome.  They  deny  that  there  is  any  such  place 
as  purgatory ;  notwithstanding  they  pray  for  the 
dead,  that  God  would  have  mercy  on  them  at  the 
general  judgment.  They  practise  the  invocation 
of  saints ;  though,  they  say,  they  do  not  invoke 
them  as  deities,  but  as  intercessors  with  God, 
They  exclude  confirmation,  extreme  unction,  and 
matrimony,  out  of  the  seven  sacraments.  T  hey  de- 
ny auricular  confession  to  be  a  divine  precept,  and 
say  it  is  only  a  positive  injunction  of  the  church. 
They  pay  no  religious  homage  to  the  eucharist. 
They  administer  the  communion  in  both  kinds 
to  the  laity,  both  in  sickness  and  in  health,  though 
they  have  never  applied  themselves  to  their  con- 
fessors ;  because  they  are  persuaded  that  a  lively 
faith  is  all  which  is  requisite  for  the  worthy 
receiving  of  the  Lord's  Supper.  They  maintain 
that  the  Holy  Ghost  proceeds  only  from  the  Fa- 
ther, and  not  from  the  Son.  They  believe  in 
predestination.  They  admit  of  no  images  in  re- 
lief or  embossed  work,  but  use  paintings  and 
sculptures  in  copper  or  silver.  They  approve  of 
the  marriage  of  priests,  provided  they  enter  into 
that  state  before  their  admission  into  holy  orders. 
They  condemn  all  fourth  marriages.  They  ob- 
serve a  number  of  holy  days,  and  keep  four  fasts 
in  the  year  more  solemn  than  the  rest,  of  which 
the  fast  in  Lent,  before  Easter,  is  the  chief. 
They  believe  the  doctrine  of  consubstantiation, 
or  the  union  of  the  body  of  Christ  with  the  sa- 
cramental bread. 

III.  Greek  church,  state  and  discipline  of. 
Since  the  Greeks  became  subject  to  the  Turkish 
yoke,  they  have  sunk  into  the  most  deplorable 
ignorance,  in  consequence  of  the  slavery  and 
thraldom  under  which  they  groan ;  and  their  re- 
ligion is  now  greatly  corrupted.  It  is,  indeed, 
little  better  than  a  heap  of  ridiculous  ceremonies 
and  absurdities.  The  head  of  the  Greek  church 
is  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople,  who  is  chosen 
by  the  neighbouring  archbishops  and  metropoli- 
tans, and  confirmed  by  the  emperor  or  grand  vizier. 
He  is  a  person  of  great  dignity,  being  the  head 
and  director  of  the  Eastern  church.  The  other 
patriarchs  are  those  of  Jerusalem,  Antioch,  and 
Alexandria.  Mr.  Tournefort  tells  us,  that  tlie 
patriarchates  are  now  generally  set  to  sale  and 
bestowed  upon  those  who  are  the  lughest  bidders. 


H.£RETICQ 
The  patriarchs,  metropolitans,  archbishops,  and 
bishops,  arc  always  chosen  from  among  the  calo- 
yers,  or  Greek  monks.  The  next  person  to  a 
bishop,  among  the  clergy,  is  an  archimandrite, 
who  is  the  director  of  one  or  more  convents, 
which  are  called  mandren ;  then  come  the  abbot, 
the  arch-priest,  the  priest,  the  deacon,  the  under- 
deacon,  the  chanter,  and  the  lecturer.  The  secu- 
lar clergy  are  suhject  to  no  rules,  and  never  rise 
higher  than  high-priest.  The  Greeks  have  few 
nunneries,  but  a  great  many  convents  of  monks, 
who  are  all  priests,  and  (students  excepted) 
obliged  to  follow  some  handicraft  employment, 
and  lead  a  very  austere  life. 

The  Russians  adhere  to  the  doctrine  and  cere- 
monies of  the  Greek  church,  though  they  are  now 
independent  on  the  patriarch  of  Constantinople. 
The  Russian  church,  indeed,  may  be  reckoned 
the  first,  as  to  extent  of  empire ;  yet  there  is  very 
little  of  the  power  of  vital  religion  among  them. 
The  Roskolniki,  or,  as  they  now  call  themselves, 
the  Slarorertzi,  were  a  sect  that  separated  from 
the  church  of  Russia  about  1GGG :  they  affected 
extraordinary  piety  and  devotion,  a  veneration 
for  the  letter  of  the  Holy  Scriptures,  and  would 
not  allow  a  priest  to  administer  baptism  who  had 
that  day  tasted  brandy.  They  harboured  many 
follies  and  superstitions,  and  have  been  greatly 
persecuted;  but,  perhaps,  there  will  be  found 
among  them  "  some  that  shall  be  counted  to  the 
Lord  for  a  generation."  Several  settlements  of 
German  Protestants  have  been  established  on  the 
Wolga.  The  Moravians  also  have  done  good  in 
Livonia,  and  the  adjacent  isles  in  the  Baltic  un- 
der  the   Russian   government.     See   Mosheim, 


H^ERETICO 

Gregory,  and  HaweWs  Church  History  ;  King1* 
Rites  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Greek  Church  ta 
Russia;  The  Russian  Catechism;  Secret  Me- 
moirs of  the  Court  of  Pctcrsburgh;  Tooke's 
History  of  Russia  ;  Ricaufs  State  of  the  Greek 
Church  ;  Enc.  Brit. 

GROWTH  IN  GRACE.     Sec  Grace. 

GUARDIAN  ANGEL.  "  Some,"  says  Dr. 
Doddridge,  "have  thought,  that  not  only  every 
region  but  every  man  has  some  particular  angel 
assigned  him  as  a  guardian,  whose  business  it  is 
generally  to  watch  over  that  country  or  person ; 
for  this  opinion  they  urge  Matt,  xviii.  10 ;  Acta 
xii.  15.  But  the  argument  from  both  these  places 
is  evidently  precarious ;  and  it  seems  difficult  to 
reconcile  the  supposition  of  such  a  continued  at- 
tendance with  what  is  said  of  the  stated  residence 
of  these  angels  in  heaven,  and  with  Heb.  i.  14, 
where  all  the  angels  are  represented  as  minister- 
ing to  the  heirs  of  salvation  :  though,  as  there  is 
great  reason  to  believe  the  number  of  heavenly 
spirits  is  vastly  superior  to  that  of  men  upon 
earth,  it  is  not  improbable  that  they  may,  as  it 
were,  relieve  each  other,  and  in  their  turns  per- 
form these  condescending  services  to  those  whom 
the  Lord  of  Angels  has  been  pleased  to  redeem 
with  his  own  blood ;  but  we  must  confess  that 
our  knowledge  of  the  laws  and  orders  of  those 
celestial  beings  is  very  limited,  and  consequently 
that  it  is  the  part  of  humility  to  avoid  dogmatical 
determinations  on  such  heads  as  these."  See 
Angel  ;  and  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lee.  212. 

GUILT,  the  state  of  a  person  justly  charged 
with  a  crime ;  a  consciousness  of  having  done 
amiss.     See  Sin. 


H. 


HABIT,  a  power  and  ability  of  doing  any 
thing,  acquired  by  frequent  repetition  of  the 
<ame  action.  It  is  distinguished  from  custom. 
Custom  respects  the  action;  habit  the  actor.  By 
zustom  we  mean  a  frequent  reiteration  of  the 
same  act ;  and  by  habit  the  effect  that  custom  has 
M  the  mind  or  body.  "  Man,"  as  one  observes, 
"is  a  bundle  of  habits.  There  are  habits  of  in- 
dustry, attention,  vigilance,  advertency ;  of  a 
prompt  obedience  to  the  judgment  occurring,  or 
of  yielding  to  the  first  impulse  of  passion ;  of 
apprehending,  methodizing,  reasoning  ;  of  vanity, 
melancholy,  frctfulness,  suspicion,  covetousness, 
&c.  In  a  word,  there  is  not  a  quality  or  function, 
either  of  body  or  mind,  which  does  not  feel  the 
influence  of  this  great  law  of  animated  nature." 
To  cure  evil  habits,  we  should  be  as  early  as  we 
can  in  our  application,  principiis  obsta  ;  to  cross 
ii id  mortify  the  inclination  by  a  frequent  and  ob- 
stinate practice  of  the  contrary  virtue.  To  form 
good  habits,  we  should  get  our  minds  well  stored 
with  knowledge ;  associate  with  the  wisest  and 
best  men ;  reflect  much  on  the  pleasure  good  ha- 
bits are  productive  of;  and,  above  all,  supplicate 
the  Divine  Being  for  direction  and  assistance. 
Kaimes's  El.  of  Grit,  ch.  xiv.  vol.  i ;  Grove's 
Mor.  Phil.  vol.  'i.  p.  143;  Palei/s  Mor.  Phil. 
<io\.  i.  p.  40;  Jortin  on  Bad  Habits,  ser.  1.  vol. 
ii;  Reid  on  the  Active  Powers,  p.  117;  Cogan 
m  the  Passions,  p.  235. 

HiERETICO  COMBURENDO,  a  writ 
which  anciently  lay  against  an  heretic,  who.  hav- 
160 


ing  once  been  convicted  of  heTesy  by  his  bishop, 
and  having  abjured  it,  afterwards  falling  into  it 
again,  or  into  some  other,  is  thereupon  committed 
to  the  secular  power.  This  writ  is  thought  by 
some  to  be  as  ancient  as  the  common  law  itself; 
however,  the  conviction  of  heresy  by  the  com- 
mon law  was  not  in  any  petty  ecclesiastical  court, 
but  before  the  archbishop  himself,  in  a  provincial 
synod,  and  the  delinquent  was  delivered  up  to 
the  king,  to  do  with  him  as  he  pleased ;  so  that 
the  crown  had  a  control  over  the  spiritual  power; 
but  by  2  Henry  IV.  cap.  15,  the  diocesan  alone, 
without  the  intervention  of  a  synod,  might  con- 
vict of  heretical  tenets;  and  unless  the  convict 
abjured  his  opinions,  or  if,  after  abjuration,  he 
relapsed,  the  sheriff"  was  bound,  ex  officio,  if  re- 
quired by  the  bishop,  to  commit  the  unhappy  vic- 
tim to  the  flames,  without  waiting  for  the  consent 
of  the  crown.  This  writ  remained  in  force,  and 
was  actually  executed  on  two  Anabaptists,  in 
the  seventhof  Elizabeth,  and  on  two  Arians  in 
the  ninth  of  James  I.  Sir  Edward  Coke  was  of 
opinion  that  this  writ  did  not  lie  in  his  time  ;  but 
it  is  now  formally  taken  away  by  statute  29  Car. 
II.  cap.  9.  But  this  statute  docs  not  extend  to 
take  away  or  abridge  the  jurisdiction  of  Pro- 
testant archbishops,  or  bishops,  or  any  other 
judges  of  any  ecclesiastical  courts,  in  cases  of 
atheism,  blasphemy,  heresy,  or  schism ;  but  they 
may  prove  and  punish  the  same,  acconling  to  lus 
majesty's  ecclesiastical  laws,  by  excommunica- 
tion, deprivation,  degradation,  and   other  eccle- 


HARMONY 

siastical  censures,  not  extending  to  death,  in  such 
sort,  and  no  other,  as  they  might  have  done  be- 
fore the  making  of  this  act. 

HAGIOGRAPHIA,  a  name  given  to  part  of 
the  books  of  the  Scriptures,  called  by  the  Jews, 
cetuvim.     See  article  Bible,  sec.  1. 

HAMPTON  COURT  CONFERENCE, 
a  conference  appointed  by  James  I.  at  Hampton 
Court,  in  1603,  in  order  to  settle  the  disputes  be- 
tween the  church  and  the  Puritans.  Nine  bishops, 
and  as  many  dignitaries  of  the  church,  appeared 
on  one  side,  and  four  Puritan  ministers  on  the 
other.  It  lasted  for  three  days.  Neale  calls  it  a 
mock  conference,  because  all  things  were  pre- 
viously concluded  between  the  king  and  the 
bishops ;  and  the  Puritans  borne  down,  not  with 
calm  reason  and  argument,  but  with  the  royal 
authority,  the  king  being  both  judge  and  party. 
The  proposals  and  remonstrances  ot  the  Puritans 
may  be  seen  in  Neale's  History  of  the  Puritans, 
eh.  1.  part  ii. 

HAPPINESS,  absolutely  taken,  denotes  the 
durable  possession  of  perfect  good,  without  any 
mixture  of  evil ;  or  the  enjoyment  of  pure  plea- 
sure unalloyed  with  pain,  or  a  state  in  which  all 
our  wishes  are  satisfied  ;  in  whicli  senses,  happi- 
ness is  only  known  by  name  on  this  earth.  The 
word  happy,  when  applied  to  any  state  or  condi- 
tion of  human  life,  will  admit  of  no  positive  defi- 
nition, but  is  merely  a  relative  term;  that  is,  when 
we  call  a  man  happy,  we  mean  that  he  is  happier 
than  some  others  with  whom  we  compare  nun ; 
than  the  generality  of  others,  or  than  he  himself 
tvas  in  some  other  situation.  Moralists  justly  ob- 
serve, that  happiness  does  not  consist  in  the  plea- 
sure of  sense :  as  eating,  drinking,  music,  paint- 
ing, theatric  exhibitions,  &c.  &c,  for  these 
S Measures  continue  but  a  little  while,  by  repetition 
ose  their  relish,  and  by  high  expectation  often 
bring  disappointment.  Nor  docs  happiness  con- 
sist in  an  exemption  from  labour,  care,  business, 
&c;  such  a  state  being  usually  attended  with  de- 
pression of  spirits,  imaginary  anxieties,  and  the 
whole  train  of  hypochondriacal  affections.  Nor 
is  it  to  be  found  in  greatness,  rank,  or  elevated 
stations,  as  matter  of  fact  abundantly  testifies ; 
but  happiness  consists  in  the  enjoyment  of  the 
divine  favour,  a  good  conscience,  and  uniform 
conduct.  In  subordination  to  these,  human  hap- 
piness may  be  greatly  promoted  by  the'  exercise 
of  the  social  affections;  the  pursuit  of  some  en- 
gaging end  ;  the  prudent  constitution  of  the  ha- 
bits; and  the  enjoyment  of  our  health.  Bolton  and 
I/ueas  on  Happiness  ;  Henry's  Pleasantness  of  a 
Religious  Life ;  Grove  and  Paley's  Mor.  Pldl.; 
Harrow's  Ser.  scr.  1;  Young's  Centaur,  41  to 
160 ;    Wollaston's  Religion  of  Nature,  sec.  2, 

HARMONY  OF  THEGOSPELS,  a  term 
made  use  of  to  denote  the  concurrence  or  agree- 
ment of  the  writings  of  the  four  Evangelists  ;  or 
the  history  of  the  four  Evangelists  digested  into 
one  continued  scries.  By  this  means  each  story  or 
discourse  is  exhibited  with  all  its  concurrent  cir- 
cumstances ;  frequent  repetitions  are  prevented, 
and  a  multitude  of  seeming  oppositions  reconciled. 
Among  some  of  the  most  valuable  harmonies,  are 
those  of  Cradock,  IjC  Cierc,  Doddridge,  Mao- 
knight,  Newcombe,  and  Townson's  able  Har- 
mony on  the  concluding  part  of  the  Gospels ; 
Thompson's  Diatessaron.  The  term  harmony 
is  also  used  in  reference  to  the  agreement  which 
the  Gospel  bears  to  natural  religion,  the  Old  Tes- 
161  V 


HEARING 

ment,  the  history  of  other  nations,  and  the  works 
of  God  at  large. 

HASS1DEANS,  or  Assi deans,  those  Jews 
who  resorted  to  Mattathias,  to  fight  for  the  laws 
of  God  and  the  liberties  of  their  country.  They 
were  men  of  great  valour  and  zeal,  having  volun- 
tarily devoted  themselves  to  a  more  strict  observa- 
tion of  the  law  than  other  men.  For,  after  the 
return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish  captivity, 
there  were  two  sorts  of  men  in  their  church; 
those  who  contented  themselves  with  that  obe- 
dience only  which  was  prescribed  by  the  law  of 
Moses,  and  who  were  called  Zadikin,  i.  e.  the 
righteous;  and  those  who,  over  and  above  the 
laws,  superadded  the  constitutions  and  traditions 
of  the  elders,  and  other  rigorous  observances; 
these  latter  were  called  the  Casidim,  i.  e.  the 
pious.  From  the  former  sprang  the  Samaritans, 
Sadducees,  and  Caraites ;  from  the  latter,  the 
Pharisees  and  the  Essencs, — which  see. 

HATRED  is  the  aversion  of  the  will  to  any 
object  considered  by  us  as  evil,  or  to  any  person 
or  thing  we  suppose  can  do  us  harm.  See  An- 
tipathy. Hatred  is  ascribed  to  God,  hut  is  not 
to  be  considered  as  a  passion  in  him  as  in  man ; 
nor  can  he  hate  any  of  the  creatures  he  has  made 
as  his  creatures.  Yet  he  is  said  to  hate  the  wicked, 
Ps.  v.;  and  indignation  and  wrath,  tribulation 
and  anguish,  will  be  upon  every  soul  of  man  that 
does  evil.     See  Wrath  of  God. 

HATTEMISTS,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  the 
name  of  a  modern  Dutch  sect ;  so  called  from 
Pontian  Van  Hat  tern,  a  minister  in  the  province 
of  Zealand,  towards  the  close  of  the  last  century, 
who,  being  addicted  to  the  sentiments  of  Spinosa, 
was  on  that  account  degraded  from  his  pastoral 
office.  The  Verschorists  and  Hattemists  re- 
semble each  other  in  their  religious  systems, 
though  they  never  so  entirely  agreed  as  to  form 
one  communion.  The  founders  of  these  sects 
deduced  from  the  doctrine  of  absolute  decrees  a 
system  of  fatal  and  uncontrollable  necessity  ;  they 
denied  the  difference  between  moral  good  and 
evil,  and  the  corruption  of  human  nature;  from 
whence  they  farther  concluded,  that  mankind 
were  under  no  sort  of  obligation  to  correct  their 
manners,  to  improve  their  minds,  or  to  obey  the 
divine  laws ;  that  the  whole  of  religion  consisted 
not  in  acting,  but  in  suffering ;  and  that  all  the 
precepts  of  Jesus  Christ  are  reducible  to  this  one, 
that  we  bear  with  cheerfulness  and  patience  the. 
events  that  happen  to  us  through  the  divine  will, 
and  make  it  our  constant  and  only  study  to 
maintain  a  permanent  tranquillity  of  'mind. 
Thus  far  they  agreed :  but  the  Hattemists  fur- 
ther affirmed,  that  Christ  made  no  expiation  for 
the  sins  of  men  by  his  death ;  but  had  only  sug 
gested  to  us,  by  his  mediation,  that  there  was  no- 
thing in  us  that  could  offend  the  Deity  :  this,  they 
say,  was  Christ's  manner  of  justifying  his  ser- 
vants, and  presenting  them  blameless  before  the 
tribunal  of  God.  It  was  one  of  their  distinguished 
tenets,  that  God  docs  not  punish  men  for  their 
sins,  but  by  their  sins.  These  two  sects,  says 
Mosheim,  still  subsist,  though  they  no  longer 
bear  the  name  of  their  founders. 

HEARING  TIIE  WORD  OF  GOD,  js 
an  ordinance  of  divine  appointment,  Rom.  x.  17  j 
Prov.  viii.  4,  5 ;  Mark  iv.  24. 

Public  reading  of  the  Scriptures  was  a  part  of 
synagogue  worship,  Acts,  xiii.   15;  xv.  21 ;  and 
was  the  practice  of  the  Christians  in  priuiitivu 
o2 


HEART 
times.     Umler  the  former  dispensation  there  was 
a  public  hearing  of  the  law  at  stated  seasons.  Deut. 
xxxi.  10,  13;  Neh.  Viii.  2, 3.  It  seems,  therefore, 

that,  it  is  a  duty  incumbent  on  us  to  hear,  and,  it' 
sensible  of  our  ignorance,  we  shall  also  consider 
it  our  privilege.  As  to  the  manner  of  hearing,  it 
should  he  constantly,  Prov.  viii.  34;  Jam.  i.  24, 
25,  Attentively,  Luke  xxi.  38;  Acta.  x.  33; 
Luke  iv.  '20,  22.  With  reverence,  Ps.  lxxxix.  7. 
With  faith,  Ileb.  iv.  2.  With  an  endeavour  to 
retain  what  we  hear,  Heb.  ii.  1  ;  Ps.  cxix.  11. 
With  an  humble  docile  disposition,  Luke  x.  42. 
With  prayer,  Luke  xviii.  TIic  advantages  of 
hearing  arc,  information,  2  Tim.  iii.  1G.  Con- 
viction, 1  Cor.  xiv.  24,25.  Acts  ii.  Conversion, 
Ps.  xi.  7;  Acts  iv.  4.  Confirmation,  Acts.  xiv. 
22 ;  xvi.  5.  Consolation,  Phil.  i.  25.  Isa.  xl.  1, 
2;  Isa.  xxxv.  3,  4.  Stennel's  Parable  of  the 
Sower  ;  Massillon's  'Serm.  vol.  ii.  p.  131,  Eng. 
trans. ;  Gill's  Body  of  Div.  vol.  iii.  p.  340,  oct. 
edition. 

HEART  is  used  for  the  soul,  and  all  the  pow- 
ers thereof;  as  the  understanding,  conscience, 
will,  affections,  and  memory.  The  heart  of  man. 
is  naturally,  constantly,  universally,  inexpressibly, 
openly,  and  evidently  depraved,  and  inclined  to  evil, 
Jer.  xvii.  9.  It  requires  a  divine  power  to  reno- 
vate it,  and  render  it  susceptible  of  right  impres- 
sions, Jer.  xxiv.  7.  When  thus  renovated,  the 
effects  will  be  seen  in  the  temper,  conversation, 
and  conduct  at  large.  See  Faith,  Hopk,  &c. 
Hurdness  of  heart  is  that  state  in  which  a  sinner 
is  inclined  to,  and  actually  goes  on  in  rebellion 
against  God.  This  state  evidences  itself  by  light 
views  of  the  evil  of  sin ;  partial  acknowledgment 
and  confession  of  it :  frequent  commission  of  it ; 
pride  and  conceit ;  ingratitude ;  unconcern  about 
the  word  and  ordinances  of  God;  inattention  to 
divine  providences;  stilling  convictions  of  con- 
science ;  shunning  reproof;  presumption,  and  ge- 
neral ignorance  of  divine  things.  We  must  dis- 
tinguish, however,  between  that  hardness  of  heart 
which  even  a  good  man  complains  of,  and  that  of  a 
judicial  nature.  1.  Judicial  hardness  is  very  sel- 
dom perceived,  and  never  lamented ;  a  broken  and 
contrite  heart  is  the  least  thing  such  desire;  but 
it  is  otherwise  with  believers,  for  the  hardness  they 
feci  is  always  a  matter  of  grief  to  them.  Rom.  vii. 
21 — 2.  Judicial  hardness  is  perpetual;  or,  if  ever 
there  be  any  remorse  or  relenting,  it  is  only  at 
such  times  when  the  sinner  is  under  some  out- 
ward afflictions,  or  tilled  with  the  dread  of  the 
wrath  of  God ;  but  as  this  wears  off  or  abates,  Ids 
stupidity  returns  as  much  or  more  than  ever. 
Exod.  ix.  27;  but  true  believers,  when  no  adverse 
dispensations  trouble  them,  are  often  distressed 
because  their  hearts  are  no  more  affected  in  holy 
duties,  or  inflamed  with  love  to  God,  Rom.  vii.  15. 
—3.  Judicial  hardness  is  attended  with  a  total 
neglect  of  duties,  especially  those  that  are  secret; 
but  that  hardness  of  heart  which  a  believer  com- 
plains of,  though  it.  occasions  his  going  uncom- 
fortably in  duty,  yet  dors  not  keep  him  from  it, 
Job.  xxiii.  2,  3. — 4.  When  a  person  is  judicially 
hardened,  he  makes  use  of  indirect  ami  unwarr- 
antable methods  to  maintain  that  false  peace 
which  lie  thinks  himself  happy  in  the  enjoyment 
of;  but  a  believer,  when  complaining  of  the  hard- 
ness of  his  heart,  cannot  he  sat  isfied  with  anything 
short  of  Christ,  Ps.  ei.  2. — 5.  Judicial  hardness 
generally  opposes  the  interest  of  truth  and  godli- 
ness ;  but  a  good  man  considers  this  as  a  cause 
1C2 


HEATHEN 

nearest  his  heart ;  and  although  he  have  to  In 
ment  his  lukewarmness,  yet  he  constantly  desires 
to  promote  it.     Ps.  Ixxii.  19. 

Keeping  the  heart  is  a  duty  enjoined  in  the 
sacred  Scriptures.  It  consists,  s-ivs  Mr.  Flavcl, 
in  the  diligent  and  constant  use  and  improvement 
of  all  holy  means  and  duties  to  preserve  the  soul 
from  sin,  and  maintain  communion  with  God; 
and  this,  he  properly  observes,  supposes  a  previous 
work  of  sanctification,  which  hath  set  the  heart 
right  by  giving  it  a  new  bent  and  inclination.  1.  It 
includes  frequent  observation  of  the  frame  of 
the  heart,  Ps.  lxxvii.  6. — 2.  Deep  humiliation  for 
heart  evils  and  disorders,  2  Chron.  xxxii.  26. — 
3.  Earnest  supplication  for  heart  purifying  and 
rectifying  grace,  Ps.  xix.  12. — 4.  A  constant  holy 
jealousy  over  our  hearts,  Prov.  xxvii.  14. — 5.  It 
includes  the  realising  of  God's  presence  with  us, 
and  setting  him  before  us,  Ps.  xvi.  8;  Gen.  xvii. 
1.  This  is.  1.  The  hardest  work  ;  heart  work  is 
hard  .work,  indeed. — 2.  Constant  work,  Exod. 
xvii.  12. — 3.  The  most  important  work,  Prov. 
xxiii.  26.  This  is  a  duty  which  should  be  at- 
tended to,  if  we  consider  it  in  connexion  with,  1. 
The  honour  of  God,  Is.  lxvi.  3. — 2.  The  sincerity 
of  our  profession,  2  Kings  x.  31;  Ezek.  xxxii. 
31,  32. — 3.  The  beauty  of  our  conversation,  Prov. 
xii.  26;  Ps.  xiv.  1. — 4.  The  comfort  of  our  souls, 
2  Cor.  xiii.  5. — 5.  The  improvement  of  our  graces, 
Ps.  Ixiii.  5,  6. — 6.  The  stability  of  our  souls  in 
the  hour  of  temptation,  1  Cor.  xvi.  13.  The 
seasons  in  which  we  should  more  particularly 
keep  our  hearts  are,  I.  The  time  of  prosperity, 
Deut.  vi.  10,  12. — 2.  Under  afflictions,  Heb.  vii. 
5,  6. — 3.  The  time  of  Sion's  troubles,  Ps.  xlvi.  1, 
4. — 4.  In  the  time  of  great  and  threatening  dan- 
ger, Is.  xxvi.  20,  21. — 5.  Under  great  wants, 
Phil.  iv.  6,  7.-6.  In  the  time  of  duty,  Lev.  x.3.— 

7.  Under  injuries  received,  Rom.  xii.   17.  &c. — 

8.  In  the  critical  hour  of  temptation,  Matt.  xxvi. 
41. — 9.  Under  dark  and  doubting  seasons,  Heb. 
xii.  8;  Isa.  1.  10: — 10.  In  time  of  opposition  and 
suffering,  1  Pet.  iv.  12,  13.— 11.  The  time  of 
sickness  and  death,  Jer.  xlix.  11.  The  means  to 
be  made  use  of  to  keep  our  hearts,  are,  1.  Watch- 
fulness, Mark  xiii.  37. — 2.  Examination,  Prov. 
iv.  26. — 3.  Prayer,  Luke  xviii.  1. — 4.  Reading 
God's  word,  John  v.  39. — 5.  Dependence  on  di- 
vine grace,  Psalm  lxxxvi.  11.  See  Flavcl  on 
Keeping  the  Heart ;  Jamieson's  Sermons  on  the 
Heart ;  Wright  on  Selfpossessio7i ;  Ridgley's 
Div.  qu.  29. 

HEATHEN,  pagans  who  worshipped  false 
gods,  and  are  not  acquainted  either  with  the  doc- 
trines of  the  Old  Testament  or  the  Christian  dis- 
pensation. For  many  ages  before  Christ,  the 
nations  at  large  were  destitute  of  the  true  religion, 
and  gave  themselves  up  to  the  grossest  ignorance, 
the  most  absurd  idolatry,  and  the  greatest  crimes. 
Even  the  most  learned  men  among  the  heathens 
were  in  general  inconsistent,  and  complied  with 
or  promoted  the  vain  customs  they  found  among 
their  countrymen.  It  was,  however,  divinely 
foretold,  that  in  Abraham's  seed  all  nations 
should  be  blessed;  that  the  heathen  should  be 
gathered  to  the  Saviour,  and  become  his  people, 
Gen.  xxii.  18;  xlix.  10;  PsaL  ii.  8:  Isa.  xiii.  6, 
7;  Psal.  Ixxii.;  Isa.  Ix.  In  order  that  the.se 
promises  might  be  accomplished,  vast  numbers  of 
the  Jews,  after  the.  Chaldean  captivity,  were  left 
scattered  among  the  heathen.  The  Old  Testa- 
ment was  traji^lated  into  Greek,  the  most  con> 


HEAVEN 
mem  language  of  the  heathen ;  and  a  rumour  of 
the  Saviour's  appearance  in  the  flesh  was  spread 
far  and  wide  among  them.  "When  Christ  came, 
he  preached  chiefly  in  Galilee,  where  there  were 
multitudes  of  Gentiles.  He  assured  the  Greeks 
that  vast  numbers  of  the  heathen  should  be 
brought  into  the  church.  Matt.  iv.  23;  John  xii. 
20.  24:  For  1700  years  past  the  Jews  have  been 
generally  rejected,  and  the  church  of  God  has 
been  composed  of  the  Gentiles.  Upwards  of  480 
millions,  (nearly  half  the  globe,)  however,  arc 
supposed  to  be  yet  in  pagan  darkness.  Consider- 
able attempts  have  been  made  of  late  years  for  the 
enlightening  of  the  heathen ;  and  there  is  every 
reason  to  believe  good  has  been  done.  From  the 
aspect  of  Scripture  prophecy,  we  are  led  to  ex- 
pect that  the  kingdoms  of  the  heathen  at  large 
shall  be  brought  to  the  light  of  the  Gospel,  Matt. 
xxiv.  14;  Isa.  lx.;  Ps.  xxii.  28,  29;  ii.  7,  8. 
It  has  been  much  disputed  whether  it  be  possible 
that  the  heathen  should  be  saved  without  the 
knowledge  of  the  Gospel ;  some  have  absolutely 
denied  it,  upon  the  authority  of  those  texts  which 
universally  require  faith  in  Christ ;  but  to  this  it 
is  answered,  that  those  texts  regard  only  such  to 
whom  the  Gospel  comes,  and  are  capable  of  un- 
derstanding the  contents  of  it.  The  truth,  says 
Dr.  Doddndge,  seems  to  be  tins :  that  none  of  the 
heathens  will  be  condemned  for  not  believing  the 
Gospel,  but  they  are  liable  to  condemnation  for 
the  breach  of  God's  natural  law :  nevertheless,  if 
there  be  any  of  them  in  whom  there  is  a  prevail- 
ing love  to  the  Divine  Being,  there  seems  reason 
to  believe  that,  for  the  sake  of  Christ,  though  to 
them  unknown,  they  may  be  accepted  by  God ; 
and  so  much  the  rather,  as  the  ancient  Jews,  and 
even  the  apostles,  during  the  time  of  our  Saviour's 
abode  on  earth,  seem  to  have  had  but  little  notion 
of  those  doctrines  which  those  who  deny  the  sal- 
vability  of  the  heathens  are  most  apt  to  imagine, 
Rom.  ii.  10—22;  Acts  x.  34,  35;  Matt.  viii.  11, 
1 2.  Mr.  Grove,  Dr.  Watts,  Saurin,  and  Mr.  New- 
ton, favour  the  same  opinion ;  the  latter  of  whom 
thus  observes :  if  we  suppose  a  heathen  brought 
to  a  sense  of  his  misery  ;  to  a  conviction  that  he 
cannot  be  happy  without  the  favour  of  the  great 
Lord  of  the  world  ;  to  a  feeling  of  guilt,  and  de- 
sire of  mercy ;  and  that,  though  he  has  no  ex- 
plicit knowledge  of  a  Saviour,  he  directs  the  cry 
of  his  heart  to  the  unknown  Supreme,  to  have 
mercy  upon  him;  who  will  prove  that  such 
views  and  desires  can  arise  in  the  heart  of  a  sin- 
ner, without  the  energy  of  that  spirit  which  Jesus 
is  exalted  to  bestow?  Who  will  take  upon  him 
to  say,  that  his  blood  has  not  sufficient  efficacy  to 
redeem  to  God  a  sinner  who  is  thus  disposed, 
though  he  have  never  heard  of  his  name  ?  Or 
who  has  a  warrant  to  affirm,  that  the  supposition 
I  have  made  is,  in  the  nature  of  things,  impossi- 
ble to  be  realized?  Newton's  Messiah;  Dr. 
Watts's  Strength  and  Weakness  of  Human 
Reason,  p.  10G;  Saurin' s  Scnnons,  vol.  ii.  p.  314  ; 
Grove's  Moral  Philosophy,  vol.  i.  128;  Turret 
hoc.  vol.  i.  qurest.  4,  §  1,  2.  17;  Doddridge's 
Lectures,  lee.  240,  vol.  ii.  8vo.  edit. :  Bellamy's 
Religion  Delineated,  p.  105;  Ridgley's  Body 
of  Divinity,  qu.  (>0;  Gale's  Court  of  the  Gen- 
tiles; Considerations  on  the  Religious  Worship 
nf  the  Heathen  ;  Rev.  W.  Jones's  Works,  vol.  xii. 
HEAVEN  is  considered  as  a  place  in  some 
remote  part  of  infinite  space,  in  which  the  omni- 
present Deity  is  said  to  afford  a  nearer  and  more 
163 


HEAVEN 

immediate  view  of  himself,  and  a  more  sensible 
manifestation  of  his  glory,  than  in  the  other  parts 
of  the  universe. 

That  t'uereis  a  state  of  future  happiness,  both 
reason  and  Scripture  indicate ;  a  general  notion 
of  happiness  after  death  has  obtained  among  the 
wiser  sort  of  heathens,  who  have  only  had  the 
light  of  nature  to  guide  them.  If  we  examine 
the  human  mind,  it  is  also  evident  that  there  is  a 
natural  desire  after  happiness  in  all  men ;  and, 
which  is  equally  evident,  is  not  attained  in  this 
life.  It  is  no  less  observable,  that  in  the  present 
state  there  is  an  unequal  distribution  of  things, 
which  makes  the  providences  of  God  very  intri- 
cate, and  which  cannot  be  solved  without  sup- 
posing a  future  state.  Revelation,  however,  puts 
it  beyond  all  doubt.  The  Divine  Being  hath 
promised  it,  1  John  ii.  25;  1  John  v.  11;  James 
i.  12 :  hath  given  us  some  intimation  of  its  glory, 
1  Pet.  iii.  4.  22;  Rev.  hi.  4;  declares  Christ  hath 
taken  possession  of  it  for  us,  John  xiv.  2,  3 ;  and 
informs  us  of  some  already  there,  both  as  to  their 
bodies  and  souls,  Gen.  v.  24 ;  2  Kings  ii. 

Heaven  is  to  be  considered  as  a  place  as  well  at 
a  state;  it  is  expressly  so  termed  in  Scripture, 
John  xiv.  2,  3 ;  and  the  existence  of  the  body  of 
Christ,  and  those  of  Enoch  and  Elijah,  is  a  fur- 
ther proof  of  it.  Yea,  if  it  be  not  a  place,  where 
can  these  bodies  be  ?  and  where  will  the  bodies 
of  the  saints  exist  after  the  resurrection?  Where 
this  place  is,  however,  cannot  be  determined. 
Some  have  thought  it  to  be  beyond  the  starry  fir- 
mament ;  and  some  of  the  ancients  imagined  that 
their  dwelling  would  be  in  the  sun.  Others 
suppose  the  air  to  be  the  seat  of  the  blessed. 
Others  think  that  the  saints  will  dwell  upen 
earth  when  it  shall  be  restored  to  its  paradisaical 
state;  but  these  suppositions  are  more  curious 
than  edifying,  and  it  becomes  us  to  be  silent 
where  divine  revelation  is  so. 

Heaven,  however,  we  arc  assured,  is  a  place  of 
inexpressible  felicity.  The  names  given  to  it 
are  proofs  of  this :  it  is  called  paradise,  Luke 
xxiii.  43;  light,  Rev.  xxi.  23.  A  building  and 
mansion  of  God,  2  Cor.  v.  1 ;  John  xiv.  2.  A 
city,  Heb.  xi.  10,  16.  A  better  country,  Heb.  xL 
16.  An  inheritance,  Acts  xx.  32.  A  kingdom, 
Matt.  xxv.  34.  A  crown,  2  Tim.  iv.  8.  Glory, 
Ps.  lxxxiv.  11 ;  2  Cor.  iv.  17.  Peace,  rest,  and 
joy  of  the  Lord,  Isa.  lvii.  2;  Heb.  iv.  9;  Matt. 
xxv.  21,  23.  The  felicity  of  heaven  will  consist 
in  freedom  from  all  evil,  both  of  soul  and  body, 
Rev.  vii.  17;  in  the  enjoyment  of  God  as  the 
chief  good  ;  in  the  company  of  angels  and  saints ; 
in  perfect  holiness,  and  extensive  knowledge. 

It  has  been  disputed  whether  there  are  degrees 
of  glory  in  heaven.  The  arguments  against  de- 
grees are,  that  all  the  people  of  God  are  loved  by 
him  with  the  same  love,  all  chosen  together  in 
Christ,  equally  interested  in  the  same  covenant 
of  grace,  equally  redeemed  with  the  same  price, 
and  all  predestinated  to  the  same  adoption  of 
children  ;  to  suppose  the  contrary,  it  is  said,  is  to 
eclipse  the  glory  of  divine  grace,  and  carries  with 
it  the  legal  idea  of  being  rewarded  for  our  works. 
On  the  other  side  it  is  observed,  that  if  the  above 
reasoning  would  prove  any  thing,  it  would  prove 
too  much,  viz.  that  we  should  all  be  upon  an 
equality  in  the  present  world  as  well  as  that 
whicii  is  to  come;  for  we  are  now  as  much  the 
objects  of  the  same  love,  purchased  by  the  same 
blood,  &c.j  as  we  shall  be  hereafter.     That  re- 


HEAVEN 
wards  contain  nothing  inconsistent  with  the,  doc- 
trine of  grace,  because  those  very  works  which  it 
pleaseth  God  to  honour,  arc  the  effects  of  his  own 

operation.  That  all  rewards  to  a  guilty  creature 
have  respect  to  the  mediation  of  Christ.  That 
God's  graciously  connecting  blessings  with  the 
obedience  of  his  people,  serves  to  show  not  only 
his  love  to  Christ  and  to  them,  but  his  regard  to 
righteousness.  That  the  Scriptures  expressly 
declare  for  degrees,  Dan.  xii.  3;  Matt.  x.  41,  42; 
Matt.  xix.  28, 29 ;  Luke  xix.  1G.  19 ;  Rom.  ii.  6 ; 
1  Cor.  iii.  8;  1  Cor.  xv.  41,  42;  2  Cor.  v.  10; 
Gal.  vi.  !). 

Another  question  has  sometimes  been  pro- 
posed, viz.  Wtiether  the  saints  shall  know  each 
other  in  heaven? 

"  The  arguments,"  says  Dr.  Ridgley,  "  which 
arc  generally  brought  in  defence  of  it,  are  taken 
from  those  instances  recorded  in  Scripture,  in 
which  persons,  who  have  never  seen  one  another 
before,  have  immediately  known  each  other  in 
this  world,  by  a  special  immediate  divine  revela- 
tion given  to  them,  in  like  manner  as  Adam 
knew  that  Eve  was  taken  out  of  him ;  and  there- 
fore says,  This  is  now  bone  of  my  bone,  andjlesh 
of  my  flesh;  she  shall  be  called  woman,  because 
she  was  taken  out  of  man.  Gen.  ii.  23.  He  was 
cast  info  a  deep  sleep,  ichen  God  took  out  one  of 
his  ribs,  and  so  formed  the  woman,  as  we  read 
in  the  foregoing  words ;  yet  the  knowledge 
hereof  was  communicated  to  him  by  God.  More- 
over, we  read  that  Peter,  James,  and  John,  knew 
Moses  and  Elias,  Matt.  xvii.  as  appears  from 
Peter's  making  a  particular  mention  of  them : 
Let  us  make  three  tabernacles;  one  for  thee,  one 
for  Moses,  and  one  for  Elias,  4th  ver.,  though  he 
had  never  seen  them  before.  Again ;  our  Sa- 
viour, in  the  parable,  represents  the  rich  man  as 
seeing  Abraham  afar  off,  and  Lazarus  in  his 
bosom,  Luke  xvi.  23,  and  speaks  of  him  as  ad- 
dressing his  discourse  to  him.  From  such  like 
arguments,  some  conclude  that  it  maybe  inferred 
that  the  saints  shall  know  one  another  in  heaven, 
when  joined  together  in  the  same  assembly. 

"  Moreover,  some  think  that  this  may  be  prov- 
ed from  the  apostle's  words,  in  1  Thess.  ii.  Ii), 
2;t,  JJ7ia/  is  our  hope  or  joy,  or  crown  of  rejoic- 
ing ?  Are  not  even  ye  in  the  presence  of  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  at  his  coming?  for  ye  arc  our 
glory  and  joy;  which  seems  to  argue,  that  he 
apprehended  their  happiness  in  heaven  should 
contribute,  or  be  an  addition  to  his,  as  he  was 
made  an  instrument  to  bring  them  thither;  even 
so,  by  a  parity  of  reason,  every  one  who  has  been 
instrumental  in  the  conversion  and  building  up 
others  in  their  holy  faith,  as  the  apostle  Paul  was 
with  respect  to  them,  these  shall  tend  to  enhance 
their  praise,  and  give  them  occasion  to  glorify 
<  rod  on  their  behalf.  Therefore  it  follows  that 
they  shall  know  one  another;  and  consequently 
they  who  have  walked  together  in  the  ways  of 
God,  and  have  been  useful  to  one  another  as  re- 
lations and  intimate  friends,  in  what  respects 
more  especially  their  spiritual  concerns,  these 
shall  bless  God  for  the  mutual  advantages  which 
they  have  received,  and  consequently  shall  know 
one  another.  Again;  some  prove  this  from  that 
expression  of  our  Saviour  in  Luke  xvi.  0.  Make 
to  yourselves  friends  of  the  mammon  of  un- 
righteousness, that,  when  ye  fail,  they  may  re- 
ceive you  into  everlasting  habitations;  especially 
if  by  these  everlasting  habitations  be  meant 
l&t 


HEAVEN 
heaven,  as  many  suppose  it  is ;  and  then  th  : 
meaning  is,  that  they  whom  you  have  relieved 
and  shown  kindness  to  in  this  world,  shall  e* 
press  a  particular  joy  upon  your  being  admitteu 
into  heaven;  and  consequently  they  shall  kno* 
you,  and  bless  God  for  your  having  been  so  use- 
ful and  beneficial  to  them. 

"  To  this  it  is  objected,  that  if  the  saints  shaft 
know  one  another  in  heaven,  they  shall  know 
that  several  of  those  who  were  their  intimate 
friends  here  on  earth,  whom  they  loved  with  very 
great  affection,  are  not  there ;  and  this  will  haw 
a  tendency  to  give  them  some  uneasiness,  and  a 
diminution  of  their  joy  and  happiness. 

"To  this  it  may  be  replied,  that  if  it  be  allowed 
that  the  saints  shall  know  that  some  whom  they 
loved  on  earth  are  not  in  heaven,  this  will  give 
them  no  uneasiness :  since  that  affection  which 
took  its  rise  principally  from  the  relation  which 
we  stood  in  to  persons  on  earth,  or  the  intimacy 
that  we  have  contracted  with  them,  will  cease  in 
another  world,  or  rather  run  in  another  channel, 
and  be  excited  by  superior  motives  :  namely, 
their  relation  to  Christ;  that  perfect  holiness 
which  they  are  adorned  with  ;  their  being  joined 
in  the  same  blessed  society,  and  engaged  in  the 
same  employment :  together  with  their  former 
usefulness  one  to  another  in  promoting  their 
spiritual  welfare,  as  made  subservient  to  the  hap- 
piness they  enjoy  there.  And  as  for  others,  who 
are  excluded  from  their  society,  they  will  think 
themselves  obliged,  out  of  a  due  regard  to  the  jus- 
tice and  holiness  of  God,  to  acquiesce  in  his 
righteous  judgments.  Thus,  the  inhabitants  of 
heaven  are  represented  as  adoring  the  divine 
perfections,  when  the  vials  of  God's  wrath  were 
poured  out  upon  his  enemies,  and  saying,  Thou 
art  righteous,  O  Lord,  because  thou  hast  judged- 
thus:  true  and  righteous  are  thy  judgments, 
Rev.  xvi.  5,  7. 

"  Another  question  has  been  sometimes  asked, 
viz.  Whether  there  shall  be  a  diversity  of  lan- 
guages in  heaven,  as  there  is  on  earth?  This  we 
cannot  pretend  to  determine.  Some  think  that 
there  shall;  and  that,  as  persons  of  all  nations 
and  tongues  shall  make  up  that  blessed  society,  so 
they  shall  praise  God  in  the  same  language  which 
they  before  used  when  on  earth ;  and  that  this 
worship  may  be  performed  with  the  greatest  har- 
mony, and  to  mutual  edification,  all  the  saints 
shall,  by  the  immediate  power  and  providence  of 
God,  be  able  to  understand  and  make  use  of 
every  one  of  those  dif  lerent  languages,  as  well  as 
their  own.  This  they  found  on  the.  apostle's 
words,  in  which  he  says,  That  at  the  name  of 
Jesus  every  knee  shall  bow,  and  that  every 
tongue  shall  confess  that  Jesus  Christ  is  Lord  ; 
which  they  suppose  has  a  respect  to  the  heavenly 
state,  because  it  is  said  to  be  done  both  by  those 
that  are  in  heaven,  and  those  that  are  on  earth, 
Phil.  ii.  10,  11.  But  though  the  apostle  speaks,  ' 
by  a  metonymy,  of  different  tongues,  that  is,  per- 
sons who  speak  different  languages,  being  sub- 
ject to  Christ,  he  probably  means  thereby  persona 
of  different  nations,  whether  they  shall  praise 
him  in  their  own  language  ii  heaven,  or  no. 
Therefore  some  conjecture  that  the  diveisity  of 
languages  shall  then  cea»e,  inasmuch  as  it  took 
its  first  rise  from  God's  judicial  hand,  when  lie 
confounded  the  speech  of  those  who  presumptu- 
ously attempted  to  build  the  city  and  tower  of 
Babel;  and  this   has  been  ever  siucc  attended. 


HELL 
with  many  inconveniences.  And,  indeed,  the 
apostle  seems  expressly  to  intimate  as  much, 
when  he  says,  speaking  concerning  the  heavenly 
state,  that  tongu.es  shall  cease,  1  Cor.  xiii.  8  ;  that 
is,  the  present  variety  of  languages.  Moreover, 
since  the  gift  of  tongues  was  bestowed  on  the 
apostles  for  the  gathering  and  building  up  the 
church  in  the  first  ages  thereof,  which  end,  when 
it  was  answered,  this  extraordinary  dispensation 
ceased ;  in  like  manner  it  is  probable  that  here- 
after the  diversity  of  languages  shall  cease." 

"I  am  sensible,"  says  Dr.  Ridgley,  "there are 
some  who  object  to  this,  that  the  saints'  under- 
standing all  languages  will  lie  an  addition  to  their 
honour,  glory,  and  happiness.  But  to  this  it  may 
lie  answered,  that  though  it  is,  indeed,  an  accom- 
plishment, in  this  world,  for  a  person  to  under- 
stand several  languages,  that  arises  from  the  sub- 
serviency thereof  to  those  valuable  ends  that  are 
answered  thereby ;  but  this  would  be  entirely  re- 
moved, if  the  diversity  of  languages  be  taken  away 
in  heaven,  as  some  suppose  it  will." 

"  There  are  some,  who,  it  may  be,  give  too 
much  scope  to  a  vain  curiosity,  when  they  pre- 
tend to  inquire  what  this  language  shall  be,  or 
determine,  as  the  Jews  do,  and  with  them  some 
of  the  fathers,  that  it  shall  be  Hebrew,  since  their 
arguments  for  it  are  not  sufficiently  conclusive, 
which  are  principally  these,  viz.  That  this  was 
the  language  with  which  God  inspired  man  at  first 
in  paradise,  and  that  which  the  saints  and  pa- 
triarchs spake,  and  the  church  generally  made  use 
of  in  all  ages  till  our  Saviour's  time ;  and  that  it 
was  this  language  which  he  himself  spake  while 
here  on  earth;  and  since  his  ascension  into  hea- 
ven, he  spake  to  Paul  in  the  Hebrew  tongue, 
Acts  xxvi.  14.  And  when  the  inhabitants  of 
heaven  are  described  in  the  Revelations  as  praising 
God,  there  is  one  word  used  by  which  their  praise 
is  expressed,  namely,  Hallelujah,  which  is  He- 
brew ;  the  meaning  whereof  is,  Praise  ye  the 
Lord.  But  all  these  arguments  are  not  sufficiently 
convincing,  and  therefore  we  must  reckon  it  no 
more  than  a  conjecture." 

However  undecided  we  may  be  as  to  this  and 
some  other  circumstances,  this  we  may  be  assured 
oi]  that  the  happiness  of  heaven  will  be  eternal. 
Whether  it  will  be  progressive  or  not,  and  that 
the  saints  shall  always  be  increasing  in  their 
knowledge,  joy,  &c.  is  not  so  clear.  Some  sup- 
pose that  this  indicates  an  imperfection  in  the 
felicity  of  the  saints,  for  any  addition  to  be  made; 
but  others  think  it  quite  analogous  to  the  dealings 
of  God  with  us  here  ;  and  that,  from  the  nature 
of  the  mind  itself,  it  may  be  concluded.  But 
however  this  be,  it  is  certain  that  our  happiness 
will  be  complete,  1  Pet.  v.  4,  10.  Heb.  xi.  10. 
Watts' s  Death  and  Heaven ;  Gillie  Body  of 
Divinity,  vol.  ii.  p.  495 ;  Saurin's  Ser.  vol.  iii.  p. 
3*31 ;  Toplady's  Works,  vol.  iii.  p.  471  ;  Bates's 
Works  ;  Ridgley' s  Bodi/  of  Divinity,  question  ',)0. 

HEBREWS.     SeeJF.ws. 

HELL,  the  place  of  divine  punishment  after 
death.  As  all  religions  have  supposed  a  future 
state  of  existence  alter  this  life,  so  all  have  their 
hell,  or  place  of  torment,  in  which  the  wicked  fire 
to  be  punished.  Even  the  heuthens  had  their 
lartara -  and  the  Mahometans,  we  find,  believe 
the  eternity  of  rewards  and  punishments ;  it  in 
not,  therefore,  a  sentiment  peculiar  to  Chris- 
tianity. 

There  have  been  many  curious  and   useless 


HELL 

conjectures  respecting  the  place  of  the  damned. 
the  ancients  generally  supposed  it  was  a  region  of 
fire  near  the  centre  of  the  earth.  Mr.  Swinden 
endeavoured  to  prove  that  it  is  seated  in  the  sun. 
Mr.  Whiston  advanced  a  new  and  strange  hypo- 
thesis ;  according  to  him,  the  comets  are  so  many 
hells,  appointed  in  their  orbits  alternately  to  carry 
the  damned  to  the  confines  of  the  sun,  there  to  be 
scorched  by  its  violent  heat ;  and  then  to  returp 
with  them  beyond  the  orb  of  Saturn,  there  to 
starve  them  in  those  cold  and  dismal  regions. 
But,  as  Dr.  Doddridge  observes,  we  must  here 
confess  our  ignorance  ;  and  shall  be  much  better 
employed  in  studying  how  we  may  avoid  this 
place  of  horror,  than  in  labouring  to  discover 
where  it  is. 

Of  the  nature  of  this  punishment  we  may 
form  some  idea  from  the  expressions  made  use  of 
in  Scripture.  It  is  called  a  place  of  torment, 
Luke  xvi.  21 ;  the  bottomless  pit,  Rev.  xx.  3  to  6; 
a  prison,  1  Pet.  iii.  19;  darkness,  Matt.  viii.  12; 
Jude  13;  fire,  Matt.  xiii.  42, 50;  a  worm  that  never 
dies,  Mark  ix.  <±4,  48;  the  second  death,  Rev. 
xxi.  8;  the  wrath  of  God,  Rom.  ii.  5.  It  has  been 
debated  whether  there  will  be  a  material  fire  in 
hell.  On  the  affirmative  side  it  is  observed,  that 
fire  and  brimstone  are  represented  as  the  ingre- 
dients of  the  torment  of  the  wicked,  R.ev.  xiv.  10, 
1 1 ;  xx.  10.  That  as  the  body  is  to  be  raised,  and 
the  whole  man  to  be  condemned,  it  is  reasonable 
to  believe  there  will  be  some  corporeal  punish- 
ment provided,  and  therefore  probably  material 
fire.  On  the  negative  side  it  is  alleged,  that  the 
terms  above  mentioned  arc  metaphorical,  and 
signify  no  more  than  raging  desire  or  acute  pain; 
and  that  the  Divine  Being  can  sufficiently  punish 
the  wicked,  by  immediately  acting  on  their  minds, 
or  rather  leaving  them  to  the  guilt  and  stings  oi 
their  own  conscience.  According  to  several  pas 
sages,  it  seems  there  will  be  different  degrees  of 
punishment  in  hell,  Luke  xii.  47;  Rom.  ii.  12; 
Matt.  x.  20, 21 ;  xii.  25,  32 ;  Heb.  x.  28,  29. 

As  to  its  duration,  it  has  been  observed  that  it 
cannot  be  eternal,  because  there  is  no  proportion 
between  temporary  crimes  and  eternal  punish- 
ments ;  that  the  word  everlasting  is  not  to  be 
taken  in  its  utmost  extent ;  and  that  it  signifies 
no  more  than  a  long  time,  or  a  time  whose  pre- 
cise boundary  is  unknown.  But  in  answer  to 
this  it  is  alleged,  that  the  same  word  is  used,  and 
that  sometimes  iii  the  very  same  place,  to  express 
ttie  eternity  of  the  happiness  of  the  righteous, 
and  the  eternity  of  the  misery  of  the  wicked  ; 
and  that  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  the 
words  express  two  such  different  ideas,  as  stand- 
ing in  the  same  connexion.  Besides,  it  is  not 
true,  it  is  observed,  that  temporary  crimes  do  not 
deserve  eternal  punishments,  because  the  infinite 
majesty  of  an  offended  God  adds  a  kind  of  infinite 
evil  to  sin,  and  therefore  exposes  the  sinner  to  in- 
finite punishment;  and  that  hereby  God  vindi- 
cates his  injured  majesty,  and  glorifies  his  justice 
See  articles  Destucctiomsts  and  Universa- 
lists.  Berry  St.  Lee.  vol.  ii.  p.  559,  5G2  ;  Dawes 
on  Hell,  ser.  x;  Whiston  on  ditto;  Shcinden, 
Drexelius,  and  Edwards  on  ditto.  A  late  popu- 
lar writer  has  observed,  that  in  the  35th  sermon 
of  Tillotson,  every  thing  is  said  upon  the  eternity 
of  hell  torments  that  can  be  known  with  any 
certaintv. 

HELL,  Christ'  s  Descent  into.  That  Christ 
locally  descended  into  hell,  is  a  doctrine  believed 


HELLENISTS 
not  only  hy  the  papists,  but  by  many  among  the 
reformed.  1.  The  text  chiefly  brought  forward 
in  support  of  thin  doctrine  is  the  1  Peter  iii.  19. 
"  By  which  he  went  and  preached  to  the  spirits 
in  prison ;"  but  it  evidently  appears,  that  the 
"spirit"  there  mentioned  was  not  Christ's  human 
soul,  but  a  divine  nature,  or  rather  the  Holy 
Spirit  (by  which  he  .was  quickened,  and  raised 
from  the  dead  ;)  and  by  the  inspiration  of  which, 
granted  to  Noah,  he  preached  to  those  notorious 
sinners  who  are  now  in  the  prison  of  hell  for  their 
disobedience. 

2.  Christ,  when  on  the  cross,  promised  the 
penitent  thief  his  presence  that  day  in  paradise  ; 
and.  accordingly,  when  he  died,  he  committed  his 
soul  into  his  heavenly  Father's  hand  :  in  heaven, 
therefore,  and  not  in  hell,  we  are  to  seek  the  se- 
parate spirit  of  our  Redeemer  in  this  period,  Luke 
xxiii.  43,  46. 

3.  Had  our  Lord  descended  to  preach  to  the 
damned,  there  is  no  supposable  reason  why  the 
unbelievers  in  Noah's  time  only  should  be  men- 
tioned rather  than  those  of  Sodom,  and  the  un- 
happy multitudes  that  died  in  sin.  But  it  may 
be  said,  do  not  both  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments intimate  this?  Ps.  xvi.  10;  Acts  ii.  34. 
But  it  may  be  answered,  that  the  words  "  thou 
wilt  not  leave  my  soul  in  hell,"  may  be  explained 
fas  in  the  manner  of  the  Hebrew  poets)  in  the 
following  words :  "  Neither  wilt  thou  suffer  thine 
holy  one  to  see  corruption."  So  the  same  words 
are  used.  Ps.  lxxxix.  48. — "What  man  is  he 
that  liveth,  and  shall  not  see  death?  shall  he  de- 
liver his  soul  from  the  hand  of  the  grave?"  In 
the  Hebrew  (^1X1?)  the  word  commonly  rendered 
hell  properly  signifies  "the  invisible  state,"  as  our 
word  hell  originally  did :  and  the  other  word  (t?DJ) 
signifies  not  always  the  immortal  soul,  but  the 
animal  frame  in  general,  either  living  or  dead. 
Bishop  Pearson  and  Dr.  Barrow  on  the  Creed  ; 
Edwards^ 's  Hist,  of  Redemption,  notes  p.  331, 
377;  Ridfrlofs  Body  of  Div.  p.  308,  3d  edit. ; 
Doddridge  and  Guise  on  1  Pet.  iii.  19. 

HELLENISTS,  a  term  occurring  in  the 
Greek  text  of  the  New  Testament,  and  which, 
in  the  English  version,  is  rendered  Grecians, 
Acts  vi.  I.  The  critics  are  divided  as  to  the  sig- 
nification of  the  word.  Some  observe,  that  it  is 
not  to  bo  understood  as  signifying  those  of  the 
religion  of  the  Greeks,  but  those  who  spoke 
Greek.  The  authors  of  the  Vulgate  version 
render  it  like  our  Grceci;  but  Messieurs  Du  Port 
Royal,  more  accurately,  Juifs  Grecs,  Greek  or 
Grecian  Jews;  it  being  the  Jews  who  spoke 
Greek  that  are  here  treated  of,  and  who  are  here- 
by distinguished  from  the  Jews  called  Hebrews, 
that  is,  who  spoke  the  Hebrew  tongue  of  that 
time. 

The  Hellenists,  or  Grecian  Jews,  were  those 
who  lived  in  Egypt,  and  other  parts  where  the 
Greek  tongue  prevailed:  it  is  to  them  we  owe  the 
Greek  version  of  the  Old  Testament,  commonly 
called  the  Stptuagint,  or  that  of  the  Seventy. 

Sahnasius  and  Vossius  are  of  a  different  sen- 
timent with  respect  to  the  Hellenists:  the  latter 
will  only  have  them  to  be  those  who  adhered  to 
the  Grecian  interests.  Scaliger,  is  represented 
in  the  Scaligerana  as  asserting  the  Hellenists  to 
be  the  Jews  who  lived  in  Greece  and  other  places, 
and  who  read  the  Greek  Bible  in  their  syna- 
gogues, .o\d  used  the  Greek  language  in  sacri-s : 
and  thus  they  were  opposed  to  the  Hebrew  Jews, 
166 


HENRICIANS 
who  performed  their  public  worship  in  the  He- 
brew tongue;  and  in  this  sense  St.  Paul  speaks 
of  himself  as  a  Hebrew  of  the  Hebrews,  PhiL 
iii.  5,  t>.  i.  e.  a  Hebrew  both  by  nation  and  lan- 
guage. The  Hellenists  are  thus  properly  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Hellenes,  or  Greeks,  men- 
tioned John  xii.  20,  who  were  Greeks  by  birth 
and  nation,  and  yet  proselytes  to  the  Jewish 
religion. 

HEMEROBAPTISTS,  a  sect  among  the 
ancient  Jews,  thus  called  from  their  washing  and 
bathing  every  day,  in  all  seasons ;  and  performing 
this  custom  with  the  greatest  solemnity,  as  a  reli- 
gious rite  necessary  to  salvation. 

Epiphanius,  who  mentions  this  as  the  fourth 
heresy  among  the  Jews,  observes,  that  in  other 
points  these  heretics  had  much  the  same  opinion 
as  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees ;  only  that  they  de- 
nied the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  in  common 
with  the  Sadducees,  and  retained  a  lew  other  of 
the  improprieties  of  these  last. 

The  sect  who  pass  in  the  East  under  the  de- 
nomination of  Sabians,  calling  themselves  Men- 
dai  Iiahi,  or  the  disciples  of  St.  John,  and  whom 
the  Europeans  entitle  the  Christians  of  St.  John, 
because  they  yet  retain  some  knowledge  of  the 
Gospel,  is  probably  of  Jewish  origin,  and  seems 
to  have  been  derived  from  the  ancient  Hemero- 
baptists ;  at  least  it  is  certain  that  John,  whom 
they  consider  as  the  founder  of  their  sect,  bears 
no  sort  of  similitude  to  John  the  Baptist,  but 
rather  resembles  the  person  of  that  name  whom 
the  ancient  writers  represent  as  the  chief  of 
the  Jewish  Hemerohaptists.  These  ambiguous 
Christians  dwell  in  Persia  and  Arabia,  and  prin- 
cipally at  Bassora;  and  their  religion  consists  in 
bodily  washings,  performed  frequently  and  with 
great  solemnity,  and  attended  with  certain  cere- 
monies which  the  priests  mingle  with  this  super- 
stitious service. 

HENOTICON,  a  famous  edict  of*  the  empe 
ror  Zeno,  published  A.  D.  482,  and  intended  to 
reconcile  and  re-unite  the  Eutychians  with  the 
Catholics.  It  was  procured  of  the  emperor  by 
means  of  Acacius,  patriarch  of  Constantinople, 
with  the  assistance  of  the  friends  of  Peter  Mon- 
gus  and  Peter  Trullo.  The  sting  of  this  edict 
lies  here ;  that  it  repeats  and  confirms  all  that  has 
been  enacted  in  the  councils  of  Nice,  Constanti- 
nople, Ephesus,  and  Chalcedon,  against  the  Ari- 
ans,  Nestorians,  and  Eutychians,  without  making: 
any  particular  mention  of  the  council  of  Chalce- 
don. It  is  in  the  form  of  a  letter,  addressed  by 
Zeno  to  the  bishops,  priests,  monks,  and  people 
of  Egypt  and  Libya.  It  was  opposed  by  the 
Cathoiics,  and  condemned  in  form  by  pope 
Felix  11. 

HENRICIANS,  a  sect  so  called  from  Henry, 
its  founder,  who,  though  a  monk  and  hermit,  un- 
dertook to  reform  the  superstition  and  vices  of 
the  clergy.  For  this  purpose  he  hit  Lausanne, 
in  Switzerland,  and,  removing  from  different 
places,  at  length  settled  at  Thoulouse,  in  the 
year  1147,  and  there  exercised  his  ministerial 
function;  till,  being  overcome  by  the  opposition 
of  Bernard,  aboot  of  Clairval,  and  condemned  by 
pope  Eugenius  III.  at  a  council  assembled  at 
Rheims,  ne  was  committed  to  a  close  prison  in 
11  VB,  where  he  soon  ended  his  days.  This  refor- 
mer rejected  the  baptism  of  infants,  severely  cen- 
sured the  corrupt  manners  of  the  clergy,  treated 
the  festivals  and  ceremonies  of  the  church  with 


HERESY 
f,he  utmost  contempt,  and  held  private  assemblies 
lbr  inculcating  his  peculiar  doctrines. 

HERACLEONITES,  a  sect  of  Christians, 
the  followers  of  Heraclcon,  who  refined  upon  the 
Gnostic  divinity,  and  maintained  that  the  world 
was  not  the  immediate  production  of  the  Son  of 
God,  but  that  he  was  only  the  occasional  cause 
of  its  being  created  by  the  demiurgus.  The 
Heracleonites  denied  the  authority  of  the  pro- 
phecies of  the  Old  Testament;  maintained  that 
they  were  mere  random  sounds  in  the  air ;  and 
that  St.  John  the  Baptist  was  the  only  true  voice 
that  directed  to  the  Messiah. 

HERESIARCH,  an  arch  heretic,  the  founder 
or  inventor  of  an  heresy ;  or  a  chief  of  a  sect  of 
heretics. 

HERESY.  This  word  signi fies  sect  or  choice ; 
it  was  not,  in  its  earliest  acceptation,  conceived 
to  convey  any  reproach,  since  it  was  indifferently 
used  either  of  a  party  approved,  or  of  one  disap- 
proved by  the  writer.  See  Acts  v.  17;  xv.  3. 
Afterwards  it  was  generally  used  to  signify  some 
fundamental  error  adhered  to  with  obstinacy,  2 
Pet.  ii.  1 ;  Gal.  v.  20. 

According  to  the  laws  of  this  kingdom,  heresy 
consists  in  a  denial  of  some  of  the  essential  doc- 
trines of  Christianity,  publicly  and  obstinately 
avowed.  It  must  be  acknowledged,  however,  that 
particular  modes  of  belief  or  unbelief,  not  tending 
to  overturn  Christianity,  or  to  sap  the  foundations 
of  morality,  are  by  no  means  the  object  of  coer- 
cion by  the  civil  magistrate.  What  doctrines  shall 
therefore  be  adjudged  heresy,  was  left  by  our  old 
constitution  to  the  determination  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical judge,  who  had  herein  a  most  arbitrary  lati- 
tude allowed  him ;  for  the  general  definition  of  an 
heretic,  given  by  Lyndewode,  extends  to  the  small- 
est deviations  from  the  doctrines  of  the  holy 
church  :  "  Htereticus  est  qui  dubitat  de  fide  ca- 
tholica,  ct  qui  negligit  servare  ea  qua  Romana 
ecclesia  staluit,  seu  servare  decreverat :"  or,  as 
the  statute,  2  Hen.  IV.  cap.  15,  expresses  it  in 
English,  "teachers  of  erroneous  opinions,  contra- 
ry to  the  faith  and  blessed  determinations  of  the 
holy  church."  Very  contrary  this  to  the  usage  of 
the  first  general  councils,  which  defined  all  he- 
retical doctrines  with  the  utmost  precision  and 
exactness;  and  what  ought  to  have  alleviated  the 
punishment,  the  uncertainty  of  the  crime,  seems 
to  have  enhanced  it  in  those  days  of  blind  zeal 
and  pious  cruelty.  The  sanctimonious  hypocrisy 
of  the  Canonists,  indeed,  went,  at  first,  no  farther 
than  enjoining  penance,  excommunication,  and 
ecclesiastical  deprivation,  for  heresy ;  but  after- 
wards they  proceeded  boldly  to  imprisonment  by 
the  ordinary,  and  confiscation  of  goods  in  pios 
usus.  But  in  the  mean  time  they  nad  prevailed 
upon  the  weakness  of  bigoted  princes  to  make  the 
civil  power  subservient  to  their  purposes,  by  mak- 
ing heresy  not  only  a  temporal  but  even  a  capital 
otfencc ;  the  Romish  ecclesiastics  determining, 
without  appeal,  whatever  they  pleased  to  be  he- 
resy, and  shifting  off  to  the  secular  arm  the  odium 
and  drudgery  of  executions,  with  which  they  pre- 
tended to  be  too  tender  and  delicate  to  intermed- 
dle! Nay,  they  affected  to  intercede  on  behalf  of 
the  convicted  heretic,  well  knowing  at  the  same 
time  they  were  delivering  the  unhappy  victim  to 
certain  death.  See  Act  of  Faith. — Hence  the 
capital  punishments  inflicted  on  the  ancient  Do- 
natistsand  Manichamns  by  the  emperors  Theodo- 
*ius  and  Justinian ;  hence,  also,  the  constitution 
167 


HERESY 
of  the  emperor  Frederic,  mentioned  by  Lyndo- 
wode,  adjudging  all  persons,  without  distinction, 
to  be  burnt  with  fire,  who  were  convicted  of  he- 
resy by  the  ecclesiastical  judge.  The  same  em- 
peror, in  another  constitution,  ordained,  that  if 
any  temporal  lord,  when  admonished  by  the 
church,  should  neglect  to  clear  his  territories  of 
heretics  within  a  year,  it  should  be  lawful  for  good 
Catholics  to  seize  and  occupy  the  lands,  and  ut- 
terly to  exterminate  the  heretical  possessors.  And 
upon  this  foundation  was  built  that  arbitrary 
power,  so  long  claimed,  and  so  fatally  exerted  by 
the  pope,  of  disposing  even  of  the  kingdoms  of  re- 
fractory princes  to  more  dutiful  sons  of  the  church. 
The  immediate  event  of  this  constitution  serves 
to  illustrate  at  once  the  gratitude  of  the  holy  see, 
and  the  just  punishment  of  the  royal  bigot ;  for. 
upon  the  authority  of  this  very  constitution,  the 
pope  afterwards  expelled  this  very  emperor  Fre- 
deric from  his  kingdom  of  Sicily,  and  gave  it  to 
Charles  of  Anjou.  Christianity  being  thus  de- 
formed by  the'  daemon  of  persecution  upon  the 
continent,  our  own  island  could  not  escape  its 
scourge.  Accordingly  we  find  a  writ  de  hcere- 
tico  comburendn,  i.  e.  of  burning  the  heretic.  See 
that  article.  But  the  king  might  pardon  the  con- 
vict by  issuing  no  process  against  him :  the  writ 
de  haretico  comburendo  being  not  a  writ  of 
course,  but  issuing  only  by  the  special  direction  of 
the  king  in  council.  In  the  reign  of  Henry  IV 
when  the  eyes  of  the  Christian  world  began  to 
open,  and  the  seeds  of  the  Protestant  religion  (un- 
der the  opprobrious  name  of  Lollardy)  took  root 
in  this  kingdom,  the  clergy,  taking  advantage 
from  the  king's  dubious  title  to  demand  an  in- 
crease of  their  own  power,  obtained  an  act  of  pay 
liament,  which  sharpened  the  edge  of  persecution 
to  its  utmost  keenness.  See  H.eretico  Com- 
burendo. By  statute  2  Henry  V.  c.  7.  Lol- 
lardy was  also  made  a  temporal  offence,  and 
indictable  in  the  king's  courts,  which  did  not 
thereby  gain  an  exclusive,  but  only  a  concurrent 
jurisdiction  with  the  bishop's  consistory.  After- 
wards, when  the  Reformation  began  to  advance, 
the  power  of  the  ecclesiastic-?  was  somewhat  mo- 
derated ;  for  though  what  heresy  is  was  not  then 
precisely  defined,  yet  we  are  told  in  some  points 
what  it  is  not;  the  statute  25  Hen.  VIII.  c.  14. 
declaring  that  offences  against  the  see  of  Rome  are 
not  heresy ;  and  the  ordinary  being  thereby  re- 
strained from  proceeding  in  any  case  upon  mere 
suspicion ;  i.  e.  unless  the  party  be  accused  by 
two  credible  witnesses,  or  an  indictment  of  heresy 
be  first  previously  found  in  the  king's  courts  of 
common  law.  And  yet  the  spirit  of  persecution 
was  not  abated,  but  only  diverted  into  a  lay  chan- 
nel; for  in  six  years  afterwards,  by  stat,  31  Hen. 
VIII.  c.  14.  the  bloody  law  of  the  six  articles  was 
made,  which  were  "  determined  and  resolved  by 
the  most  godly  study,  pain,  and  travail  of  his  ma- 
jesty ;  for  which  his  most  humble  and  obedient 
subjects,  the  lords  spiritual  and  tempoaal,  and 
the  commons  in  parliament  assembled,  did  render 
and  give  unto  his  highness  their  most  high  and 
hearty  thanks  !"  The  same  statute  established 
a  mixed  jurisdiction  of  clergy  and  laity  for  the 
trial  and  conviction  of  heretics ;  Henry  being 
equally  intent  on  destroying  the  supremacy  of  the 
bishops  of  Rome,  and  establishing  all  their  other 
corruptions  of  the  Christian  religion.  Without  re- 
capitulating the  various  repeals  and  revivals  of 
these  sanguinary  laws   in  the   two  succeeding 


HERETIC 
reigns,  wo  proceed  to  the  reign  of  Q,.  Elizabeth, 
when  the  Reformation  was  finally  established  with 
temper  and  decency,  unsullied  with  party  rancour 
or  personal  resentment. — By  stat.  1  Eliz.  c.  1.  all 
former  statutes  relating  to  heresy  are  repealed ; 
which  leaves  the  jurisdiction  of  heresy  as  it  stood 
at  common  law,  viz.  as  to  the  infliction  of  com- 
mon censures  in  the  ecclesiastical  courts  ;  and  in 
case  of  burning  the  heretic,  in  the  provincial  synod 
only.  Sir  Matthew  Hale  is,  indeed,  of  a  different 
opinion,  and  holds  that  such  power  resided  in  the 
diocesan  also :  though  he  agrees  that  in  either 
case  the  writ  de  hairclico  comburendo  was  not 
demandable  of  common  right,  but  grantable  or 
otherwise  merely  at  the  king's  discretion.  But 
the  principal  point  now  gained  was,  that  by  this 
statute  a  boundary  was  for  the  first  time  set  to 
what  should  be  accounted  heresy ;  nothing-  for  the 
future  being  to  be  so  determined  but  only  such 
tenets  which  have  been  heretofore  so  declared, — 
1.  By  the  words  of  the  canonical  Scriptures  ; — 2. 
By  the  first  four  general  councils,  or  such  others 
as  have  only  used  the  words  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures; or, — 3.  Which  shall  hereafter  be  so  declared 
by  the  parliament,  with  the  assent  of  the  clergy  in 
convocation.  Thus  was  heresy  reduced  to  a 
greater  certainty  than  before,  though  it  might  not 
have  been  the  worse  to  have  defined  it  in  terms 
still  more  precise  and  particular ;  as  a  man  con- 
tinued still  liable  to  be  burnt  for  what,  perhaps, 
he  did  not  understand  to  be  heresy,  till  the  eccle- 
siastical judge  so  interpreted  the  words  of  the  ca- 
nonical Scriptures.  For  the  writ  dc  hcure/ico 
comburendo  remained  still  in  force,  till  it  was  to- 
tally abolished,  and  heresy  again  subjected  only 
to  ecclesiastical  correction,  pro  sah'.tc  animce,  by 
stat.  21)  Car.  II.  c.  0. ;  when,  in  one  and  the  same 
reign,  our  lands  were  delivered  from  the  slavery 
of  military  tenures ;  our  bodies  from  arbitrary 
imprisonment  by  the  habeas  corpus  act ;  and  our 
minds  from  the  tyranny  of  superstitious  bigotry, 
by  demolishing  this  last  badge  of  persecution  in 
the  English  law.  Every  thing  is  now  less  ex- 
ceptionable, with  respect  to  the  spiritual  cogni- 
zance and  spiritual  punishment  of  heresy ;  unless, 
perhaps,  that  the  crime  ought  to  be  more  strictly 
defined,  and  no  prosecution  permitted,  even  in 
the  ecclesiastical  courts,  till  the  tenets  in  question 
are  by  proper  authority  previously  declared  to  be 
heretical.  Under  these  restrictions,  some  think 
it  necessary,  for  the  support  of  the  national  reli- 
gion, that  the  officers  of  the  church  should  have 
power  to  censure  heretics  ;  yet  not  to  harass  them 
with  temporal  penalties,  much  less  to  exterminate 
or  destroy  them.  The  legislature  has,  indeed, 
thought  it  proper  that  the  civil  magistrate  should 
interpose  with  regard  to  one  species  of  heresy, 
very  prevalent  in  modern  times;  for  by  stat.  II 
and  19  \V.  III.  c.  32.  if  any  person,  educated  in 
the  Christian  religion,  or  professing  the  same, 
shall,  by  writing,  printing,  teaching,  or  advised 
speaking,  deny  any  one  of  the  persons  in  the 
Holy  Trinity  to  be  God,  or  maintain  that  there 
are  more  GoJs  than  one,  he  shall  undergo  the 
name  penalties  and  incapacities  which  were  iri- 
flicted  on  apostacy  by  the  same  statute.  Enc. 
Brit.;  Dr.  Foster  and  St  ebbing  on  Heresy  ; 
Ballet fs  Discourses,  vol.  iii.  No.  9.  p.  358,  408; 
Dr.  Campbell's  Prel.  Diss,  to  the  Gos] 

HERETIC,  a  general  nun.'  for  all  suel%  per- 
sons under  any  religion,  but  especially  the<  Ihris- 
tian,  as  profess  or  teach  opinions  contrary  to  the 
established  faith,  or  to  what  is  made  the  standard 
1CS 


I1EXAPLA 

of  orthodoxy.  See  last  article,  and  Lardner's 
History  of  the  Heretics  of  the  first  two  Centuries. 

HERMIANI,  a  sect  in  the  second  century  • 
so  called  from  their  leader  iiermias.  One  of 
their  distinguishing  tenets  was,  that  God  is  cor- 
poreal ;  another,  that  Jesus  Christ  did  not  ascend 
into  heaven  with  his  body,  but  left  it  in  the  sun. 

HERMIT,  a  person  who  retires  into  solitude 
for  the  purpose  of  devotion.  Who  were  the  first 
hermits  cannot  easily  be  known  ;  though  Paul, 
surnamed  the  hermit,  is  generally  reckoned  the 
first.  The  persecutions  of  Decius  and  Valerian 
were  supposed  to  have  occasioned  their  first  rise. 

HERMOGENIANS,  a  sect  of  ancient  here- 
tics :  denominated  from  their  leader  Hermogcnes, 
who  lived  towards  the  close  of  the  second  cen- 
tury. Hermogcnes  established  matter  as  his  first 
principle;  and  regarding  matter  as  the  fountain 
of  all  evil,  he  maintained,  that  the  world,  and 
every  thing  contained  in  it,  as  also  the  souls  of 
men  and  other  spirits,  were  formed  by  the  Deity 
from  an  uncreated  and  eternal  mass  of  corrupt 
matter.  The  opinions  of  Hermogenea  with  re- 
gard to  the  origin  of  the  world,  and  the  nature 
of  the  soul,  were  warmly  opposed  by  Tcrtullian. 

HERNHUTTERS.     See  Moravians. 

HERODIANS.  a  sect  among  the  Jews,  at 
the  time  of  our  Saviour,  Matt.  xxii.  16;  Mark 
iii.  f>.  The  critics  and  commentators  are  very 
much  divided  with  regard  to  the  Herodians.  St. 
Jerome,  in  his  dialogue  against  the  Luciferians, 
takes  the  name  to  have  been  given  to  such  as 
owned  Herod  for  the  Messiah;  and  Tertullian 
and  Epiphanius  are  of  the  same  opinion.  But 
the  same  Jerome,  in  his  comment  on  St.  Mat- 
thew, treats  this  opinion  as  ridiculous ;  and 
maintains  that  the  Pharisees  gave  this  appella- 
tion, by  way  of  ridicule,  to  Herod's  soldiers,  who 
paid  tribute  to  the  Romans;  agreeable  to  which 
the  Syrian  interpreters  render  the  word  by  the 
domestics  of  Herod,  i.  e.  "his  courtiers."  M. 
Simon  in  his  notes  on  the  22d  chapter  of  Mat- 
thew, advances  a  more  probable  opinion :  the 
name  He-odian  he  imagines  to  have  been  given 
to  such  as  adhered  to  Herod's  party,  and  inte- 
rest, and  were  for  preserving  the  government  in 
his  family,  about  which  were  great  divisions 
among  the  Jews.  F.  Hardouin  will  have  the  He- 
rodians and  Sadducces  to  have  been  the  same. 
Dr.  Prideaux  is  of  opinion,  that  they  derived  their 
name  from  Herod  the  Great:  and  that  thev 
were  distinguished  from  the  other  Jews  by  their 
concurrence  with  Herod's  scheme  of  subjecting 
himself  and  his  dominions  to  the  Romans,  and 
likewise  by  complying  with  many  of  their  fit  a- 
then  usages  and  customs.  This  symbolizing 
with  idolatry  upon  views  of  interest  and  worldly 
policy  was  probably  that  leaven  of  Herod,  against 
which  our  Saviour  cautioned  his  disciples.  It  is 
further  probable  that  they  were  chiefly  of  the 
sect  of  the  Sadducees;  because  the  leaven  of 
Herod  is  also  denominated  the  leaven  of  the 
Sadducees. 

HETERODOX,  something  that  is  contrary 
to  the  faith  or  doctrine  established  in  the  true 
church.     See  ORTHODOX. 

II EX  A  TLA,  a  Bible  disposed  in  six  columns, 
containing  the  text  and  divers  versions  thereof, 
compiled  and  published  by  Origen,  with  a  view 
of  securing  the  sacred  text  from  future  corrup. 
tions,  am!  to  correct  those  that  had  been  already 
introduced.  Eusebius  relates,  that  Origen,  after 
his  return  from  Rome  under  Caracalla,  applied 


HEXAPLA 

himself  to  learn  Hebrew,  and  began  to  collect  the 
several  versions  that  had  been  made  of  the  sacred 
writings,  and  of  these  to  compose  his  Tetrapla 
and  Hexapla;  others,  however,  will  not  alkw 
him  to  have  begun  till  the  time  of  Alexander, 
after  he  had  retired  into  Palestine,  about  the 
year  231.  To  conceive  what  this  Hexapla  was, 
it  must  be  observed,  that,  besides  the  translation 
■>f  the  sacred  writings,  called  the  Septuagint, 
made  under  Ptolemy  Philadelphia,  above  280 
years  before  Christ,  the  Scripture  had  been  since 
translated  into  Greek  by  other  interpreters.  The 
first  of  those  versions,  or  (reckoning  the  Septua- 

5int)  the  second,  was  that  of  Aquila,  a  proselyte 
ew,  the  first  edition  of  which  he  published  in 
the  12th  year  of  the  emperor  Adrian,  or  about 
the  year  of  Christ  128 ;  the  third  was  that  of 
Symmachus,  published,  as  is  commonly  sup- 
posed, under  Marcus  Aurelius,  but,  as  some  say, 
under  Septimius  Severus,  about  the  year  200; 
the  fourth  was  that  of  Theodotion,  prior  to  that 
of  Symmachus,  under  Commodus,  or  about  the 
year  175.  These  Greek  versions,  says  Dr.  Ken- 
nicott,  were  made  by  the  Jews  from  their  cor- 
rupted copies  of  the  Hebrew,  and  were  designed 
to  stand  in  the  place  of  the  Seventy,  against, 
which  they  were  prejudiced,  because  it  seemed  to 
favour  the  Christians.  The  fifth  was  found  at 
Jericho,  in  the  reign  of  Caracalla,  about  the  year 
214;  and  the  sixth  was  discovered  at  Nicopolis, 
in  the  reign  of  Alexander  Severus,  about  the 
year  288 ;  lastly,  Origen  himself  recovered  part 
of  a  seventh,  containing  only  the  Psalms.  Now, 
Origen,  who  had  held  frequent  disputations  with 
the  Jews  in  Egypt  and  Palestine,  observing  that 
they  always  objected  to  those  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture quoted  against,  them,  appealed  to  the  He- 
brew text,  the  better  to  vindicate  those  passages, 
and  confound  the  Jews,  by  showing  that  the 
Seventy  had  given  the  sense  of  the  Hebrew;  or 
rather  to  show,  by  a  number  of  different  versions, 
what  the  real  sense  of  the  Hebrew  was,  under- 
took to  reduce  all  these  several  versions  into  a 
body,  along  with  the  Hebrew  text,  so  as  they 
might  be  easily  confronted,  and  afford  a  mutual 
light  to  each  other.  He  made  the  Hebrew 
text  his  standard;  and  allowing  that  corruptions 
might  have  happened,  and  that  the  old  Hebrew 
copies  might  and  did  read  differently,  he  content- 
ed himself  with  marking  such  words  or  sentences 
as  were  not  in  his  Hebrew  text,  nor  the  latter 
Greek  versions,  and  adding  such  words  or  sen- 
tences as  were  omitted  in  the  Seventy,  prefixing 
an  asterisk  to  the  auditions,  and  an  obelisk  to  the 
others.  In  order  to  this,  he  made  choice  of 
eight  columns ;  in  the  first  he  made  the  Hebrew 
text,  in  Hebrew  characters;  in  the  second,  the 
same  text  in  Greek  characters;  the  rest  were 
filled  with  the  several  versions  above  mentioned  : 
all  the  columns  answering  verse  for  verse,  and 
phrase  for  phrase;  and  in  the  Psalms  there  was 
a  ninth  column  for  the  seventh  version.  This 
work  Origen  called  E;*:r\«i,  Hexapla,  q.  d.  sextu- 
ple, or  work  of  six  columns,  as  only  regarding 
the  first  six  Greek  versions.  St,  Epiphanius, 
taking  in  likewise  the  two  columns  of  the  text, 
calls  the  work  Octapla,  as  consisting  of  eight 
columns.  This  celebrated  work,  which  Mont- 
faucon  imagines  consisted  of  sixty  large  volumes, 
perished  long  ago;  probably  with  the  library  at 
Caesarca,  where  it  was  preserved  in  the  year  G53; 
though  several  of  the  ancient  writers  have  prc- 
169  W 


HOLINESS 

served  us  pieces  thereof,  particularly  St.  Chry- 
sostom  on  the  Psalms,  Phlleponus  in  his  Hexa- 
meron,  &c„  Some  modem  writers  have  earnestly 
endeavoured  to  collect  fragments  of  the  Hexa- 
pla, particularly  Flaminius,  Nobilius,  Drusius, 
and  F.  Montfaucon,  in  two  folio  volumes,  printed 
at  Paris  in  1713. 

H1ERAC1TES,  heretics  in  the  third  century: 
so  called  from  their  leader  Hie  rax,  a  philosopher 
of  Egypt,  who  taught  that  Melcbisedec  was  the 
Holy  Ghost ;  denied  the  resurrection,  and  con- 
demned marriage. 

HIERARCHY,  an  ecclesiastical  establish- 
ment. The  word  is  also  used  in  reference  to  the 
subordination  some  suppose  there  is  among  the 
angels  ;  but  whether  they  are  to  be  considered  as 
having  a  government  or  hierarchy  among  them- 
selves, so  that  one  is  superior  in  office  and  dignity 
to  others ;  or  whether  they  have  a  kind  of  domi- 
nion over  one  another;  or  whether  seme  are  made 
partakers  of  privileges  others  are  deprived  of,  can- 
not be  determined,  since  Scripture  is  silent  as  to 
this  matter. 

HIGH  CHURCHMEN,  a  term  first  given 
to  the  non-jurors,  who  refused  to  acknowledge 
William  III.  as  their  lawful  king,  and  who  had 
very  proud  notions  of  church  power;  but  it  is 
now  commonly  used  in  a  more  extensive  signifi- 
cation, and  is  applied  to  all  those  who,  though 
far  from  being  non-jurors,  yet  form  pompous  and 
ambitious  conceptions  of  the  authority  and  juris- 
diction of  the  church. 

HISTORY,  ECCLESIASTICAL.  See 
Ecclesiastical  History. 

HOFFMANISTS,  those  who  espoused  the 
sentiments  of  Daniel  Hoffman,  professor  in 
the  university  of  Helmstadt,  who  in  the  year 
15U8  taught  that  the  light  of  reason,  even  as  it 
appears  in  the  writings  of  Plato  and  Aristotle,  is 
adverse  to  religion  ;  and  that  the  more  the  human 
understanding  is  cultivated  by  philosophical  study, 
the  more  perfectly  is  the  enemy  supplied  with 
weapons  of  defence. 

HOLINESS,  freedom  from  sin,  or  the  con- 
formity of  the  heart  to  God.  It  does  not  consist 
in  knowledge,  talents,  nor  outward  ceremonies 
of  religion,  but  hath  its  scat  in  the  heart,  and  is 
the  eilect  of  a  principle  of  grace  implanted  by  the 
Holy  Spirit,  Eph.  ii.  8,  10;  John  lii.  5;  Rom.  jv. 
22.  It  is  the  essence  of  happiness  and  the  basis 
of  true  dignity,  Prov.  iii.  17 ;  iv.  8.  It  will  ma- 
nifest itself  by  the  propriety  of  our  conversation, 
regularity  of  our  temper,  and  uniformity  of  our 
lives.  It  is  a  principle  progressive  in  its  opera- 
tion, Prov.  iv.  18;  and  absolutely  essential  to  the 
enjoyment  of  God  here  and  hereafter,  Heb.  xii. 
14.     See  Sanctification;  Works. 

HOLINESS  OF  GOD,  is  the  purity  and 
rectitude  of  his  nature.  It  is  an  essential  attri- 
bute of  God,  and  what  is  the  glory,  lustre,  and 
harmony  of  all  his  other  perfection,  Ps.  xxvii.  4 ; 
Exod.  xv.  11.  He  could  not  be  God  without  it, 
Dcut.  xxxii.  4.  It  is  infinite  and  unbounded; 
it  cannot  be  increased  or  diminished.  Immutable 
and  invariable,  Mai.  iii.  0.  God  is  originally 
holy;  he  is  so  of  and  in  himself,  and  the  author 
am!  prunotcr  of  all  holiness  among  his  creatures. 
The  holiness  of  God  is  visible  by  his  works  ;  he 
made  all  things  holy,  Gen.  i.  31.  By  his  provi- 
dences, all  which  are  to  promote  holiness  in  the 
end,  Heb.  xii.  10.  By  his  grace,  which  influences 
the  subjects  of  it  to  be  holy,  Tit.  ii.  10,  12.  By 
P 


HOLY 
his  word,  which  commands  it,  I  Pet.  i.  15.  By 
his  ordinam-es,  wliich  he  hath  appointed  for  that 
end,  Jer.  xliv.  4,  5.  Bv  the  punishment  of  sin 
in  the  death  of  Christ,  Isa.  liii.;  and  by  the  eter- 
nal punishment  of  it  in  wicked  men,  Mutt.  xxv. 
last  verse.    Bee  Attributes. 

HOLOCAUST,  formed  from  ox«,  whole,  and 
%xiji,  I  consume  with  fire:  a  kind  of  sacrilice 
wherein  the  whole  burnt-offering  is  burnt  or  con- 
sumed by  fire,  as  an  acknowledgment  that  God, 
the  Creator,  Preserver,  and  Lord  of  all,  was 
worthy  of  all  honour  and  worship,  and  as  a  token 
of  men's  giving  themselves  entirely  up  to  him. 
It  is  called  in  Scripture  a  burnt-offering.  Sacri- 
fices of  tliis  sort  are  often  mentioned  by  the  Hea- 
thens as  well  as  Jews.  They  appear  to  have  been 
in  use  long  before  the  institution  of  the  other 
Jewish  sacrifices  by  the  law  of  Moses,  Job  i.  5 ; 
xiii.  8 ;  Gen.  xxii.  13 ;  viii.  20.  On  this  account, 
the  Jews,  who  would  not  allow  the  Gentiles  to 
offer  on  their  altar  any  other  sacrifices  peculiarly 
enjoined  by  the  law  of  Moses,  admitted  them  by 
the  Jewish  priests  to  offer  holocausts,  because 
these  were  a  sort  of  sacrifices  prior  to  the  law-  »nd 
common  to  all  nations.  During  their  suby-^t.on 
to  the  Romans,  it  was  no  uncommon  thing  for 
those  Gentiles  to  offer  sacrifices  to  the  God  of  Is- 
rael at  Jerusalem.  Holocausts  were  deemed  by 
the  Jews  the  most  excellent  of  all  their  sacrifices. 
See  Sacrifice. 

HOLY  DAY,  a  day  set  apart  by  the  church 
for  the  commemoration  of  some  saint,  or  some  re- 
markable particular  in  the  life  of  Christ.  It  has 
been  a  question  agitated  by  divines,  whether  it  be 
proper  to  appoint  or  keep  any  holy  days  (the 
Sabbath  excepted.)  The  advocates  for  holy  days 
suppose  that  they  have  a  tendency  to  impress  the 
minds  of  the  people  with  a  greater  sense  of  reli- 
gion ;  that  if  the  acquisitions  and  victories  of 
men  be  celebrated  with  the  highest  joy,  how 
much  more  those  events  which  relate  to  the  sal- 
vation of  man,  such  as  the  birth,  death,  and  resur- 
rection of  Christ,  &c.  On  the  other  side  it  is  ob- 
served, that  if  holy  days  had  been  necessary 
under  the  present  dispensation,  Jesus  Christ 
would  have  observed  something  respecting  them, 
whereas  he  was  silent  about  them;  that  it  is 
Dringing  us  again  into  that  bondage  to  ceremo- 
nial laws  from  which  Christ  freed  us;  that  it  is 
a  tacit  reflection  on  the  Head  of  the  Church  in 
not  appointing  them;  that  such  days,  on  the 
whole,  are  more  pernicious  than  useful  to  society, 
as  they  open  a  door  for  indolence  and  profane- 
ness;  yea,  that  Scripture  speaks  against  such 
days,  Gal.  iv.  9 — 11.  Cave's  Prim.  Christ.; 
Nelson's  Fasts  and  Feasts  ;  Robinson's  History 
and  Mystery  of  Good  Friday,  and  Lectures  on 
Non-conformity;  A  Country  Vicar's  Sermon  on 
Christmas  Day,  1753;  Brown's  Nat.  and  Rev. 
Religion,  p.  535  ;  NeaJe's  Hist,  of  the  Puritans, 
vol.  ii.  p.  1 16.  qu. 

HOLY  GHOST,  the  third  person  in  the 
Trinitv. 

I.  The  Holy  Ghost  is  a  real  and  distinct  per- 
son in.  the  Godhead.  1.  Personal  powers  of  ra- 
tional understanding  and  will  are  ascribed  to  him, 
1  Cor.  ii.  10,  11;  xii.  11;  Eph.  iy.  3.-2.  He 
is  joined  with  the  other  two  divine  persons, 
as  the  object  of  worship  and  fountain  of  blessings, 
Matt,  xxviii  19  j  2  Cor.  xiii.  14;  1  John  v.  7. — 
3.  In  the  urreek,  a  masculine  article  or  cpitlu  t 
is  joined  to  his  name,  Pneuma,  which  is  natu- 
170 


HOMILY 
rally  of  the  neuter  gender,  Johnxiv.  26;  xv.  2Sf 
xvi.  13;  Eph.  i.  13. — 4.  He  appeared  under 
the  emblem  of  a  dove,  and  of  cloven  ton  cues  of 
lire,  Matt.  iii. ;  Acta  ii.— 5.  Personal  offices  of 
an  intercessor  belong  to  him,  Rom.  viii.  26. — 
6.  He  is  represented  as  performing  a  multitude  of 
personal  acts ;  as  teaching,  speaking,  witnessing, 
&c,  Mark  xiii.  11 ;  Acts  xx.  23;  Rom.  viii.  15\ 
16 ;  1  Cor.  vi.  19 ;  Acts  xv.  28.  xvi.  6,  7.  (fee. 
&c.  &c. 

II.  It  is  no  less  evident  that  the  Holy  Ghost  is  a 
divine  person,  equal  in  power  and  glory  with  the 
Father  and  Son.  1.  Names  proper  only  to  the 
Most  High  God  are  ascribed  to  him ;  as  Jehovah, 
Acts  xxviii.  25,  with  Isa.  vi.  9,  and  Heb.  iii.  7, 

9,  with  Exod.  xxvii.  7;  Jer.  xxxi.  31,  34;  Heb. 
x.  15,  16.  God,  Acts  v.  3,  4.  Lord,  2  Cor.  iii 
17,  19.  "  The  Lord,  the  Spirit."— 2.  Attributes 
proper  only  to  the  Most  High  God  are  ascribed 
to  him;  as  Omniscience,  1  Cor.  ii.  10,  11;  Isa. 
xl.  13,  14.  Omnipresence,  Ps.  exxxix.  7;  Eph. 
ii.  17,  18;  Rom.  viii.  26,  27.  Omnipotence,  Luke 
i.  35.  Eternity,  Heb.  ix.  14. — 3.  Divine  works 
are  evidently  ascribed  to  him,  Gen.  i.  2;  Job 
xxvi.  13 ;  Psa.  xxxiii.  6 ;  civ.  39. — 4.  Worship, 
proper  only  to  God,  is  required  and  ascribed  to 
him,  Isa.  vi.  3 ;  Acts  xxviii.  25 ;  Rom.  ix.  1 ; 
Rev.  i.  4 ;  2  Cor.  xiii.  14 ;  Matt,  xxviii.  19. 

III.  The  agency  or  work  of  the  Holy  Ghost  is 
divided  by  some  into  extraordinary  and  ordi- 
nary. The  former  by  immediate  inspiration, 
making  men  prophets,  the  latter  by  his  regene- 
rating and  sanctifying  influences  making  men 
saints.  It  is  only  the  latter  which  is  now  to  be 
expected.  This  is  more  particularly  displayed 
in,  1.  Conviction  of  sin,  John  xvi.  8,  9. — 2.  Con- 
version, 1  Cor.  xii.;  Eph.  i.  17,  18;  1  Cor.  ii. 

10,  12  ;  John  hi.  5,  6. — 3.  Sand ificat ion,  2  Thess. 
ii.  13;  1  Cor.  vi.  11;  Rom.  xv.  16. — 4.  Conso- 
lation, John  xiv.  16,  25. — 5.  Direction,  John 
xiv.  17;  Rom.  viii.  14. — 6.  Confirmation,  Rom. 
viii.  16,  26 ;  1  John  ii.  24 ;  Eph.  i.  13,  14.  Aa 
to  the  gift  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  says  a  good  writer, 
it  is  not  expected  to  be  bestowed  in  answer  to 
our  prayers,  to  inform  us  immediately,  as  by  a 
whisper,  when  either  awake  or  asleep,  that  we 
are  the  children  of  God  ;  or  in  any  other  way  than 
by  enabling  us  to  exercise  repentance  and  faith 
and  love  to  God  and  our  neighbour. — 2.  We  are 
not  to  suppose  that  he  reveals  any  thing  contrary 
to  the  written  word,  or  more  than  is  contained  in 
it,  or  through  any  other  medium. — 3.  We  are 
not  so  led  by,  or  operated  upon  by  the  Spirit  as 
to  neglect  the  means  of  grace.— -4.  The  Holy 
Spirit  is  not  promised  nor  given  to  render  us  in. 
fallible. — 5.  Nor  is  the  Holy  Spirit  given  in  order 
that  we  may  do  any  thing,  which  was  not  before 
our  duty.  See  Trinity,  and  Scott's  Four  Ser- 
mons on  Repentance,  the  Evil  of  Sin,  Love  to 
God,  and  the  Promise  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  p.  86 
— 89.  Hawker's  Sermons  on  the  Holy  Ghost ; 
Pearson  on  the  Creed,  8th  article ;  Dr.  Owen 
on  the  Spirit;  Hurrion's  16  Sermons  on  the 
Siririt. 

HOLY  GHOST,  PROCESSION  OF.  See 
Procession. 

HOMILY,  a  sermon  or  discourse  upon  scmo 
point  of  religion  delivered  in  a  plain  manner,  so 
as  to  be  easily  understood  by  the  common  people. 
The  Greek  homily,  says  M.  Fleury,  signifies  a 
familiar  discourse,  like  the  Latin  sermo,  and  dis- 
courses delivered  in  the  church  took  these  denomi 


HONOUR 

nations,  to  intimate  that  they  were  not  harangues, 
or  matters  of  ostentation  anil  flourish,  like  those 
of  profane  orators,  but  familiar  and  useful  dis- 
courses, as  of  a  master  to  his  disciples,  or  a  father 
to  his  children.  All  the  homilies  of  the  Greek 
and  Latin  fathers  are  composed  by  bishops.  We 
have  'none  of  Tertullian,  Clemens  Alexandrinus, 
and  many  other  learned  persons,  because  in  the 
iir.st  ages  none  but  bishops  were  admitted  to 
preach.  The  privilege  was  not  ordinarily  allowed 
to  priests  till  toward  the  fifth  century.  St.  Chry- 
sostom  was  the  first  presbyter  that  preached 
statedly.  Origen  and  St.  Augustine  also  preached, 
but  it  was  by  a  peculiar  licence  or  privilege. 

Photius  distinguishes  homily  from  sermon,  in 
that  the  homily  was  performed  in  a  more  familiar 
manner;  the  prelate  interrogating  and  talking  to 
the  people,  and  they  in  their  turn  answering  and 
interrogating  him,  so  that  it  was  properly  a  con- 
versation; whereas  the  sermon  was  delivered 
with  more  form,  and  in  the  pulpit,  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  orators.  The  practice  of  compiling 
homilies  which  were  to  be  committed  to  memory, 
and  recited  by  ignorant  or  indolent  priests,  com- 
menced towards  the  close  of  the  eighth  century ; 
when  Charlemagne  ordered  Paul,  the  Deacon, 
and  Alcuin,  to  form  homilies  or  discourses  upon 
the  Gospels  and  Epistles  from  the  ancient  doc- 
tors of  the  church.  This  gave  rise  to  that  famous 
collection  entitled  the  Homiliarium  of  Charle- 
magne ;  and  which  being  followed  as  a  model  by 
many  productions  of  the  same  kind,  composed  by 
private  persons,  from  a  principle  of  pious  zeal, 
contributed  much  (says  Mosheim)  to  nourish  the 
indolence  and  to  perpetuate  the  ignorance  of  a 
worthless  clergy.  There  are  still  extant  several 
fine  homilies  composed  by  the  ancient  fathers, 
particularly  St.  Chrysostom  and  St.  Gregory. — 
The  Clementine  homilies  are  nineteen  homilies 
in  Greek,  published  by  Cotelerius,  with  two  let- 
ters prefixed ;  one  of  them  written  in  the  name 
of  Peter,  the  other  in  the  name  of  Clement,  to 
James,  bishop  of  Jerusalem ;  in  which  last  letter 
they  are  entitled  Clement's  Epitome  of  the 
Preaching  and  Travels  of  Peter.  According  to 
Le  Clerc,  these  homilies  were  composed  by  an 
Ebionite,  in  the  second  century;  but  Montfau- 
con  supposes  that  they  were  forged  long  after  the 
age  of  St.  Athanasius.  Dr.  Lardner  apprehends 
that  the  Clementine  homilies  were  the  original, 
or  first  edition  of  the  Recognitions;  and  that 
they  are  the  same  with  the  work  censured  by 
Eusebius  under  the  title  of  Dialogues  of  Peter 
and  Appion. — Homilies  of  the  Church  of  Eng- 
land are  those  which  were  composed  at  the  Re- 
formation to  be  read  in  churches,  in  order  to  sup- 
ply the  defect  of  sermons.  See  the  quarto  edi- 
tion of  the  Homilies,  with  notes,  by  a  divine  of 
the  church  of  England. 

HONESTY  is  that  principle  which  makes  a 
person  prefer  his  promise  or  duty  to  his  passion 
or  interest.     See  Justice. 

HONOUR,  a  testimony  of  esteem  or  submis- 
sion, expressed  by  words  and  an  exterior  beha- 
vi»ur,  by  which  we  make  known  the  veneration 
and  respect  we  entertain  for  any  one,  on  account 
of  his  dignity  or  merit.  The  word  is  also  used  in 
general  for  the  esteem  due  to  virtue,  glory,  repu- 
tation, and  probity;  as  also  for  an  exactness  in 
performing  whatever  we  have  promised;  and  in 
ihis  last  sense  we  use  the  term,  a  man  of  honour. 
It  U  also  applied  to  two  different  kinds  of  virtue : 
171 


HOPE 

bravery  in  men',  and  chastity  in  women.  In 
every  situation  of  life,  religion  only  forms  the  trua 
honour  and  happiness  of  man.  "  It  cannot,"  as 
one  observes,  "  arise  from  riches,  dignity  of  rank, 
or  office,  nor  from  what  are  often  called  splendid 
actions  of  heroes,  or  civil  accomplishments;  these 
may  be  found  among  men  of  no  real  integrity, 
and  may  create  considerable  fame;  but  a  dis- 
tinction must  be  made  between  fame  and  true 
honour.  The  former  is  a  loud  and  noisy  ap- 
plause ;  the  latter  a  more  silent  and  internal 
homage.  Fame  floats  on  the  breath  of  the  mul- 
titude ;  honour  rests  on  the  judgment  of  the 
thinking.  In  order,  then,  to  discern  where  true 
honour  lies,  we  must  not  look  to  any  adventitious 
circumstance,  not  to  any  single  sparkling  quality, 
but  to  the  whole  of  what  forms  a  man ;  in  a  word, 
we  must  look  to  the  soul.  It  will  discover  itself 
by  a  mind  superior  to  fear,  to  selfish  interest,  and 
corruption ;  by  an  ardent  love  to  the  Supreme 
Being,  and  by  a  principle  of  uniform  rectitude. 
It  will  make  us  neither  afraid  nor  ashamed  to 
discharge  our  duty,  as  it  relates  both  to  God  and 
man.  It  will  influence  us  to  be  magnanimous 
without  being  proud;  humble  without  being 
mean;  just  without  being  harsh;  simple  in  our 
manners,  but  manly  in  our  feelings.  This  honour, 
thus  formed  by  religion,  or  the  love  of  God,  is 
more  independent,  and  more  complete,  than 
what  can  be  acquired  by  any  other  means.  It  is 
productive  of  higher  felicity,  and  will  be  commen- 
surate with  eternity  itself;  while  that  honour,  so 
called,  which  arises  from  any  other  principle, 
will  resemble  the  feeble  and  twinkling  flame  of  a 
taper,  which  is  often  clouded  by  the  smoke  it 
sends  forth,  but  is  always  wasting,  and  soon  dies 
totally  away."  Barrow's  I Vor ks,  vol.  i.  ser.  4; 
Blair's  Sermons,  vol.  iii.  ser.  1 ;  JVatts's  Ser- 
mons, ser.  30,  vol.  ii. ;  Byland's  Cont.  vol.  i.  p. 
313;  Jort ill's  Sermons,  vol.  iii.  ser.  6. 

HOPE  is  the  desire  of  some  good,  attended 
with  the  possibility,  at  least,  of  obtaining  it ;  and 
is  enlivened  with  joy  greater  or  less,  according  to 
the  probability  there  is  of  possessing  the  object  of 
our  hope.  Scarce  any  passion  seems  to  be  more 
natural  to  man  than  hope  ;  and,  considering  the 
many  troubles  he  is  encompassed  with,  none  is 
more  necessary  ;  for  life,  void  of  all  hope,  would 
be  a  heavy  and  spiritless  thing,  very  little  de- 
sirable, perhaps  hardly  to  be  borne ;  whereas  hope 
infuses  strength  into  the  mind,  and  by  so  doing, 
lessens  the  burdens  of  life.  If  our  condition  be 
not  the  best  in  the  world,  yet  we  hope  it  will  be 
better,  and  this  helps  us  to  support  it  with  pa- 
tience. The  hope  of  the  Christian  is  an  expec- 
tation of  all  necessary  good  both  in  time  and  eter- 
nity, founded  on  the  promises,  relations,  and 
perfections  of  God,  and  on  the  offices,  righteous- 
nass,  and  intercession  of  Christ.  It  is  a  com- 
pound of  desire,  expectation,  patience,  and  joy, 
Rom.  viii.  24,  25.  It  may  be  considered,  1.  As 
■pure,  1  John  iii.  2,  3 ;  as  it  is  resident  in  that 
heart  which  is  cleansed  from  sin. — 2.  As  good, 
2  Thess.  ii.  l(i ;  (in  distinction  from  the  hope  of 
the  hypocrite)  as  deriving  its  origin  from  God, 
and  centering  in  him. — 3.  It  is  called  lively, 
1  Pet.  i.  3 ;  as  it  proceeds  from  spiritual  life,  and 
renders  one  active  and  lively  in  good  works. — 
4.  It  is  courageous,  Rom.  v.  5 ;  1  Thess.  v.  8  s 
because  it  excites  fortitude  in  all  the  troubles  of 
life,  and  yields  supp>ort  in  the  hour  of  death, 
Prov.  xiv.  32.-5.  Sure,  Heb.  vi.  19  ;  because  it 


HOPKINSIANS 
will  pot  disappoint  us,  ami  is  fixed  on  a  sure 
foundation. — t>.  Jugful,  Rom.  v.  2 ;  as  it  produces 
the  greatest  felicity  in  the  anticipation  of  com- 
plete deliverance  from  all. evil.  Campbell's  Plea- 
sures of  Hope. ;  Grove  s  Moral  Phil.  vol.  i.  p.  381  ; 
Gilts  Body  of  lJh\  p.  82,  vol.  iii. ;  No.  471, 
Spcct. ;  -Itr/'::  Sermons,  vol.  ii.  ser.  2. 

HOPKINSIANS,  so  called  from  the.  Rev. 
Samuel  Hopkins,  D.  D.,  an  American  divine, 
who  in  his  sermons  and  tracts  has  made  several 
additions  to  the  sentiments  fust  advanced  by  the 
celebrated  Jonathan  Edwards,  late  president  of 
New  Jersey  <  'ollege. 

The  following  is  a  summary  of  the  distinguish- 
ing tenets  of  the  Hopkinsians,  together  with  a 
few  of  the  reasons  they  bring  forward  in  support 
of  their  sentiments. 

I.  That  all  true  virtue,  or  real  holiness,  consists 
in  disinterested  benevolence.  The  object  of  bene- 
volence is  universal  being,  including  God  and  all 
intelligent  creatures.  It  wishes  and  seeks  the 
good  of  every  individual,  so  far  as  is  consistent 
with  the  greatest  good  of  the  whole,  which  is 
comprised  m  the  glory  of  God  and  the  perfection 
and  happiness  of  ids  kingdom.  The  law  of  God 
is  the  standard  of  all  moral  rectitude  or  holiness. 
This  is  reduced  into  love  to  God,  and  our  neigh- 
bour as  ourselves,  and  universal  good-will  com- 
prehends all  the  love  to  God,  our  neighbour  and 
ourselves,  required  in  the  divine  law,  and  there- 
fore must  be  the  whole  of  holy  obedience.  Let 
any  serious  person  think  what  are  the  particular 
branches  of  true  piety  ;  w'hen  he  has  viewed  each 
one  by  itself,  he  will  find  that  disinterested  friendly 
affection  is  its  distinguishing  characteristic.  For 
instance,  all  the  holiness  in  pious  fear,  which  dis- 
tinguishes it  from  the  fear  of  the  wicked,  consists 
in  love.  Again — holy  gratitude  is  nothing  but 
good-will  to  God  and  our  neighbour,  in  which  we 
ourselves  are  included  ;  and  correspondent  affec- 
tion, excited  by  a  view  of  the  good-will  and  kind- 
ness of  God.  Universal  good-will  also  implies  the 
whole  of  the  duty  we  owe  to  our  neighbour,  for 
justice,  truth,  and  faithfulness,  are  comprised  in 
universal  benevolence ;  so  are  temperance  and 
chastity.  For  an  undue  indulgence  of  our  appe- 
tites and  passions  is  contrary  to  benevolence,  as 
tending  to  hurt  ourselves  or  others;  and  so  op- 
j>osite  to  the  general  good,  and  the  divine  com- 
mand, in  which  all  the  crime  of  such  indulgence 
consists.  In  short,  all  virtue  is  nothing  but  bene- 
volence acted  out  in  its  proper  nature  and  perfec- 
tion; or  love  to  God  and  our  neighbour,  made 
perfect  in  all  its  genuine  exercises  and  ex- 
pressions. 

II.  That  all  sin  consists  in  selfishness.  Bv  this 
is  meant  an  interested,  selfish  affection,  by  whLh 
n  person  sets  himself  up  as  supreme,  and  the  only 
object  of  regard  ;  and  nothing  is  good  or  lovely  in 
his  view,  unless  suited  to  promote  his  own  private 
interest.  This  self-love  is,  in  its  whole  nature, 
and  every  degree  of  it,  enmity  against  God  :  it  is 
not  subject  to  the  law  of  God,  and  is  the  only  af- 
fection that  can  oppose  it.  It  is  the  foundation  of 
all  spiritual  blindness,  and  therefore  the  source 
of  all  the  open  idolatry  in  the  heathen  world,  and 
.false  religion  under  the  light  of  the  Gospel;  all 
this  [a  agreeable  to  thai  self-love  whirl:  opposes 
God's  true  character.  Under  the  influence  of  this 
principle,  men  depart  from  truth ;  it  being  itself 
the  greatest  practical  lie  in  nature,  as  it  sets  up 
that  which  is  comparatively  notiiing  above  um- 

172 


HOPKINSIANS 

versal  existence.  Self-love  is  the  source  of  all 
profaneness  and  impiety  in  the  world,  and  of  all 
pride  and  ambition  among  men,  which  is  nothing 
but  selfishness,  acted  out  in  this  particular  way. 
This  is  the  foundation  of  all  covetousness  and 
sensuality,  as  it  blinds  people's  eyes,  contracts 
their  hearts,  and  sinks  them  down,  so  that  they 
look  upon  earthly  enjoyments  as  the  greatest 
good.  This  is  the  source  of  all  falsehood,  injus- 
tice, and  oppression,  as  it  excites  mankind  by 
undue  methods  to  invade  the  property  of  others. 
Self-love  produces  all  the  violent  passions;  envy, 
wrath,  clamour,  and  evil  speaking  :  and  every 
thing  contrary  to  the  divine  law  is  briefly  com- 
prehended in  this  fruitful  source  of  all  iniquity, 
self-love. 

III.  That  there  are  no  promises  of  regene- 
rating grace  made  to  the  doings  of  the  unregene- 
rate.  For  as  far  as  men  act  from  self-love,  they 
act  from  a  bad  end  :  for  those  who  have  no  true 
love  to  God,  really  do  no  duty  when  they  attend 
on  the  externals  of  religion.  And  as  the  unre- 
generate  act  from  a  selfish  principle,  they  tb 
nothing  which  is  commanded:  their  impenitent 
doings  are  wholly  opposed  to  repentance  and  con- 
version ;  therefore  not  implied  in  the  command 
to  repent,  ike;  so  far  from  this,  they  are  alto- 
gether disobedient  to  the  command.  Hence  it 
appears  that  there  are  no  promises  of  salvation  to 
the  doings  of  the  unregenerate. 

IV.  That  the  impoteney  of  sinners,  with  re- 
spect to  believing  in  Christ,  is  not  natural,  but 
moral ;  for  it  is  a  plain  dictate  of  common  sense, 
that  natural  impossibility  excludes  all  blame.  But 
an  unwilling  mind  is  universally  considered  as  a 
crime,  and  not  as  an  excuse,  and  is  the  very 
thing  wherein  our  wickedness  consists.  That 
the  impotence  of  the  sinner  is  owing  to  a  disaf- 
fection of  heart,  is  evident  from  the  promises  of 
the  Gospel.  When  any  object  of  good  is  pro- 
posed and  promised  to  us  upon  asking,  it  clearly 
evinces  that  there  can  be  no  impotence  in  us  with 
respect  to  obtaining  it,  beside  the  disapprobation 
of  the  will ;  and  that  inability  which  consists  in 
disinclination,  never  renders  any  thing  impro- 
perly the  subject  of  precept  or  command. 

V.  That,  in  order  to  faith  in  Christ,  a  sinner 
must  approve  in  his  heart  of  the  divine  conduct, 
even  though  God  should  cast  him  off  for  ever; 
which,  however,  neither  implies  love  of  misery, 
nor  hatred  of  happiness.  For  if  the  law  is  good, 
death  is  due  to  those  who  have  broken  it.  The 
Judge  of  all  the  earth  cannot  hut  do  right.  It 
would  bring  everlasting  reproach  upon  Iris  go- 
vernment to  spare  us,  considered  merely  as  in 
ourselves.  When  this  is  felt  in  our  hearts,  and 
not  till  then,  we  shall  be  prepared  to  look  to  the 
free  grace  of  God,  through  the  redemption  which 
is  in  Christ,  and  to  exercise  faith  in  his  blood, 
irho  is  set  forth  to  be  a  propitiation  to  declare 
God's  righteousness,  that  he  might  be  just,  and 
yet  be  the  justijicr  of  him  trho  bcliereth  in  Jesus. 

VI.  That  the  infinitely  wise  and  holy  God  has 
exerted  his  omnipotent  power  in  such  a  manner 
as  he  purposed  should  be  followed  with  the  ex- 
istence and  entrance  of  moral  evil  into  the  sys- 
tem.— For  it  must  be  admitted  on  all  hands,  that 
God  has  a  perfect  knowledge,  foresight,  and  view 
of  all  possible  existences  and  events.  If  that  sys- 
tem ae.d  scene  of  operation,  in  which  moral  evil 
should  never  have  existed,  was  actually  preferred 
in  the  divine  mind,  certainly  the  Deity  is  in£- 


HOPKINSIANS 


HOSPITALITY 


nitely  disappointed  in  the  issue  of  his  own  opera-    not  transferred  to  them.    For,   1.  Persona!  righ- 


tions.  Nothing  can  he  more  dishonorable  to 
God  than  to  imagine  that  the  system  which  is 
actually  formed  By  the  divine  hand,  and  which 
was  made  for  his  pleasure  and  glory,  is  yet  not 
the  fruit  of  wise  contrivance  and  design. 

VII.  That  the  introduction  of  sin  is,  upon  the 
whole,  for  the  general  good.  For  the  wisdom 
and  power  of  the  Deity  are  displayed  in  carrying 
on  designs  of  the  greatest  good;  and  the  exist- 
ence of  moral  evil  has  undoubtedly  occasioned  a 
more  full,  perfect,  and  glorious  discovery  of  the 
infinite  perfections  of  the  divine  nature,  than 
could  otherwise  have  been  made  to  the  view  ot 
creatures.  If  the  extensive  manifestations  of  the 
pare  and  holy  nature  of  God,  and  his  infinite 
aversion  to  sin,  and  all  his  inherent  perfections, 
in  their  genuine  fruits  and  effects,  is  either  itself 
the  greatest  good,  or  necessarily  contains  it,  it 
must  necessarily  follow  that  the  introduction  of 
sin  is  for  the  greatest  good. 

VIII.  That  repentance  is  before  faith  in 
Christ. — P/  this  is  not  intended,  that  repent- 
ance is  before  a  speculative  belief  of  the  being  and 
perfections  of  God,  and  of  the  person  and  charac- 
ter of  Christ ;  but  only  that  true  repentance  is 
previous  to  a  saving  faith  in  Christ,  in  which  the 
believer  is  united  to  Christ,  and  entitled  to  the 
benefits  of  bis  mediation  and  atonement.  That 
repentance  is  before  faith,  in  this  sense,  appears 
from  several  considerations.  1.  As  repentance 
and  faith  respect  different  objects,  so  they  are 
distinct  exercises  of  the  heart ;  and  therefore  one 
not  only  may,  but  must  be  prior  to  the  other. — 

2.  There  may  be  genuine  repentance  of  sin  with- 
out faith  in  Christ,  but  there  cannot  he  true  faith 
in  Christ  without  repentance  of  sin;  and  since  re- 
pentance is  necessary  in  order  to  faith  in  Christ, 
it  must  necessarily  be  prior  to  faith  in  Christ. — 

3.  John  the  Baptist,  Christ  and  his  apostles, 
taught  that  repentance  is  before  faith.  John 
cried,  Repent,  for  the  kingdom  of  heaven  is  at 
hand;  intimating,  that  true  repentance  was  ne- 
cessary in  order  to  embrace  the  Gospel  of  the 
kingdom.  Christ  commanded,  Repent  ye,  and 
believe  the  Gospel.  And  Paul  preached  repent- 
ance toward  God,  and  faith  toward  our  Lord 
Jesus  Christ. 

IX.  That  though  men  became  sinners  by 
Adam,  according  to  a  divine  constitution,  yet 
they  have  and  are  accountable  for  no  sins  but 
personal;  for,  1.  Adam's  act,  in  eating  the  for- 
bidden fruit,  was  not  the  act  of  his  posterity ; 
therefore  they  did  not  sin  at  the  same  time  he 
did. — 2.  The  sinfulness  of  that  act  could  not  be 
transferred  to  them  afterwards,  because  the  sin- 
fulness of  an  act  can  no  more  be  transferred  from 
one  person  to  another  than  an  act  itself  — 
3.  Therefore  Adam's  act,  in  eating  the  forbidden 
fruit,  was  not  the  cause,  but  only  the  occasion  of 
his  posterity's  being  sinners.  God  was  pleased 
to  make  a  constitution,  that,  if  Adam  remained 
holy  through  his  state  of  trial,  his  posterity  should 
in  consequence  be  holy  also ;  but  if  he  sinned, 
his  posterity  should  in  consequence  be  sinners 
likewise.  Adam  sinned,  and  now  God  brings 
his  posterity  into  the  world  sinners.  By  Adam's 
sin  we  are  become  sinners,  not  for  it ;  his  sin 
being  only  the  occasion,  not  the  cause  of  our 
committing  sins. 

X.  That  though  believers  are  justified  through 
Christ's  righteousness,  yet  his  righteousness  is 
173 


teousness  can  no  more  he  transferred  from  one 
person  to  another,  than  personal  sin. — -2.  If 
Christ's  personal  righteousness  were  transferred 
to  believers,  they  would  be  as  perfectly  holy  a3 
Christ ;  and  so  stand  in  no  need  of  forgiveness. — 

3.  But  believers  are  not  conscious  of  having 
Christ's  personal  righteousness,  but  feel  and  be- 
wail  much    in-dwelling   sin   and   corruption. — 

4.  The  Scripture  represents  believers  as  receiv- 
ing only  the  benefits  of  Christ's  righteousness  in 
justification,  or  their  being  pardoned  and  accept- 
ed for  Christ's  righteousness'  sake,  and  this  is  the 
proper  Scripture  notion  of  imputation.  Jona- 
than's righteousness  was  imputed  to  Mephiho- 
sheth,  when  David  showed  kindness  to  him  for 
his  father  Jonathan's  sake. 

The  Hopkinsians  warmly  contend  for  the 
doctrine  of  the  divine  decrees,  that  of  particular 
election,  total  depravity,  the  special  infiuencesof 
the  Spirit  of  Gcd  in  regeneration,  justification 
by  faith  alone,  the  final  perseverance  of  the 
saints,  and  the  consistency  between  entire  free- 
dom and  absolute  dependence ;  and  therefore 
claim  it  as  their  just  due,  since  the  world  will 
make  distinctions,  to  be  called  Hopkinsian  Cal- 
vinists.  Adams's  View  of  Religions  ;  Hopkins 
on  Holiness;  Edwards  on  the  Will,  p. 234,  284; 
Edwards  on  Virtue;  West's  Essay  on  Moral 
Agency,  p.  170,  181 ;  Spring's  Nature  of  Duty, 
23  ;  Moral  Disquisitions,  p.  40. 

HOB.ROR,  a  passion  excited  by  an  object 
which  causes  a  high  degree  of  fear  and  detesta- 
tion. It  is  a  compound  of  wonder  and  fear. — 
Sometimes  it  has  a  mixture  of  pleasure,  from 
which,  if  predominant,  it  is  denominated  a  pleas- 
ing horror.  Such  a  horror  seizes  us  at  the  view 
of  vast  and  hanging  precipices,  a  tempestuous 
ocean,  or  wild  and  solitary  places.  This  passion 
is  the  original  of  superstition,  as  a  wise  and  well- 
tempered  awe  is  of  religion.  Horror  and  terror 
seem  almost  to  be  synonymous ;  but  the  former, 
I  think,  refers  more  to  what  disgusts;  the  latter 
to  that  which  alarms  us. 

HOSANNA,  in  the  Hebrew  ceremonies,  a 
prayer  which  they  rehearsed  on  the  several  days 
of  the  feast  of  tabernacles.  It  signifies  "save  us 
now ;"  or  '  save  us,  we  pray."  There  are  divers 
of  these  hosannas;  the  Jews  call  them  hoschan- 
noth,  i.  e.  hosannahs. — Some  are  rehearsed  on 
the  first  day,  others  on  the  second,  &c,  which 
they  call  hosanna  of  the  first  day,  hosanna  of  the 
second  day,  &c.  Hosanna  Rabba,  or  Grand  Ho- 
sanna, is  a  name  they  give  to  their  feast  of  taber- 
nacles, which  lasts  eight  days ;  because,  during 
the  course  thereof,  they  are  frequently  callingfor 
the  assistance  of  God.  the  forgiveness  of  their  sins, 
and  his  blessing  on  the  new  year;  and  to  that 
purpose  they  make  great  use  of  the  prayers  above 
mentioned.  The  Jews  also  apply  the  term  ho- 
sanna rabba  in  a  more  peculiar  manner  to  the 
seventh  day  of  the  feast  of  tabernacles,  because 
they  apply  themselves  more  immediately  on  that 
day  to  invoke  the  divine  blessing,  &c. 

HOSPITALITY,  kindness  exercised  in  the 
entertainment  of  strangers.  This  virtue,  we  find, 
is  explicitly  commanded  by,  and  makes  a  part  of 
the  morality  of  the  New  Testament.  Indeed, 
that  religion  which  breathes  nothing  but  charity, 
and  whose  tendency  is  to  expand  the  heart,  and 
call  forth  the  benevolent  exeitions  of  mankind, 
must  evidently  embrace  this  practice. — If  it  1m 


HOSPITALITY 
asked,  of  wh  >m  is  this  required']  it  is  answered. 
that  the  principle  is  required  of  all,  though  the 
duty  itself  can  only  he  practised  by  those  whose 
circumstances  will  admit  of  it.  Dr.  Stennot,  in 
liis  discourse  on  this  subject  [Domestic  D 
ser.  10,)  justly  observes,  "that  hospitality  is  a 
species  of  chanty  to  which  every  one  is  not  com- 
petent. But  the  temper  from  which  it  proceeds, 
1  mean  a  humane,  generous,  benevolent  temper, 
that  ought  to  pvovii!  in  every  breast.  Some  are 
miserably  poor,  and  it  is  not  to  he  expected  that 
their  doors  should  he  thrown  open  to  entertain 
strangers;  yet  the  cottage  of  a  peasant  may  exhibit, 
noble  specimens  of  hospitality.  Here  distress 
has  often  met  with  pity,  and  the  persecuted  an 
asylum.  Nor  is  there  a  man  who  has  a  house  to 
Bleep  in,  but  may  be  benevolent  to  strangers. — 
But  there  are  persons  of  certain  characters  and 
stations,  who  are  more  especially  obliged  to  it; 
as  particularly  magistrates  and  others  in  civil 
offices,  who  would  forfeit  the  esteem  of  the  public, 
and  greatly  injure  their  usefulness,  were  they 
not  to  observe  the  rites  of  hospitality.  Ministers, 
also,  and  such  Christians  as  are  qualified  by  their 
particular  offices  in  the  church,  and  their  affluent 
circumstances,  may  be  eminent Iv  useful  in  this 
way.  The  two  grand  virtues  which  ought  to  be 
studied  by  every  one,  in  order  that  he  may  have 
it  in  his  power  to  be  hospitable,  are  industry  and 
economy.  But  it  may  be  asked  again,  to  -whom 
is  this  duty  to  he  practised  ?  The  answer  is,  to 
strangers ;  but  here  it  is  necessary  to  observe, 
that  the  term  strangers  hath  two  acceptations.  It 
is  to  he  understood  of  travellers,  or  persons  who 
come  from  a  distance,  and  with  whom  we  have 
little  or  no  acquaintance ;  and  more  generally  of 
all  who  are  not  of  our  house — strangers,  as  op- 
posed to  domestics.  Hospitality  is  especially  to 
he  practised  to  the  poor:  they  who  have  no 
houses  of  their  own,  or  possess  few  of  the  con- 
veniences of  life,  should  occasionally  be  invited 
to  our  houses,  and  refreshed  at  our  tables,  Luke 
xiv.  13,  11.  Hospitality  also  may  be  practised 
to  those  who  are  of  the  same  character  and  of 
the  same  community  with  ourselves.  As  to  the 
various  offices  of  hospitality,  and  the  manner  in 
which  they  should  he  rendered,  it  must  be  ob- 
served, that  the  entertainments  should  be  plenti- 
ful, frugal,  and  cordial,  Gen.  xviii.  (i,  8;  John 
xii.  3;  Luke  xv.  17.  The  obligations  to  this 
duty  arise  from  the  jitnecs  and  reasonableness  of 
it;  it  brings  its  own  reward,  Acts  xx.  35.  It  is 
expressly  commanded  by  God,  Lev.  xxv.  35,  38; 
Luke  xvi.  1!) ;  xiv.  13,  1 1 ;  Horn,  xii ;  Hob.  xiii. 
1,  2;  1  Pet.  iv.  9.  We  have  many  striking  ex- 
amples of  hospitality  on  divine  record :  Abraham, 
Gen,  xvui.  1,  8;  Lot,  Gen.  xix.  1,  3;  Job  xxxi. 
17,  22;  Shunamite,  2  Kings  iv.  8,  10;  the  hos- 
pitable man  mentioned  in  Judges  xix.  16,  21 ; 
David,  2  Sam.  vi.  Ill;  Obadiah,  1  Kings  xviii.  4; 
Nehemiah,  Neh.  v.  17,  18;  Martha,  Luke  x.  38; 
Mary,  Matt.  xxvi.  C,  13;  the  primitive  Christians, 
Acts  ii.  15,  46 j  Priscilla  and  Aquila,  Acts  xviii. 
26 ;  Lydia,  Acts  xiv.  15,  &c.  &c.  Lastly,  what 
should  have  a  powerful  effect  on  our  minds  is, 
the  consideration  of  divine  hospitality.  God  is 
good  to  all,  and  his  tender  mercies  are  overall  his 
works.  His  sun  shines  and  his  rain  falls  on  the 
evil  as  well  as  the  good.  }  lis  very  enemies  share 
of  his  bounty.  He  gives  liberally  to  all  m*n, 
and  upbraids  not;  but  especially  we  should  re- 
member the  exceeding  riches  of  Ids  grace,  in  Ids 
171 


HUGUENOTS 
kindness  towards  us  through  Christ  Jesus.     Let 
us  lay  all  these  considerations  together,  arid  then 
ask  ourselves  whether  we  can  find  it  in  our  hearts 
to  be  selfish,  parsimonious,  and  inhospitably?" 

HOST,  in  the  church  of  Rome,  a  name  given 
to  the  elements  used  in  the  eucharist,  or  rather 
to  the  consecrated  wafer,  which  they  pretend  to 
offer  up  every  day,  as  a  new  host  or  sacrifice  for 
the  sins  of  mankind.  They  pay  adoration  to  the 
host  upon  a  false  presumption  that  the  elements 
are  no  longer  bread  and  wine,  but  transubstan- 
tiated into  the  real  body  and  blood  of  Christ 
See  Transobstantiation".  Pope  Gregory  IX. 
first  decreed  a  bell  to  be  rung,  as  a  signal  for  the 
people  to  betake  themselves  to  the  adoration  of 
the  host.  The  vessel  wherein  the  hosts  are  kept 
is  called  the  cibory,  being  a  large  kind  of  covered 
chalice. 

HUGUENOTS,  an  appellation  given  byway 
of  contempt  to  the  reformed  or  Protestant  Calvin- 
ists  of  France.  The  name  had  its  rise  in  15G0, 
hut  authors  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  o-igin  and 
occasion  thereof.  Some  derive  it  from  the  fol- 
lowing circumstances: — One  of  the  gates  of  the 
city  of  Tours  is  called  the  gate  of  Fourgon,  by 
corruption  from  feu  Hugon,  i.  e.  the  late  Hugon. 
This  Hugon  was  once  count  of  Tours,  accord- 
ing to  Eginhardus,  in  his  life  of  Charles  the 
Great,  and  to  some  other  historians.  He  was,  it 
seems,  a  very  wicked  man,  who  by  his  fierce,  cruel 
temper,  made  himself  dreadful ;  so  that  after  his 
death  he  was  supposed  to  walk  about  in  the  night 
time,  beating  all  those  he  met  with :  this  tradition 
the  judicious  Thuanus  has  not  scrupled  to  men- 
tion in  his  history.  Davila  and  other  historians 
pretend  that  the  nickname  of  Huguenots  was 
first  given  to  the  French  Protestants,  because 
they  used  to  meet  in  the  night  time  in  subterra- 
neous vaults  near  the  gate  of  Hugon ;  and  what 
seems  to  countenance  this  opinion  is,  that  they 
were  first  called  by  the  name  of  Huguenots  at 
this  city  of  Tours.  Others  assign  a  more  illus- 
trious origin  to  this  name,  and  say  that  the  leaguers 
gave  it  the  reformed,  because  they  were  for  keep- 
ing the  crown  upon  the  head  of  the  present  line 
descended  from  Hugh  Capet ;  whereas  they  were 
for  giving  it  to  the  house  of  Guise,  as  descended 
from  Charles  the  Great.  Others  again  derive  it 
from  a  French  and  faulty  pronunciation  of  the 
German  word  edignossen,  signifying  confede- 
rates; and  originally  applied  to  that  valiant  part 
of  the  city  of  Geneva,  which  entered  into  an  alli- 
ance with  the  Swiss  cantons,  in  order  to  maintain 
their  liberties  against  the  tyrannical  attempts  of 
Charles  HI.  duke  of  Savoy.  These  confederates 
were  called  Eignols;  whence  Huguenots.  The 
persecution  which  they  have  undergone  has  scarce 
its  parallel  in  the  history  of  religion.  During 
the  reign  of  Charles  IX*.,  and  on  the  24th  of 
August,  1572,  happened  the  massacre  of  Bartlio- 
lomew,  when  seventy  thousand  of  them  through- 
out France  were  butchered  with  circumstances 
of  aggravated  cruelty.  See  Pkrskcutjok.  In 
1598,  Henry  IV.  passed  the  famous  edict  of 
Nantz,  which  secured  to  the  Protestants  the  free 
exercise  of  their  religion.  This  edict  was  re- 
voked by  Louis  XIV. ;  their  churches  were  then 
razed  to  the  ground,  their  persons  insulted  by  the 
soldiery,  and,  after  the  loss  of  innumerable  iives, 
fifty  thousand  valuable  members  of  society  were 
driven  into  exile.  In  Holland  they  built  several 
places  of  worship,  and  had  amongst  them  some 


HUMILIATION 

distinguished  preachers.  Among  others  were 
Superville,  Dumotit,  Dubosc,  and  the  eloquent 
Saurin ;  the  latter  of  whom,  in  one  of  his  sermons 
(ser.  9,  vol.  v.)  makes  the  following  fine  apostrophe 
10  that  tyrant,  Louis  XIV.,  by  whom  they  were 
driven  into  exile:  "And  thou,  dreadful  prince, 
whom  I  once  honoured  as  my  king,  and  whom 
vet  I  respect  as  a  scourge  in  the  hand  of  Al- 
mighty God,  thou  also  shalt  have  a  part  in  my 
good  wishes!  These  provinces,  which  thou 
threatenest,  hut  which  the  arm  of  the  Lord  pro- 
tects; this  country,  which  thou  fiilest  with  refu- 
gees, but  fugitives  animated  with  love ;  those 
walls,  which  contain  a  thousand  martyrs  of  thy 
making,  but  whom  religion  renders  victorious, — all 
these  yet  resound  benedictions  in  thy  favour. 
God  grant  the  fatal  bandage  that  hides  the  truth 
from  thine  eyes  may  fall  off! — May  God  forget 
the  rivers  of  blood  with  which  thou  hast  deluged 
the  earth,  anil  which  thy  reign  hath  caused  to  be 
shed  !— May  God  blot  out  of  his  book  the  inju- 
ries which  thou  hast  done  us ;  and  while  he  re- 
wards the  sufferers,  may  he  pardon  those  who 
exposed  us  to  suffer ! — O,  may  God  who  hath 
made  thee  to  us,  and  to  the  whole  church,  a  mi- 
nister of  his  judgments,  make  thee  a  dispenser 
of  his  favours — an  administrator  of  his  mercy." 

HUMANITARIANS,  those  who  deny  the 
proper  divinity  of  the  Son  of  God,  and  hold  him 
to  be  possessed  of  no  other  than  simple  human 
nature,  though  far  exceeding  any  of  the  race  of 
men  in  everv  moral  excellence. — B. 

HUMANITY,  the  exercise  of  the  social  and 
benevolent  virtues ;  a  fellow  feeling  for  the  dis- 
tresses of  another.  It  is  properly  called  humanity, 
because  there  is  little  ornothing  of  it  in  brutes.  The 
social  affections  are  conceived  by  all  to  be  more 
refined  than  the  selfish.  Sympathy  and  humanity 
are  universally  esteemed  the  finest  temper  of 
mind  ;  and  for  that  reason  the  prevalence  of  the 
social  affections  in  the  progress  of  society  is  held 
to  be  a  refinement  of  our  nature.  Kaimes's  El.  of 
Crit.  p.  104.  vol.i.;  Robinson's  Sermon  on  '  Chris- 
tianity a  System  of  Humanity ;'  Pratt's  Poem 
on  Humanity. 

HUMANITY  OF  CHRIST,  is  his  pos- 
sessing a  true  human  body,  and  a  true  human 
soul,  and  which  he  assumed  for  the  purpose  of 
rendering  his  mediation  effectual  to  our  salvation. 
bee  Jesus  Christ. 

HUMILIATION  OF  CHRIST,  is  that 
state  of  meanness  and  distress  to  which  he  volun- 
tarily descended,  for  the  purpose  of  executing  his 
mediatorial  work.  This  appears,  1.  Inhis  birth. 
He  was  born  of  a  woman — a  sinful  woman ; 
though  he  was  without  sin,  Gal.  iv.  4.  A  poor 
woman,  Luke  ii.  7,  24.  In  a  poor  country  village, 
John  i.  46.  In  a  stable,  an  abject  place.  Of"  a 
nature  subject  to  infirmities,  Heb.  ii.  9  ;  hunger, 
thirst,  weariness,  pain,  &c. — 2.  In  his  circum- 
stances; laid  in  a  manger  when  he  was  born ; 
lived  in  obscurity  for  a  long  time ;  probably  work- 
ed at  the  trade  of  a  carpenter ;  had  not  a  place 
where  to  lay  his  head ;  and  was  oppressed  with 
poverty  while  he  went  about  preaching  the  Gos- 
pel.— 3.  It  appeared  in  his  reputation:  he  was 
loaded  with  the  most  abusive  railing  and  ca- 
lumny, Is.  liii.;  the  most  false  accusations,  Matt. 
xxvi.  59,  67;  and  the  most  ignominious  ridi- 
cule, Psal.  xxii.  6;  Matt.  xxii.  68;  John  vii 
35.-4.  In  his  soul  he  was  often  tempted,  Matt. 
:v.  ],  &c;  Heb.  ii.  17,  18;  iv.  15;  grieved  with 
175 


HUMILITY 

the  reproaches  cast  on  himself,  and  with  the  sins 
and  miseries  of  others,  Heb.  xii.  3  ;  Matt.  xi.  19; 
John  xi.  35 ;  was  burdened  with  the  hidings  cf 
his  Father's  face,  and  the  fears  and  impressions 
of  his  wrath,  Psal.  xxii.  1 ;  Luke  xxii.  43;  Heb. 
v.  7. — 5.  In  his  death,  scourged,  crowned  with 
thorns,  received  gall  and  vinegar  to  drink,  and 
was  crucified  between  two  thieves,  Luke  xxiii. ; 
John  xix. ;  Mark  xv.  24,  25.-6.  In  his  burial : 
not  only  was  he  born  in  another  man's  house, 
but  he  was  buried  in  another  man's  tomb ;  for 
he  had  no  tomb  of  his  own,  or  family  vault  to  be 
interred  in,  Is.  liii.  10,  &c. ;  Matt.  xiii.  46.  The 
humiliation  of  Christ  was  necessary  r  1.  To  exe- 
cute the  purpose  of  God,  and  covenant  engage- 
ments of  Christ,  Acts  ii.  23,  24 ;  Psal.  xl.  6,  7, 
8. — 2.  To  fulfil  the  manifold  types  and  predic- 
tions of  the  Old  Testament.— 3.  To  satisfy  the 
broken  law  of  God  and  purchase  eternal  redemp- 
tion for  us,  Isa.  liii.;  Heb.  is.  12,  15. — 4.  Tt) 
leave  us  an  unspotted  pattern  of  holiness  and  pa- 
tience under  suffering.  GUPs  Body  of  Dir.  p. 
66.  vol.  ii. ;  Broion's  Nat.  avel  Rev.  Religion, 
p.  357;  Ridgiey's  Body  of  Dir.  qu.  48. 

HUMILITY,  a  disposition  of  mind  wherein 
a  person  has  a  low  opinion  of  himself  and  his  ad- 
vantages. It  is  a  branch  of  internal  worship,  oi 
of  experimental  religion  and  godliness.  It  is  the 
effect  of  divine  grace  operating  on  the  soul,  and 
always  characterises  tho  true  Christian.  The 
heathen  philosophers  were  so  little  acquainted 
with  this  virtue,  that  they  had  no  name  for  it : 
what  they  meant  by  the  word  we  use,  was  mean- 
ness and  baseness  of  mind.  To  consider  this 
grace  a  little  more  particularly,  it  may  be  observed, 

1.  That  humility  does  not  oblige  a  man  to  wrong 
the  truth,  or  himself,  by  entertaining  a  meaner  or 
worse   opinion   of  himself  than   he  deserves. — 

2.  Nor  does  it  oblige  a  man,  right  or  wrong,  to 
give  every  body  else  the  preference  to  himself.  A 
wise  man  cannot  believe  himself  inferior  to  the 
ignorant  multitude  ;  nor  the  virtuous  man  that  he 
is  not  so  good  as  those  whose  lives  are  vicious. — 

3.  Nor  does  it  oblige  a  man  to  treat  himself  with 
contempt  in  his  words  or  actions  :  it  looks  more 
like  affectation  than  humility,  when  a  man  says 
such  things  in  his  own  dispraise  as  others  know, 
or  he  himself  believes,  to  be  false ;  and  it  is  plain, 
also,  that  this  is  often  done  merely  as  a  bait  to 
catch  the  praises  of  others.  Humility  consists, 
1.  In  not  attributing  to  ourselves  any  excellence  or 
good  which  we  have  not. — 2.  In  not  over-rating 
any  thing  we  do. — 3.  In  net  taking  an  immode- 
rate delight  in  ourselves. — 4.  In  not  assuming 
more  of  the  praise  of  a  quality  or  action  than  be- 
longs to  us. — 5.  In  an  inward  sense  of  our  many 
imperfections  and  sins. — 6.  In  ascribing  all  we 
have  and  are,  to  the  grace  of  God.  True  humi- 
lity icili  express  itself,  1.  By  the  modesty  of  our 
appearance.  The  humble  man  will  consider  his 
age,  abilities,  character,  function,  &c.  and  act  ac- 
cordingly.—2.  By  the  modesty  of  our  pursuits. 
We  shall  not  aim  at  any  thing  above  our  strength, 
but  prefer  a  good  to  a  great  name. — 3.  It  will  ex- 
press itself  by  the  modesty  of  our  conversation  and 
behaviour :  we  shall  not  be  loquacious,  obstinate, 
forward,  envious,  discontented,  or  ambitious.  The 
advantages  of  humility  are  numerous ;  1.  It  is 
well  pleasing  to  God,  1  Pet.  iii.  4. — 2.  It  has 
great  influence  on  us  in  the  performance  of  all 
other  duties,  praying,  hearing,  converse,  &a. — 
3.  It  indicates  that  more  grace  shall  be  given, 


HUSSITES 

James  iv.  G;  Ps  xxv.  9.  4.  It  preserves  the 
soulin  great  tnmqullity  and  contentment,  Ps.hdx. 

--S2,  33. — 5.  It  makes  us  patient  and  resigned  un- 
der afflictions,  Job  i.  22. — (>.  It  enables  us  to  ex- 
ercise moderation  in  every  thing.  TV)  obtain,  this 
exaellent  spirit  ice  should  remember,  1.  The  ex- 
ample of  Christ,  Phil.  ii.  6,  7,  8. — 2.  That  hea- 
ven is  a  place  of  humility,  Rev.  v.  8. — 3.  That 
our  sins  are  numerous,  ami  deserve  the  greatest 
punishment,  Lam.  iii.  39. — 4.  That  humility  is 
the  way  to  honour,  Prov.  xvi.  18. — 5.  That  the 
greatest  promises  of  good  are  made  to  the  humble, 
Is.  lvii.  15;  hi.  2;  1  Pet.  v.  5;  Ps.  cxlvii.  6; 
Matt.  v.  5.  Grove's  Mar.  Phil.  vol.  ii.  p.  28(5 ; 
Evans's  Christian  Temper,  vol.  i.  ser.  1;  Watts 
on  Humility;  Baxter's  Christian  Directory,  vol.  i. 
p.  496;  Hale's  Cont.  p.  110;  Gill's  Body  of  Div. 
(>.  lfil.  vol.  iii. ;  Walker's  Ser.  iv.  ser.  3. 

HUSBAND,  duties  of:  SeeMARRiACiE  State. 

HUSSITES,  a  party  of  reformers,  the  fol- 
lowers of  John  Huss. — John  Huss,  from  whom 
the  Hussites  take  their  name,  was  born  in  a  little 
village  in  Bohemia,  called  Huss,  and  lived  at 
Prague  in  the  highest  reputation,  both  on  account 
of  the  sanctity  of  his  manners  and  the  purity  of 
his  doctrine.  He  was  distinguished  by  his  un- 
common erudition  and  eloquence ;  and  performed 
at  the  same  time  the  functions  of  professor  of  di- 
vinity in  the  university,  and  of  ordinary  pastor  in 
the  church  of  that  city.  He  adopted  the  senti- 
ments of  Wiekliffe  and  the  Waldenses;  and,  in 
the  year  1407,  began  openly  to  oppose  and  preach 
against  divers  errors  in  doctrine,  as  well  as  cor- 
ruptions in  point  of  discipline,  then  reigning  in  the 
church.  Huss  likewise  endeavoured  to  the  ut- 
most of  his  power  to  withdraw  the  university  of 
Prague  from  the  jurisdiction  of  Gregory  XII., 
whom  the  king  of  Bohemia  had  hitherto  acknow- 
lecred  as  the  true  and  lawful  head  of  the  church. 
This  occasioned  a  violent  quarrel  between  the  in- 
censed archbishop  of  Prague  and  the  zealous  re- 
former, which  the  latter  inllamcdand  augmented 
from  day  to  day,  by  his  pathetic  exclamations 
against  the  court  of  Rome,  and  the  corruption 
that  prevailed  among  the  sacerdotal  order. 

There  were  other  circumstances  that  contri- 
truted  to  inflame  the  resentment  of  the  clergy 
against  him.  He  adopted  the  philosophical  opi- 
nions of  the  Realists,  and  vehemently  opposed 
and  even  persecuted  the  Nominalists,  whose 
number  and  influence  were  considerable  in  the 
university  of  Prague.  He  also  multiplied  the 
number  of  his  enemies  in  the  year  1108,  by  pro- 
curing, through  his  own  credit,  a  sentence  in  fa- 
vour of  the  Bohemians,  who  disputed  with  the 
Germans  concerning  the  number  of  suffrages 
which  their  respective  nations  were  entitled  to  in 
all  matters  that  were  carried  by  election  in  this 
university.  In  consequence  of  a  decree  obtained 
in  favour  of  the  former,  which  restored  them  to 
their  constitutional  right  of  three  suffrages,  usurp- 
ed by  the  latter,  the  Germans  withdrew  from 
Prague,  and  in  the  year  140!)  founded  a  new 
academy  at  Leipsic4     This  event  no  sooner  hap- 

ftened,  than  Huss  l>egan  to  inveigh,  with  greater 
reedom  than  he  had  done  before,  against  the 
vices  and  corruptions  of  the  clergy ;  and  to  re- 
commend in  a  public  manner  the  writings  and 
opinions  of  Wicklilfc,  as  far  as  thf  y  related  to  the 
papal  hierarchy,  the  despotism  oi  the  court  of 
Rome,  and  the  corruption  of  the  clergy.  Hence 
an  accusation  was  brought  against  him  in  the 
17G 


HUSSITES 
year  1410,  before  the  tribunal  of  John  XXUt. 
by  whom  he  was  solemnly  expelled  from  the  com- 
munion of  the  church. "  Notwithstanding  this 
sentence  of  excommunication,  he  proceeded  to 
expose  the  Romish  church  with  a  fortitude  and 
zeal  that  were  almost  universally  applauded. 

This  eminent  man,  whose  piety  was  equally 
sincere  and  fervent,  though  his  zeal  was  perhaps 
too  violent,  and  his  prudence  not  always  circum- 
spect, was  summoned  to  appear  before  the  coun- 
cil of  Constance.  Secured,  as  he  thought,  from 
the  rage  of  his  enemies,  by  the  safe-conduct 
granted  him  by  the  emperor  Sigismund  lor  his 
journey  to  Constance,  his  residence  in  that  place, 
and  his  return  to  his  own  country,  John  Huss 
obeyed  the  order  of  the  council,  and  appeared  be- 
fore it  to  demonstrate  his  innocence,  and  to  prove 
that  the  charge  of  his  having  deserted  the  church 
of  Rome  was  entirely  groundless.  However,  his 
enemies  so  far  prevailed,  that  by  the  most  scan- 
dalous breach  of  public  faith,  he  was  cast  into 
prison,  declared  a  heretic,  because  he  refused  to 
plead  guilty  against,  the  dictates  of  his  conscience, 
in  obedience  to  the  council,  and  burnt  alive  in 
1-115;  a  punishment  which  he  endured  with  un- 
paralleled magnanimity  and  resolution.  When 
he  came  to  the  place  of  execution,  he  fell  on  his 
knees,  sang  portions  of  psalms,  looked  steadfastly 
towards  heaven,  and  repeated  these  words:  "  Into 
thy  hands,  O  Lord,  do  I  commit  my  spirit ;  thou 
hast  redeemed  me,  O  most  good  and  faithful 
God.  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  assist  and  help  me, 
that  with  a  firm  and  present  mind,  by  thy  most 
powerful  grace  I  may  undergo  this  most  cruel 
and  ignominious  death,  to  which  1  am  condemned 
for  preaching  the  truth  of  thy  most  holy  Gospel." 
When  the  chain  was  put  upon  him  at  the  stake, 
he  said  with  a  smiling  countenance,  "  My  Lord 
Jesus  Christ  was  bound  with  a  harder  chain  than 
this  for  my  sake,  and  why  should  I  be  ashamed 
of  this  old  rusty  one  ?"  When  the  faggots  were 
piled  up  to  his  very  neck,  the  duke  of  Bavaria 
was  officious  enough  to  desire  him  to  abjure. 
"  No."  says  Huss,  "  I  never  preached  any  doc- 
trine of  an  evil  tendency ;  and  what  I  taught 
with  my  lips,  I  seal  with  my  blood."  He  said  to 
the  executioner,  "  Are  you  going  to  burn  a  goose  1 
In  one  century  you  will  have  a  swan  you  can 
neither  roast  nor  bod."  If  he  were  prophetic, 
he  must  have  meant  Luther,  who  had  a  swan 
for  his  arms.  The  fire  was  then  applied  to  the 
faggots  ;  when  the  martyr  sang  a  hymn  with  so 
loud  and  cheerful  a  voice,  that  he  was  heard 
through  all  the  cracklings  of  the  combustibles  and 
the  noise  of  the  multitude.  At  last  his  voice  was 
cut  short,  after  he  had  uttered,  "Jesus  Christ, 
thou  son  of  the  living  God,  have  mercy  upon  me," 
and  he  was  consumed  in  a  most  miserable  man- 
ner. The  duke  of  Bavaria  ordered  the  execu- 
tioner to  throw  all  the  martyr's  clothes  into  the 
flames  :  after  which  his  ashes  were  carefully  col- 
lected, and  cast  into  the  Rhine. 

But  the  cause  in  which  this  eminent  man  was 
engaged  did  not  die  with  him.  His  disciples  ad- 
hered to  their  master's  doctrines  after  his  death, 
which  broke  out  into  an  open  war.  John  Ziska, 
a  Bohemian  knight,  in  1420,  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  Hussites,  who  were  now  become  a 
verv  considerable  party,  and  threw  off  the  des- 
potic yoke  of  Sigismund,  who  had  treated  theif 
bicthren  in  the  most  barbarous  manner.  Ziska 
was  succeeded  by  Procopiua  in  the  year  1-124. 


HUTCHINSONIANS 
Acts  of  barbarity  were  committed  on  both  sides ; 
for  notwithstanding  the  irreconcilable  opposition 
between  the  religious  sentiments  of  the  contend- 
ing parties,  they  both  agreed  in  this  one  horrible 
principle,  that  it  was  innocent  and  lawful  to  per- 
secute and  extirpate  with  fire  and  sword  the  ene- 
mies of  the  true  religion;  and  such  they  recipro- 
cally appeared  to  each  other.  These  commotions 
in  a  great  measure  subsided  by  the  interference 
of  the  council  of  Basil,  in  the  year  1433. 

The  Hussites,  who  were  divided  into  two  par- 
ties, viz.  the  Calixtines  and  the  Taborites,  spread 
over  all  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  and  even  Silesia 
and  Poland;  and  there  are,  it  is  said,  some  re- 
mains of  them  still  subsisting  in  those  parts. 
Hroughton's  Diet. ;  Middleton's  Evang.  Biog. 
vol.  i. ;  Mosheim's  Eccl.  Hist. 

HUTCHINSONIANS,  the  followers  of 
John  Hutchinson,  who  was  born  in  Yorkshire,  in 
1674.  In  the  early  part  of  his  life  he  served  the 
Duke  of  Somerset  in  the  capacity  of  steward ; 
and  in  the  course  of  his  travels  from  place  to 
place,  employed  himself  in  collecting  fossils.  We 
are  told  that  the  large  and  noble  collection  be- 
queathed by  Dr.  Woodward  to  the  University  of 
Cambridge  was  actually  made  by  liim,  and  even 
unfairly  obtained  from  him.  In  1724,  he  pub- 
lished the  first  part  of  his  curious  book,  called 
Moseses  Principia,  in  which  he  ridiculed  Dr. 
Woodward's  Natural  History  of  the  Earth,  and 
exploded  the  doctrine  of  gravitation  established  in 
Newton's  Principia.  In  1727,  he  published  a 
second  part  of  Moses's  Principia,  containing  the 
principles  of  the  Scripture  philosophy.  Prom 
this  time  to  his  death  he  published  a  volume  every 
year  or  two,  which,  with  the  manuscripts  he  left 
behind,  were  published  in  1748,  in  12  volumes, 
8vo.  On  the  Monday  before  his  death,  Dr. 
Mead  urged  him  to  be  bled ;  saying,  pleasantly, 
"I  will  soon  send  you  to  Moses,"  meaning  his 
studies;  but  Mr.  Hutchinson,  taking  it  in  the 
literal  sense,  answered  in  a  muttering  tone,  "  I 
believe,  doctor,  you  will ;"  and  was  so  displeased, 
that  he  dismissed  him  for  another  physician ;  but 
he  died  in  a  few  days  after,  August  28,  1737. 

It  appears  to  be  a  leading  sentiment  of  this  de- 
nomination, that  all  our  ideas  of  divinity  are 
formed  from  the  ideas  iu  nature, — that  nature 
is  a  standing  picture,  and  Scripture  an  applica- 
tion of  the  several  parts  of  the  picture,  to  draw 
out  to,  as  the  great  things  of  God,  in  order  to  re- 
form our  mental  conceptions.  To  prove  this 
point,  they  allege,  that  the  Scriptures  declare  the 
invisible  tilings  of  God  from  the  formation  of 
the  world  are  clearly  seen,  being  understood  by 
the  things  which  are  made;  even  his  eternal 
power  and  Godhead,  Rom.  i.  20.  The  heavens 
must  declare  God's  righteousness  and  truth  in 
the  congregation  of  the  saints,  Ps.  lxxxix.  5. 
And  in  short  the  whole  system  of  nature,  in  one 
voice  of  analogy,  declares  and  gives  us  ideas  of 
his  glory,  and  shows  us  his  handy-work.  We 
cannot  have  any  ideas  of  invisible  things  till  they 
are  pointed  out  to  us  by  revelation ;  and  as  we 
cannot  know  them  immediately,  such  as  they  are 
in  themselves,  after  the  manner  in  winch  we 
know  sensible,  objects,  they  must  be  communi- 
cated to  us  by  the  mediation  of  such  things  as  we 
already  comprehend.  For  this  reason  the  Scrip- 
ture is  found  to  have  a  language  of  its  own,  which 
does  not  consist  of  words,  but  of  signs  or  figures 
taken  from  visible  things:  in  consequence  of 
177  A' 


HUTCII1NSON1ANS 
which,  the  world  we  now  see  becomes  a  sort  of 
commentary  on  the  mind  of  God,  and  explains 
the  world  in  which  we  believe.  The  doctrines 
of  the  Christian  faith  are  attested  by  the  whole 
natural  world ;  they  are  recorded  in  a  language 
which  has  never  been  confounded;  they  are 
written  in  a  text  which  shall  never  be  corrupted. 

The  Hutchinsonians  maintain  that  the  great 
mystery  of  the  Trinity  is  conveyed  to  our  uader- 
standings  by  ideas  of  sense ;  and  that  the  created 
substance  of  the  air,  or  heaven,  in  its  threefold 
agency  of  fire,  light,  and  spirit,  is  the  enigma  of 
the  one  essence  or  one  Jehovah  in  three  persons. 
The  unity  of  essence  is  exhibited  by  its  unity  of 
substance ;  the  trinity  of  conditions,  fire,  light, 
and  spirit.  Thus  the  one  substance  of  the  air, 
or  heaven  in  its  three  conditions,  shows  the  unity 
in  trinity ;  and  its  three  conditions  in  or  of  one 
substance,  the  trinity  in  unity.  For  (says  this 
denomination)  if  we  consult  the  writings  of  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  we  shall  find  the  per- 
sons of  the  Deity  represented  under  the  names 
and  characters  of  the  three  material  agents,  fire, 
light,  and  spirit,  and  their  actions  expressed  by 
the  actions  of  these  their  emblems.  The  Father 
is  called  ?  consuming  fire;  and  his  .judicial  pro- 
ceedings are  spoken  of  in  words  which  denote  tke 
several  actions  of  fire,  Jehovah  is  a  consuming 
fire — Our  God  is  a  consuming  fire,  Deut.  iv.  24 
Heb.  xii.  29.  The  Son  has  the  name  of  light, 
and  his  purifying  actions  and  offices  are  described 
by  words  which  denote  the  actions  and  offices  of 
light.  He  is  the  true  light,  which  lighteth  every 
man  that  cometh  into  the  world,  John  i.  9  ;  Mai. 
iv.  2.  The  Comforter  has  the  name  of  Spirit; 
and  his  animating  and  sustaining  offices  are  de 
scribed  by  words,  for  the  actions  and  offices  of  the 
material  spirit.  His  actions  in  the  spiritual  eco- 
nomy are  agreeable  to  his  type  in  the  natural 
economy;  such  as  inspiring,  impelling,  driving, 
leading,' Matt.  ii.  1.  The  philosophic  system  of 
the  Hutchinsonians  is  derived  from  the  Hebrew 
Scriptures.  The  truth  of  it  rests  on  these  sup- 
positions: 1.  That  the  Hebrew  language  was 
formed  under  divine  inspiration,  either  all  at  once, 
or  at  different  times,  as  occasion  required ;  and 
that  the  Divine  Being  had  a  view  in  constructing 
it,  to  the  various  revelations  which  he  in  all  suc- 
ceeding times  should  make  in  that  language: 
consequently,  that  its  words  must  be  the  most 
proper  and  determinate  to  convey  such  trutlis 
as  the  Deity,  during  the  Old  Testament  dis- 
pensation, thought  fit  to  make  known  to  the 
sons  of  men.  Further  than  this :  that  the  inspired 
penmen  of  those  ages  at  least  were  under  the 
guidance  of  heaven  in  the  choice  of  words  for 
recording  what  was  revealed  to  them :  therefore, 
that  the  Old  Testament,  if  the  language  !>e 
rightly  understood,  is  the  most  determinate  in  its 
meaning  of  any  other  book  under  heaven.  2.  That 
whatever  is  recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  is 
strictly  and  literally  true,  allowing  only  for  a  few 
conunon  figures  of  rhetoric;  that  nothing  con- 
trary to  truth  is  accommodated  to  vulgar  appie- 
hensions. 

In  proof  of  this  the  Hutchinsonians  argue  iu 
this  manner.  The  primary  and  ultimate  design 
of  revelation  is  indeed  to  teach  men  divinity  ;  but 
in  subserviency  to  that,  geography,  history,  and 
chronology,  are  occasionally  introduced ;  dll 
which  are  allowed  to  be  just  and  authentic. 
There  are  also  innumerable  references  to  things 


HYPOCRISY 
of  nature,  and  descriptions  of  tru/in.  If,  then, 
the  former  are  just,  and  to  be  depended  on,  for 
the  sume  reason  the  latter  ought  to  be  esteemed 
philosophically  true.  Further:  they  think  it 
not  unworthy  of  God,  that  he  should  make  it  a 
secondary  end  of  his  revelation  to  unfold  the  se- 
crets of  his  works;  as  the  primary  was  to  make 
known  the  mysteries  of  Ins  nature,  and  the  de- 
signs of  his  grace,  that  men  might  thereby  be  led 
to  admire  and  adore  the  wisdom  and  goodness 
which  the  great  Author  of  the  universe  has  dis- 
played throughout  all  his  works.  And  as  our 
minds  are  otten  referred  to  natural  things  for 
itleas  of  spiritual  truths,  it  is  of  great  importance, 
in  order  to  conceive  aright  of  divine  matters,  that 
our  ideas  of  the  natural  things  referred  to  be 
strictly  just  and  true. 

Mr.  Hutchinson  found  that  the  Hebrew  Scrip- 
tures had  some  capital  words,  which  he  thought 
had  not  been  duly  considered  and  understood ; 
and  which,  he  has  endeavoured  to  prove,  contain 
in  their  radical  meaning  the  greatest  and  most 
comfortable  truths.  The  cherubim  he  explains 
to  be  a  hieroglyphic  of  divine  construction,  or  a 
sacred  image,  to  describe,  as  far  as  figures  could 
go,  the  humanity  united  to  Deity;  and  so  he 
treats  of  several  other  words  of  similar  import. 
From  all  which  he  concluded,  that  the  rites  and 
ceremonies  of  the  Jewish  dispensation  were  so 
many  delineations  of  Christ,  in  what  he  was  to 
be,  to  do,  and  to  suffer ;  that  the  early  Jews  knew 
them  to  be  types  of  his  actions  and  sufferings  ; 
and,  by  performing  them  as  such,  were  so  far 
Christians  both  in  faith  and  practice. 

The  Hutchinsonians  have,  for  the  most  part, 
een  men  of  devout  minds,  zealous  in  the  cause 
of  Christianity,  and  untainted  with  heterodox 
opinions,  which  have  so  often  divided  the  church 
of  Christ  The  names  of  Romaine,  Bishop 
Home,  Parkhurst,  and  others  of  this  denomina- 
tion, will  be  long  esteemed,  both  for  the  piety 
they  possessed,  and  the  good  they  have  been  the 
instruments  of  promoting  amongst  mankind. 
Should  the  reader  wish  to  know  more  of  the 
philosophical  and  theological  opinions  of  Mr. 
Hutchinson,  he  may  consult  a  work,  intituled, 
"An  Abstract  of  the  Works  of  John  Hutcliin- 
son,  Esq.  Edinburgh,  1753."  See  also  Jones's 
Life  of  Bishop  Hume,  2d  edit. ;  Jones's  Works  ; 
Spearman's  Inquiry,  p.  201),  273. 

HYMN,  a  song  or  ode  in  honour  of  the  Divine 
Being.  St.  Hilary,  bishop  of  Poitiers,  is  said  to 
have  been  the  first  who  composed  hymns  to  be 
be  sung  in  churches,  and  was  followed  by  St. 
Ambrose.  Most  of  those  in  the  Roman  breviary 
were  composed  by  Prudentius.  The  hymns  or 
odes  of  the  ancients  generally  consisted  of  three 
sorts  of  stanzas,  one  of  which  was  sung  by  the 
band  as  they  walked  from  east  to  west ;  another 
was  performed  as  they  returned  from  west  to  east; 
the  third  part  was  sung  before  the  altar.  The 
Jewish  hymns  were  accompanied  with  trumpets, 
drums,  and  cymbals,  to  assist  the  voices  of  the 
Levitcs  and  the  people.  We  have  had  a  con- 
siderable number  of  hymns  composed  in  our  own 
country.  The  most  esteemed  are  those  of  Watts, 
Doddridge,  Newton,  and  Hart.  As  to  selections, 
few  are  superior  to  Dr.  Rippon'a  and  Dr.  Wil- 
hams's.     See  Psalmody". 

HYPOCRISY  is  a  seeming  or  professing  to 
be  what  in  truth  and  reality  we  are  not.     It  con- 
sists in  assuming  a  character  which  we  are  con- 
scious does  not  belong  to  us,  and  by  which  wc  in- 
17b 


HYPSISTARII 
tentionally  impose  upon  the  judgment  and  opinion 
of  mankind  concerning  us.  The  name  is  bor- 
rowed from  the  Greek  tongue,  in  which  it  prima- 
rily signifies  the  profession  of  a  stage-player, 
which  is  to  express  in  speech,  habit,  and  action, 
not  his  own  person  and  manners,  but  his  whom 
lie  undertakes  to  represent.  And  so  it  is;  for  the 
very  essence  of  hypocrisy  lies  in  apt  imitation  and 
deceit ;  in  acting  the  part  of  a  member  of  Christ 
without  any  saving  grace.  The  hypocrite  is  a 
double  person  ;  he  has  one  person,  which  is  natu- 
ral ;  another,  which  is  artificial ;  the  first  he  keeps 
to  himself ;  the  other  he  puts  on  as  he  doth  his 
clothes,  to  make  his  appearance  in  before  men.  It 
was  ingeniously  said  by  Basil,  "that  the  hypo- 
crite has  not  put  off  the  old  man,  but  put  on  the 
new  upon  it."  Hypocrites  have  been  divided  into 
four  sorts.  1.  The  -worldly  hypocrite,  who  makes 
a  profession  of  religion,  and  pretends  to  be  re- 
ligious, merely  from  worldly  considerations,  Matt, 
xxiii.  5. — 2.  The  legal  hypocrite,  who  relin- 
quishes Iris  vicious  practices,  in  order  thereby  to 
merit  heaven,  while  at  the  same  tune  he  has  no 
real  love  to  God,  Rom.  x.  3. — The  evangelical 
hypocrite,  whose  religion  is  nothing  more  than  a 
bare  conviction  of  sin ;  who  rejoices  under  the 
idea  that  Christ  died  for  him,  and  yet  has  no 
desire  to  live  a  holy  life,  Matt.  xiii.  20 ;  2  Pet. 
ii.  20. — 4.  The  enthusiastic  hypocrite,  who  has 
an  imaginary  sight  of  his  sin,  and  of  Christ; 
talks  of  remarkable  impulses  and  high  feelings  ; 
and  thinks  himself  very  wise  and  good  while  he 
lives  in  the  most  scandalous  practices,  Matt, 
xiii,  39;  2  Cor.  xi.  14.  Crook  on  Hypocrisy; 
Decoetlegon's  Sermon  on  Ps.  Ii.  6 ;  Grove's  Mor. 
Phil.  vol.  ii.  p.  253;  South' s  Ser.  on  Job  viii.  13. 
vol.  x. ;  Bellamy's  Relig.  Del.  p.  166. 

HYTOSTASIS,  a  term  literally  signifying 
substance  or  subsistence,  or  that  which  is  put  and 
stands  under  another  thing,  and  supports  it,  being 
its  base,  ground,  or  foundation.  Thus  faith  is  the 
substantial  foundation  of  things  hoped  for,  Heb, 
xi.  1.  The  word  is  Greek,  u.-roo-rao-if,  coin- 
pounded  of «  to,  sub,  "under;"  and  io-t^.,  sto,  "I 
stand,  I  exist,"  q.  d.  "subsistentia."  It  likewise 
signifies  confidence,  stability,  firmness,  2  Cor.  ix. 
4.  It  is  also  used  for  person,  Heb.  i.  3.  Thus 
we  hold  that  there  is  but  one  nature  or  essence  in 
God,  but  three  hypostases  or  persons.  The  word 
has  occasioned  great  dissensions  in  the  ancient 
church,  first  among  the  Greeks,  and  afterwards 
among  the  Latins  ;  but  an  end  was  put  to  thein 
by  a  synod  held  at  Alexandria  about  the  year 
362,  at  which  St.  Athanasius  assisted;  from 
which  time  the  Latins  made  no  great  scruple  of 
saying  three  hypostases,  nor  the  Greeks  of  three 
persons.  The  hypostatical  union  is  the  union  of 
the  human  nature  of  Christ  with  the  divine; 
constituting  two  natures  in  one  person,  and  not 
two  persons  in  one  nature,  as  the  Nestorians  be- 
lieve.    See  Jesus  Christ. 

HYPSISTARII,  (formed from u^.o-rot,  "high- 
est,") a  sect  of  heretics,  in  the  fourth  century ; 
thus  called  from  the  profession  they  made  of  wor- 
shipping the  Most  High  God. 

The  doctrine  of  the  Hypsistarians  was  an  as- 
semblage of  Paganism,  Judaism,  and  Christianity. 
— They  adored  the  Most  High  God  with  the 
Christians,  but  they  also  revered  fire  and  lamps 
with  the  Heathens,  and  observed  the  sabbath, 
and  the  distinction  of  clean  and  unclean  things, 
with  the  Jews.  The  Hypsistarii  bore  a  near 
resemblance  to  the  Euchites,  or  Messalians 


1C0N0CLASTES 


I. 


IBERIANS,  a  denomination  of  eastern  Chris- 
tians, which  derive  their  name  from  Iberia,  a  pro- 
vince of  Asia  now  called  Georgia ;  hence  they 
are  also  called  Georgians.  Their  tenets  arc  said 
to  be  the  same  with  those  of  the  Greek  church  ; 
which  see. 

ICONOCL  ASTES,  or  Iconoclast je,  break- 
ers of  images ;  a  name  which  the  church  of  Rome 
gives  to  all  who  reject  the  use  of  images  in  reli- 
gious matters.  The  word  is  Greek,  formed  from 
eix-joi/, imago,  and  «xjj-th»,  rumpere,  'to  break.' 
In  this  sense  not  only  the  reformed,  but  some  of 
the  eastern  churches,  are  called  iconoclastcs,  and 
esteemed  by  them  heretics,  as  opposing  the  wor- 
ship of  the  images  of  God  and  the  saints,  and 
breaking  their  figures  and  representations  in 
churches. 

The  opposition  to  images  began  in  Greece, 
under  the  reign  of  Bardanes,  who  was  created 
emperor  of  the  Greeks  a  little  after  the  com- 
mencement of  the  eighth  century,  when  the  wor- 
ship of  them  became  common.  See  Image.  But 
the  tumults  occasioned  by  it  were  quelled  by  a 
revolution,  which,  in  713,  deprived  Bardanes  of 
the  imperial  throne.  The  dispute,  however,  broke 
out  with  redoubled  fury  under  Leo  the  Isaurian, 
who  issued  out  an  edict  in  the  year  726,  abro- 
gating, as  some  say,  the  worship  of  images ;  and 
ordering  all  the  images,  except  that  of  Christ's 
crucifixion,  to  be  removed  out  cf  the  churches; 
but,  according  to  others,  this  edict  only  prohibited 
the  paying  to  them  any  kind  of  adoration  or  wor- 
ship. This  edict  occasioned  a  civil  war,  which 
broke  out  in  the  islands  of  the  Archipelago,  and, 
by  the  suggestions  of  the  priests  and  monks,  ra- 
vaged a  part  of  Asia,  and  afterwards  reached 
Italy.  The  civil  commotions  and  insurrections 
in  Italy  were  chiefly  promoted  by  the  Roman  pon- 
tiffs, Gregory  Land  II.  Leo  was  excommuni- 
cated ;  and  his  subjects  in  the  Italian  provinces 
violated  their  allegiance,  and  rising  in  arms,  either 
massacred  or  banished  all  the  emperor's  deputies 
and  officers.  In  consequence  of  these  proceed- 
ings, Leo  assembled  a  council  at  Constantinople 
in  730,  which  degraded  Germanus,  bishop  of  that 
city,  who  was  a  patron  of  images;  and  he  or- 
dered all  the  images  to  be  publicly  burnt,  and  in- 
flicted a  variety  of  punishments  upon  such  as 
were  attached  to  that  idolatrous  worship.  Hence 
arose  two  factions,  one  of  which  adopted  the  ado- 
ration and  worship  of  images,  and  on  that  account 
were  called  v:onoduli  or  iconolatrce ;  and  the 
other  maintained  that  such  worship  was  unlaw- 
ful, and  that  nothing  was  more  worthy  the  7.cal 
of  Christians  than  to  demolish  and  destroy  those 
statues  and  pictures  which  were  the  occasion  of 
this  gross  idolatry ;  and  hence  they  were  distin- 
guished by  the  titles  of  icono-machi  (from  e. **>>•, 
image,  and  ,uxx,a,  I  contend*)  and  iconoclastic. 
The  zeal  of  Gregory  II.  in  favour  of  image  wor- 
ship was  not  only  imitated,  but  even  surpassed, 
by  his  successor,  Gregory  III.;  in  consequence 
of  which  the  Italian  provinces  were  torn  from  the 
Grecian  empire.  Constantine,  called  Coprony- 
mus,  in  764,  convened  a  council  at  Constanti- 
nople, regarded  by  the  Greeks  as  the  seventh 
lECumenical  council,  which  solemnly  condemned 
the  worship  and  usage  of  images.  Those  who, 
179 


notwithstanding  the  decree  of  the  council,  raised 
commotions  in  the  state,  were  severely  punished, 
and  new  laws  were  enacted  to  set  bounds  to  the 
violence  of  monastic  rage.  Leo  IV.,  who  was 
declared  emperor  in  755,  pursued  the  same  mea- 
sures, and  had  recourse  to  the  coercive  influence 
of  penal  laws,  in  order  to  extirpate  idolatry  out 
of  the  Christian  church.  Irene,  the  wife  of  Leo, 
poisoned  her  husband  in  780;  assumed  the  reigns 
of  the  empire  during  the  minority  of  her  son  Con- 
stantine; and  in  786  summoned  a  council  at 
Nice,  in  Bithynia,  known  by  the  name  of  the 
Second  Nicene  Council  which  abrogated  the 
laws  and  decrees  against  the  new  idolatry,  re- 
stored the  worship  of  images  and  of  the  cross,  and 
denounced  severe  punishments  against  those  who 
maintained  that  God  was  the  only  object  of  reli- 
gious adoration.  In  this  contest  the  Britons, 
Germans,  and  Gauls  were  of  opinion  that  images 
might  be  lawfully  continued  in  churches ;  but 
they  considered  the  worship  of  them  as  highly 
injurious  and  offensive  to  the  Supreme  Being. 
Charlemagne  distinguished  himself  as  a  mediator 
in  this  controversy ;  he  ordered  four  books  con- 
cerning images  to  be  composed,  refuting  the  rea- 
sons urged  by  the  Nicene  bishops  to  justify  the 
worship  of  images,  which  he  sent  to  Adrian,  the 
Roman  pontiff,  in  700,  in  order  to  engage  him  to 
withdraw  his  approbation  of  the  decrees  of  the  last 
council  of  Nice.  Adrian  wrote  an  answer ;  and 
in  1794,  a  council  of  300  bishops,  assembled  by 
Charlemagne,  at  Frankfort  on  the  Maine,  con- 
firmed the  opinion  contained  in  the  four  books, 
and  solemnly  condemned  the  worship  of  images. 
In  the  Greek  church,  after  the  banishment  of 
Irene,  the  controversy  concerning  images  broke 
out  anew,  and  was  carried  on  by  the  contending 
parties,  during  the  half  of  the  ninth  century, 
with  various  and  uncertain  success.  The  em- 
peror Nicephorus  appears  upon  the  whole  to 
have  been  an  enemy  to  this  idolatrous  worship. 
His  successor,  Michael  Curopalates,  sumamed 
Rhangabe,  patronised  and  encouraged  it.  But 
the  scene  changed  on  the  accession  of  Leo,  the 
Armenian,  to  the  empire,  who  assembled  a  coun- 
cil at  Constantinople,  in  812,  that  abolished  the 
decrees  of  the  Nicene  council.  His  successor 
Michael,  sumamed  Balbus,  disapproved  of  the 
worship  of  images,  and  his  son  Theophilus  treat- 
ed them  with  great  severity.  However,  the  em- 
press Theodora,  after  his  death,  and  during  the 
minority  of  her  son,  assembled  a  council  at  Con- 
stantinople in  842,  which  reinstated  the  decrees 
of  the  second  Nicene  council,  and  encouraged 
image  worship  by  a  law.  The  txmncil  held  at 
the  same  place  under  Protius,  in  879,  and  reckon- 
ed by  the  Greeks  the  eighth  general  council,  con- 
firmed and  renewed  the  Nicene  decrees.  In 
commemoration  of  this  council,  a  festival  was  in- 
stituted by  the  superstitious  Greeks,  called  the 
Feast  of  Orllwdoxy.  The  Latins  were  generally 
of  opinion,  that  images  might  be  suffered,  as  the 
means  of  aiding  the  memory  of  the  faithful,  and 
of  calling  to  their  remembrance  the  pious  exploit* 
and  virtuous  actions  of  the  persons  whom  they 
represented  ;  but  they  detested  all  thoughts  of 
paying  them  the  least  marks  of  religious  homage 
or  adoration.    The  council  of  Paris,  assembled  u> 


ICONOLATR.E 

821  by  Loins  the  Meek,  resolved  to  allow  the 
use  of  images  in  the  churches,  but  severely  pro- 
hibited rendering  them  religions  worship:  never- 
theless, towards  the  conclusion  of  this  century, 
the  Galliean  clergy  began  to  pay  a  kind  of  reli- 
gious homage  to  the  images  of  saints,  and  their 
example  was  followed  l>v  the  Germans  and  other 
nations.  However  the  Iconoclastes  still  had  their 
adherents  among  the  Latins ;  the  most  eminent 
of  whom  was  Claudius,  bishop  of  Turin,  who,  in 
823,  ordered  all  images,  and  even  the  cross,  to  be 
cast  out  of  the  churches,  and  committed  to  the 
flames ;  and  he  wrote  a  treatise,  in  which  he  de- 
clared both  against  the  use  and  worship  of  them. 
He  condemned  relics,  pilgrimages  to  the  Holy 
Land,  and  all  voyages  to  the  tombs  of  saints  ;  and 
to  his  writings  and  labours  it  was  owing,  that 
the  city  of  Turin,  and  the  adjacent  country,  was, 
for  a  long  time  after  his  death,  much  less  infected 
with  superstition  than  the  other  parts  of  Europe. 
The  controversy  concerning  the  sanctity  of 
images  was  again  revived  by  Leo,  bishop  of 
Chalcedon,  in  the  11th  century,  on  occcasion  of 
the  emperor  Alexius's  converting  the  figures  of 
silver  that  adorned  the  portals  of  the  churches 
into  money,  in  order  to  supply  the  exigencies  of 
the  state.  The  bishop  obstinately  maintained 
that  he  had  been  guilty  of  sacrilege,  and  pub- 
lished a  treatise,  in  which  he  a  dinned,  that  in 
these  images  there  resided  an  inherent  sanctity, 
and  that  the  adoration  of  Christians  ought  not  to 
be  confined  to  the  persons  represented  by  these 
images,  but  extend  to  the  images  themselves. 
The  emperor  assembled  a  council  at  Constanti- 
nople, which  determined  that  the  images  of 
Christ  and  of  the  saints  were  to  be  honoured  only 
with  a  relative  worship  ;  and  that  the  invocation 
and  worship  were  to  be  addressed  to  the  saints 
only,  as  the  servants  of  Christ,  and  on  account 
of  their  relation  to  him  as  their  master.  Leo, 
dissatisfied  with  these  absurd  and  superstitious 
decisions,  was  sent  into  banishment.  In  the 
western  church,  the  worship  of  images  was  dis- 
approved, and  opposed  by  several  considerable 
parties,  as  the  Petrobussians,  Albigenses,  Wal- 
denses,  &c.j  till  at  length  this  idolatrous  practice 
was  abolished  in  many  parts  of  the  Christian 
world  by  the  Reformation.     See  Image. 

ICONOLATRjE,  or  Icoxoi.aters,  those 
who  worship  images ;  a  name  which  the  Icono- 
clastes give  to  those  of  the  Romish  communion,  on 
account  of  their  adoring  images,  and  of  rendering 
to  them  the  worship  only  due  to  God  The  word 
is  formed  from  i,*»v,  image,  and  Kmrfum,  I  wor- 
ship.    See  last  article,  and  article*lMAGE. 

IDLENESS,  a  rcluetancy  to  be  employed  in 
any  kind  of  work.  Tin  idle  man  is  in  every  view 
both  foolish  and  criminal.  "  He  neither  lives  to 
God,  to  the  world,  nor  to  himself.  He  does  not 
live  to  God,  for  he  answers  not  the  end  for  which 
he  was  brought  into  being.  Existence  is  a  sacred 
trust;  hut  he  who  misemploys  and  squanders  it 
away,  thus  becomes  treacherous  to  its  Author. 
Those  [>o  wers  which  should  be  employed  in  his  ser- 
vice, and  lor  the  promotion  of  his  glory,  lie  dormant. 
The  time  which  should  be  sacred  to  Jehovah  is 
lost ;  and  thus  he  enjoys  no  fellowship  with  God, 
nor  any  way  devotes  himself  to  his  praise.  He  lives 
not  to  the  world,  nor  for  the  benefit  of  his  fellow- 
creatures  around  him.  While  all  creation  is  full 
of  life  and  activity,  and  nothing  stands  still  in  the 
omversc,  he  remains  idle,  forgetting  that  mankind 
180 


1DOLATRY 

arc  connected  by  various  relations  and  mutual  de- 
pendencies, and  that  the  order  of  the  world  cannot 
be  maintained  without  perpetual  circulation  of 
active  duties.  He  lives  not  to  himself.  Though 
he  imagines  that  he  leaves  to  others  the  drudgery 
of  life,  and  betakes  himself  to  enjoyment  and 
ease,  yet,  in  fact,  he  has  no  true  pleasure.  While 
he  is  a  blank  in  society,  he  is  no  less  a  torment  to 
himself;  for  he  who  knows  not  what  it  is  to  la- 
bour, knows  not  what,  it  is  to  enjoy.  He  shuts 
the  door  against  improvement  of  ever)'  kind, 
whether  of  mind,  body,  or  fortune.  Sloth  en- 
feebles equally  the  bodily  and  the  mental  powers. 
His  character  falls  into  contempt.  Disorder,  con- 
fusion, and  embarrassment  mark  his  whole 
situation.  Idleness  is  the  inlet  to  a  variety  of 
other  vices.  It  undermines  every  virtue  in  the 
soul.  Violent  passions,  like  rapid  torrents,  run 
their  course ;  but  after  having  overflowed  their 
banks  their  impetuosity  subsides  ;  but  sloth,  espe- 
cially when  it  is  habitual,  is  like  the  slowly-flow- 
ing putrid  stream,  which  stagnates  in  the  marsh, 
breeds  venomous  animals  and  poisonous  plants, 
and  infects  with  pestilential  vapours  the  whole 
country  round  it.  Having  once  tainted  the  soul, 
it  leaves  no  part  of  it  sound ;  and  at  the  same  time 
gives  not  those  alarms  to  conscience  which  the 
eruptions  of  bolder  and  fiercer  emotions  often  oc- 
casion." Logan's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  ser.  4;  Blaifa 
Sermons,  vol.  iii.  ser.  4;  Idler,  vol.  i.  p.  5,  171, 
172 ;  Cmcper's  Poems,  228,  vol.  i.  duod. ;  John, 
son's  Rambler,  vol.  ii.  p.  162,  163. 

IDOLATRY,  the  worship  of  idols,  or  the  act 
of  ascribing  to  things  and  persons,  properties 
which  are  peculiar  to  God  alone.  The  principal 
sources  of  idolatry  seem  to  be  the  extravagant  ve- 
neration for  creatures  and  beings  from  which 
benefits  accrue  to  men.  Dr.  Jortin  says,  that 
idolatry  had  four  privileges  to  boast  of.  The  first 
was  a  venerable  antiquity,  more  ancient  than  the 
Jewish  religion ;  and  idolaters  might  have  said  to 
the  Israelites,  Where  was  your  religion  before 
Moses  and  Abraham?  Go,  and  inquire  in  Chal- 
dea,  and  there  you  will  find  that  your  fathers 
served  other  gods. — 2.  It  was  wider  spread  than 
the  Jewish  religion.  It  was  the  religion  of  the 
greatest,  the  wisest,  and  the  politest  nations,  of  the 
Chaldeans,  Egyptians,  and  Phoenicians,  the  pa- 
rents  of  civil  government,  and  of  arts  and  scien- 
ces.— 3.  It  was  more  adapted  to  the  bent  which 
men  have  towards  visible  and  sensible  objects. 
Men  want  gods  who  shall  go  before  them,  and  be 
among  them.  God,  who  is  every  where  in  power, 
and  no  where  in  appearance,  is  hard  to  be  con- 
ceived.— 4.  It  favoured  human  passions;  it  re- 
quired no  morality ;  its  religious  ritual  consisted 
of  splendid  ceremonies,  revelling,  dancing,  noc- 
turnal assemblies,  impure  and  scandalous  myste- 
ries, debauched  priests,  and  gods,  who  were  both 
slaves  and  patrons  to  all  sorts  of  vices. 

"  All  the  more  remarkable  false  religions  that 
have  been  or  are  in  the  world,  recommend  them- 
selves by  one  or  other  of  these  four  privileges  and 
characters." 

The  first  objects  of  idolatrous  worship  are 
thought  to  have  been  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars. 
Others  think  that  angels  were  first  worshipped. 
Soon  after  the  flood,  we  find  idolatry  greatly  pre- 
vailing in  the  world.  Abraham's  father's  family 
served  other  gods  beyond  the  river  Euphrates ; 
and  Labaii  had  idols  which  Rachel  brought  along 
with  her.     In  process  of  time,  noted  patriot",  or 


I  IGNORANCE 
kings  deceased,  animals  of  various  kinds,  plants, 
stones,  and,  in  fine,  whatever  people  took  a  fancy 
to,  they  idolized.  The  Egyptians,  though  high 
pretenders  to  wisdom,  worshipped  pied  bulls, 
snipes,  leeks,  onions,  &e.  The  Greeks  had  about 
30,000  gods.  The  Gomerians  deified  their  an- 
cient kings ;  nor  were  the  Chaldeans,  Romans, 
Chinese,  &c.,  a  whit,  less  absurd.  Some  violated 
the  most  natural  affections  by  murdering  multi- 
tudes of  their  neighbours  and  children,  under 
pretence  of  sacrificing  them  to  their  god.  Some 
nations  of  Germany,  Scandinavia,  and  Tartary, 
imagined  that  violent  death  in  war,  or  by  self- 
murder,  was  the  proper  method  of  access  to  the 
future  enjoyment  of  their  gods.  In  far  later 
times,  about  64,030  persons  were  sacrificed  at  the 
dedication  of  one  idolatrous  temple  in  the  space 
of  four  days  in  America.  The  Hebrews  never 
had  any  idols  of  their  own,  but  they  adopted 
those  of  the  nations  around.  The  veneration 
which  the  Papists  pay  to  the  Virgin  Mary,  and 
other  saints  and  angels,  and  to  the  bread  in  the 
sacrament,  the  cross,  relics,  and  images,  lays  a 
foundation  for  the  Protestants  to  charge  them 
with  idolatry,  though  they  deny  the  charge.  It 
is  evident  that  they  worship  them,  and  that  they 
justify  the  worship,  but  deny  the  idolatry  of  it,  by 
distinguishing  subordinate  from  "supreme  wor- 
ship :  the  one  they  call  latria,  the  other  dulia  ; 
but  this  distinction  is  thought  by  many  of  the 
Protestants  to  be  vain,  futile,  and  nugatory. 

Idolatry  has  been  divided  into  metaphorical 
and  proper.  By  metaphorical  idolatry,  is  meant 
that  inordinate  love  of  riches,  honours,  and  bodily 
pleasures,  whereby  the  passions  and  appetites  of 
men  are  made  superior  to  the  will  of  God  ;  man, 
by  so  doing,  making  a  god  of  liimself  and  his 
6ensual  temper.  Proper  idolatry  is  giving  the 
divine  honour  to  another.  The  objects  or  idols 
of  that  honour  which  are  given,  are  either  per- 
sonal, i.  e.  the  idolatrous  themselves,  who  become 
their  own  statues ;  or  internal,  as  false  ideas, 
which  are  set  up  in  the  fancy  instead  of  God, 
such  as  fancying  God  to  be  a  light,  flame,  matter, 
&c. ;  only  here,  the  scene  being  internal,  the 
scandal  of  the  sin  is  thereby  abated  ;  or  external, 
as  worshipping  angels,  the  sun,  stars,  animals, 
&.C.  Tcnison  on  Idolatry ;  A.  Young  on  Idola- 
trous Corruptions ;  Ridgley's  Body  of  Div. 
qu.  10G;  Fell's  Idolatry  of  Greece  and  Home  ; 
Slillingfiecl's  Idolatry  of  the  Church  of  Rome  ; 
Jortin's  Scrm.  vol.  vi.  ser.  18. 

IGNORANCE,  the  want  of  knowledge  or 
instruction.  It  is  often  used  to  denote  illiteracy. 
Mr.  Locke  observes,  that  the  causes  of  ignorance 
are  chiefly  three. — 1.  Want,  of  ideas. — 2.  Want 
of  a  discoverable  connexion  between  the  ideas  we 
have. — 3.  Want  of  tracing  and  examining  our 
ideas.  As  it  respects  religion,  ignorance  has  been 
distinguished  into  three  sorts:  1.  An  invincible 
ignorance,  in  which  the  will  has  no  part.  It  is  an 
insult  upon  justice  to  suppose  it  will  punish  men 
because  they  were  ignorant  of  things  which  they 
were  physically  incapable  of  knowing. — 8.  There 
is  a  wilful  and  obstinate  ignorance;  such  an  ig- 
norance, far  from  exculpating,  aggravates  a  man's 
crimes. — 3.  A  sort  of  ignorance  which  is  neither 
entirely  wilful,  nor  entirely  invincible  ;  as  when 
a  man  has  the  means  of  knowledge,  and  does  not 
use  them.  See  Knowledge  ;  and  Locke  on  the 
Und.  vol.  ii.  p.  178 ;  Grove's  Mot.  Phil.  vol.  ii. 
p.  20,  29,  64 ;  Watts  on  tits  Mind. 
181 


ILLUMINATI 

ILLUMINATI,  a  term  anciently  applied  to 
such  as  had  received  baptism.  The  name  was 
occasioned  by  a  ceremony  in  the  baptism  of 
adults,  which  consisted  in  putting  a  lighted  taper 
in  the  hand  of  the  person  baptized,  as  a  symbol 
of  the  faith  and  grace  he  had  received  in  the 
sacrament. 

ILLUMINATI  was  also  the  name  of  a  sect 
which  appeared  in  Spain  about  the  year  1575. 
They  were  charged  with  maintaining  that  mental 
prayer  and  contemplation  had  so  intimately  united 
them  to  God,  that  they  were  arrived  to  such  a 
state  of  perfection,  as  to  stand  in  no  need  of  good 
works,  or  the  sacraments  of  the.  church,  and  that 
they  might  commit  the  grossest  crimes  without 
sin. 

After  the  suppression  of  the  Illuminati  in 
Spain,  there  appeared  a  denomination  in  France 
which  took  the  same  name.  They  maintained 
that  one  Anthony  Buckuet  had  a  system  of  be- 
lief and  practice  revealed  to  him  which  exceeded 
every  thing  Christianity  had  yet  been  acquainted 
with ;  that  by  this  method  persons  might  in  a 
short  time  arrive  at  the  same  degrees  of  perfection 
and  glory  to  which  the  saints  and  the  Blessed 
Virgin  have  attained ;  and  this  improvement 
might  be  carried  on  till  our  actions  became  divine. 
and  our  minds  wholly  given  up  to  the  influence  of 
the  Almighty.  They  said  further,  that  none  oi 
the  doctors  of  the  church  knew  any  thing  of  re- 
ligion ;  that  Paul  and  Peter  were  well-meaning 
men,  but  knew  nothing  of  devotion ;  that  the 
whole  church  lay  in  darkness  and  unbelief;  that 
every  one  was  at  liberty  to  follow  the  suggestions 
of  his  conscience ;  that  God  regarded  nothing 
buv  himself;  and  that  within  ten  years  their  doc- 
trine would  be  received  all  over  the.  world  ;  then 
there  would  be  no  more  occasion  for  priests, 
monks,  and  such  other  religious  distinctions. 

ILLUMINATI,  a  name  assumed  by  a  secret 
society,  founded  on  the  1st  of  May,  1776,  by 
Dr.  Adam  Weishaupt,  professor  of  canon  law  in 
the  university  of  Ingolstadt.  The  avowed  object 
of  this  order  was,  "  to  diffuse  from  secret  societies, 
as  from  so  many  centres,  the  light  of  science  over 
the  world  ;  to  propagate  the  purest  principles  of 
virtue;  and  to  reinstate  mankind  in  the  happiness 
which  they  enjoyed  during  the  golden  age  fabled 
by  the  poets."  Such  a  philanthropic  object  was 
doubtless  well-adapted  to  make  a  deep  impression 
on  the  minds  of  ingenuous  young  men  ;  and  to 
such  alone  did  Dr.  Weishaupt  at  first  address 
himself.  But  "  the  real  object,"  we  are  assured 
by  Professor  Robison  and  Abbe  Barruel,  "  was. 
by  clandestine  arts,  to  overturn  every  government 
and  every  religion ;  to  bring  the  sciences  of  civil 
life  into  contempt ;  and  to  reduce  mankind  to  that 
imaginary  state  of  nature,  when  they  lived  inde- 
pendent of  each  other  on  the  spontaneous  pro- 
ductions of  the  earth."  Free-masonry  being  i:i 
high  reputation  all  over  Europe,  when  Weishaupt 
first  formed  the  plan  of  his  society,  he  availed 
himself  of  its  secrecy,  *.o  introduce  his  new  order  ; 
of  which  he  constituted  himself  general,  alter 
initiating  some  of  his  pupils,  whom  he  styled 
Areopagites,  in  its  mysteries.  And  when  report 
spread  the  news  throughout  Germany  of  the  in- 
stitution of  the  Order  of  llluminees,  it  was  ge- 
nerally considered  as  a  mere  college  lodge,  which 
could  interest  the  students  no  longer  than  during 
the  period  of  their  studies.  Weishaupt's  charac- 
ter, too.  which  at  this  time  was  respectable  16i 

u 


ILLUMINATI 
morality  as  well  as  erudition,  prevented  all  sus- 
picion of  his  harbouring  any  such  dark  designs  as 
nave  since  come  to  right.  But  it  would  far  exceed 
(he  limits  to  which  this  work  is  restricted,  to  give 
even  an  outline  of  the  nature  and  constitution  of 
this  extraordinary  society;  of  its  secrets  and 
mysteries ;  of  the  deep  dissimulation,  consum- 
mate hypocrisy,  and  shocking  impiety  of  its  found- 
er and  his  associates ;  of  their  Jesuitical  art  in 
concealing  their  real  objects,  and  their  incredible 
industry  and  astonishing  exertions  in  making 
converts;  of  the  absolute  despotism  and  com- 
plete system  of  espionnage  established  throughout 
the  order;  of  its  different  degrees  of  Notices,  Mi- 
nerrals,  Minor  and  Major  Illvminees  ;  Epopts, 
or  Priests,  Regents,  Magi,  and  Man-kings  ;  of 
the  Recruiters  or  Jnsinuators,  with  their  various 
subtle  methods  of  insinuating  into  all  characters 
and  companies ;  of  the  blind  obedience  exacted 
of  the  Novices,  and  the  absolute  power  of  life  and 
death  assumed  by  the  order,  and  conceded  by  the 
Novices;  of  the  dictionary,  geography,  calendar, 
and  cipher  of  the  order ;  of  the  new  names  as- 
sumed by  the  members,  such  as  Spartacus  by 
Weishaupt,  because  he  pretended  to  wage  war 
against  oppressors ;  Calo  by  Zwack ;  Aju.r  by 
Massenhausen,  &c. ;  of  the  Minerval  Academy 
and  Library ;  of  the  questions  proposed  to  the 
candidates  for  degrees,  and  the  various  ceremonies 
<rf  admission  to  each  ;  and  of  the  pretended  mo- 
rality, real  blasphemies,  and  absolute  atheism,  of 
t  he  founder  and  his  tried  friends.  Such  of  our 
readers  as  wish  to  be  fully  informed  of  these  mat- 
ters, we  must  refer  to  the  Abbe  Barruel's  works, 
and  to  Prof.  Robison's  Proofs  of  a  Conspiracy 
against  all  the  Religions  and  Governments  of 
Europe.  But  while  credit  may  be  given  to  the 
general  facts  related  in  these  works,  some  doubts 
respecting  the  ultimate  object  of  Dr.  Weishaupt 
and  his  associates  in  this  conspiracy  may  be  ex- 
jrressed  :  as,  That  men  of  their  principles  should 
secretly  conspire  to  overthrow  all  the  religions 
and  governments  at  present  in  Europe,  is  by  no 
means  incredible :  that  they  should  even  prevail 
On  many  well-meaning  philanthropists,  who  are 
no  enemies  to  rational  religion  or  good  govern- 
ment, to  join  them,  is  also  very  credible.  But 
that  a  set  of  men  of  learning  and  abilities,  such  as 
Weishaupt  and  his  associates  are  allowed  to  be, 
should  form  a  conspiracy  to  overturn,  and  with 
more  than  Gothic  rage  utterly  abolish  the  arts 
and  sciences,  and  to  restore  the  supposed  original 
savage  state  of  man,  appears  to  us  a  phenomenon 
in  the  history  of  the  human  heart  totally  unac- 
countable. That  "  the  heart  of  man  is  deceitful 
above  all  tilings,  and  desperately  wicked,"  is  a 
melancholy  truth,  which  not  Scripture  alone,  but 
the  history  of  mankind  in  all  ages  and  nations, 
affords  full  proof  of,  as  well  as  the  shocking  his- 
tory of  the  llluminati;  but  while  pride  and  vanity 
have  a  place  in  the  human  heart,  to  say  nothino- 
of  our  other  passions,  which  are  more  or  less  in- 
terested in  the  preservation  of  the  discoveries  and 
improvements  in  arts,  sciences,  and  their  inse- 
parable concomitant,  luxury,  we  arc  persuaded  no 
man,  or  body  of  men,  who  have  enjoyed  the 
sweets' of  civilized  life,  ever  formed  a  serious  wish 
tor  the  total  abolition  of  the  arts  and  sciences.  In 
the  fury  and  rage  of  war,  Goths,  Vandals,  and 
Turks,  may  burn  and  destroy  monuments  of  art 
and  repositories  of  science ;  but  when  the  wars 
nn:  over,  instead  of  returninsr  to  the  savage  state 
IS-1 


IMAGE 
the  barbarous  conquerors  mix  and  amalgamate 
with  the  conquered,  and  become  themselves  more 
or  less  civilized.  Dr.  Weishaupt  is  allowed  to  lie 
influenced  by  a  high  degree  of  vanity  ;  as  an  evi- 
dence of  which  he  communicates  as  the  last  se- 
cret to  his  most  favoured  adepts,  that  the  myste- 
ries of  Ii.luminism,  which,  in  going  through  the 
inferior  degrees,  had  been  successively  attributed 
to  the  most  ancient  patriarchs  and  philosophers, 
and  even  to  Christ  himself,  owed  its  origin  to  no 
other  than  Adam  Weishaupt,  known  in  the  or- 
der by  the  name  of  Spartacus.  The  same  vanity 
which  leads  the  doctor  to  take  this  traditional 
method,  while  secrecy  is  deemed  necessary,  of 
securing  to  himself  the  honour  of  having  founded 
the  society,  would  lead  him,  were  the  llluminati 
actually  victorious  over  ail  religions  and  govern- 
ments, to  wish  to  have  his  memory  recorded  in  a 
more  durable  manner  by  writing  or  printing.  But 
if  these  and  all  the  other  arts  were  to  perish  in  a 
mass,  then  the  memory"  of  the  doctor,  and  the  in> 
portant  services  he  had  done  to  the  order  and  to 
savagism,  must,  within  a  century  at  the  utmost, 
perish  along  with  them.  But  if,  in  fact,  the  total 
annihilation  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  as  well  as  of 
all  religion  and  government,  be  really  the  object 
of  Weishaupt  and  his  llluminees,  then  we  may 
agree  with  the> celebrated  Mandeville,  that  "hu- 
man nature  is  the  true  Libyan  desert,  daily  pro- 
ducing new  monsters,"  and  that  of  these  mon- 
sters the  doctor  and  his  associates  are  beyond  a 
doubt  the  most  extraordinary.  Professor  Robison 
informs  us,  that  the  order  of  the  llluminati  was 
abolished  1786  by  the  elector  of  Bavaria,  but  re- 
vived immediately  after,  under  another  name,  and 
in  a  different  form,  over  all  Germany.  It  was 
again  detected  and  seemingly  broken  up ;  but  it 
had  by  this  time  taken  so  deep  root,  that  it  still 
subsists  without  being  detected,  and  has  spread, 
we  are  told,  into  all  the  countries  of  Europe. 

IMAGE,  in  a  religious  sense,  is  an  artificial 
representation  of  some  person  or  thing  used  as 
an  object  of  adoration ;  in  which  sense  it  is  used 
synonymously  with  idol.  The  use  and  adoration 
of  images  have  been  long  controverted.  It  i3 
plain,  from  the  practice  of  the  primitive  church, 
recorded  by  the  earlier  fathers,  that  Christians, 
during  the  first  three  centuries,  and  the  greater 
part  of  the  fourth,  neither  worshipped  images,  nor 
used  them  in  their  worship.  However,  the  gene- 
rality of  the  popish  divines  maintain  that  the  use 
and  worship  of  images  are  as  ancient  as  the  Chris- 
tian religion  itself:  to  prove  this,  they  allege  a 
decree,  said  to  have  been  made  in  a  council  held 
by  the  apostles  at  Antioch,  commanding  the 
faithful,  that  they  may  not  err  about  the  object  of 
their  worship,  to  make  images  of  Christ,  and 
worship  them.  Baron,  ad  ann.  102.  But  no  no- 
tice is  taken  of  this  decree  till  seven  hundred 
years  after  the  apostolic  times,  after  the  dispute 
about  images  had  commenced.  The  first  instance, 
that  occurs,  in  any  credible  author,  of  images 
among  Christians,  is  that  recorded  by  Tertullian 
de  Pudicit.  c.  10,  of  certain  cups  or  chalices,  as 
Bcllarmine  pretends,  on  which  was  represented 
the  parable  of  the  good  shepherd  carrying  the  lost 
sheep  on  his  shoulders:  but  this  instance  only 
proves  that  the  church,  at  that  time,  did  not  think 
emblematical  figures  unlawful  ornaments  of 
chalices.  Another  instance  is  taken  from  Euse- 
bius  (Hist  Eccl.  lib.  vii.  cap.  18,)  who  savs,  that 
in  his  time  there  were  to  be  seen  two  brass  sta- 


IMAGE 

tnes  \n  the  city  of  Paneas,  or  Csesaroa  Philippi ; 
the  one  of  a  woman  on  her  knees,  with  her  arms 
stretched  out;  the  other  of  a  man  over  against 
her,  with  his  hand  extended  to  receive  her  :  these 
statues  were  said  to  be  the  images  of  our  Saviour, 
and  the  woman  whom  he  cured  of  an  issue  of 
blood.  From  the  foot  of  the  statue  representing 
our  Saviour,  says  the  historian,  sprung  up  an 
exotic  plant,  which  as  soon  as  it  grew  to  touch 
the  border  of  his  garment,  was  said  to  cure  all 
sorts  of  distempers.  Eusebius,  however,  vouches 
none  of  these  things  ;  nay,  he  supposes  that  the 
woman  who  erected  this  statue  of  our  Saviour 
was  a  pagan,  and  ascribes  it  to  a  pagan  custom. 
Philostorgius  (Eccl.  Hist.  lib.  vii.  c.  3.)  expressly 
says,  that  this  statue  was  carefully  preserved  by 
the  Christians,  but  that  they  paid  no  kind  of 
worship  to  it,  because  it  is  not  lawful  for  Chris- 
tians to  worship  brass  or  any  other  matter.  The 
primitive  Christians  abstained  from  the  worship 
-f  images,  not,  as  the  Papists  pretend,  from  ten- 
derness to  heathen  idolaters,  but  because  they 
thought  it  unlawful  in  itself  to  make  any  images 
of  the  Deity.  Tertullian,  Clemens  Aicxandri- 
nus,  and  Origen,  were  of  opinion,  that,  by  the 
second  commandment,  painting  and  engraving 
were  unlawful  to  a  Christian,  styling  them  evil 
and  wicked  arts.  Tert.  de  Idol.  cap.  3;  Clem. 
Alex.  Admon.  ad  Gent.  p.  41 ;  Origen  contra 
Celsum,  lib.  vi.  p.  182.  The  use  of  images  in 
churches,  as  ornaments,  was  first  introduced  by 
some  Christians  in  Spain,  in  the  beginning  of 
the  fourth  century;  but  the  practice  was  con- 
demned as  a  dangerous  innovation,  in  a  council 
held  at  Eliberis  in  305.  Epiphanius,  in  a  letter 
preserved  by  Jerome,  torn.  ii.  ep.  6,  bears  strong 
testimony  against  images ;  and  he  may  be  con- 
sidered as  one  of  the  first  iconoclasts.  The  cus- 
tom of  admitting  pictures  of  saints  and  martyrs 
into  churches  (for  this  was  the  first  source  of 
image-worship)  was  rare  in  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century,  but  became  common  in  the  fifth.  But 
they  were  still  considered  only  as  ornaments, 
and  even  in  this  view,  they  met  with  very  con- 
siderable opposition.  In  the  following  century, 
the  custom  of  thus  adorning  churches  became 
almost  universal,  both  in  the  East  and  West. 
Petavius  expressly  says  (de  Incar.  lib.  xv.  cap. 
14,)  that  no  statues  were  yet  allowed  in  the 
churches,  because  they  bore  too  near  a  resem- 
blance to  the  idols  of  the  Gentiles.  Towards  the 
close  of  the  fourth,  or  beginning  of  the  fifth  cen- 
tury, images,  which  were  introduced  by  way  of 
ornament,  and  then  used  as  an  aid  to  devotion, 
began  to  be  actually  worshipped.  However,  it 
continued  to  be  the  doctrine  of  the  church  in  the 
6ixth,  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventh  cen- 
tury, that  images  were  to  be  used  only  as  helps 
to  devotion,  and  not  as  objects  of  worship.  The 
worship  of  them  was  condemned  in  the  strongest 
terms  by  Gregory  the  Great,  as  appears  by  two 
of  his  letters  written  in  601.  From  this  time  to 
the  beginning  of  the  eighth  century,  there  occurs 
no  instance  of  any  worship  given  or  allowed  to 
be  given  to  images,  by  any  council  or  assembly 
of  bishops  whatever.  But  they  were  commonly 
worshipped  by  the  monks  and  populace  in  the 
beginning  of  the  eighth  century;  insomuch  that, 
in  726,  when  Leo  published  his  famous  edict,  it 
had  already  spread  into  all  the  provinces  subject 
to  the  empire.  The  Lutherans  condemn  the 
Calvinists  for  breaking  the  images  in  the  churches 
183 


IMMUTABILITY 
of  the  Catholics,  looking  on  it  as  a  kind  of  sacri- 
lege; and  yet  they  condemn  the  Romans  (who 
are  professed  image-worshippers)  as  idolaters; 
nor  can  these  last  keep  pace  with  the  Greeks, 
who  go  far  beyond  them  in  this  point,  which  ha< 
occasioned  abundance  of  disputes  among  them. 
See  Iconoclastes.  The  Jews  absolutely  con- 
demn all  images,  and  do  not  so  much  as  suffer 
any  statues  or  figures  in  their  houses,  much  less 
in  their  synagogues,  or  places  of  worship.  The 
Mahometans  have  an  equal  aversion  to  images  ? 
which  led  them  to  destroy  most  of  the  beautiful 
monuments  of  antiquity,  both  sacred  and  profane, 
at  Constantinople.  Bingham's  Orig.  Eccl.  b. 
viii.  c.  8;  Middleton's  Letters  from  Rome,  p. 
21;  Burnet  on  the  Art.  p.  209,  219;  Dod- 
dridge's Lect.  lect.  193;  Tcnnison  on  Idolatry, 
p.  269,  275  ;  Ridgley's  Body  of  Div.  qu.  110. 

IMAGE  OF  GOD  in  the  soul,  is  distin- 
guished into  natural  and  moral.  By  natural  is 
meant  the  understanding,  reason,  will,  and  other 
intellectual  faculties.  By  the  moral  image,  the 
right  use  of  those  faculties,  or  what  we  term 
holiness. 

IMAGINATION  is  a  power  or  faculty  of  the 
mind,  whereby  it  conceives  and  forms  ideas  of 
things  communicated  to  it  by  the  outward  organs 
of  sense ;  or  it  is  the  power  of  recollecting  and 
assembling  images,  and  of  painting  forcibly  those 
images  on  our  minds,  or  on  the  minds  of  others. 
The  cause  of  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination  in 
whatever  is  great,  uncommon,  or  beautiful,  is 
this  ;  that  God  has  annexed  a  secret  pleasure  to 
the  idea  i>f  any  thing  that  is  new  or  rare,  that  he 
might  c  titv-urage  and  stimulate  us  in  the  eager 
and  keen  pursuits  after  knowledge,  and  inflame 
our  best  passions  to  search  into  the  wonders  of 
creation  and  revelation;  for  every  new  idea 
brings  such  a  pleasure  along  with  it,  as  rewards 
any  pains  we  have  taken  in  its  acquisition,  and 
consequently  serves  as  a  striking  and  powerful 
motive  to  put  us  upon  fresh  discoveries  ki  learning 
and  science,  as  well  as  in  the  word  and  works 
of  God.  See  Rev.  W.  Jones's  Works,  vol.  vi. 
ser.  17;  Ryland's  Contemplations,  vol.  i.  p.  64; 
Akcnside's  Pleasures  of  Imagination;  Addi- 
son's beautiful  Papers  on  the  Imagination,  vol 
vi.  Sped.  p.  64,  &c. ;  Grove's  Mot,  Phil.  p.  354, 
355,  410,  vol.  i. 

IMMATERIALISM,  the  belief  that  the  soul 
is  a  spiritual  substance  distinct  from  the  body. 
See  Materialism  and  Soul. 

IMMENSITY,  unbounded  or  incomprehen- 
sible greatness ;  and  unlimited  extension,  which 
no  finite  and  determinate  space,  repeated  ever  so 
often,  can  equal.     See  Infinity  of  God. 

IMMORALITY,  an  action  inconsistent  with 
our  duty  towards  man,  and  consequently  a  sin 
against  God,  who  hath  commanded  us  to  do  jus- 
tice, and  love  mercy.     See  Morality. 

IMMORTALITY,  a  state  which  hasnoend ; 
the  impossibility  of  dying.  It  is  applied  to  God, 
who  is  absolutely  immortal,  1  Tim.  i.  17;  and  to 
the  human  soul,  which  is  only  hypothetically  im- 
mortal ;  as  God,  who  at  first  gave  it,  can,  if  he 
pleases,  deprive  us  of  our  existence.     See  Souu 

IMMUTABILITY  OF  GOD  is  his  un- 
changeableness.  He  is  immutable  in  his  esseiiet, 
James  i.  17.  In  his  attributes,  Ps.  cii.  27.  In 
his  purposes,  Isa.  xxv.  1 ;  Ps.  xxxiii.  11.  Ih  his 
promises,  Mai.  iii.  6 ;  2  Tim.  ii.  12.  And  in  his 
thrcatcnings,  Matt.  xxv.  41.    "  This  is  a  perfco- 


IMPLICIT 

lion,"  says  Dr.  Blair,  "which,  perhaps,  more 
than  any  other,  distinguishes  the  divine  nature 
from  the  human,  t^ives  complete  energy  to  all  its 
attributes,  and  entitles  it  to  the  highest  adoration. 
From  hence  are  derived  the  regular  order  of  na- 
ture and  the  steadfastness  of  the  universe.  Hence 
flows  the  unchanging  tenor  of  those  laws  which, 
from  age  to  age,  regulate  the  conduct  of  mankind. 
Hence  the  uniformity  of  that  government,  and  the 
certainty  of  those  promises,  which  are  the  ground 
of  our  trust  and  security.  An  objection,  how- 
ever, may  be  raised  against  this  doctrine,  from 
the  commandments  given  us  to  prayer,  and  other 
religious  exercises.  To  what  purpose,  it  may  be 
urged,  is  homage  addressed  to  a  Being  whose 

Elan  is  unalterably  fixed  1  This  objection  would 
ave  weight,  if  our  religious  addresses  were  de- 
signed to  work  any  alteration  in  God,  either  by 
giving  him  information  of  what  he  did  not  know, 
or  by  exciting  affections  which,  he  did  not  possess ; 
Or  by  inducing  him  to  change,  measures  which  he 
liad  previously  formed ;  but  they  are  only  crude 
and  imperfect  notions  of  religion  which  can  sug- 
gest such  ideas.  The  change  which  our  devo- 
tions are  intended  to  make,  are  upon  ourselves, 
not  upon  the  Almighty.  By  pouring  out  our 
sentiments  and  desires  before  God ;  by  adoring 
his  perfections,  and  confessing  our  unworthiness ; 
by  expressing  our  dependance  on  his  aid,  our 
gratitude  for  liis  past  favours,  our  submission  to 
Eis  present  will,  and  our  trust,  in  his  future 
mercy,  we  cultivate  such  affections  as  suit  our 
place  and  station  in  the  universe,  and  are  to  be 
exercised  by  us  as  men  and  as  Christians.  The 
contemplation  of  the  divine  perfection  should 
raise  in  our  minds  admiration ;  should  teach  us 
to  imitate,  as  far  as  our  frailty  will  permit,  that 
constancy  and  steadfastness  which  we  adore,  2 
Cor.  iii.  18;  and,  lastly,  should  excite  trust  and 
confidence  in  the  Divine  Being,  amidst,  all  the 
revolutions  of  this  uncertain  world." — Blair's 
Sermons,  ser.  4.  vol.  ii. ;  Charnock's  Works,  vol. 
i.  p.  203 ;  Gill's  Body  of  Divinity,  vol.  i.  p.  50 ; 
Lambert's  Sermons,  ser.  on  Mai.  iii.  6. 
_  IMPANATION,  a  term  used  by  divines  to 
signify  the  opinion  of  the  Lutherans  with  re- 
gard to  the  eucharist,  who  believe  that  the  spe- 
cies of  bread  and  wine  remain  together  with  the 
body  of  our  Saviour  after  consecration, 

IMPECCABILES,  a  name  given  to  those 
heretics  who  boasted  that  they  were  impeccable, 
and  that  there  was  no  need  of  repentance ;  such 
were  the  Gnostics,  Priscillianists,  &c. 

IMPECCABILITY,  the  state  of  a  person 
who  cannot  sin ;  or  a  grace,  privilege,  or  princi- 
ple, which  puts  him  out  of  a  possibility  of  sin- 
ning. Divines  have  distinguished  several  kinds 
of  impeccability :  that  of  God  belongs  to  him  by 
nature;  that  of  Jesus  Christ,  considered  as  man, 
belongs  to  him  by  the  hypostatical  union;  that 
of  the  blessed,  in  consequence  of  their  condition, 

IMPLICIT  FAITH,  is  that  by  which  we 
take  up  any  system  or  opinion  of  another,  with- 
out examination.  This  has  been  one  of  the 
chief  sources  of  ignorance  and  error  in  the  church 
of  Rome.  The  divines  of  that  community  teach, 
"  That  we  are  to  observe,  not  how  the  church 
proves  any  thing,  but  what  she  says:  that  the 
will  of  God  is,  that  we  should  believe  and  confide 
in  his  ministers  in  the  same  ttiannei  as  himself." 
Cardinal  Toletus,  in  his  instructions  for  priests, 
1&4  - 


IMPOSTORS 

asserts,  "That  if  a  rustic  believes  his  bishop  pro- 
posing an  heretical  tenet  for  an  article  of  faith, 
such  belief  is  meritorious."  Cardinal  Causanus 
tells  us,  "  That  irrational  obedience  is  the  most 
consummate  and  perfect  obedience,  when  wo 
obey  without  attending  to  reason,  as  a  beast 
obeys  his  driver."  In  an  epistle  to  the  Bohe- 
mians he  has  these  words  :  "  1  assert  that  there 
are  no  precepts  of  Christ  but  those  which  are  re- 
ceived as  such  by  the  church  (meaning  the  church 
of  Rome.)  When  the  church  changes  her  judg- 
ment, God  changes  his  judgment  likewise." 
What  madness !  What  blasphemy  !  For  a  church 
to  demand  belief  of  what  she  teaches,  and  a  sub- 
mission to  what  she  enjoins,  merely  upon  her 
assumed  authority,  must  appear  to  unprejudiced 
minds  the  height  of  unreasonableness  and  spi- 
ritual despotism.  We  could  wish  this  doctrine 
had  been  confined  to  this  church ;  but,  alas !  it 
has  been  too  prevalent  in  other  communities.  A 
theological  system,  says  Dr.  Jortin,  is  too  often 
no  more  than  a  temple  consecrated  to  implicit 
faith  ;  and  he  who  enters  in  there  to  worship,  in- 
stead of  leaving  his  shoes,  after  the  eastern  man- 
ner, must  leave  his  understanding  at  the  door ; 
and  it  will  be  well  if  he  find  it  when  he  comes 
out  again. 

IMPOSITION  OF  HANDS,  an  ecclesias- 
tical action,  by  which  a  bishop  lays  his  hand  on 
the  head  of  a  person  in  ordination,  confirmation, 
or  in  uttering  a  blessing.  This  practice  is  also 
frequently  observed  by  the  dissenters  at  the  ordi- 
nation of  their  preachers;  when  the  ministers 
present  place  their  hands  on  the  head  of  him 
whom  they  are  ordaining,  while  one  of  them 
prays  for  a  blessing  on  him  and  on  his  future 
labours.  They  are  not  agreed,  however,  as  to 
•the  propriety  of  this  ceremony.  Some  suppose  it 
to  be  confined  to  those,  who  received  extraordi- 
nary gifts  in  the  primitive  times  :  others  think  it 
ought  to  be  retained,  as  it  was  an  ancient  practice 
used  where  no  extraordinary  gifts  were  conveyed, 
Gen.  xlviii.  11 ;  Matt.  xix.  15.  They  do  not 
suppose  it  to  be  of  such  an  important  and  essen- 
tial nature,  that  the  validity  and  usefulness  of  a 
man's  future  ministry  depend  upon  it  in  any  de- 
gree. Imposition  of  hands  was  a  Jewish  cere- 
mony, introduced  not  by  any  divine  authority, 
but  by  custom ;  it  being  the  practice  among 
those  people,  whenever  they  prayed  to  God  for 
any  person,  to  lay  their  hands  on  his  head.  Our 
Saviour  observed  the  same  custom,  both  when  he 
conferred  his  blessing  on  children,  and  when  he 
healed  the  sick,  adding  prayer  to  the  ceremony. 
The  apostles,  likewise,  laid  hands  on  those  upon 
whom  they  bestowed  the  Holy  Ghost.  The 
priests  observed  the  same  custom  when  any  one 
was  received  in  their  body.  And  the  apostles 
themselves  underwent  the  imposition  of  hands 
afresh  every  time  they  entered  upon  any  new 
design.  In"  the  ancient  church,  imposition  of 
hands  was  even  practised  on  persons  when  they 
married,  which  custom  the  Ahyssinians  still  ob- 
serve. Maurice's  Dial,  on  Soc.  liclig.  p.  ItA 
108;  Watts' s  Rational  Foundation  of  a  Chris- 
tian Ch.  p.  31  ;  Turner  on  Church  Gov.  p.  70; 
Kin"'*  Primitive.  Christ.  Ch.  p.  40. 

IMPOSTORS,  RELIGIOUS,  are  such  a* 
pretend  to  an  extraordinary  commission  from  hea- 
ven, and  who  terrify  the  people  with  false  denun- 
ciations of  judgments.  Too  many  of  these  have 
abounded  in  aiiuost  ail  ages.     They  are  puuish 


IMPURITY 

able  in  the  temporal  courts  with  fine,  imprison- 
ment, and  corporeal  punishment.  See  False 
Messiahs. 

1MPOTENCY,  or  Impotence,  is  considered 
as  natural  and  moral.  Natural  is  the  want  of 
some  physical  principle  necessary  to  an  action,  or 
where  a  being  is  absolutely  detective,  or  not  free 
and  at  liberty  to  act.  Moral  impotency  imports 
a  great  difficulty  ;  as  a  strong  habit  to  the  con- 
trary; a  violent  passion  ;  or  the  like. 

IMPROPRIATION,  a  parsonage  or  eccle- 
siastical living,  the  profits  of  which  arc  in  the 
hands  of  a  layman ;  in  which  case  it  stands  dis- 
tinguished from  appropriation,  which  is  where 
the  profits  of  a  benefice  are  in  the  hands  of  a 
bishop,  college,  &c.  though  the  terms  are  now 
used  promiscuously. 

IMPULSE,  an  influence,  idea,  or  motive  act- 
ing upon  the  mind.  We  must  be  careful  how  we 
are  guided  by  impulses  in  religion.  "  There  are 
many,"  as  one  observes,  "who  frequently  feel 
singular  impressions  upon  their  minds,  and  are 
inclined  to  pay  a  very  strict  regard  unto  them. 
Yea,  some  carry  this  point  so  far,  as  to  make  it 
almost  the  only  rule  of  their  judgment,  and  will 
not  determine  any  thing,  until  they  find  it  in  their 
hearts  to  do  it,  as  their  phrase  is.  Others  take  it 
for  granted,  that  the  divine  mind  is  notified  to 
them  by  sweet  or  powerful  impressions  of  some 
passages  of  sacred  writ.  There  are  others  who 
are  determined  by  visionary  manifestations,  or 
by  the  impressions  made  in  dreams,  and  che  in- 
terpretations they  put  upon  them.  All  these 
tilings  being  of  the  same  general  nature,  may 
very  justly  be  considered  together ;  and  it  is  a  mat- 
ter of  doubt  with  many  how  far  these  things  are 
to  be  regarded,  or  attended  to  by  us ,  and  how  we 
may  distinguish  any  divine  impressions  of  this 
kind  from  the  delusions  of  the  tempter,  or  of  our 
own  evil  hearts.  But,  whoever  makes  any  of  these 
things  his  rule  and  standard,  he  forsakes  the 
divine  word;  and  nothing  tends  more  to  make 
persons  unhappy  in  themselves,  unsteady  in  their 
conduct,  or  more  dangerously  deluded  in  their 
practice,  than  paying  a  random  regard  to  these 
impulses,  as  notifications  of  the  divine  will."  See 
Enthusiasm;  Providence. 

IMPURITY,  want  of  that  regard  to  decency, 
chastity,  or  holiness,  which  our  duty  requires. 
Impurity,  in  the  law  of  Moses,  is  any  legal  de- 
filement. Of  these  there  were  several  sorts  : 
some  were  voluntary,  as  the  toucliing  a  dead 
body,  or  any  animal  that  died  of  itself,  or  any 
creature  that  was  esteemed  unclean  ;  or  touching 
things  holy  by  one  who  was  not  clean,  or  was  not 
a  priest ;  the  touching  one  who  had  a  leprosy,  one 
who  had  a  gonorrhoea,  or  who  was  polluted  by  a 
dead  carcase,  &c.  Sometimes  these  impurities 
were  involuntary  ;  as  when  any  one  inadvertently 
touched  bones,  or  a  sepulchre,  or  any  thing  pol- 
luted ;  or  fell  into  such  diseases  as  pollute,  as  the 
leprosy,  &c. 

The.  beds,  clothes,  and  moveables,  wliich  had 
touched  any  thing  unclean,  contracted  also  a  kind 
of  impurity,  and  in  some  cases  communicated  it 
to  others. 

These  legal  pollutions  were  generally  removed 
by  bathing,  and  lasted  no  longer  than  the  even- 
ing. The  person  polluted  plunged  over  head  in 
the  water;  and  either  had  his  clothes  on  when  be 
did  so,  or  washed  himself  and  his  clothes  sepa- 
rately. Other  pollutions  continued  seven  days; 
165  Y 


INAblLlTY 

as  that  which  was  contracted  by  touching  a  dead 
body.  Some  impurities  lasted  forty  or  fifty  days; 
as,  that  of  women  who  were  lately  delivered,  who 
were  unclean  forty  days  after  the  birth  of  a  bov, 
and  fifty  after  the  birth  of  a  girl.  Others,  again, 
lasted  till  the  person  was  cured. 

Many  of  these  pollutions  were  expiated  by  sa- 
crifices, and  others  by  a  certain  water  or  lye  made 
with  the  asnes  of  a  red  heifer,  sacrificed  on  the 
great  day  of  expiation.  When  the  leper  was 
cured,  he  went  to  the  temple,  and  offered  a  sacri- 
fice of  two  birds,  one  of  which  was  killed,  and  the 
other  set  at  liberty.  He  who  had  touched  a  dead 
body,  or  had  been  present  at  a  funeral,  was  to  be 
purified  with  the  water  of  expiation,  and  this 
upon  pain  of  death.  The  woman  who  had  been 
delivered,  offered  a  turtle  and  a  lamb  for  her  ex- 
piation ;  or  if  she  was  poor,  two  turtles,  or  two 
young  pigeons. 

These  impurities,  which  the  law  of  Moses  has 
expressed  with  the  greatest  accuracy  and  care, 
were  only  figures  of  other  more  important  im- 
purities, such  as  the  sins  and  iniquities  committed 
against  God,  or  faults  committed  against  our 
neighbour.  The  saints  and  prophets  of  the  Old 
Testament  were  sensible  of  this  ;  and  our  Saviouu, 
in  the  Gospel,  has  strongly  inculcated — that  they 
are  not  outward  and  corporeal  pollutions  which 
render  us  unacceptable  to  God,  but  such  inward 
pollutions  as  infect  the  soul,  and  are  violations  of 
justice,  truth  and  charity. 

IMPUTATION  is  the  attributing  any  mat- 
ter, quality,  or  character,  whether  good  or  evil,  ta 
any  person  as  his  own.  It  may  refer  to  what  was 
originally  his,  antecedently  to  such  imputation; 
or  to  what  was  not  antecedently  his,  but  becomes 
so  by  virtue  of  such  imputation  only.  2  Sam.  xix. 
19 ;  Ps.  cvi.  31.  The  imputation  that  respecf.3 
our  justification  before  God  is  of  the  latter  kind, 
and  may  be  defined  thus  :  it  is  God's  gracious  do- 
nation of  the  righteousness  of  Christ  to  believers, 
and  his  acceptance  of  their  persons  as  righteous 
on  the  account  thereof.  Their  sins  being  im- 
puted to  him,  and  his  obedience  being  imputed  to 
them,  they  are,  in  virtue  hereof,  both  acquitted 
from  guilt,  and  accepted  as  righteous  before  God, 
Roin.  iv.  6,7;  v.  18,  19;  2  Cor.  v.  21.  See 
Righteousness.  Sin;  Dickinsons  Letters,  p. 
156  ;  Hervey's  Thcron  ar.d  Aspasia,  vol.  ii.  p. 
43;  Doddridge's  Wmks,  vol.  iv.  p.  562;  Watts' s 
]Vurks,  vol.  iii.  p.  532.  Edwards  on  Original 
Sin. 

INABILITY,  want  of  power  sufficient  for  the 
performance  of  any  particular  action  or  design. 
It  has  been  divided  into  natural  and  moral.  We 
are  said  to  be  naturally  unable  to  do  a  thing  when 
we  cannot  do  it  if  we  wish,  because  of  some  im- 
peding defect  or  obstacle  that  is  extrinsic  of  the 
will,  cither  in  the  understanding,  constitution  of 
the  body,  or  external  objects.  Moral  inability 
consists  not  in  any  of  these  things,  but  either  in 
the  want  of  inclination,  or  the  strength  of  a  con- 
trary inclination  ;  or  the  want  of  sufficient  mo- 
tives in  vfew  to  induce  and  excite  the  act  of  tho 
will,  or  the  strength  of  apparent  motives  to  th» 
contrary.  For  the  sake  of  illustration,  we  will  here 
present  the  reader  w-.th  a  few  examples  of  both. 

Natural.  Moral. 

Cain  could  vot  have  killed  Cain  could  not  have  kill 

Abel,  if  Cain  liad  been  the  ed  Abel,  if  Cain  bad  feared 

weakest,  aud  Abel  atvare  God,   and  loved  Ids    bro- 

of  him.  ther. 

&2 


TNCEST 


'  tcob  could  not  rejoice 
in  Joseph  s  exaltation  be- 
fore ho  hoard  of  it. 

The  woman  mentioned 
in'2<l  Kings  vi  Z{.\, could  not 
kill  her  neighbour's  son 
and  eat  him,  when  he  was 
hid,  and  she  could  not  rind 
him. 

Hazael  could  not  have 
smothered  Benhailad,  if 
lie  had  not  been  suffered  to 
enter  his  chamber. 


Potiphar's  wife  could  not 
rejoice  in  it,  if  she  con- 
tinued under  it. 

Had  that  woman  been  a 
very  affectionate  mother, 
she  aruld  not.  have  killed 
her  own  son  in  a  time  of 
plenty,  as  she  did  in  a  time 
of  famine. 

If  a  dutiful,  affection- 
ate son  had  been  waiting 
on  Benhadad  in  Hazael's 
stead,  he  could  not  have 
smothered  him,  as  Hazael 
did. 


These  are  a  few  instances  from  which  we  may 
clearly  learn  the  distinction  of  natural  and  moral 
inability.  It  must  not,  however,  be  forgotten, 
that  moral  inability  or  disinclination  is  no  excuse 
for  our  omission  of  duty,  though  want  of  natural 
faculties  or  necessary  means  would.  That  God 
may  command,  though  man  has  no  present  mo- 
ral ability  to  perform,  is  evident,  if  we  consider, 
1.  That  man  once  had  a  power  to  do  whatsoever 
God  would  command  him,  he  had  a  power  to 
cleave  to  God. — 2.  That  God  did  not  deprive 
man  of  his  ability. — 3.  Therefore  God's  right  of 
commanding,  and  man's  obligation  of  returning 
and  cleaving  to  God  remains  firm.  See  Liberty  ; 
and  Theol.  Misc.  vol.  ii.  p.  4S8 ;  Edwards  on 
the  Will ;  Char-nock's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  187 ; 
Watts  on  Liberty,  p.  4. 

INCARNATION,  the  act  whereby  the  Son 
of  God  assumed  the  human  nature ;  or  the  mys- 
tery by  which  Jesus  Christ,  the  Eternal  Word, 
was  made  man,  in  ojjder  to  accomplish  the  work 
of  our  salvation.  See  Nativity,  and  Mcldrum 
on  the  Incarnation. 

INCEST,  the  crime  of  criminal  and  unnatural 
commerce  with  a  person  within  the  degrees  for- 
bidden by  the  law.  By  the  rules  of  the  church, 
incest  was  formerly  very  absurdly  extended  even 
to  the  seventh  degree ;  but  it  is  now  restricted  to 
the  third  or  fourth.  Most  nations  look  on  incest 
with  horror,  Persia  and  Egypt  excepted.  In  the 
history  of  the  ancient  kings  of  those  countries  we 
meet  with  instances  of  brothers  marrying  their 
own  sisters,  because  they  thought  it  too  mean  to 
join  in  alliance  with  their  own  subjects,  and  still 
more  so  to  marry  into  any  foreign  family.  Vor- 
tigern,  king  of  South  Britain,  equalled,  or  rather 
excelled  them  in  wickedness,  by  marrying  his 
own  daughter.  The  queen  of  Portugal  was  mar- 
ried to  her  uncle ;  and  the  prince  of  Brazil,  the 
son  of  that  incestuous  marriage,  wedded  his  aunt. 
But  tbey  had  dispensations  for  these  unnatural 
marriages  from  his  holiness.  "  In  order,"  says 
jne,  "to  preserve  chastity  in  families,  and  be- 
tween persons  of  different  sexes  brought  up  and 
living  together  in  a  state  of  unreserved  intimacy, 
\l  is  necessary,  by  every  method  possible,  to  incul- 
cate an  abhorrence  of  incestuous  conjunctions : 
which  abhorrence  can  only  be  upheld  by  the  ab- 
solute reprobation  of  all  commerce  of  the  sexes 
between  near  relations.  Upon  tins  principle  the 
marriage,  as  well  as  other  cohabitation  of  bro- 
thers and  sisters  of  lineal  kindred,  and  of  all  who 
usually  live  in  the  same  family,  may  be  said  to 
be  forbidden  by  the  law  of  mture.  Restrictions 
which  extend  to  remoter  degrees  of  kindred  than 
what  this  reason  makes  it  necessary  to  prohibit. 
from  intermarriage,  are  founded  in  the  authority 
of  the  positive  law  which  ordains  them,  and  can 
only  be  justified  by  their  tendency  to  diffuse 
18U 


INCOMPREHENSIBILITY 
wealth,  to  connect  families,  or  to  promote  soni 
political  advantage. 

"  The  Levitical  law,  which  is  received  in  this 
country,  and  from  which  the  rule  of  the  Roman 
law  diners  very  little,  prohibits  marriage  between 
relations  within  three  degrees  of  kindred ;  com- 
puting the  generations  not  from,  but  through  the 
common  ancestor,  and  accounting  affinity  the 
same  as  consanguinity,  The  issue,  however,  of 
such  marriages  are  not  bastardized,  unless  th6 
parents  be  divorced  during  their  lifetime."  Pa- 
ley's  Moral  Philosophy,  p.  316.  vol.  i. 

INCEST,  SPIRITUAL,  an  ideal  crime, 
committed  between  two  persons  who  have  a  spi- 
ritual alliance,  by  means  of  baptism  or  confirma- 
tion. This  ridiculous  fancy  was  made  use  of  as" 
an  instrument  of  great  tyranny  in  times  when 
the  power  of  the  pope  was  unlimited,  even  queens 
being  sometimes  divorced  upon  this  pretence.  In- 
cest Spiritual  is  also  understood  of  a  vicar,  or 
other  beneficiary,  who  enjoys  both  the  mother 
and  the  daughter ;  that  is,  holds  two  benefices, 
one  whereof  depends  upon  the  collation  of  the 
other.  Such  spiritual  incest  renders  both  the 
one  and  the  other  of  these  benefices  vacant. 

INCLINATION  is  the  disposition  or  propen- 
sity of  the  mind  to  any  particular  object  or  action; 
or  a  kind  of  bias  upon  nature,  by  the  force  of 
which  it  is  carried  towards  certain  actions  pre- 
viously to  the  exercise  of  thought  and  reasoning 
about  the  nature  and  consequences  of  them.  In- 
clinations are  of  two  kinds,  natural  or  acquired, 
1.  Natural,  are  such  as  we  often  see  in  children, 
who  from  their  earliest  years  differ  in  their  tem- 
pers and  dispositions.  In  one  you  sec  the  dawn- 
ings  of  a  liberal,  diffusive  soul ;  another  gives  us 
cause  to  fear  he  will  be  altogether  as  narrow  and 
sordid.  Of  one  we  may  say,  he  is  naturally  re- 
vengeful ;  of  another,  that  he  is  patient  and  for- 
giving.— 2.  Acquired  inclinations  are  such  as  are 
superinduced  by  custom,  which  are  called  habits; 
and  these  are  either  good  or  evil.     See  Habit. 

INCOMPREHENSIBILITY  OF  GOD. 
This  is  a  relative  term,  and  indicates  a  relation 
between  an  object  and  a  faculty ;  between  God 
and  a  created  understanding  :  so  that  the  mean- 
ing  of  it  is  this,  that  no  created  understanding 
can  comprehend  God  ;  that  is,  have  a  perfect  and 
exact  knowledge  of  Him,  such  a  knowledge  as 
is  adequate  to  the  perfection  of  the  object.  Job 
xi.  7 ;  Isa.  xl.  God  is  incomprehensible : — 1.  As 
to  the  nature  of  his  essence.  2.  The  excellency 
of  his  attributes.  3.  The  depth  of  liis  counsels. 
4.  The  works  of  his  providence.  5.  The  dis- 
pensation of  his  grace,  Eph.  iii.  8;  Job  xxxvik 
25  ;  Rom.  xi.  The  incomprehensibility  of  God 
follows,  1.  From  his  being  a  spirit  endued  with 
perfections  greatly  superior  to  our  own. — 2. 
There  may  be  (for  any  thing  we  certainly  know) 
attributes  and  perfections  in  God  of  winch  we 
have  not  the  least  idea. — 3.  In  those  perfections 
of  the  divine  nature  of  which  we  have  some  idea, 
there  are  many  things  to  us  inexplicable,  and 
with  which,  the  more  deeply  and  attentively  we 
think  of  them,  the  more  we  find  our  thoughts 
swallowed  up;  such  as  his  self-existence,  eter- 
nity, omnipresence,  &c.  This  should  teach  us, 
therefore,  1.  To  admire  and  reverence  the  Divine 
Being,  Zech.  ix.  17;  Neh.  ix.  5.-2.  To  be 
humble  and  modest,  Ps.  viii.  1.  4  ;  Eccl.  v.  2,  3 ; 
Job  xxxvii.  1!). — 3.  To  lie  serious  in  our  ad- 
dresses, and  sincere  in  our  behaviour  towards 


INDEPENDENCY 

him.  Caryl  on  Job  xxvii.  25  ;  TVllotson's  Ser- 
mons, sermon  156 ;  Abemethy's  Sermons,  vol.  ii. 
No.  6,  7 ;  Doddridge's  Lect.  lee.  50. 

INCONTINENCY,  not  abstaining  from  un- 
lawful desires.     See  Continency. 

INCORPOREALITY  OF  GOD,  is  his  be- 
ing without  a  body.  That  God  is  incorporeal  is 
evident:  for,  1.  Materiality  is  incompatible  with 
self-existence,  and  God,  being  self-existent,  must 
be  incorporeal. — 2.  If  God  were  corporeal,  he 
could  not  be  present  in  any  part  of  the  world 
where  body  is  ;  yet  his  presence  is  necessary  for 
the  support  and  motion  of  body. — 3.  A  body  can- 
not be  in  two  places  at  the  same  time ;  yet  he  is 
every  where,  and  fills  heaven  and  earth. — 4.  A 
body  is  to  be  seen  and  felt ;  but  God  is  invisible 
and  impalpable,  John  i.  18.  Charnock's  Works, 
vol.  i.  p.  117;  Doddridge's  Lect.  lee.  47;  Gill's 
Body  of  Div.  vol.  i.  p.  45,  oct. 

1NCORRUPTIBLES,  or  Incorruptibiles, 
the  name  of  a  sect  which  sprang  out  of  the  Euty- 
chians.  Their  distinguishing  tenet  was,  that  the 
body  of  Jesus  Christ  was  incorruptible  ;  by  which 
they  meant,  that,  after  and  from  the  time  wherein 
he  was  formed  in  the  womb  of  his  mother,  he 
was  not  susceptible  of  any  change  or  alteration ; 
not  even  of  any  natural  or  innocent  passion,  as 
of  hunges,  thirst,  &c. ;  so  that  he  ate  without  oc- 
casion before  his  death,  as  well  as  after  his  resur- 
rection. 

INCREDULITY,  the  withholding  our  assent 
to  any  proposition,  notwithstanding  arguments 
sufficient  to  demand  assent.  See  Duncan  Forbes's 
piece,  entitled  Refactions  on  the  Sources  of  In- 
credulity with  regard  to  Religion,  and  Casau- 
bon  on  Credulity  and  Incredulity. 

INDEPENDENCY  OF  GOD  is  his  exist- 
ence in  and  of  himself,  without  depending  on  any 
other.  "His  being  and  perfections,"  as  Dr. 
Ridgley  observes,  (Body  of  Div.  q.  7.)  "are  un- 
derived,  and  not  communicated  to  him,  as  all  finite 
perfections  are  by  him  to  the  creature.  This  at- 
tribute of  independency  belongs  to  all  his  per- 
fections. 1.  He  is  independent  as  to  his  know- 
ledge. He  doth  not  receive  ideas  from  any 
Object  out  of  himself,  as  intelligent  creatures  do. 
This  is  elegantly  described  by  the  prophet,  Is.  xl. 
13,  14. — 2.  He  is  independent  in  power.  As  he 
receives  strength  from  no  one,  so  he  doth  not  act 
dependentiy  on  the  will  of  the  creature,  Job  xxxvi. 
23. — 3.  He  is  independent  as  to  his  holiness,  hating 
sin  necessarily,  and  not  barely  depending  on  some 
reasons  out  of  himself  inducing  him  thereto ;  for 
it  is  essential  to  the  divine  nature  to  be  infinitely 
opposite  to  sin,  and  therefore  to  be  independently 
holy. — 4.  He  is  independent  as  to  his  bounty 
and  goodness.  He  communicates  blessings  not 
by  constraint,  but  according  to  his  sovereign  will. 
Thus  he  gave  being  to  the  world,  and  all  things 
therein,  which  was  the  first  instance  of  bounty 
and  goodness ;  and  this  not  bv  restraint,  but  by 
his  free-will ;  "  for  his  pleasure  they  are  and  were 
created."  In  like  manner,  whatever  instances  of 
mercy  he  extends  to  miserable  creatures,  he  acts 
independently  and  not  by  force.  He  shows 
mercy,  because  it  is  his  pleasure  to  do  so,  Rom. 
ix.  18.  That  God  is  independent,  let  it  be  fur- 
ther considered,  1.  That  all  things  depend  on  his. 
power  which  brought  them  into  and  preserves 
them  in  being.  If,  therefore,  all  things  depend 
on  God,  then  it  would  be  absurd  to  say  that  God 
depends  on  any  thing,  for  this  would  be  to  sup- 
187 


INDEPENDENTS 

pose  the  cause  and  effect  to  be  mutually  deprrvi 
ent  on  and  derived  from  each  other,  which  infers 
a  contradiction. — 2.  If  God  be  infinitely  above 
the  highest  creatures,  he  cannot  depend  on  any 
of  them,  for  dependence  argues  inferiority,  Is.  xl. 
15.  17. — 3.  If  God  depend  on  any  creature,  he 
does  not  exist  necessarily ;  and  if  so,  then  he 
might  not  have  been ;  for  the  same  will  by  which 
he  is  supposed  to  exist,  might  have  determined 
that  he  should  not  have  existed,  which  is  alto- 
gether inconsistent  with  the  idea  of  a  Cod.  From 
God's  being  independent,  we  infer,  1.  That  we 
ought  to  conclude  that  the  creature  cannot  lay 
any  obligation  on  him,  or  do  any  thing  that  may 
tend  to  make  him  more  happy  than  he  is  in  him- 
self, Rom.  xi.  35 ;  Job  xxii.  2,  3. — 2.  If  inde- 
pendency be  a  divine  perfection,  then  let  it  not  in 
any  instance,  or  by  any  consequence,  be  attri- 
buted to  the  creature :  let  us  conclude  that  all  our 
springs  are  in  him ;  and  that  all  we  enjoy  and 
hope  for  is  from  him,  who  is  the  author  and 
finisher  cf  our  faith,  and  the  fountain  of  all  our 
blessedness." 

INDEPENDENTS,  a  sect  of  Protestants,  so 
called  from  their  maintaining  that  each  congre- 
gation of  Christians  which  meet  in  one  house  for 
public  worship  is  a  complete  church ;  has  suffi- 
cient power  to  act  and  perform  every  thing  re- 
lating to  religious  government  within  itself;  and 
is  in  no  respect  subject  or  accountable  to  other 
churches. 

Though  the  Episcopalians  contend  that  there 
is  not  a  shadow  of  the  independent  discipline  to 
be  found  either  in  the  Bible  or  the  primitive 
church,  the  Independents,  on  the  contrary;  be- 
lieve that  it  is  most  clearly  to  be  deduced  from 
the  practice  of  the  apostles  in  planting  the  first 
churches.  See  Church,  Congregational,  and 
Episcopacy.  The  Independents,  however,  were 
not  distinguished  as  a  body  till  the  time  of  queen 
Elizabeth.  The  hierarchy  established  by  that 
princess  in  the  churches  of  her  dominions,  the 
vestments  worn  by  the  clergy  in  the  celebration 
of  divine  worship,  the  book  of  Common  Prayer, 
and,  above  all,  the  sign  of  the  cross  used  in  the 
administration  of  baptism,  were  very  offensive  to 
many  of  her  subjects,  who,  during  the  persecu- 
tions of  the  former  reign,  had  taken  refuge  among 
the  Protestants  of  Germany  and  Geneva.  These 
men  thought  that  the  church  of  England  resem- 
bled in  too  many  particulars  the  anti-christian 
church  of  Rome ;  they  therefore  called  perpetu- 
ally for  a  more  thorough  reformation,  and  a  purer 
worship.  From  this  circumstance  they  were 
stigmatized  with  the  general  name  of  Puritans, 
as  the  followers  of  Novatian  had  been  in  the  an- 
cient church.  See  I^ovatians.  Elizabeth  was 
not  disposed  to  comply  with  their  demands ;  and 
it  is  difficult  to  say  what  might  have  been  the 
issue  of  the  contest,  had  the  Puritans  been  united 
among  themselves,  in  sentiments,  views,  and 
measures.  But  the  case  was  quite  otherwise: 
that  large  body,  composed  of  persons  of  different 
ranks,  characters,  opinions,  and  intentions,  and 
unanimous  in  nothing  but  their  antipathy  to  the 
established  church,  was  all  of  a  sudden  divided 
into  a  variety  of  sects.  Of  these,  the  most  fa- 
mous was  that  which  was  formed  about  the  year 
1581,  by  Robert  Brown,  a  man  insinuating  in 
his  manners,  but  unsteady  and  inconsistent  in 
his  views  and  nc.ions  of  men  and  things.  Brown 
was  for  dividing  the  whole  body  of  the  faithful 


INDEPENDENTS 

into  separate  societies  or  congregations ;  and  main- 
tained that  such  a  number  of  persons  as  could  he 
contained  in  an  ordinary  place  of  worship  ought 
to  he  considered  as  a  church,  and  enjoy  all  the 
rights  and  privileges  that  are  competent  to  an 
ecclesiastical  community.  These  small  societies 
he  pronounced  independent,  jure  divino,  and 
entirely  exempt  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
bishop,  in  whose  hands  the  court  had  placed  the 
reins  of  a  spiritual  government:  and  also  from 
that  of  presbyteries  and  synods,  which  the  Puri- 
tans regarded  as  the  supreme  visible  sources  of 
ecclesiastical  authority.  But  as  we  have  given 
an  account  of  the  general  opinions  and  discipline 
of  the  Brownists,  we  need  not  enumerate  them 
here,  hut  must  beg  the  reader  to  refer  to  that  arti- 
cle. The  zeal  with  which  Brown  and  his  asso- 
ciates maintained  and  propagated  his  notions, 
was,  in  a  high  degree,  intemperate  and  extrava- 
gant. Pie  affirmed  that  all  communion  was  to 
be  broken  off  with  those  religious  societies  that 
were  founded  upon  a  different  plan  from  his ; 
emd  treated  more  especially  the  church  of  England 
as  a  spurious  church,  whose  ministers  were  un- 
lawfully ordained ;  whose  discipline  was  popish 
and  anti-christian  ;  and  whose  sacraments  and  in- 
stitutions were  destitute  of  all  efficacy  and  virtue. 
His  followers  not  being  able  to  endure  the  severe 
treatment  which  they  met  with  from  an  adminis- 
tration that  was  not  distinguished  for  its  mild- 
ness ahd  indulgence,  retired  into  the  Netherlands, 
<ind  founded  churches  at  Middlebourg,  Amster- 
dam, and  Leyden.  Their  founder,  however,  re- 
turned into  England,  renounced  his  principles  of 
separation,  and  took  orders  in  the  established 
church.  The  Puritan  exiles,  whom  he  thus 
abandoned,  disagreed  among  themselves,  were 
split  into  parties,  and  their  affairs  declined  from 
day  to  day.  This  engaged  the  wiser  part  of  them 
to  mitigate  the  severity  of  their  founder's  plan, 
and  to  soften  the  rigour  of  his  uncharitable  de- 
cisions. 

The  person  who  had  the  chief  merit  of  bring- 
ing about  this  reformation  was  one  of  their  pas- 
tors, of  the  name  of  Robinson  ;  a  man  wh«  had 
much  of  the  solemn  piety  of  the  times,  and  no 
inconsiderable  portion  of  learning.  This  well- 
meaning  reformer,  perceiving  the  defects  that 
reigned  in  the  discipline  of  Browne,  and  in  the 
spirit  and  temper  of  his  followers,  employed  his 
zeal  and  diligence  in  correcting  them,  and  in  new- 
modelling  the  society  in  such  a  manner,  as  to  ren- 
der it  less  odious  to  his  adversaries,  and  less  liable 
to  the  just  censure  of  those  true  Christians  who 
look  upon  charity  as  the  end  of  the  command- 
ments. Hitherto  the  sect  had  been  called  Brown- 
ists; but  Robinson  having  in  his  apology  affirmed 
that  all  Christian  congregations  were  so  many 
independent  religious  societies,  that  had  a  right 
to  be  governed  by  their  own  laws,  independent 
of  any  further  or  foreign  jurisdiction,  the  sect 
was  henceforth  called  Independents,  of  which, 
the  apologist  was  considered  as  the  founder. 

The  first  independent  or  congregational  church 
in  England  was  established  by  a  Mr.  Jacob,  in 
the  year  Kilt).  Mr.  Jacob,  who  had  fled  from 
the  persecution  of  bishop  Bancroft  going  to  Hol- 
land, and  having  imparted  his  design  of  setting 
up  it  separate  congregation,  like  those  in  Holland, 
to  the  most  learned  Puritans  of  those  times,  it  was 
not  condemned  as  unlawful,  considering  there 
was  no  prospect  of  a  national  reformation.  Mr. 
188 


INDEPENDENTS 
Jacob,  therefore,  having  summoned  several  of  his 
friends  together,  and  having  obtained  their  coiv 
sent  to  unite  in  church  fellowship  for  enjoying 
the  ordinances  of  Christ  in  the  purest  manner, 
they  laid  the  foundation  of  the  first  independent 
church  in  England  in  the  following  way  :  Hav- 
ing observed  a  day  of  solemn  fasting  and  prayer 
for  a  blessing  upon  their  undertaking,  towards 
the  close  of  the  solemnity,  each  of  them  made 
an  open  confession  of  their  faith  in  Christ ;  and 
then,  standing  together,  they  joined  hands,  and 
solemnly  covenanted  with  each  other,  in  the  pre- 
sence oi"  Almighty  God,  to  walk  together  in  all 
God's  ways  and  ordinances,  according  as  he  had 
already  revealed,  or  should  further  make  known » 
to  them.  Mr.  Jacob  was  then  chosen  pastor  by 
the  suffrage  of  the  brotherhood  ;  and  others  were 
appointed  to  the  office  of  deacons,  with  fasting 
and  prayer,  and  imposition  of  hands. 

The  Independents  were  much  more  commend- 
able than  the  Brownists:  they  surpassed  them, 
both  in  the  moderation  of  their  sentiments,  and 
in  the  order  of  their  discipline.  They  did  not,  like 
Brown,  pour  forth  bitter  and  uncharitable  invec- 
tives against  the  churches  which  were  governed 
by  rules  entirely  different  from  theirs,  nor  pro- 
nounce them,  on  that  account,  unworthy  of  the 
Christian  name.  On  the  contrary,  though  they 
considered  their  own  form  of  ecclesiastical  go- 
vernment as  of  divine  institution,  and  as  original- 
ly introduced  by  the  authority  of  the  apostles, 
nay,  by  the  apostles  themselves,  they  had  yet 
candour  and  charity  enough  to  acknowledge  that 
true  religion  and  solid  piety  might  flourish  iD 
those  communities  which  were  under  the  juria 
diction  of  bishops,  or  the  government  of  synods 
and  presbyteries.  They  were  also  much  more 
attentive  than  the  Brownists  in  keeping  on  foot 
a  regular  ministry  in  their  communities;  for, 
while  the  latter  allowed  promiscuously  all  ranks 
and  orders  of  men  to  teach  in  public,  the  Inde- 
pendents had,  and  still  have,  a  certain  number  of 
ministers,  chosen  respectively  by  the  congrega- 
tions where  they  are  fixed  :  nor  is  it  common  for 
any  person  among  them  to  speak  in  public  before 
he  has  submitted  to  a  proper  examination  of  his 
capacity  and  talents,  and  been  approved  of  by 
the  heads  of  the  congregation. 

From  1642,  the  Independents  are  very  fre- 
quently mentioned  in  the  English  annals.  The 
charge  alleged  against  them  by  Rapin,  (in  his 
History  of  England,  vol.  ii.  p.  114,  folio  edition,) 
that  they  could  not  so  much  as  endure  ordinary 
ministers  in  the  church,  &c,  is  groundless.  He 
was  led  into  this  mistake  by  confounding  the  In- 
dependents  with  the  Brownists.  Other  charges, 
no  less  unjustifiable,  have  been  urged  against  the 
Independents  by  this  celebrated  historian,  and 
others.  Rapin  says,  that  they  abhorred  mon- 
archy,  and  approved  of  a  republican  government : 
this  might  have  been  true  with  regard  to  many 
persons  among  them,  in  common  with  other  sects; 
but  it  does  not  appear,  from  any  of  their  public 
writings,  that  republican  principles  formed  their 
distinguishing  characteristic;  on  the  contrary,  in 
a  public  memorial  drawn  up  by  them  in  1647, 
they  declare,  that  they  do  not  disapprove  of  any 
form  of  civil  government,  but  do  freely  acknow- 
ledge that  a  kingly  government,  bounded  by  just 
and  wholesome  laws,  is  allowed  by  God,  anil  also 
a  good  accommodation  unto  men.  The  Inde- 
pendents, however,  have  been  generally  ranked 


INDEPENDENTS 

among  the  regicides,  and  charged  with  the  death 
of  Charles  I.  Whether  this  fact  be  admitted  or 
denied,  no  conclusion  can  be  fairly  drawn  from 
the  greater  prevalence  of  republican  principles, 
or  from  violent  proceedings  at  that  period,  that 
can  affect  the  distinguishing  tenets  and  conduct 
of  the  Independents  in  our  times.  It  is  certain 
that  the  present  Independents  are  steady  friends 
to  a  limited  monarchy.  Rapin  is  further  mistaken 
when  he  represents  the  religious  principles  of  the 
English  Independents  as  contrary  to  those  of  all 
the  rest  of  the  world.  It  appears  from  two  con- 
fessions of  faith,  one  composed  by  Robinson,  in 
behalf  of  the  English  Independents  in  Holland, 
and  published  at  Leyden  in  1610,  entitled,  Apo- 
logiapro  Exulibus  Anglis,  qui  Broicnislce  vvlgo 
appellantur;  and  another  drawn  up  in  London 
in  1658,  by  the  principal  members  of  their  com- 
munity in  England,  entitled,  "  A  Declaration  of 
the  Faith  and  Order  owned  and  practised  by  the 
Congregational  Churches  in  England,  agreed 
upon  and  consented  unto  by  their  Elders  and 
Messengers,  in  their  meeting  at  the  Savoy,  Oct. 
12,  1658,"  as  well  as  from  other  writings  of  the 
Independents,  that  they  differed  from  the  rest  of 
the  reformed  in  no  single  point  of  any  conse- 
quence, except  that  of  ecclesiastical  government ; 
and  their  religious  doctrines  were  almost  entirely 
the  same  with  those  adopted  by  the  church  of 
Geneva.  During  the  administration  of  Cromwell, 
the  Independents  acquired  very  considerable  re- 
putation and  influence ;  and  he  made  use  of  them 
as  a  check  to  the  ambition  of  the  Presbyterians, 
who  aimed  at  a  very  high  degree  of  ecclesiastical 
power,  and  who  had  succeeded,  soon  after  the 
elevation  of  Cromwell,  in  obtaining  a  parliamen- 
tary establishment  of  their  own  church  govern- 
ment. But  after  the  restoration,  their  cause  de- 
clined ;  and  in  1691  they  entered  into  an  associa- 
tion with  the  Presbyterians  residing  in  and  about 
London,  comprised  in  nine  articles,  that  tended 
to  the  maintenance  of  their  respective  institutions. 
These  may  be  found  in  the  second  volume  of 
"Whiston's  Memoirs,  and  the  substance  of  them 
in  Mosheim.  At  this  time  the  Independents  and 
Presbyterians,  called  from  this  association  the 
United  Brethren,  were  agreed  with  regard  to 
doctrines,  being  generally  Calvinists,  and  differed 
only  with  respect  to  ecclesiastical  discipline.  But 
at  present,  though  the  English  Independents  and 
Presbyterians  form  two  distinct  parties  of  Pro- 
testant Dissenters,  they  are  distinguished  by  very 
trifling  differences  with  regard  to  church  govern- 
ment, and  the  denominations  are  more  arbitrarily 
used  to  comprehend  those  who  differ  in  theologi- 
cal opinions.  The  Independents  are  generally 
more  attached  to  Calvinism  than  the  Presbyteri- 
ans, lndependentism  is  peculiar  to  Great  Bri- 
tain, the  United  States,  and  the  Batavian  Re- 
public. It  was  carried  first  to  the  American 
colonies  in  1620,  and  by  successive  Puritan  emi- 
grants, in  1629  and  1633,  from  England.  One 
Morel,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  endeavoured  to 
introduce  it  into  France ;  but  it  was  condemned 
at  the  synod  of  Rochelle,  were  Beza  presided ; 
and  again  at  the  synod  of  Rochelle,  in  1644. 

Many  of  the  Independents  reject  the  use  of  all 
creeds  and  confessions  drawn  up  by  fallible  men, 
though  they  require  of  their  teachers  a  declara- 
tion of  their  belief  in  the  Gospel  and  its  various 
doctrines,  and  their  adherence  to  the  Scriptures 
as  the  sole  standard  of  faith  and  practice.  They 
189 


INDEPENDENTS 
attribute  no  virtue  whatever  to  the  right  of  ordi- 
nation, upon  which  some  other  churches  lay  so 
much  stress.  According  to  them,  the  qualifica- 
tions which  constitute  a  regular  minister  of  the 
New  Testament,  are,  a  firm  belief  in  the  Gospel, 
a  principle  of  sincere  and  unaffected  piety,  a  com- 
petent stock  of  knowledge,  a  capacity  for  leading 
devotion  and  communicating  instruction,  a  serious 
inclination  to  engage  in  the  important  employ- 
ment of  promoting  the  everlasting  salvation  of 
mankind,  and  ordinarily  an  invitation  to  the  pas- 
toral office  from  some  particular  society  of  Chris- 
tians. Where  these  things  concur,  they  con- 
sider a  person  as  fitted  and  authorized  for  the 
discharge  of  every  duty  which  belongs  to  the 
ministerial  function ;  and  they  believe  that  the 
imposition  of  hands  of  bishops  or  presbyters 
would  convey  to  him  no  powers  or  prerogatives 
of  which  he  was  not  before  possessed.  But 
though  they  attribute  no  virtue  to  ordination,  as 
conveying  any  new  powers,  yet  they  hold  with 
and  practise  it.  Many  of  them,  indeed,  suppose 
that  the  essence  of  ordination  does  not  lie  in  the 
act  of  the  ministers  who  assist,  but  in  the  choice 
and  call  of  the  people,  and  the  candidate's  ac 
ccptance  of  that  call ;  so  that  their  ordination 
may  be  considered  only  as  a  public  declaration  of 
that  agreement.  See  Ordination.  They  con- 
sider it  as  their  right  to  choose  their  own  minis- 
ters and  deacons.  They  own  no  man  as  head 
of  the  church.  They  disallow  of  parochial  and 
provincial  subordination  ;  but  though  they  do  not 
think  it  necessary  to  assemble  synods,  yet,  if  any 
be  held,  they  look  upon  their  resolutions  as  pru- 
dential counsels,  but  not  as  decisions  to  which 
they  are  obliged  to  conform.  They  consider  the 
Scriptures  as  the  only  criterion  of  truth.  Their 
worship  is  conducted  in  a  decent,  plain,  and  sin> 
pie  manner,  without  the  ostentation  of  form,  and 
the  vain  pomp  of  ceremony. 

The  congregations  of  the  Independents  are 
very  numerous,  both  in  England  and  America, 
and  some  of  them  very  respectable.  This  de- 
nomination has  produced  many  characters  as 
eminent  for  learning  and  piety  as  any  church  in 
Christendom ;  whose  works,  no  doubt,  will  re- 
flect lasting  honour  on  their  characters  and  abili- 
ties. See  Church,.  Congregational;  Non- 
conformists, and  books  under  those  articles. 

INDEPENDENTS,  NEW,  sometimes  call- 
ed Haldanites,  or  Haldanite  Indepevdenls,  the 
appellation  given  to  a  tolerably  large  i  lass  of  re- 
ligionists, who  arose  about  thirty  years  since,  and 
have  spread  to  a  considerable  extent  in  Scotland 
and  Ireland.  Their  origin  as  a  sect,  or  society, 
is  doubtless  to  be  traced  bark  to  the  controversies 
which  grew  out  of  Mr.  John  Glas's  secession 
from  the  established  church,  an  event  which  gave 
rise  to  a  great  deal  of  controversy  on  the  subject 
of  church  government,  between  the  Presbyterians 
and  liis  adherents ;  but  it  was  not  till  about  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century,  that  the 
latter  body,  which  forms  the  subject  of  the  present 
article,  began  to  excite  much  attention.  The 
institution  of  Missionary  Societies  had  produced 
a  strong  sensation  among  the  religious  of  all 
denominations,  and  other  events  ot  a  singular 
nature  contributed  to  give  rise  to  this  spirit  of 
religious  discussion  and  innovation.  But  few 
men  felt  the  missionary  spirit  with  greater  ardour 
than  Robert  Haldane,  Esq.  a  gentleman  of  much 
respectability,  and  possessed  of  an  ample  fortune 


INDEPENDENTS 
in  Scotland.  Having  lately  been  brought  to 
think  seriously  of  religion,  ami  now  happy  in  the 
enjoyment  of  its  comforts,  he  felt  in  no  small 
degree  the  importance  of  the  duty  of  spreading 
among  the.  heathen  the  knowledge  of  those 
truths  which  had  given  hope  and  consolation  to 
his  own  mind.  Under  this  impression,  he  sold 
his  estates,  and  along  with  several  associates, 
men  of  talent  and  exemplary  piety,  intended  to 
employ  his  fortune  in  diffusing  among  the  'rihes 
(if  Hindostan  the  arts  of  civilized  lite,  and  the 
blessings  of  true  religion.  Such  an  example  of 
disinterested  zeal  and  of  individual  active  benevo- 
lence has  seldom  occurred,  and  we  may  challenge 
all  the  modern  philosophers  and  modern  philan- 
thropists to  produce  the  like.  Upon  application 
to  government  for  liberty  to  adopt  a  system  of 
measures  for  propagating  the  gospel  extensively 
in  the  East  Indies,  his  proposal  was  unsuccess- 
ful. But  this  disappointment,  however  great,  j 
served  only  to  direct  his  benevolence  into  another 
channel;  for  he  then  turned  his  attention  to  the 
state  of  his  own  country,  and  resolved  to  employ 
his  fortune  and  his  exertions  in  propagating  the 
gospel  at  home.  Accordingly,  "  The  Society  for 
Propagating  the  Gospel  at  Home,"  was  formed  in 
1797,  the  professed  object  of  which  was  to  send 
forth  men  to  preach  the  gospel  in  those  parts  of 
Scotland  where  they  conceived  that  this  blessing 
was  not  enjoyed  in  its  purity,  or  where  it  was 
not  regularly  dispensed  ;  and  hence  the  members 
of  this  sect  were  sometimes  called  Missionaries. 

The  formation  and  exertions  of  this  society, 
we  are  told,  "  had  been  considerably  facilitated 
by  the  progress  of  opinion, — by  the  corruptions  of 
the  Scottish  church,  and  by  the  religious  discus- 
sions which  had  been  excited  by  several  publica- 
tions, and  particularly  by  the  Missionary  Maga- 
zine." This  miscellany,  conducted  by  a  minis- 
ter of  the  established  church,  who  had  agreed  to 
accompany  Mr.  H.  to  India,  contained  some  bold 
doctrines,  which  had  seldom  been  heard  without 
the  threshold  of  some  obscure  conventicle;  and 
among  others,  that  it  is  the  right,  nay,  the  para- 
mount duty,  of  every  Christian  who  knows  the 
gospel,  and  is  duly  qualified,  to  preach  it  to  his 
fellow  sinners.  The  discussion  of  this  contro- 
versy created  a  very  great  sensation  in  the  reli- 
gious world;  and  the  societies  which  had  been 
formed,  were,  generally  disposed  to  act  upon  the 
irrinciple.  James  Haldane,  Esq.  brother  of  the 
above,  Mr.  Aikman  and  others,  men  of  ability, 
and  actuated  by  fervent  zeal,  travelled  at  different 
times  through  the  greater  part  of  Scotland, 
preaching  the  gospel  to  their  countrymen,  and 
that  on  the  maxim  of  "making  the  word  of  God 
without  charge."  In  their  labours  they  expe- 
rienced considerable  opposition,  particularly  from 
the  established  clergy ;  but  "  the  common  people 
heard  them  gladly,"  and  not  a  tew  of  them  em- 
braced the  doctrines  which  they  taught.  They 
were  soon  succeeded  by  other  labourers,  employed 
by  the  society,  who  were  no  less  successful  in 
promoting  the  same  cause. 

Neither  the  Messrs.  Haldanes  nor  any  of 
their  friends,  had  yet  separated  from  the  com- 
munion of  the  church  of  Scotland,  nor  had  any 
of  the  established  ministers  declared  themselves 
attached  to  their  party.  But  in  a  short  time 
they  both  thought  themselves  bound  in  con- 
science and  duty  to  forsake  her  fellowship;  and 
soon  after,  Messrs.  Ir.nes  and  Ewing,  both  min- 
190 


INDEX 
isters  in  the  national  church,  resigned  their 
charges,  and  united  with  them  and  their  asso- 
ciates in  the  work  in  which  they  were  engaged, 
in  preaching  the  gospel  throughout  the  kingdom. 
A  distinct  society  was  soon  formed;  and  the 
Messrs.  PI.  by  whose  zeal  and  influence  the  sepa- 
ration was  chiefly  effected,  being  at  its  head,  its 
members  came  to  be  called  Haldanites,  but  this 
name  of  distinction  was  by  no  means  agreeable 
to  those  gentlemen,  who  modestly  desired  it  might 
be  laid  aside. 

Larue  places  of  public  worship,  which  were  at 
first  distinguished  by  the  name  of  tabernacles, 
were  erected  at  Mr,  R.  H.'s  expense  in  the  prir- 
cipat  towns,  where  the  word  of  God  was  declared 
to  numerous  assemblies,  both  by  those  ministers 
and  others  from  various  denominations  in  Eng- 
land. Mr.  J.  Haldane  and  Mr.  Aikman  were 
finally  fixed  at  Edinburgh,  Mr.  Innes  at  Dun- 
dee, and  Mr.  Ewing  at  Glasgow,  besides  various 
other  preachers  who  were  established  in  different 
parts  of  the  country.  Academics  also,  supported 
chiefly,  if  not  solely,  at  the  expence  of  Mr.  R.  H. 
were  formed  at  the  three  above-mentioned  places, 
for  the  education  of  young  men  for  the  work  of 
the  ministry ;  who,  when  qualified,  were  to  be 
employed  as  itinerants  under  the  inspection  and 
countenance  of  the  "  Society  for  Propagating  the 
Gospel  at  Home." 

The  Established  Presbyterian  Church,  it  seems, 
have  not  followed  the  cautious  policy  of  Gamaliel, 
"  to  let  these  men  alone ;"  for  we  are  told  that 
the  ministers  and  leaders  of  this  denomination 
have  not  been  treated  with  "  silent  neglect,"  and 
that  it  was  not  owing  to  the  moderation  of  her 
clergy,  or  the  mildness  of  her  principles,  but  to 
the  superior  indulgence  of  the  civil  government, 
that  the  Messrs.  H.  and  their  Iriends  were  not 
punished  for  their  non-conformity,  by  the  terrors 
of  the  law. 

Their  present  numbers,  condition,  or  prospects, 
we  have  had  no  means  of  ascertaining.  In  doc- 
trine they  are  decidedly  Calvinistic,  and  in 
church  government  maintain  the  purest  princi- 
ples of  Congregationalism.  See  that  article,  with 
the  references.  Also,  Adams's  Religious  World 
Displayed,  vol.  iii. ;  Haldanc's  View  of  Social 
Worship. — B. 

INDEX,  EXPURGATORY,  a  catalogue 
of  prohibited  books  in  the  church  of  Rome.  The 
first  catalogues  of  this  kind  were  made  by  the  in- 
quisitors, and  these  were  afterwards  approved  of 
by  the  council  of  Trent,  after  some  alteration 
was  made  in  them  by  way  of  retrenchment  or 
addition.  Thus  an  index  of  heretical  books  be- 
ing formed,  it  was  confirmed  by  a  bull  of  Cle- 
ment VIII.  in  1595,  and  printed  with  several 
introductory  rules ;  by  the  fourth  of  which,  the 
use  of  the  Scriptures  in  the  vulgar  tongue  is  fop- 
bidden  to  all  persons  without  a  particular  licence : 
and  by  the  tenth  rule  it  is  ordained,  that  no  book 
shall  be  printed  at  Rome  without  the  approba- 
tion of  the  pope's  vicar,  or  some  person  delegated 
by  the  pope;  nor  in  any  other  places,  unless 
allowed  by  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  or  some 
person  deputed  by  him,  or  by  the  inquisitor  of 
heretical  pravity.  The  Trent  index  being  thus 
published,  Philip  II.  of  Spain,  ordered  another  to 
be  printed  at  Antwerp  in  1571,  with  considera- 
ble enlargements.  Another  index  was  published 
in  Spain  in  1581,  a  copy  of  which  was  snatch- 
ed out  of  the  lire  when"  the  English  plundered 


INDULGENCES 

Cadiz.  Afterwards  there  were  several  expurga- 
tory  indexes  printed  at  Rome  and  Naples,  and 
particularly  in  Spain. 

INDIGNATION,  a  strong  disapprobation  of 
mind,  excited  by  something  flagitious  in  the  con- 
duct of  another.  It  does  not,  as  Mr.  Cogan  ob- 
serves, always  suppose  that  excess  of  depravity 
which  alone  is  capable  of  committing  deeds  of 
horror.  Indignation  always  refers  to  culpability 
of  conduct,  and  cannot,  like  the  passion  of  hor- 
ror, be  extended  to  distress  either  of  body  or 
mind.  It  is  produced  by  acts  of  treachery,  abuse 
of  confidence,  base  ingratitude,  &c,  which  we 
cannot  contemplate  without  being  provoked  to 
anger,  and  feeling  a  generous  resentment. 

INDULGENCES,  in  the  Romish  church, 
are  a  remission  of  the  punishments  due  to  sin, 
granted  by  the  church,  and  supposed  to  savp  the 
sinner  from  purgatory. 

According  to  the  doct  rine  of  the  Romish  church, 
all  the  good  works  of  the  saints,  over  and  above 
those  which  were  necessary  towards  their  own 
justification,  are  deposited,  together  with  the  in- 
finite merits  of  Jesus  Christ,  in  one  inexhausti- 
ble treasury.  The  keys  of  this  were  committed 
to  St.  Peter,  and  to  his  successors,  the  popes, 
who  may  open  it  at  pleasure ;  and,  by  trans- 
ferring a  portion  of  this  superabundant  merit  to 
any  particular  person  for  a  sum  of  money,  may 
convey  to  him  either  the  pardon  of  his  own  sins, 
or  a  release  for  any  one  in  whom  he  is  interested 
from  the  pains  of  purgatory.  Such  indulgences 
were  first  invented  in  the  eleventh  century,  by 
Urban  II.  as  a  recompense  for  those  who  went 
in  person  upon  the  glorious  enterprise  of  con- 
quering the  Holy  Land.  They  were  afterwards 
granted  to  those  who  hired  a  soldier  for  that  pur- 
pose ;  and  in  process  of  time  were  bestowed  on 
such  as  gave  money  for  accomplishing  any  pious 
work  enjoined  by  the  pope.  The  power  of 
granting  indulgences  has  been  greatly  abused  in 
the  church  of  Rome.  Pope  Leo  X.,  in  order  to 
carry  on  the  magnificent  structure  of  St.  Peter's, 
at  Rome,  published  indulgences,  and  a  plenary 
remission  to  all  such  as  should  contribute  money 
towards  it.  Finding  the  project  take,  he  granted 
to  Albert,  elector  of  Mentz,  and  archbishop  of 
Magdeburg,  the  benefit  of  the  indulgences  of 
Saxony,  and.  the  neighbouring  parts,  and  farmed 
out  those  of  other  countries  to  the  highest  bid- 
ders: who,  to  make  the  best  of  their  bargain, 
procured  the  ablest  preachers  to  cry  up  the  value 
of  the  ware.  The  form  of  these  indulgences  was 
as  follows: — "May  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  have 
mercy  upon  thee,  and  absolve  thee  by  the  merits 
of  his  most  holy  passion.  And  I,  by  his  authority, 
that  of  his  blessed  apostles,  Peter  and  Paul,  and 
of  the  most  holy  pope,  granted  and  committed  to 
me  in  these  parts,  do  absolve  thee,  first  from  all 
ecclesiastical  censures,  in  whatever  manner  they 
have  been  incurred ;  then  from  all  thy  sins,  trans- 
gressions, and  excesses,  how  enormous  soever 
they  may  be :  even  from  such  as  are  reserved  for 
the  cognizance  of  the  holy  see,  and  as  far  as  the 
keys  of  the  holy  church  extend.  I  remit  to  you 
all  punishment  which  you  deserve  in  purgatory 
on  their  account ;  and  I  restore  you  to  the  holy 
sacraments  of  the  church,  to  the  unity  of  the 
faithful,  and  to  that  innocence  and  purity  which 
you  possessed  at  baptism :  so  that  when  you  die, 
the  gates  of  punishment  shall  be  shut,  and  the 
gates  of  the  paradise  of  delight  shall  be  opened ; 


INDWELLING 

and  if  you  shall  not  die  at  present,  this  gracs 
shall  remain  in  full  force  when  you  are  at  the 
point  of  death.  In  the  name  of  the  Father,  the 
Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost."  According  to  a  book, 
called  the  Tax  of  the  sacred  Roman  Chancery,  in 
which  are  contained  the  exact  sums  to  be  levied 
for  the  pardon  of  each  particular  sin,  we  find 
some  of  the  fees  to  be  thus : 

s.      d. 

For  procuring  abortion 7      6 

For  simony 10      6 

For  sacrilege 10      6 

For  taking  a  false  oath  in  a  criminal  case    9      0 

For  robbing 12       0 

For  burning  a  neighbour's  house  ...  12      0 

For  defiling  a  virgin 9       0 

For  lying  with  a  mother,  sister,  &c.       .    7      6 

For  murdering  a  layman 7       6 

For  keeping  a  concubine 10      (5 

For  laying  violent  hands  on  a  clergyman  10  6 
And  so  on. 

The  terms  in  which  the  retailers  of  indulgences 
described  their  benefits,  and  the  necessity  of  pur- 
chasing them,  were  so  extravagant,  that  they  ap- 
pear almost  incredible.  If  any  man,  said  they, 
purchase  letters  of  indulgence,  his  soul  may  rest 
secure  with  respect  to  its  salvation.  The  souls 
confined  in  purgatory,  for  whose  redemption  in- 
dulgences are  purchased,  as  soon  as  the  money 
tinkles  in  the  chest,  instantly  escape  from  that 
place  of  torment,  and  ascend  into  heaven.  That 
the  efficacy  of  indulgences  was  so  great,  that  the 
most  heinous  sins,  even  if  one  should  violate 
(which  was  impossible)  the  Mother  of  God,  would 
be  remitted  and  expiated  by  them,  and  the  person 
be  freed  both  from  punishment  and  guilt.  That 
this  was  the  unspeakable  gift  of  God,  in  order  to 
reconcile  man  to  himself.  That  the  cross  erected 
by  the  preachers  of  indulgences  was  equally  effi- 
cacious with  the  cross  of  Christ  itself.  "  Lo," 
said  they,  "the  heavens  are  open  :  if  you  enter 
not  now,  when  will  you  enter  7  For  twelvepence 
you  may  redeem  the  soul  of  your  father  out  of 
purgatory ;  and  are  you  so  ungrateful  that  you 
will  not  rescue  the  soul  of  your  parent  from  tor- 
ment %  If  you  had  but  ono  coat,  you  ought  to  strip 
yourself  instantly  and  sell  it,  in  order  to  purchase 
such  benefit,"  &c.  It  was  this  great  abuse  of  in- 
dulgences that  contributed  not  a  little  to  the  Re» 
formation  of  religion  in  Germany,  where  Martin 
Luther  began  first  to  declaim  against  the  preachers 
of  indulgences,  and  afterwards  against  indulgences 
themselves.  Since  that  time  the  popes  have  been 
more  sparing  in  the  exercise  of  this  power ;  al- 
though, it  is  said,  they  still  carry  on  a  great  trade 
with  them  to  the  Indies,  where  they  are  purchased 
at  two  rials  a  piece,  and  sometimes  more.  We 
are  told  also  that  a  gentleman  not  long  since  being 
at  Naples,  in  order  that  he  might  be  fully  ascer- 
tained respecting  indulgences,  went  to  the  office, 
and  for  two  sequins  purchased  a  plenary  remis- 
sion of  all  sins  for  himself  and  any  two  other  per- 
sons of  his  friends  or  relations,  whose  names  he 
was  empowered  to  insert.  Haweis's  Church  Hist. 
vol.  Hi.  p.  147;  Smith's  Errors  of  the  Church  of 
Rome  ;  Watson's  Theol.  Tracts,  vol.  v.  p.  274 ; 
Mosheim's  Eccl.  Hist.  vol.  i.  p.  594,  quarto. 

INDUSTRY,  diligence,  constant  application 
of  the  mind,  or  exercise  of  the  body.  See  Dili- 
gence and  Idleness. 

INDWELLING  SCHEME,  a  scheme  which 
derives  its  name  from  that  passage  in  Col.  ii.  9. 


INFALLIBILITY 
"  In  him  dwelleth  all  the  fulness  of  the  Godhead 
bodily,"  which,  according  to  some,  asserts  the 
doctrine  of  Cnnst's  consisting  of  two  hcings ;  one 
the  self-existent  Creator,  and  the  other  a  creature, 
made  into  one  person  by  an  ineffable  union  and 
indwelling,  which  renders  the  same  attributes 
and  honours  equally  applicable  to  both.  See 
Prk-kxistkatk.  Dr.  Owen's  Glory  of  Christ, 
p.  3G8,  3(59,  London  ed.  Iu79  ;  a  Sermon  entitled 
"  The  Iruc  Christ  of  God  above  the  false  Christ 
of  Men,"  Ipswich,  1799;  Watts' s  Glory  of  Christ, 
p.  <  i— 003 ;  Adams's  View  of  Religions,  p.  2(37. 

INFALLIBILITY,  the  quality  of  not  being 
irble  to  be  deceived  or  mistaken. 

The  infallibility  of  the  Church  of  Rome  has 
been  one  of  the  great  controversies  between  the 
Protestants  and  Papists.  By  this  infallibility  it 
Ls  understood,  that  she  cannot  at  any  time  cease 
to  be  ortliodox  in  her  doctrine,  or  fall  into  any 
pernicious  errors ;  hut  that  she  is  constituted,  by 
divine  authority,  the  judge  of  all  controversies  of 
religion,  and  that  all  Christians  are  obliged  to  ac- 
quiesce in  her  decisions.  This  is  the  chain 
which  keeps  its  members  fast  bound  to  its  com- 
munion ;  the  charm  which  retains  them  within 
its  magic  circle ;  the  opiate  which  lays  asleep  all 
their  doubts  and  difficulties;  it  is  likewise  the 
magnet  which  attracts  the  desultory  and  unstable 
in  other  persuasions  within  the  sphere  of  popery, 
the  foundation  of  its  whole  superstructure,  the 
cement  of  ail  its  parts,  and  its  fence  and  fortress 
against  all  inroads  and  attacks. 

Under  the  idea  of  this  infallibility,  the  church 
of  Rome  claims,  1.  To  determine  what  books 
are  and  what  are  not  canonical,  and  to  oblige  all 
Christians  to  receive  or  reject  them  accordingly. — 
2.  To  communicate  authority  to  the  Scripture  ; 
or,  in  other  words,  that  the  Scripture  (quoad  nos,) 
as  to  us,  receives  its  authority  from  her. — 3.  To 
assign  and  fix  the  sense  of  Scripture,  which  all 
Christians  are  submissively  to  receive. — 4.  To 
decree  as  necessary  to  salvation  whatever  she 
judges  so,  although  not  contained  in  Scripture. — 
5.  To  decide  all  controversies  respecting  matters 
of  faith.  These  are  the  claims  to  which  the 
church  of  Rome  pretends,  but  which  we  shall  not 
here  attempt  to  refute,  because  any  man  with  the 
Bible  in  his  hand,  and  a  little  common  sense, 
will  easily  see  that  they  are  all  founded  upon  igno- 
rance, superstition,  and  error.  It  is  not  a  little 
remarkable,  however,  that  the  Roman  Catholics 
themselves  are  much  divided  as  to  the  seat  of  this 
infallibility,  and  which,  indeed,  may  be  consi- 
dered as  a  satisfactory  proof  that  no  such  privi- 
lege exists  in  the  church.  For  is  it  consistent 
with  reason  to  think  that  God  would  have  im- 
parted so  extraordinary  a  gift  to  prevent  errors 
and  dissensions  in  the  church,  and  yet  have  left 
an  additional  cause  of  error  and  dissension,  viz. 
the  uncertainty  of  the  place  of  its  abode  1  No, 
surely,  —Some  place  this  infallibility  in  the  pope 
or  bishop  of  Rome;  some  in  a  general  council; 
otheTs  in  neither  pope  nor  council  separately,  but. 
in  both  conjointly  ;  whilst  others  are  said  to  place 
it  in  the  church  diffusive,  or  in  all  churches 
throughout  the  world.  But  that  it  could  not  be 
deposited  in  the  pope  is  evident,  for  many  popes 
have  been  heretics,  and  on  that  account  censured 
and  deposed,  and  therefore  could  not  have  been 
infallible.  That  it  could  not  be  placed  in  a  gene- 
ral council  is  as  evident ;  for  general  councils  have 
actually  erred.  Neither  could  it  be  placed  in  the 
192 


INFALLIBILITY 

pope  and  council  conjointly ;  for  two  fallinlcs 
could  not  make  one  infallible,  any  more  than  twe 
ciphers  could  make  an  integer.  To  say  that  it  is 
lodged  in  the  church  universal  or  diffusive,  is 
equally  erroneous  ;  for  this  would  be  useless  and 
insignificant,  because  it  could  never  oe  exercised. 
Thi  w7hole  church  could  not  meet  to  make  de- 
crees, or  to  choose  representatives,  or  to  delivei 
their  sentiments  on  any  question  started ;  and 
less  than  all  would  not  be  the  whole  church,  and. 
so  could  not  claim  that  privilege. 

The  most  general  opinion,  however,  it  is  said, 
is  that  of  its  being  seated  in  a  pope  and  general 
council.  The  advocates  for  this  opinion  consider 
the  pope  as  the  vicar  of  Christ,  head  of  the  church, 
and  centre  of  unity  ;  and  therefore  conclude  that 
his  concurrence  with  and  approbation  of  the  de- 
crees of  a  general  council  arc  necessary,  and  suffi- 
cient to  afford  it  an  indispensable  sanction  and 
plenary  authority.  A  general  council  they  re- 
gard as  the  church  representative,  and  suppose 
that  nothing  can  be  wanting  to  ascertain  the 
truth  of  any  controversial  point,  when  the  pre- 
tended head  of  the  church  and  its  members,  as- 
sembled in  their  supposed  representatives,  mu- 
tually concur  and  coincide  in  judicial  definitions 
and  decrees,  but  that  infallibility  attends  their 
coalition  and  conjunction  in  all  their  determina- 
tions. 

Every  impartial  person,  who  considers  this 
subject  with  the  least  degree  of  attention,  must 
clearby  perceive  that  neither  any  individual  nor 
body  of  Christians  have  any  ground  from  reason 
or  Scripture  for  pretending  to  infallibility.  It  is 
evidently  the  attribute  of  the  Supreme  Being 
alone,  which  we  have  all  the  foundation  imagi 
nable  to  conclude  he  has  not  communicated  to 
any  mortal,  or  associations  of  mortals.  The  hu- 
man being  who  challenges  infallibility  seems  to 
imitate  the  pride  and  presumption  of  Lucifer, 
when  he  said, — I  will  ascend,  and  will  be  like 
the  Most  High.  A  chum  to  it  was  unheard  of 
in  the  primitive  and  purest  ages  of  the  church ; 
but  became,  after  that  period,  the  arrogant  pre- 
tension of  papal  ambition.  History  plainly  in- 
forms us,  that  the  bishops  of  Rome,  on  the  de- 
clension of  the  western  Roman  empire,  began  to 
put  in  their  claim  of  being  the  supreme  and  in- 
fallible heads  of  the  Christian  church;  which 
they  at  length  established  by  their  deep  policy 
and  unremitting  efforts ;  by  the  concurrence  of 
fortunate  circumstances;  by  the  advantages  which 
they  reaped  from  the  necessities  of  some  princes, 
and  the  superstition  of  others ;  and  by  the  gene- 
ral and  excessive  credulity  of  the  people.  How- 
ever, when  they  had  grossly  abused  this  absurd 
pretension,  and  committed  various  acts  of  injus- 
tice, tyranny,  and  cruelty  ;  when  the  blind  vene- 
ration for  the  papal  dignity  had  been  greatly  di- 
minished by  the  long  and  scandalous  schism 
occasioned  by  contending  popes;  when  these 
had  been  for  a  considerable  time  roaming  about 
Europe,  fawning  on  princes,  squeezing  their  ad- 
herents, and  cursing  their  rivals  ;  and  when  the 
councils  of  Constance  and  Basil  had  challenged 
and  exercised  the  right  of  deposing  and  electing 
the  bishops  of  Rome,  then  their  pretensions  to 
infallibility  were  called  in  question,  and  the  world 
discovered  that  councils  were  a  jurisdiction  su]>e- 
rior  to  that  of  the  towering  pontiffs.  Then  it 
was  that  this  infallibility  was  transferred  by  many 
divines  from  popes  to  general  councils,  and  the 


INFANT 
opinion  of  the  superior  authority  of  a  council 
above  that  of  a  pope  spread  vastly,  especially  un- 
der the  profligate  pontificate  of  Alexander  VI. 
and  the  martial  one  of  Julius  II.  The  popes 
were  thought  by  numbers  to  be  too  unworthy 
possessors  of  so  rich  a  jewel ;  at  the  same  time  it 
appeared  to  be  of  too  great  a  value,  and  of  too  ex- 
tensive consequence,  to  be  parted  with  entirely. 
It  was,  therefore,  by  the  major  part  of  the  Roman 
ehurch,  deposited  with,  or  made  the  property  of 
general  councils,  either  solely  or  conjointly  with 
the  pope.  See  Smith's  Errors  of  the  Church  of 
Rome  detected ;  and  a  list  of  writers  under  article 
Popery. 

INFANT  COMMUNION,  the  admission 
of  infants  to  the  ordinance  of  the  Lord's  Supper. 
It  has  been  debated  by  some,  whether  or  no  in- 
fants should  be  admitted  to  this  ordinance.  One 
of  the  greatest  advocates  for  this  practice  was 
Mr.  Pierce.  He  pleads  the  use  of  it  even  unto 
this  day  among  the  Greeks,  and  in  the  Bohemian 
churches,  till  near  the  time  of  the  Reformation ; 
but  especially  from  the  custom  of  the  ancient 
churches,  as  it  appears  from  many  passages  in 
Photius,  Augustin,  and  Cyprian.  But  Dr.  Dod- 
dridge observes,  that  Mr.  Pierce's  proof  from  the 
more  ancient  fathers  is  very  defective.  His  argu- 
ments from  Scripture  chiefly  depend  upon  this 
general  medium;  that  Christians  succeeding  to 
the  Jews  as  God's  people,  and  being  grafted  upon 
that  stock,  their  infants  have  a  right  to  all  the 
privileges  of  which  they  are  capable,  till  forfeited 
by  some  immoralities  ;  and  consequently  have  a 
right  to  partake  of  this  ordinance,  as  the  Jewish 
children  had  to  eat  of  the  passover  and  other  sa- 
crifices ;  besides  this,  he  pleads  those  texts  which 
speak  of  the  Lord's  Supper  as  received  by  all 
Christians. 

The  most  obvious  answer  to  all  this,  is  that 
which  is  taken  from  the  incapacity  of  infants  to 
examine  themselves,  and  discern  the  Lord's  body ; 
but  he  answers  that  this  precept  is  only  given  to 
persons  capable  of  understanding  and  complying 
with  it,  as  those  which  require  faith  in  order  to 
baptism  are  interpreted  by  the  Psedobaptists. 
As  for  his  argument  from  the  Jewish  children 
eating  the  sacrifice,  it  is  to  be  considered  that  this 
was  not  required  as  circumcision  was ;  the  males 
were  not  necessarily  brought  to  the  temple  till 
they  were  twelve  years  old,  Luke  ii.  42  ;  and  the 
sacrifices  they  ate  of  were  chiefly  peace-offerings, 
which  became  the  common  food  to  all  that  were 
clean  in  the  family,  and  were  not  looked  upon  as 
acts  of  devotion  to  such  a  degree  as  our  eucharist  is ; 
though,  indeed,  they  were  a  token  of  their  ac- 
knowledging the  divinity  of  that  God  to  whom 
they  had  been  olfered,  1  Cor.  x.  18;  and  even 
the  passover  was  a  commemoration  of  a  temporal 
deliverance;  nor  is  there  any  reason  to  believe 
that  its  reference  to  the  Messiah  was  generally 
understood  by  the  Jews. 

On  the  whole,  it  is  certain  there  would  be 
more  danger  of  a  contempt  arising  to  the  Lord's 
Supper  from  the  admission  of  infants,  and  of 
confusion  and  trouble  to  other  communicants; 
so  that  not  being  required  in  Scripture,  it  is 
much  the  best  to  omit  it.  When  children  arc 
grown  up  to  a  capacity  of  behaving  decently,  they 
may  soon  be  instructed  in  the  nature  and  design 
of  the  ordinance ;  and  if  they  appear  to  under- 
stand it,  and  behave  for  some  competent  time  of 
trial  in  a  manner  suitable  to  that  profession,  it 
1U3  Z 


INFIDELITY 

would  probably  be  advisable  to  admit  them  is 
communion,  though  very  young ;  which,  by  the 
way,  might  be  a  good  security  against  many  of 
the  snares  to  which  youth  are  exposed. — Dod- 
dridge's Lectures,  lect.  207  ;  Pierce's  Essay  on 
the  Eucharist,  p.  76,  &c;  Witsius  on  Cov.  b.  4- 
c.  17,  §  30,  32;  J.  Frid.  Mayer  Diss,  de  Eucha- 
ristia  Infantum  ;  Zornius  Hist.  Eucharist.  In- 
fantum, p.  18;  Theol.  and  Bib.  Mag.  January 
and  April,  1806. 

INFA1NTS,  SALVATION  OF.  "Vari- 
ous opinions,"  says  an  acute  writer,  "concerning 
the  future  state  of  infants  have  been  adopted. 
Some  think,  all  dying  in  infancy  are  annihilated ; 
for,  say  they,  infants,  being  incapable  of  moral 
good  or  evil,  are  not  proper  objects  of  reward  or 
punishment.  Others  think  that  they  share  a  fate 
similar  to  adults ;  a  part  saved,  and  a  part  perish. 
Others  affirm  all  are  saved  because  all  are  im- 
mortal and  all  are  innocent.  Others,  perplexed 
with  these  diverse  sentiments,  think  best  to  leave 
the  subject  untouched.  Cold  comfort  to  parents 
who  bury  their  families  in  infancy  !  The  most 
probable  opinion  seems  to  be,  that  they  are  all 
saved,  through  the  merits  of  the  Mediator,  with 
an  everlasting  salvation.  This  has  nothing  in  it 
contrary  to  the  perfections  of  God,  or  to  any  de- 
claration of  the  Holy  Scriptures ;  and  it  is  highly 
agreeable  to  all  those  passages  which  affirm 
where  sin  hath  abounded,  grace  hath  much  more 
abounded.  On  these  principles,  the  death  of 
Christ  saves  more  than  the  fall  of  Adam  lost." 
If  the  reader  be  desirous  of  examining  the  subject, 
we  refer  him  to  p.  415.  vol.  ii.  Robinson's  Claude; 
Gillard  and  Williams's  Essays  on  Infant  Salva- 
tion; An  Attempt  to  elucidate  Rom.  v.  12,  by  an 
anonymous  writer ;  Watts' s  Ruin  and  Recovery, 
p.  324,  327;  Edwards  on  Original  Sin,  p.  431, 
434;  Doddridge's  Lect.  lea  168  j  Ridglajs 
Body  of  Div.  vol.  i.  p.  330  to  336. 

INFIDELITY,  want  of  faith  in  God.  or  the 
disbelief  of  the  truths  of  revelation,  and  the  great 
principles  of  religion.  If  we  inquire  into  the  rise 
of  infidelity,  we  shall  find  it  does  not  take  its  ori- 
gin from  the  result  of  sober  inquiry,  close  inves- 
tigation, or  full  conviction;  but  it  is  rather,  as 
one  observes,  "  The  slow  production  of  a  care- 
less and  irreligious  life,  operating  together  with 
prejudices  and  erroneous  conceptions  concerning 
the  nature  of  the  leading  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity. It  may,  therefore,  be  laid  down  as  an 
axioni,  that  infidelity  is,  in  general,  a  disease  of 
the  heart  more  than  of  the  understanding;  for 
we  always  find  that  infidelity  increases  in  propor- 
tion as  the  general  morals  decline.  If  we  con- 
sider the  nature  and  effect  of  this  principle,  we 
shall  find  that  it  subverts  the  whole  foundation  of 
morals ;  it  tends  directly  to  the  destruction  of  a. 
taste  for  moral  excellence,  and  promotes  the 
growth  of  those  vices  which  are  the  most  hostile 
to  social  happiness,  especially  vanity,  ferocity,  and 
unbridled  sensuality.  As  to  the  progress  of  it, 
it  is  certain  that,  of  late  years,  it  has  made  rapid 
strides.  Lord  Herbert  did  not,  indeed,  so  much 
impugn  the  doctrine  or  the  morality  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, as  attempt  to  supersede  their  necessity,  by 
endeavouring  to  show  that  the  great  principles 
of  the  unity  of  God,  a  moral  government,  and  a 
future  world,  are  taught  with  sufficient  clearness 
by  the  light  of  nature.  Bolingbroke,  and  others 
of  his  successors,  advanced  much  further,  and 
attempted  to  invalidate  the  proofs  of  the  moral 


INFINITY 

character  of  the  Deity,  and  consequently  all  ex- 
pectation of  rewards  and  punishments,  leaving; 
the  Supreme  Being  no  other  perfections  than 
those  which  belong  to  a  first  cause,  or  Almighty 
contriver.  After  him,  at  a  considerable  distance, 
followed  Hume,  the  most  subtle  of  all,  who 
boldly  aimed  to  introduce  an  universal  scepticism, 
and  to  pour  a  more  than  Egyptian  darkness  into 
the  whole  rejion  of  morals.  Since  his  time, 
sceptical  writers  have  sprang  up  in  abundance, 
and  infidelity  has  allured  multitudes  to  its  stand- 
ard :  the  young  and  superficial,  by  its  dexterous 
sophistry ;  the  vain,  by  the  literary  fame  of  its 
Champion ;  and  the  profligate,  by  the  licentious- 
ness of  its  principles."  But  let  us  ask,  What 
will  be  its  end  ?  Is  there  any  thing  in  the  genius 
of  this  principle  that  will  lead  us  to  suppose  it 
will  reign  triumphant?  So  far  from  it,  we  have 
reason  to  believe  that  it  will  be  banished  from  the 
earth.  Its  inconsistency  with  reason ;  its  incon- 
gruity with  the  nature  of  man ;  its  cloudy  and 
obscure  prospects;  its  unsatisfying  nature;  its 
opposition  to  the  dictates  of  conscience ;  its  per- 
nicious tendency  to  eradicate  every  just  principle 
from  the  breast  of  man,  and  to  lead  the  way  for 
every  species,  of  vice  and  immorality,  show  us 
that  it  cannot  flourish,  but  must  finally  fall. — 
And,  as  Mr.  Hall  justly  observes,  "  We  have 
nothing  to  fear ;  for,  to  an  attentive  observer  of 
the  signs  of  the  times,  it  will  appear  one  of  the 
most  extraordinary  phenomena  of  this  eventful 
crisis,  that,  amidst  the  ravages  of  atheism  and  in- 
fidelity, real  religion  is  on  the  increase ;  for  while 
infidelity  is  marking  its  progress  by  devastation 
and  ruin,  by  the  prostration  of  thrones  and  con- 
cussion of  kingdoms,  thus  appalling  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  world,  and  compelling  them  to  take 
refuge  in  the  church  of  God,  the  true  sanctuary, — 
the  stream  of  divine  knowledge,  unobserved,  is 
flowing  in  new  channels;  winding  its  course 
among  humble  valleys,  refreshing  thirsty  deserts, 
and  enriching,  with  far  other  and  higher  bless- 
ings than  those  of  commerce,  the  most  distant 
climes  and  nations ;  until,  agreeably  to  the  pre- 
diction of  prophecy,  the  knowledge  of  the  Lord 
shall  fill  and  cover  the  whole  earth."  See  Hall's 
admirable  Ser.  on  Infidelity;  Fuller's  Gospel 
of  Christ  its  own  Witness ;  Biihop  Watson's 
Apology  for  the  Bihlc ;  Wilbcrforce's  Practical 
View,  §  3.  ch.  7;  Bp.  Home's  Le'ters  on  Infi- 
delity, and  books  under  article  Deism. 

INFINITY.  Infinity  is  taken  in  two  senses 
entirely  different,  i.  e.  in  a  positive  and  a  negative 
one.  Positive  infinity  is  a  quality  of  being  per- 
fect in  itself,  or  capable  of  receiving  no  addition. 
Negative  is  the  quality  of  being  boundless,  unli- 
mited, or  endless.  That  God  is  infinite  is  evi- 
dent; for,  as  Doddridge  observes,  1.  If  he  be 
limited,  it  must  either  be  by  himself  or  by  an- 
other ;  but  no  wise  being  would  abridge  himself; 
and  there  could  be  no  other  being  to  limit  God. — 
2.  Infinity  follows  from  self-existence ;  for  a  ne- 
cessity that  is  not  universal  must  depend  on  some 
external  cause,  which  a  self-existent  Being  does 
not. — 3.  Creation  is  so  great  an  act  of  power, 
that  we  can  imagine  nothing  impossible  to  that 
Being  who  has  performed  it,  but  must  therefore 
ascribe  to  him  infinite  power. — 4.  It  is  more  ho- 
nourable to  the  Divine  Being  to  conceive  of  him 
as  infinite  than  finite. — 5.  The  Scriptures  repre- 
sent all  his  attributes  as  infinite.  His  under- 
standing is  infinite,  Ps.  ctlvii.  5.  His  know- 
194 


INFLUENCES 

ledge  and  wisdom,  Rom.  xi.  33.  His  power, 
Rom.  i.  20  ;  Heb.  xi.  3.  His  goodness,  Ps.  xvi. 
2.  His  purity,  holiness,  and  justice,  Job  iv.  17, 
18 ;  Isa.  vi.  2,  3. — 6.  His  omnipotence  and  eter- 
nity prove  his  infinity :  for  were  he  not  infi- 
nite, he  would  be  bounded  by  space  and  by  time, 
which  he  is  not.  Doddridge's  Led.  lect.  49 ; 
Watts' s  Ontology,  ch.  17 ;  Locke  on  Underst. 
vol.  i.  chap.  17;  Howe's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  63, 
61,  67. 

INFIRMITY,  applied  to  the  mind,  denotes 
frailty,  weakness.  It  has  been  a  question  what 
may  properly  be  denominated  sins  of  infirmity. 

1.  Nothing,  it  is  said,  can  be  excused  under 
that  name  which  at  the  time  of  its  commission  is 
known  to  be  a  sin. — 2.  Nothing  can  be  called  a 
sin  of  infirmity  which  is  contrary  to  the  express 
letter  of  any  of  the  commandments. — 3.  Nothing 
will  admit  of  a  just  and  sufficient  excuse  upon 
the  account  of  infirmity  which  a  man  beforehand 
considers  and  deliberates  with  himseltj  whether  it 
be  a  sin  or  no.  A  sin  of  infirmity  is,  1.  Such  a 
failing  as  proceeds  from  excusable  ignorance. — 
2.  Or  unavoidable  surprise. — 3.  Or  want  of 
courage  and  strength.  Rom.  xv.  1. 

By  infirmity  also  we  understand  the  corrup- 
tions that  are  still  left  in  the  heart  (notwithstand- 
ing a  person  may  be  sanctified  in  part,)  and 
which  sometimes  break  out.  These  may  be  per- 
mitted to  humble  us ;  to  animate  our  vigilance ; 
perhaps  that  newly  convinced  sinners  might  not 
be  discouraged  by  a  sight  of  such  perfection  they 
might  despair  of  ever  attaining  to ;  to  keep  us 
prayerful  and  dependent ;  to  prevent  those  hon- 
ours which  some  would  be  ready  to  give  to  human 
nature  rather  than  to  God ;  and,  lastly,  to  excite 
in  us  a  continual  desire  for  heaven.  Let  us  be 
cautious  and  watchful,  however,  against  sin  in 
all  its  forms :  for  it  argues  a  deplorable  state  of 
mind  when  men  love  to  practise  sin ;  and  then 
lay  it  upon  constitution,  the  infirmity  of  nature, 
the  decree  of  God,  the  influence  of  Satan  ;  and 
thus  attempt  to  excuse  themselves  by  saying  they 
could  not  avoid  it.  Clarke's  Serm.  ser.  12.  voL 
Lx. ;  Massillon's  Serm.  vol.  ii.  p.  213,  English 
translation. 

INFLUENCES,  DIVINE,  a  term  made  use 
of  to  denote  the  operations  of  the  Divine  Being 
upon  the  mind.  This  doctrine  of  divine  influ- 
ences has  been  much  called  in  question  of  late ; 
but  we  may  ask,  1.  What  doctrine  can  be  more 
reasonable  ?  "  The  operations  which  the  power 
of  God  carries  on  in  the  natural  world  are  no  less 
mysterious  than  those  which  the  Spirit  performs 
in  the  moral  world.  If  men,  by  their  counsels 
and  suggestions,  can  influence  the  minds  of  one 
another,  must  not  divine  suggestion  produce  a 
much  greater  effect  1  Surely  the  Father  ef  spirits, 
by  a  thousand  ways,  has  access  to  the  spirits  he 
has  made,  so  as  to  give  them  what  determination, 
or  impart  to  them  what  assistance  he  thinks  pro. 
per,  without  injuring  their  frame  or  disturbing 
their  rational  powers." 

We  may  observe,  2.  Nothing  can  be  more 
scriptural.  Eminent  men,  from  the  patriarchal 
age  down  to  St.  John,  the  latest  writer,  believed 
in  this  doctrine,  and  ascribed  their  religious  feel- 
ings to  this  source  Our  Lord  strongly  and  re- 
peatedly inculcated  this  truth ;  and  that  he  did 
not  mean  miraculous,  but  moral  influences  of  the 
Spirit,  is  evident,  John  iii.  3  J  Matt.  vii.  22,  23 ; 
John  vi.  44,  46.    See  also,  John  xii.  32,  40: 


INJURY 

Rom.  viri.  9 ;  1  Cor.  ii.  14. — 3.  And  we  may  add, 
nothing  can  be  more  necessary,  if  we  consider 
the  natural  depravity  of  the  heart,  and  the  in- 
sufficiency of  all  human  means  to  render  ourselves 
either  holy  or  happy  without  a  supernatural 
power.  See  Williams's  Historic  Defence  of 
Experimental  Religion;  Williams's  Answer  to 
Belsham,  let.  13;  Hurrion's  Sermons  on  the 
Spirit ;  Owen  on  the  Spirit. 

INGHAMITES,  a  denomination  of  Calvin- 
istic  Dissenters,  who  arc  the  followers  of  B.  Ing- 
ham, esq.,  who  in  the  last  century  was  a  charac- 
ter of  great  note  in  the  north  of  England.  About 
the  year  1735,  Mr.  Ingham  was  at  dueen's  col- 
lege, with  Mr.  Hervey  and  other  friends,  but  soon 
afterwards  adopted  the  religious  opinions  and  zeal 
of  Wesley  and  Whitfield.  We  do  not  know  the 
cause  of  his  separation  from  these  eminent  men ; 
but  it  seems  in  a  few  years  afterwards  he  became 
the  leader  of  numerous  societies,  distinct  from  the 
Methodists.  They  received  their  members  by  lot, 
and  required  them  to  declare  before  the  church 
their  experience,  that  the  whole  society  might 
judge  of  the  gracious  change  which  had  been 
wrought  upon  their  hearts.  It  happened  in  a 
few  years,  that  some  individuals  who  were  much 
respected,  and  who  applied  for  admission,  instead 
of  speaking  of  their  own  attainments,  or  the  com- 
fortable impression  on  their  minds,  which  they 
only  considered  as  productive  of  strife  and  vain- 
glory, declared  their  only  hope  was  the  finished 
work  of  Jesus  Christ;  as  to  themselves  they  were 
sensible  of  their  own  vileness.  Such  confessions 
as  tins  threw  the  congregation  into  some  confu- 
sion, which  was  considerably  increased  when 
they  found,  that,  on  their  having  recourse  as 
usual  to  the  lot,  that  there  were  votes  against 
their  admission,  which  was  considered  as  a  rejec- 
tion from  the  Lord.  On  this  they  were  led  to 
examine  more  particularly  both  their  church,  or- 
der, and  doctrines.  After  this  time,  Mr.  ing- 
ham  became  much  more  orthodox  in  his  senti- 
ments, and  new-modelled  his  churches.  The 
book  which  he  published  is  in  general  well 
thought  of  by  the  Independents.  He  contends 
very  strongly  for  salvation  by  the  imputation  of 
Christ's  righteousness;  and  as  to  doctrine,  the 
chief  point  wherein  the  Inghamites  differ  from 
the  Independents  is  respecting  the  Trinity.  The 
common  manner  of  speaking  of  the  Divine  Three 
as  distinct  persons,  they  decisively  condemn.  They 
do  not  consider  a  plurality  of  elders  as  necessary 
in  a  church  to  administer  the  Lord's  Supper.  In 
other  respects  they  much  esteem  the  writings  of 
Mr.  R.  Sandeman.  Their  numbers  have  not 
been  so  numerous  since  they  became  more  strict 
in  their  public  worship. 

INGRATITUDE,  the  vice  of  being  insensi- 
ble to  favours  received,  without  any  endeavour  to 
acknowledge  and  repay  them.  It  is  sometimes 
applied  to  the  act  of  returning  evil  for  good.  In- 
gratitude, it  is  said,  is  no  passion ;  for  the  Cod  of 
nature  has  appointed  no  motion  of  the  spirits 
whereby  it  might  be  excited ;  it  is,  therefore,  a 
mere  vice,  arising  from  pride,  stupidity,  or  nar- 
rowness of  soul. 

INIQ.UITY.     See  Sin. 

INJURY,  a  violation  of  the  rights  of  another. 
Some,  says  Grove,  distinguish  between  iiijustitia 
and  injuria.  Injustice  is  opposed  to  justice  in 
general,  whether  negative  or  positive;  an  injury, 
to  negative  justice  uione.    Sre  Justice.    An  in- 

iys 


INQUISITION 
jury  Is,  wilfully  doing  to  another  what  ought  not 
to  be  done.  This  is  injustice,  too,  but  not  the 
whole  idea  of  it ;  for  it  is  injustice,  also,  to  refus* 
or  neglect  doing  what  ought  to  be  done.  An  in- 
jury must  be  wilfully  committed ;  whereas  it  is 
enough  to  make  a  thing  unjust,  that  it  happena 
through  a  culpable  negligence.  1.  We  may  injure 
a  person  in  his  soul,  by  misleading  his  judgment; 
by  corrupting  the  imagination ;  perverting  tho 
wiil ;  and  wounding  the  soul  with  grief.  Perse- 
cutors who  succeed  in  their  compulsive  measures, 
though  they  cannot  alter  the  real  sentiments  by 
external  violence,  yet  sometimes  injure  the  soul 
by  making  the  man  a  hypocrite. — 2.  We  may  in- 
jure another  in  his  body,  by  homicide,  murder, 
preventing  life,  dismembering  the  body  by  wounds, 
blows,  slavery,  and  imprisonment,  or  any  unjust 
restraint  upon  its  liberty:  by  robbing  it  of  its 
chastity,  or  prejudicing  its  health. — 3.  We  may 
injure  another  in  his  name  and  character,  by 
our  own  false  and  rash  judgments  of  him ;  by 
false  witness ;  by  charging  a  man  to  his  face  with 
a  crime  which  either  we  ourselves  have  forged, 
or  which  we  know  to  have  been  forged  by  some 
other  person  ;  by  detraction  or  backbiting ;  by  re- 
proach, or  exposing  another  for  some  natural  im- 
becility either  in  body  or  mind ;  or  for  some  calami- 
ty into  which  he  is  fallen,  or  some  miscarriage  of 
which  he  has  been  guilty ;  by  inuendos,  or  indi- 
rect accusations  that  are  not  true.  Now  if  we 
consider  the  value  of  character,  the  resentment 
which  the  injurious  person  has  of  such  treatment 
when  it  comes  to  his  own  turn  to  suffer  it,  the 
consequence  of  a  man's  losing  his  good  name, 
and  finally,  the  difficulty  of  making  reparation, 
we  must  at  once  see  the  injustice  of  lessening 
another's  good  character.  There  are  these  two 
considerations  which  should  sometimes  restrain 
us  from  speaking  the  wnole  truth  of  our  neigh- 
bour, when  it  is  to  his  disadvantage.  (1.)  That 
he  may  possibly  live  to  see  his  folly,  and  repent 
and  grow  better. — (2.)  Admitting  that  we  speak 
the  truth,  yet  it  is  a  thousand  to  one  but  when  it 
is  banded  about  for  some  time,  it  will  contract  a 
deal  of  falsehood. — 4.  We  may  injure  a  person 
in  his  relations  and  dependencies.  In  his  ser- 
vants, by  corrupting  them;  in  his  children,  by 
drawing  them  into  evil  courses ;  in  his  wife,  by 
sowing  strife,  attempting  to  alienate  her  affec- 
tions.— 5.  We  may  be  guilty  of  injuring  another 
in  his  worldly  goods  or  possessions.  1.  By  doing 
him  a  mischief,  without  any  advantage  to  our- 
selves, through  envy  and  malice. — 2.  By  taking 
what  is  another's,  which  is  theft.  Se%  Grove's 
Mor.  Phil.  ch.  8.  p.  2 ;  Wattes  Sermons,  vol.  ii. 
ser.  33 ;  Tillotson's  Sermons,  sei .  42. 

INJURIES,  FORGIVENESS  OF.  See 
Forgiveness. 

INJUSTICE.    See  Injury. 

INNOCENCE,  acting  in  perfect  consonance 
to  the  law,  without  incurring  guilt  or  consequent 
punishment.     See  Man. 

INQ.UISITION,  in  the  church  of  Rome,  a 
tribunal  in  several  Roman  Catholic  countries, 
erected  by  the  popes  for  the  examination  and 
punishment  of  heretics.  This  court  was  founded 
in  the  twelfth  century,  under  the  patronage  of 
pope  Innocent,  who  issued  out  orders  to  excite  the 
Catholic  princes  and  people  to  extirpate  heretics, 
to  search  into  their  number  and  quality,  and  to 
transmit  a  faithful  account  thereof  to  Rome 
Hence  they  were  called  inquisitors    and  gave 


INQ.U1S1TI0N 
birth  to  this  formidable  tribunal,  called  the  In- 
quisition. That  nothing  might  be  wanting  to 
render  this  spiritual  court  formidable  and  tre- 
mendous, the  Roman  pontiffs  persuaded  the  Eu- 
ropean princes,  and  more  especially  the  Emperor 
Frederick  II.  and  Lewis  IX.  king  of  France,  not 
only  to  enact  the  most  barbarous  laws  against  here- 
tics, and  to  commit  to  the  flames,  by  the  ministry 
of  public  justice,  those  who  were  pronounced  such 
by  the  inquisitors,  but  also  to  maintain  the  in- 
quisitors in  their  office,  and  grant  them  their  pro- 
tection in  the  most  open  and  solemn  manner. 
The  edicts  to  this  purpose  issued  out  by  Frede- 
rick II.  are  well  known ;  edicts  sufficient  to  have 
excited  the  greatest  horror,  and  which  have  ren- 
dered the  most  illustrious  piety  and  virtue  incapa- 
ble of  saving  from  the  cruellest  death  such  as  had 
the  misfortune  to  be  disagreeable  to  the  inquisitors. 
These  abominable  laws  were  not,  however,  suf- 
ficient to  restrain  the  just  indignation  of  the  peo- 
ple against  those  inhuman  judges,  whose  barbarity- 
was  accompanied  with  superstition  and  arrogance, 
with  a  spirit  of  suspicion  and  perfidy ;  nay,  even 
with  temerity  and  imprudence.  Accordingly, 
they  were  insulted  by  the  multitude  in  many 
places,  were  driven  in  an  ignominious  manner  out 
of  some  cities,  and  were  put  to  death  in  others ; 
and  Conrad,  of  Marpurg,  the  first  German  in- 
quisitor, who  derived  his  commission  from  Gre- 
gory IX.,  was  one  of  the  many  victims  that  were 
sacrificed  on  this  occasion  to  the  vengeance  of  the 
public,  which  his  incredible  barbarities  had  raised 
to  a  dreadful  degree  of  vehemence  and  fury. 

This  diabolical  tribunal  takes  cognizance  of 
heresy,  Judaism,  Mahometanism,  sodomy,  and 
polygamy ;  and  the  people  stand  in  so  much  fear 
of  it,  that  parents  deliver  up  their  children,  hus- 
bands their  wives,  and  masters  their  servants,  to 
its  officers,  without  daring  in  the  least  to  murmur. 
The  prisoners  are  kept  for  a  long  time,  till  they 
themselves  turn  their  own  accusers,  and  declare 
the  cause  of  their  imprisonment,  for  which  they 
are  neither  told  their  crime,  nor  confronted  with 
witnesses.  As  soon  as  they  are  imprisoned,  their 
friends  go  into  mourning,  and  speak  of  them  as 
dead,  not  daring  to  solicit  their  pardon,  lest  they 
should  be  brought  in  as  accomplices.  When  there 
is  no  shadow  of  proof  against  the  pretended  crimi- 
nal, he  is  discharged,  alter  suffering  the  most  cruel 
fortures,  a  tedious  and  dreadful  imprisonment, 
and  the  loss  of  the  greatest  part  of  his  effects.  The 
sentence  against  prisoners  is  pronounced  publicly, 
and  with  extraordinary  solemnity.  In  Portugal 
they  erect  a  theatre  capable  of  holding  three  thou- 
sand persons,  in  which  they  place  a  rich  altar,  and 
raise  seats  on  each  side,  in  the  form  of  an  amphi- 
theatre. There  the  prisoners  are  placed,  and  over 
against  them  is  a  high  chair,  whither  they  are 
I'-aJled  one  by  one.  to  hear  their  doom  from  one  of 
the  inquisitors.  These  unhappy  persons  know 
what  they  are  to  suffer  by  the  clothes  they  wear 
that  day  :  those  who  appear  in  their  own  clothes 
are  discharged  on  paying  a  fine;  those  who  have 
a  santo  benito,  or  strait  yellow  coat  without 
sleeves,  charged  with  St.  Andrew's  cross,  have 
their  lives,  but  forfeit  all  their  effects ;  those  who 
have  the  resemblance  of  flames  made  of  red  serge 
sewed  upon  their  santo  benito,  without  any  cross, 
are  pardoned,  but  threatened  to  be  burnt  if  ever 
they  relapse ;  but  those  who,  besides  those  flames, 
have  on  their  santo  benito  their  own  picture  sur- 
-uunded  with  devils,  are  oondeinned  to  expire  in 
1% 


INSPIRATION 
the  flames.  The  inquisitors,  who  are  ecclesias- 
tics, do  not  pronounce  the  sentence  of  death,  but 
form  and  read  an  act,  in  which  they  say,  that  the 
criminal,  being  convicted  of  such  a  crime,  by  his 
own  confession,  is  with  much  reluctance  delivered 
to  the  secular  power,  to  be  punished  according  to 
his  demerits ;  and  this  writing  they  give  to  the 
seven  judges,  who  attend  at  the  right  side  of  the 
altar,  and  immediately  pass  sentence.  For  tlie 
conclusion  of  this  horrid  scene,  see  Act  of  Faith. 
We  rejoice,  however,  to  hear,  that  in  many  Ro- 
man Catholic  countries  the  inquisition  is  now 
shut.  May  the  God  of  mercy  and  love  prevent  its 
ever  being  employed  again  !  See  Baker's  History 
of  the  Inquisition;  and  Limborch's  History  of 
the  Inquisition,  translated  by  Chandler  ;  a  View 
of  the  Inquisition  in  Portugal  in  Geddes'a 
Tracts  ;  Lavalle's  History  of  the  Inquisition. 

INSPIRATION,  the  conveying  of  certain 
extraordinary  and  supernatural  notions  or  mo- 
tions into  the  soul ;  or  it  denotes  any  supernatural 
influence  of  God  upon  the  mind  of  a  rational 
creature,  whereby  he  is  formed  to  any  degree  of 
intellectual  improvement,  to  which  he  could  not  or 
would  not,  in  fact,  have  attained  in  his  present 
circumstances  in  a  natural  way.  Thus  the  pro- 
phets are  said  to  have  spoken  by  divine  inspira- 
tion. 1.  An  inspiration  of  super  intendency,  in 
which  God  does  so  influence  and  direct  Lhe  mind 
of  any  person  as  to  keep  him  more  secure  from 
error  in  some  various  and  complex  discourse, 
than  he  would  have  been  merely  by  the  use  of  his 
natural  faculties. — 2.  Plenary  superintendent  in- 
spiration, which  excludes  any  mixture  of  error  at 
all  from  the  performance  so  superintended. — 3. 
Inspiration  of  elevation,  where  the  faculties  act 
in  a  regular,  and  as  it  seems,  in  a  common  man- 
ner, yet  are  raised  to  an  extraordinary  degree,  so 
that  the  composure  shall,  upon  the  whole,  havu 
more  of  the  true  sublime  or  pathetic  than  natural 
genius  could  have  given. — 4  Inspiration  of  sug- 
gestion, where  the  use  of  the  faculties  is  super 
seded,  and  God  does,  as  it  were,  speak  directly  to 
the  mind,  making  such  discoveries  to  it  as  it  could 
not  otherwise  have  obtained,  and  dictating  the 
very  words  in  which  such  discoveries  are  to  be 
communicated,  if  they  are  designed  as  a  message 
to  others.  It  is  generally  allowed  that  the  Scrip- 
tures were  written  by  divine  inspiration.  The 
matter  of  them,  the  spirituality  and  elevation  of 
their  design,  the  majesty  and  simplicity  of  their 
style,  the  agreement  of  their  various  parts ;  their 
wonderful  efficacy  on  mankind;  the  candour, 
disinterestedness,  and  uprightness  of  the  penmen ; 
their  astonishing  preservation ;  the  multitude  of 
miracles  wrought  in  confirmation  of  the  doctrines 
they  contain,  and  the  exact  fulfilment  of  their  pre- 
dictions, prove  this.  It  has  been  disputed,  how- 
ever, whether  this  inspiration  is,  in  the  most  ab- 
solute sense,  plenary.  As  thus  is  a  subject  of 
importance,  and  ought  to  be  carefully  studied  by 
every  Christian,  in  order  that  he  may  render  a 
reason  of  the  hope  that  is  in  him,  I  shall  here  sub- 
join the  remarks  of  an  able  writer,  who  though  he 
may  duTer  from  some  others  as  to  the  terms  made 
use  of  above,  yet  I  am  persuaded  his  arguments 
will  be  found  weighty  and  powerful.  "  There 
are  many  things  in  the  Scriptures,"  savs  JMr. 
Dick,  "which  the  writers  might  have  known, 
and  probably  did  know,  by  ordinary  means.  As 
persons  possessed  of  memory,  judgment,  and  other 
intellectual  faculties  which  are  common  to  men, 


INSPIRATION 

they  were  able  to  relate  certain  events  in  which 
they  hud  been  personally  concerned,  and  to  make 
euch  occasional  reflections  as  were  suggested  by 
particular  subjects  and  occurrences.  In  these 
cases  no  supernatural  influence  was  necessary  to 
invigorate  their  minds ;  it  was  only  necessary  that 
they  should  be  infallibly  preserved  from  error.  It 
Is  with  respect  to  such  passages  of  Scripture 
alone,  as  did  not  exceed  the  natural  ability  of  the 
writers  to  compose,  that  I  would  admit  the  notion 
at'  superintendence,  if  it  should  be  admitted  at  all. 
Perhaps  this  word,  though  of  established  use  and 
almost  undisputed  authority,  should  be  entirely 
laid  aside,  as  insufficient  to  express  even  the  low- 
est degree  of  inspiration.  In  the  passages  of 
Scripture  which  we  are  now  considering,  I  con- 
ceive the  writers  to  have  been  not  merely  super- 
intended, that  they  might  commit  no  error,  but 
likewise  to  have  been  moved  or  excited  by  the 
Holy  Ghost  to  record  particular  events,  and  set 
down  particular  observations.  The  passages  writ- 
ten in  consequence  of  the  direction  and  under  the 
care  of  the  Divine  Spirit,  may  be  said,  in  an  in- 
ferior sense,  to  be  inspired ;  whereas,  if  the  men 
had  written  them  at  the  suggestion  of  their  own 
spirit,  they  would  not  have  possessed  any  more 
authority,  though  they  had  been  free  from  error, 
than  those  parts  of  profane  writings  which  are 
agreeable  to  truth. 

2.  "  There  are  other  parts  of  the  Scriptures  in 
which  the  faculties  of  the  writers  were  superna- 
turally  invigorated  and  elevated.  It  is  impossible 
for  us,  and  perhaps  it  was  not  possible  for  the  in- 
spired person  himself,  to  determine  where  nature 
ended,  and  inspiration  began.  It  is  enough  to 
know,  that  there  are  many  parts  of  Scripture  in 
which,  though  the  unassisted  mind  might  have 
proceeded  some  steps,  a  divine  impulse  was  ne- 
cessary to  enable  it  to  advance.  I  think,  for 
example,  that,  the  evangelists  could  not  have 
written  the  history  of  Christ  if  they  had  not  en- 
joyed miraculous  aid.  Two  of  them,  Matthew 
and  John,  accompanied  our  Saviour  during  the 
space  of  three  years  and  a  half.  At  the  close  of 
this  period,  or  rather  several  years  after  it,  when 
they  wrote  their  Gospels,  we  may  be  certain 
that  they  had  forgotten  many  of  his  discourses 
and  miracles  ;  that  they  recollected  others  indis- 
tinctly ;  and  that  they  would  have  been  in  dan- 
ger of  producing  an  inaccurate  and  unfair  ac- 
count, by  confounding  one  thing  with  another. 
Besides,  from  so  large  a  mass  of  particulars,  men 
of  uncultivated  minds,  who  were  not  in  the  habit 
of  distinguishing  and  classifying,  could  not  have 
made  a  proper  selection ;  nor  would  persons  un- 
skilled in  the  art  of  composition  have  been  able  to 
express  themselves  in  such  terms  as  should  in- 
sure a  faithful  representation  of  doctrines  and 
facts,  and  with  such  dignity  as  the  nature  of  the 
subject  required.  A  divine  influence,  therefore, 
must  have  been  exerted  on  their  minds,  by  which 
their  memories  and  judgments  were  strength- 
ened, and  they  were  enabled  to  relate  the  doc- 
trines and  miracles  of  their  Master  in  a  manner 
the  best  fitted  to  impress  the  readers  of  their  his- 
tories. The  promise  of  the  Holy  Ghost  to  bring 
to  their  remembrance  all  things  whatsoever 
Christ  had  said  to  them,  proves,  that,  in  writing 


their  histories,  their  mental  powers  were  endow- 
ed by  his  agency,  with  more  than  usual  vigour. 

"  Further  ;  it  must  be  allowed  that  in  several 
passages  of  Scripture  there  is  found  such  eleva- 
197 


INSPIRATION 

tion  of  thought  and  of  style,  as  clearly  shows  that 
the  powers  of  the  writers  were  raised  above  their 
ordinary  pitch.  If  a  person  of  moderate  talents 
should  give  as  elevated  a  description  of  the  ma- 
jesty and  attributes  of  God,  or  reason  as  pro- 
foundly on  the  mysterious  doctrines  of  religion, 
as  a  man  of  the  most  exalted  genius  and  exten- 
sive learning,  we  could  not  fail  to  be  convinced 
that  he  was  supernaturally  assisted ;  and  the 
conviction  would  be  still  stronger,  if  his  compo- 
sition should  far  transcend  the  highest  efforts  of 
the  human  mind.  Some  of  the  sacred  writers 
were  taken  from  the  lowest  ranks  of  life ;  and 
yet  sentiments  so  dignified,  and  representations 
of  divine  things  so  grand  and  majestic,  occur  in 
their  writings,  that  the  noblest  flights  of  human 
genius,  when  compared  with  them,  appear  cold 
and  insipid. 

3.  "  It  is  manifest,  with  respect  to  many  pas- 
sages of  Scripture,  that  the  subjects  of  which  they 
treat  must  have  been  directly  revealed  to  the 
writers.  They  could  not  have  been  known  by 
any  natural  means,  nor  was  the  knowledge  of 
them  attainable  by  a  simple  elevation  of  the 
faculties.  With  the  faculties  of  an  angel  we 
could  not  discover  the  purposes  of  the  divine 
mind.  This  degree  of  inspiration  we  attribute 
to  those  who  were  empowered  to  reveal  heavenly 
mysteries,  '  which  eye  had  not  seen,  and  ear  had 
not  heard,'  to  those  who  were  sent  with  particular 
messages  from  God  to  his  people,  and  to  those 
who  were  employed  to  predict  future  events.  The 
plan  of  redemption  being  an  effect  of  the  sove- 
reign councils  of  heaven,  it  could  not  have  been 
known  but  by  a  communication  from  the  Fa 
ther  of  Light. 

"  This  kind  of  inspiration  has  been  called  the 
inspiration  of  suggestion.     It  is  needless  to  dis- 
pute about  a  word ;  but  suggestion  seeming  to 
express  an  operation  on  the  mind,  by  which  ideas 
are  excited  in  it,  is  of  too  limited  a  signification  to 
denote  the  various  modes  in  which  the  prophets 
and  apostles  were  made  acquainted  with  super- 
natural truths.     God  revealed  himself  to  them 
not  only  by  suggestion,  but  by  dreams,  visions, 
voices,  and  the  ministry  of  angels.  This  degree  of 
inspiration,  in  strict  propriety  of  speech,  should  be 
called  revelation;  a  word  preferable  to  sugges- 
tion, because  it  is  expressive  of  all  the  ways  in 
which  God  communicated  new  ideas  to  the  minds 
of  his  servants.     It  is  a  word,  too,  chosen  by  thf> 
Holy  Ghost  himself,  to  signify  the  discovery  of 
truths  formerly  unknown  to  the  apostles.     The 
last  book  of  the  New  Testament,  which  is  a  col- 
lection of  prophecies,  is  called  the  Revelation  of 
Jesus  Christ.     Paul  says,  that  he  received  the 
Gospel  by  revelation ;  that  '  by  revelation  the 
mystery  was  made  known  to  him,  which  in  other 
ages  was  not  made  known  unto  the  sons  of  men, 
as  it  was  then  revealed  unto  his  holy  apostles 
and   prophets   by   the  Spirit ;'  and   in   another 
place,  having  observed  that  'eye  had  not  seen, 
nor  ear  heard,  neither  had  entered  into  the  heart 
of  man  the  things  which  God  had  prepared  for 
them  that  love  him,'  he  adds,  '  But  God  hath 
revealed  them  unto  us  by  his  Spirjjt.'  Rev.  i.  1 ; 
Gal.  i.  12;  Eph.  ii.  5;  1  Cor.  ii.  9,  10. 

I  have  not  names  to  designate  the  other  two 


kinds  of  inspiration.  The  names  used  by  Dod- 
dridge and  others,  Superintendence,  Elevation, 
and  Suggestion,  do  not  convey  the  ideas  stated  in 
the  three  preceding  particulars,  and  are  liable  to 
r  2 


INSPIkAl  ION 
other  objections,  besides  those  which  have  been 
mentioned.  This  account  of  the  inspiration  of 
the  Scriptures  has,  I  think,  these  two  recom- 
mendations :  that  there  is  no  part  of  the  Scrip- 
ture which  does  not  fall  under  one  or  other  of 
the  foregoing  heads ;  and  that  the  different  de- 
grees of  the  agency  of  the  Divine  Spirit  on  the 
rmiids  of  the  different  writers  are  carefully  dis- 
criminated. 

"  Some  men  have  adopted  very  strange  and 
dangerous  notions  respecting  the  inspiration  of 
the  Scriptures.  Dr.  Priestley  denies  that  they 
were  written  by  a  particular  divine  inspiration  ; 
and  asserts  that  the  writers,  though  men  of  the 
greatest  probity,  were  fallible,  and  have  actually 
committed  mistakes  in  their  narrations  and  then- 
reasonings.  But  this  man  and  his  followers  find 
it  their  interest  to  weaken  and  set  aside  the  au- 
thority of  the  Scriptures,  as  they  have  adopted  a 
system  of  religion  from  which  all  the  distinguish- 
ing doctrines  of  revelation  are  excluded.  Others 
consider  the  Scriptures  as  inspired  in  those 
places  where  they  profess  to  deliver  the  word  of 
God ';  but  in  other  places,  especially  in  the  his- 
torical parts,  they  ascribe  to  them  only  the  same 
authority  which  is  due  to  the  writings  of  well-in- 
formed and  upright  men.  But  as  this  distinction 
is  perfectly  arbitrary,  having  no  foundation  in 
any  thing  said  by  the  sacred  writers  themselves, 
so  it  is  liable  to  very  material  objections.  It  re- 
presents our  Lord  and  his  apostles,  when  they 
speak  of  the  Old  Testament,  as  having  attested, 
without  any  exception  or  limitation,  a  number  of 
books  as  divinely  inspired,  while  some  of  them 
were  partly,  and  some  were  almost  entirely, 
human  compositions :  it  supposes  the  writers  of 
both  Testaments  to  have  profanely  mixed  their 
own  productions  with  the  dictates  of  the  Spirit, 
and  to  have  passed  the  unhallowed  compound  on 
the  world  as  genuine.  In  fact,  by  denying  that 
they  were  constantly  under  infallible  guidance, 
it  leaves  us  utterly  at  a  loss  to  know  when  we 
should  or  should  not  believe  them.  If  they  could 
blend  their  own  stories  with  the  revelations  made 
to  them,  how  can  I  be  certain  that  they  have  not, 
on  some  occasions,  published,  in  the  name  of 
God,  sentiments  of  their  own,  to  which  they  were 
desirous  to  gain  credit  and  authority  7  Who  will 
assure  me  of  their  perfect  fidelity  in  drawing  a 
line  of  distinction  between  the  divine  and  the 
human  parts  of  their  writings?  The  denial  of 
the  plenary  inspiration  of  the  Scripture  tends  to 
unsettle  the  foundations  of  our  faith,  involves  us 
in  doubt  and  perplexity,  and  leaves  us  no  other 
method  of  ascertaining  how  much  we  should  be- 
lieve, but  by  an  appeal  to  reason.  But  when 
reason  is  invested  with  the  authority  of  a  judge, 
not  only  is  revelation  dishonoured,  and  its  Au- 
thor insulted,  but  the  end  for  which  it  was  given 
is  completely  defeated. 

"  A  question  of  very  great  importance  demands 
our  attention,  while  we  are  endeavouring  to  set- 
tle, with  precision,  the  notion  of  the  inspiration 
of  the  Scriptures ;  it  relates  to  the  words  in  which 
the  sacred  writers  have  expressed  their  ideas. 
Some  think,  that  in  the  choice  of  words  they 
were  left  to  their  own  discretion,  and  that  the 
language  is  human,  though  the  matter  be  divine ; 
while  others  believe,  that  in  their  expressions,  as 
well  as  in  their  sentiments,  they  were  under  the 
infallible  direction  of  the  Spirit.  It  is  the  last 
opinion  which  appears  to  be  most  conformable  to 
198 


INSPIRATION 
truth,  and  it  may  be  supported  by  the  following 
reasoning. 

"  Every  man,  who  hath  attended  to  the  opera- 
tions of  his  own  mind,  knows  that  we  think  in 
words,  or  that,  when  we  form  a  train  or  combi- 
nation of  ideas,  we  clothe  them  with  words  ;  and 
that  the  ideas  which  are  not  thus  clothed  are  in- 
distinct and  confused.  Let  a  man  try  to  think 
upon  any  subject,  moral  or  religious,  without  the 
aid  of  language,  and  he  will  either  experience  a 
total  ci>«;ation  of  thought,  or,  as  this  seems  im- 
possible, at  least  while  we  are  awake,  he  will  feel 
himself  constrained,  notwithstanding  his  utmost 
endeavours,  to  have  recourse  to  words  as  the  in- 
strument of  Ids  mental  operations.  As  a  great 
part  of  the  Scriptures  was  suggested  or  revealed 
to  the  writers ;  as  the  thoughts  or  sentiments, 
which  were  perfectly  new  to  them,  were  convey- 
ed into  their  minds  by  the  Spirit,  it  is  plain  that 
they  must  have  been  accompanied  with  words 
proper  to  express  them ;  and,  consequently,  that 
the  words  were  dictated  by  the  same  influences 
on  the  mind  which  communicated  the  ideas.  The 
ideas  could  not  have  come  without  the  words, 
because  without  them  they  could  not  have  been 
conceived.  A  notion  of  the  form  and  qualities 
of  a  material  object  may  be  produced  by  subject- 
ing it  to  our  senses ;  but  there  is  no  conceivable 
method  of  making  us  acquainted  with  new  ab- 
stract truths,  or  with  things  which  do  not  lie 
within  the  sphere  of  sensation,  but  by  conveying 
to  the  mind,  in  some  way  or  other,  the  words 
significant  of  them.  In  all  those  passages  of 
Scripture,  therefore,  which  were  written  by  reve- 
lation, it  is  manifest  that  the  words  were  inspir- 
ed ;  and  this  is  still  more  evident  with  respect  to 
those  passages  which  the  writers  themselves  did 
not  understand.  No  man  could  write  an  intelli- 
gible discourse  on  a  subject  which  he  does  not 
understand,  unless  he  were  furnished  with  the 
words  as  well  as  the  sentiments :  and  that  the 
penmen  of  the  Scriptures  did  not  always  under- 
stand what  they  wrote,  might  be  safely  inferred  i 
from  the  comparative  darkness  of  the  dispensa- 
tion under  which  some  of  them  lived ;  and  it  is 
intimated  by  Peter,  when  he  says,  that  the  pro- 
phets '  inquired  and  searched  diligently  what,  and 
what  manner  of  time  the  Spirit  of  Christ  which 
was  in  them  did  signify,  when  it  testified  before- 
hand the  sufferings  of  Christ,  and  the  glory  that 
should  follow.'   1  Pet.  i.  10,  11. 

"In  other  passages  of  Scripture,  those  not  ex- 
cepted in  which  the  writers  relate  such  things  as 
had  fallen  within  the  compass  of  their  own  know- 
ledge, we  shall  be  disposed  to  believe  that  the 
words  are  inspired,  if  we  calmly  and  seriously 
weigh  the  following  considerations.  If  Christ 
promised  to  his  disciples,  that,  when  they  were 
brought  before  kings  and  governors  for  his  sake, 
"  It  should  be  given  them  in  that  same  hour  what 
they  should  speak,  and  that  the  Spirit  of  their 
Father  should  speak  in  them,'  Matt.  x.  10,  20; 
Luke  xii.  11,  12, — a  promise  which  cannot  be 
reasonably  understood  to  signify  less  than  that 
both  words  and  sentiments  should  bo  dictated  to 
them, — it  is  fully  as  credible  that  they  should  be 
assisted  in  the  same  manner  when  they  wrote, 
especially  as  the  record  was  to  last  through  all 
ages,  and  to  be  a  rule  of  faith  to  all  the  nations 
of  the  earth.  Paul  affirms,  that  he  and  the  other 
apostles  spoke  '  not  in  the  words  which  man's 
wisdom  teaeheth,  but  vbich  the   Holy  Ghost 


INFLUENCES 
taught,'  1  Cor.  ii.  13 ;  and  this  general  assertion 
may  be  applied  to  their  writings  as  well  as  to 
their  sermons.  Besides,  every  person  who  hath 
reflected  upon  the  subject,  is  aware  of  the  impor- 
tance of  a  proper  selection  of  words  in  expressing 
our  sentiments ;  and  knows  how  easy  it  is  for  a 
heedless  or  unskilful  person  not  only  to  injure 
the  beauty  and  weaken  the  efficacy  of  a  discourse 
by  the  impropriety  of  his  language,  but,  by  sub- 
stituting one  word  for  another,  to  which  it  seems 
to  be  equivalent,  to  alter  the  meaning,  and  per- 
haps render  it  totally  different.  If,  then,  the  sa- 
cred writers  had  not  been  directed  in  the  choice 
of  words,  how  could  we  have  been  assured  that 
those  which  they  have  chosen  were  the  most  pro- 
per 1  Is  it  not  possible,  nay,  is  it  not  certain, 
that  they  would  have  sometimes  expressed  them- 
selves inaccurately,  as  many  of  them  were  illiter- 
ate ;  and  by  consequence  would  have  obscured 
and  misrepresented  the  truth  ?  In  this  case,  how 
could  our  faith  have  securely  rested  on  their  testi- 
mony 1  Would  not  the  suspicion  of  error  in 
their  writings  have  /endered  it  necessary,  before 
we  received  them,  to  try  them  by  the  standard  of 
reason?  and  would  not  the  authority  and  the  de- 
sign of  revelation  have  thus  been  overthrown  ? 
We  must  conclude,  therefore,  that  the  words  of 
Scripture  are  from  God,  as  well  as  the  matter; 
or  we  shall  charge  him  with  a  want  of  wisdom  in 
transmitting  his  truths  through  a  channel  by 
which  they  might  have  been,  and  most  probably 
have  been,  polluted. 

"  To  the  inspiration  of  the  words,  the  differ- 
ence in  the  style  of  the  sacred  writers  seems  to  be 
an  objection ;  because,  if  the  Holy  Ghost  were 
the  author  of  the  words,  the  style  might  be  ex- 
pected to  be  uniformly  the  same.  But  in  answer 
to  this  objection  it  may  be  observed,  that  the  Di- 
vine Spirit,  whose  operations  are  various,  might 
act  differently  on  different  persons,  according  to 
the  natural  turn  of  their  minds.  He  might  enable 
one  man,  for  instance,  to  write  more  sublimely 
£han  another,  because  he  was  naturally  of  a  more 
exalted  genius  than  the  other,  and  the  subject 
assigned  to  him  demanded  more  elevated  lan- 
guage ;  or  he  might  produce  a  difference  in  the 
style  of  the  same  man,  by  raising,  at  one  time, 
his  faculties  above  their  ordinary  state;  and  by 
leaving  them,  at  another,  to  act  according  to  their 
native  energy  under  his  inspection  and  controul. 
We  should  not  suppose  that  inspiration,  even  in 
its  higher  degrees,  deprived  those  who  were  the 
subjects  of  it,  of  the  use  of  their  faculties.  They 
were,  indeed,  the  organs  of  the  Spirit;  but  they 
were  conscious,  intelligent  organs.  They  were 
dependent,  but  distinct  agents,  and  the  operation 
of  their  mental  powers,  though  elevated  and  di- 
rected by  superior  influence,  was  analogous  to 
their  ordinary  mode  of  procedure.  It  is  easy, 
therefore,  to  conceive  that  the  style  of  the  writers 
of  the  Scriptures  should  differ,  just  as  it  would 
have  differed  if  they  had  not  been  inspired.  A 
perfect  uniformity  of  style  could  not  have  taken 
place,  unless  they  had  all  been  inspired  in  the 
same  degree,  and  by  inspiration  their  faculties 
had  been  completely  suspended,  so  that  divine 
truths  were  conveyed  by  them  in  the  same  pas- 
sive manner  in  which  a  pipe  affords  a  passage  to 
water,  or  a  trumpet  to  the  breath."  See  Dick's 
Essay  on  the  Inspiration  of  the  Scriptures  ; 
Hawker  on  Plenary  Inspiration;  Appendix  to 
lid  vol.  of  Doddridge's  Expositor  ;  Calami/  and 
129 


INTERCESSION 

Bennett  on  Inspiration;  Dr.  Stennet  on  the 
Authority  and  Use  of  Scripture ;  Parry's  In- 
quiry into  the  Nature  and  Extent  of  the  Inspi- 
ration of  the  Apostles ;  Brown's  Nat.  and  Rev. 
Religion,  r>.  78;  and  article  Christianity  and 
Scripture,  in  this  work. 

INSTINCT,  that  power  which  acts  on  and 
impels  any  creature  to  any  particular  manner  of 
conduct,  not  by  a  view  of  the  beneficial  conse- 
quences, but  merely  from  a  strong  impulse  sup- 
posed necessary  in  its  effects,  and  to  be  given 
them  to  supply  the  place  of  reason. 

INSTITUTE,  INSTITUTION  ;  an  esta- 
blished custom  or  law :  a  precept,  maxim,  or 
principle.  Institutions  may  be  considered  as  po- 
sitive, moral,  and  human.  1.  Those  are  called 
positive  institutions  or  precepts  which  are  not 
founded  upon  any  reasons  known  to  those 
to  whom  they  are  given,  or  discoverable  by 
them,  but  which  are  observed  merely  because 
some  superior  has  commanded  them. — 2.  Moral 
are  those,  the  reasons  of  which  we  see,  and  the 
duties  of  which  arise  out  of  the  nature  of  the  case 
itself,  prior  to  external  command. — 3.  Human, 
are  generally  applied  to  those  inventions  of  men, 
or  means  of  honouring  God,  which  are  not  ap- 
pointed by  him,  and  which  are  numerous  in  the 
church  of  Rome,  and  too  many  of  them  in  Pro- 
testant churches.  Butler's  Analogy,  p.  214; 
Doddridge's  Lcc.  lect.  158  ;  Robinson's  Claude, 
217,  vol.  i.  and  258,  vol.  ii.;  Burrough's  two 
Disc,  on  Positive  Institutions ;  Bp.  Hoadley's 
Plain  Account,  p.  3. 

INTEGRITY,  purity  of  mind,  free  from  any 
undue  bias  or  principle,  Prov.  xi.  3.  Many  hold, 
that  a  certain  artful  sagacity,  founded  upon  know- 
ledge of  the  world,  is  the  best  conductor  of  every 
one  who  would  be  a  successful  adventurer  in 
life,  and  that  a  strict  attention  to  integrity  would 
lead  them  into  danger  and  distress.  But,  in  an- 
swer to  this,  it  is  justly  observed,  1.  That  the 
guidance  of  integrity  is  the  safest  under  which 
we  can  be  placed ;  that  the  road  in  which  it 
leads  us  is,  upon  the  whole,  the  freest  from  dan- 
gers, Prov.  hi.  21,  &c. — 2.  It  is  unquestionably 
the  most  honourable ;  lor  integrity  is  the  founda- 
tion of  all  that  is  high  in  character  among  man- 
kind, Prov.  iv.  8. — 3.  It  is  the  most  conducive  to 
felicity,  Phil.  iv.  6,  7 ;  Prov.  iii.  17. — 4.  Such  a 
character  can  look  forward  to  eternity  without 
dismay,  Rom.  ii.  7. 

INTEMPERANCE,  excess  in  eating  or 
drinking.  This  is  the  general  idea  of  it ;  but 
we  may  observe,  that  whatever  indulgence  un- 
dermines the  health,  impairs  the  senses,  inflames 
the  passions,  clouds  and  sullies  the  reason,  per- 
verts the  judgment,  enslaves  the  will,  or  in  any 
way  disorders  or  debilitates  the  faculties,  may  be 
ranked  under  this  vice.     See  article  Temper- 

INTERCESSION  OF  CHRIST,  his  in- 
terposing for  sinners  by  virtue  of  the  satisfaction 
he  made  to  divine  justice.  1.  As  to  the  fact  itself 
it  is  evident,  from  many  places  of  Scripture,  that 
Christ  pleads  with  God  in  favour  of  his  people, 
Rom.  viii.  34;  Heb.  vii.  25 ;  1  John  ii,  1.— 2.  As 
to  the  manner  of  it :  the  appearance  of  the  high- 
priest  among  the  Jews,  in  the  presence  of  God, 
on  the  day  of  atonement,  when  he  offered  before 
him  the  blood  of  the  sin-offering,  is  at  large  re- 
ferred to  by  St.  Paul,  as  illustrating  the  interces- 
sion oi  Christ,  Heb.  ix.  1 1,  14,  22,  2U;  x.  Id,  21. 


INTERDICT 

Christ  appears  before  God  with  his  own  body; 
but  whether  he  intercedes  vocally,  or  not,  cannot 
be  known,  though  it  is  most  probable,  I  think, 
that  he  does  not :  however,  it  is  certain  that  he 
does  not  intercede  in  like  manner  as  when  on 
earth,  with  prostration  of  body,  cries  and  tears, 
which  would  be  quite  inconsistent  with  his  state 
of  exaltation  and  glory  ;  nor  as  supplicating  an 
angry  judge,  for  peace  is  made  by  the  blood  of 
the  cross  ;  nor  as  litigating  a  point  in  a  court  of 
judicature;  but  Ins  intercession  is  carried  on  by 
showing  himself  as  having  done,  as  their  surety, 
all  that  law  and  justice  could  require,  by  repre- 
senting his  blood  and  sacrifice  as  the  ground  of 
his  people's  acceptance  with  the  Father,  Rev.  v. 
6 ;  John  xvii.  24.-3.  The  end  of  Christ's  In- 
tercession is  not  to  remind  the  Divine  Being  of 
any  thing  which  he  would  otherwise  forget,  nor 
to  persuade  him  to  any  thing  which  he  is  not  dis- 
posed to  do ;  but  it  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  ho- 
liness and  majesty  of  the  Father,  and  the  wisdom 
and  grace  of  the  Son ;  not  to  say  that  it  may 
have  other  unknown  uses  with  respect  to  the  in- 
habitants of  the  invisible  world.  He  is  repre- 
sented, also,  as  offering  up  the  prayers  and  praises 
of  his  people,  which  become  acceptable  to  God 
through  him,  Rev.  viii.  3,  4 ;  Heb  xiii.  15 ;  1 
Pet.  ii.  5.  lie  there  pleads  for  the  conversion  of 
his  unconverted  ones ;  and  for  the  consolation, 
preservation,  and  glorification  of  his  people,  John 
xvii.;  1  John  ii.  1,  2. — 1.  Of  the  properties  of 
Christ's  intercession  we  may  observe,  1.  That  it 
is  authoritative.  He  intercedes  not  without 
right,  John  xvii.  24 ;  Ps.  ii.  8. — 2.  Wise :  he  un- 
derstands the  nature  of  his  work,  and  the  wants 
of  his  people,  John  ii.  25. — 3.  Righteous  :  for  it 
is  founded  upon  justice  and  truth,  1  John  iii.  5  ; 
Heb.  vii.  2l>. — 4.  Compassionate,  Heb.  ii.  17;  v. 
8;  Isa.  lxiii.  !). — 5.  He  is  the  sole  advocate, 
1  Tim.  ii.  5. — fi.  It  is  perpetual,  Heb.  vii.  25. — 
7.  Efficacious,  1  John  ii.  1,  2. — 5.  The  use  we 
should  make  of  Christ's  intercession  is  this: 
1.  We  may  learn  the  wonderful  love  of  God  to 
man,  Rom.  v.  10. — 2.  The  durability  and  safety 
of  the  church,  Luke  xxii.  31,  32;  Isa.  xvii.  24. — 
3.  The  ground  we  have  for  comfort,  Heb.  ix. 
24;  Rom.  viii.  34. — 4.  It  should  excite  us  to 
offer  up  prayers  to  God,  as  they  are  acceptable 
through  him,  Rev.  viii.  3,  4.  See  CJiarnock's 
Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  1109;  Flavel's  Works,  vol.  i. 
p.  72;  Doddridge's  Led.  vol.  ii.  p.  294.  8vo.; 
Gill's  Body  of  Div.  vol.  ii.  p.  120.  8vo.  edit.; 
Brown's  Nat.  and  Rev.  Relig.  p.  348  ;  Berry 
Street  Lee.  No.  18 ;  Ridgley's  Body  of  Divi- 
nity, ques.  55. 

INTERDICT,  an  ecclesiastical  censure,  by 
which  the  church  of  Rome  forbids  the  perform- 
ance of  divine  service  in  a  kingdom,  province, 
town,  &c.  This  censure  has  been  frequently 
executed  in  France,  Italy,  and  Germany ;  and 
in  the  year  1170,  pope  Alexander  111.  put  all 
England  under  an  interdict,  forbidding  the  clergy 
to  perforin  any  part  of  divine  service,  except  bap- 
tizing infants,  taking  confessions,  and  giving  ab- 
solution to  dying  penitents;  but  this  censure 
being  liable  to  ill-consequences,  of  promoting 
libertinism  and  a  neglect  of  religion,  the  succeed- 
ing popt's  haw  very  seldom  made  use  of  it.  There 
was  also  an  interdict  of  persons,  who  were  de- 
prived of  the  benefit  of  attending  on  divine  ser- 
vice. Particular  persons  were  ako  anciently 
interdicted  of  fire  ami  water,  winch  signifies  u 
900 


INTERMEDIATE 

banishment  for  some  particular  offence :  by  thi» 
censure  no  person  was  permitted  to  receive  them, 
or  allow  them  fire  or  water ;  and  being  thu* 
wholly  deprived  of  the  two  necessary  elements  of 
life,  they  were,  doubtless,  under  a  kind  of  civil 
death. 

INTEREST  IN  CHRIST,  a  term  often 
made  use  of  in  the  religious  world ;  and  implies 
our  having  a  righ;  to  claim  him  as  our  mediator, 
surety,  advocate,  and  saviour,  and  with  him  all 
those  spiritual  blessings  which  are  purchased  and 
applied  by  him  to  those  whom  he  has  redeemed. 
The  term,  " having  a  right  to  claim  him,"  per- 
haps, is  preferable  to  that  often  used,  "  being 
enabled  to  claim  him,"  as  many  have  an  interest 
in  Christ  who  are  destitute  of  that  assurance 
which  gives  them  a  comfortable  sense  thereof. — 
Ridgley's  Div.  228,  3d  edit. ;  Pike's  Cases  of 
Conscience,  p.  130. 

INTERIM,  the  name  of  a  formulary,  or  con- 
fession of  faith,  obtruded  upon  the  Protestants, 
after  the  death  of  Luther,  bvthe  emperor  Charles 
V.,  when  he  had  defeated  their  forces.  It  was 
so  called,  because  it  was  only  to  take  place  in  the 
interim,  till  a  general  council  should  decide  all 
the  points  in  question  between  the  Protestants 
and  Catholics.  The  occasion  of  it  was  this : — 
The  emperor  had  made  choice  of  three  divines, 
viz.  Julius  Phlug,  bishop  of  Naumberg ;  Michael 
Helding,  titular  bishop  of  Sidon ;  and  John  Agri- 
cola,  preacher  to  the  elector  of  Brandenburgh ; 
who  drew  up  a  project,  consisting  of  26  articles, 
concerning  the  points  of  religion  in  dispute  be- 
tween the  Catholics  and  Protestants.  The  con- 
troverted points  were,  the  state  of  Adam  before 
and  after  his  fall ;  the  redemption  of  mankind  by 
Jesus  Christ ;  the  justification  of  sinners ;  charity 
and  good  works ;  the  confidence  we  ought  to  ha\  e 
in  God  that  our  sins  are  remitted;  the  church 
and  its  true  marks,  its  power,  its  authority,  and 
ministers ;  the  pope  and  bishops ;  the  sacraments  ; 
the  mass ;  the  commemoration  of  saints ;  their 
intercession ;  and  prayers  for  the  dead. 

The  emperor  sent  this  project  to  the  pope  foi 
his  approbation,  which  he  refused :  whereupon 
Charles  V.  published  the  imperial  constitution, 
called  the  Interim,  wherein  he  declared,  that  "it 
was  his  will,  that  all  his  Catholic  dominions 
should,  lor  the  future,  inviolably  observe  the  cus- 
toms, statutes,  and  ordinances  of  the  universal 
church  ;  and  that  those  who  had  separated  them- 
selves from  it,  should  either  reunite  themselves  to 
it,  or  at  least,  conform  to  this  constitution;  and 
that  all  should  quietly  expect  the  decisions  of  the 
general  council."  This  ordinance  was  published 
in  the  diet  of  Augsburgh,  May  15,  1548 ;  but  this 
device  neither  pleased  the  pope  nor  the  Protest- 
ants; the  Lutheran  preachers  openly  declared 
they  would  not  receive  it,  alleging  that  it  re- 
established popery:  some  chose  rather  to  quit 
their  chairs  and  livings  than  to  subscribe  it ;  nor 
would  the  duke  of  Saxony  receive  it.  Calvin, 
and  several  others,  wrote  against  it.  On  the 
other  side,  the  emperor  was  so  severe  against 
those  who  refused  to  accept  it,  that  he  disfran- 
chised the  cities  of  Magdeburg  and  Constance 
for  their  opposition. 

INTERMEDIATE  STATE,  a  term  made 
use  of  to  denote  the  state  of  the  soul  between 
death  and  the  resurrection.  From  the  Scriptures 
speaking  frequently  of  the  dead  as  sleeping  in 
their  graves,  many  have  supposed  that  the  soul 


INTREPIDITY 
Sleeps  till  the  resurrection,  i.  e.  is  in  a  state  of 
entire  insensibility.  But  against  this  opinion, 
and  that  the  soul,  after  death,  enters  immediately 
into  a  state  of  reward  or  punishment,  the  follow- 
ing passages  seem  to  be  conclusive,  Matt.  xvii.  3 ; 
Luke  xxiii.  42;  2  Cor.  v.  6;  Phil.  i.  21 ;  Luke 
xvi.  22,  23;  Rev.  vi.  9.  See  articles  Resurrec- 
tion, Sour,,  and  Future  State;  Bishop  Law's 
Appendix  to  his  Theory  of  Religion  ;  Search's 
Light  of  Nature  pursued ;  Bennet's  Olam. 
Haneshamhot,  or  View  of  the  Intermediate 
Slate  ;  Archibald  Campbell's  View  of  the  Mid- 
dle State;  Archdeacon  Blackburne's  Historical 
View  of  the  Controversy  concerning  an  Inter- 
mediate State,  and  the  separate  Existence  of  the 
Soul  between  Death  and  the  general  Resurrec- 
tion ;  in  which  last  the  reader  will  find  a  large 
account  of  the  writings  on  this  subject,  from  the 
beginning  of  the  Reformation  to  almost  the  pre- 
sent time.  See  also,  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lect. 
219. 

INTERPRETING  OF  TONGUES,  a  gift 
bestowed  on  the  apostles  and  primitive  Chris- 
tians, so  that  in  a  mixed  assembly,  consisting  of 
persons  of  different  nations,  if  one  spoke  in  a 
language  understood  by  one  part,  another  could 
repeat  and  translate  what  he  said  into  different 
languages  understood  by  others,  1  Cor.  xii.  10; 
xiv.  5,  G,  13. 

INTOLERANCE  is  a  word  chiefly  used  in 
reference  to  those  persons,  churches,  or  societies, 
who  do  not  allow  men  to  think  for  themselves, 
but  impose  on  them  articles,  creeds,  ceremonies, 
&c.,  of  their  own  devising.  See  Toleration. 
Nothing  is  more  abhorrent  from  the  genius  of  the 
Christian  religion  than  an  intolerant  spirit,  or  an 
intolerant  church.  "It  has  inspired  its  votaries 
with  a  savage  ferocity;  has  plunged  the  fatal  dag- 
ger into  innocent  blood;  depopulated  towns  and 
kingdoms ;  overthrown  states  and  empires,  and 
brought  down  the  righteous  vengeance  of  heaven 
upon  a  guilty  world.  The  pretence  of  superior 
knowledge,  sanctity,  and  authority  for  its  sup- 
port, is  the  disgrace  of  reason,  the  grief  of  wis- 
dom, and  the  paroxysm  of  folly.  To  fetter  the 
conscience,  is  injustice  ;  to  ensnare  it,  is  an  act  of 
sacrilege  ;  but  to  torture  it,  by  an  attempt  to  force 
it-,  f 'clings,  is  horrible  intolerance ;  it  is  the  most 
abandoned  violation  of  all  the  maxims  of  religion 
and  morality.  Jesus  Christ  formed  a  kingdom 
purely  spiritual :  the  apostles  exercised  only  a 
spiritual  authority  under  the  direction  of  Jesus 
Christ ;  particular  churches  were  united  only  by 
faith  and  love ;  in  all  civil  affairs  they  submitted 
to  civil  magistracy ;  and  in  religious  concerns  they 
were  governed. by  the  reasoning,  advice,  and  ex- 
hortations of  their  own  officers :  their  censures 
were  only  honest  reproofs ;  and  their  excommu- 
nications were  only  declarations  that  such  offend- 
ers, being  incorrigible,  were  no  longer  accounted 
members  of  their  communities."  Let  it  ever  be 
remembered,  therefore,  that  no  man  or  men  have 
any  authority  whatever  from  Christ  over  the  con- 
sciences of  others,  or  to  persecute  the  persons  of 
any  whose  religious  principles  agree  not  with 
their  own.  See  Lowell's  Sermons,  ser.  G;  Ro- 
binson's Claude,  vol.  ii.  p.  227,  299;  Saurin's 
Ser.  3rd  vol.  p.  30,  preface ;  Locke  on  Govern- 
ment and  Toleration. 

INTREPIDITY,  a  disposition  of  mind  unaf- 
fected with  fear  at  the  approach  of  danger.    Re- 
solution either  banishes   tear  or   surmounts  it, 
201  2  A 


ITINERANT 
and  is  firm  on  all  occasions.  Courage  is  impa- 
tient to  attack,  undertakes  boldly,  and  is  not  les- 
sened by  difficulty.  Valour  acts  with  vigour, 
gives  no  way  to  resistance,  but  pursues  an  enter- 
prise in  spite  of  opposition.  Bravery  knows  no 
fear;  it  runs  nobly  into  danger,  and  prefers  ho- 
nour to  life  itself.  Intrepidity  encounters  the 
greatest  perils  with  the  utmost  coolness,  and  dares 
even  present  death.     See  Courage,  Fortitude. 

INVESTITURE,  in  ecclesiastical  policy,  is 
the  act  of  conferring  any  benefice  on  another.  It 
was  customary  for  princes  to  make  investiture  of 
ecclesiastical  benefices,  by  delivering  to  the  per- 
son they  had  chosen  a  pastoral  staff  and  a  ring. 
The  account  of  this  ceremony  may  be  seen  at 
large  in  Mosheim's  Ecclesiastical  History,  cent 
xi.  part  ii.  chap.  2. 

INVISIBLES,  a  name  of  distinction  given  to 
the  disciples  of  Osiander,  Flacius,  Illyricus, 
Swenkfeld,  &c,  because  they  denied  the  perpetual 
visibility  of  the  church. 

INVOCATION,  a  calling  upon  God  in  prayer. 
It  is  generally  considered  as  the  first  part  of  that 
necessary  duty,  and  includes,  1.  A  making  men- 
tion of  one  or  more  of  the  names  or  titles  of  God, 
indicative  of  the  object  to  whom  we  pray. — 2.  A 
declaration  of  our  desire  and  design  to  worship 
him.  And,  3,  A  desire  of  his  assistance  and  ac- 
ceptance, under  a  sense  of  our  own  unworthiness. 
In  the  church  of  Rome,  invocation  also  signifies 
adoration  of,  and  prayers  to  the  saints.  The  coun- 
cil of  Trent  expressly  teaches,  that  the  saints  who 
reign  with  Jesus  Christ  ofier  up  their  prayers  to 
God  for  men,  and  condemn  those  who  maintain 
the  contrary  doctrine.  The  Protestants  censure 
and  reject  this  opinion,  as  contrary  to  Scripture; 
deny  the  truth  of  the  fact ;  and  think  it  highly 
unreasonable  to  suppose  that  a  limited,  finite  be- 
ing, should  be  in  a  manner  omnipresent,  and,  at 
one  and  the  same  time,  hear  and  attend  to  the 
prayers  that  are  offered  up  to  him  in  England, 
China,  and  Peru ;  and  from  hence  infer,  that  if  the 
saints  cannot  hear  their  request,  it  is  inconsistent 
with  common  sense  to  address  any  kind  of 
praver  to  them. 

1'RRESISfiBLE  GRACE.     See  Grace. 

ISBRANIKI,  a  denomination  which  appeared 
in  Russia  about  the  year  1GGG,  and  assumed  this 
name,  which  signifies  the  multitude  of  the  elect. 
But  they  were  called  by  their  adversaries  Rol- 
skolsnika,  or  the  seditious  faction.  They  pro- 
fessed a  religious  zeal  for  the  letter  of  the  holy 
Scriptures.  They  maintained  that  there  is  no 
subordination  of  rank  among  the  faithful,  and 
that  a  Christian  may  kill  himself  for  the  love  of 
Christ. 

ISRAELITES,  the  descendants  of  Israel, 
who  were  at  first  called  Hebrews,  by  reason 
of  Abraham,  who  came  from  the  other  side  of 
the  Euphrates;  and  afterwards  Israelites,  from 
Israel,  the  father  of  the  twelve  patriarchs;  and, 
lastly,  Jews,  particularly  after  their  return  from 
the  captivity  of  Babylon,  because  the  tribe  of  Ju- 
dah  was  then  much  stronger  and  moio  numerous 
than  the  other  tribes,  and  foreigners  had  scarce 
any  knowledge  of  this  tribe.  For  tnc  history  of 
this  people,  see  article  Jews. 

ITINERANT  PREACHERS,  those  who 
are  not  settled  over  any  particular  congregation, 
but  go  from  place  to  place  for  the  purpose  of 
preaching  to,  and  instructing  the  ignorant.  A 
great  deal  has  been  said  against  persons  of  thia 


JANSENISTS 
description ;  and,  it  must  be»  acknowledged,  that 
there  would  not  be  so  much  necessity  for  them, 
were  every  minister  of  his  parish  to  do  his  duty. 
But  the  sad  declension  of  morals  in  many  places ; 
the  awful  ignorance  that  prevails  as  to  God  and 
real  religion ;  the  little  or  no  exertion  of  those 
who  are  the  guides  of  the  people  :  "  villages  made 
up  of  a  train  of  idle,  profligate,  and  miserable 
poor,  and  where  the  barbarous  rhymes  in  their 
church-yards  inform  us,  that  they  are  all  either 
gone  or  going  to  heaven :"  these  things,  with  a 
variety  of  others,  form  a  sufficient  reason  for 
every  able  and  benevolent  person  to  step  forward, 
and  to  do  all  that  he  can  to  enlighten  the  minds, 
lessen  the  miseries,  and  promote  the  welfare  of 
his  fellow-creatures.  A  clergyman  of  the  church 
of  England,  of  respectable  talents,  very  judiciously 
observes,  that,  "Notwithstanding  the  prejudices 
of  mankind,  and  the  indiscretions  of  some  indi- 
viduals, an  itinerant  teacher  is  one  of  the  most 
honourable  and  useful  characters  that  can  be 
found  upon  earth;  and  there  needs  no  other 
proof  than  the  experience  of  the  church  in  all 
ages,  that,  when  this  work  is  done  properly,  and 


JANSENISTS 
with  perseverance,  it  forms  the  grand  method  ol 
spreading  wide,  and  rendering  efficacious,  reli- 
gious knowledge,  for  great  reformations  and 
revivals  of  religion  have  uniformly  been  thus 
effected ;  and  it  is  especially  sanctioned  by  the 
example  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  and  recom- 
mended as  the  divine  method  of  spreading  the 
Gospel  through  the  nations  of  the  earth ;  itine- 
rant preaching  having  almost  always  preceded 
and  made  way  for  the  solid  ministry  of  regular 
pastors.  But  it  is  a  work  which  requires  pecu- 
liar talents  and  dispositions,  and  a  peculiar  call 
in  God's  providence;  and  is  not  rashly  and 
hastily  to  be  ventured  upon  by  every  novice  who 
has  learned  to  speak  about  the  Gospel,  and  has 
more  zeal  than  knowledge,  prudence,  humility, 
or  experience.  An  unblemished  character,  a 
disinterested  spirit,  an  exemplary  deadness  to  the 
world,  unaffected  humility,  deep  acquaintance 
with  the  human  heart,  and  preparation  for  en- 
during the  cross  not  only  with  boldness,  but  with 
meekness,  patience,  and  sweetness  of  temper,  are 
indispensably  necessary  for  such  a  service." 


J. 


JACOBITES,  a  sect  of  Christians  in  Syria 
and  Mesopotamia ;  so  called,  either  from  Jacoh, 
a  Syrian,  who  lived  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
Mauritius,  or  from  one  Jacob,  a  monk,  who  flou- 
rished in  the  year  550. 

The  Jacobites  are  of  two  sects,  some  following 
the  rites  of  the  Latin  church,  and  others  continu- 
ing separated  from  the  church  of  Rome.  There 
is  also  a  division  among  the  latter,  who  have  two 
rival  patriarchs.  As  to  their  belief,  they  hold  but 
one  nature  in  Jesus  Christ:  with  respect  to  pur- 
gatory, and  prayers  for  the  dead,  they  are  of  the 
same  opinion  with  the  Greeks  and  other  eastern 
Christians.  They  consecrate  unleavened  bread 
at  the  eucharist,  and  are  against  confession,  be- 
lieving that  it  is  not  of  divine  institution. 

JANSENISTS,  a  sect  of  the  Roman  Catho- 
lics in  France,  who  followed  the  opinions  of  Jan- 
senius (bishop  of  Ypres,  and  doctor  of  divinity  of 
the  universities  of  Louvain  and  Douay,)  in  rela- 
tion to  grace  and  predestination. 

In  the  year  1640,  the  two  universities  just 
mentioned,  and  particularly  father  Molina  and 
father  Leonard  Celsus,  thought  fit  to  condemn  the 
opinions  of  the  Jesuits  on  grace  and  free-will. 
This  having  set  the  controversy  on  foot,  Janse- 
nius  opposed  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Jesuits  the 
rentiments  of  St.  Augustine,  and  wrote  a  trea- 
tise on  grace,  which  he  intituled  August inus. 
This  treatise  was  attacked  by  the  Jesuits,  who 
accused  Jansenius  of  maintaining  dangerous  and 
heretical  opinions;  and  afterwards,  in  1642,  ob- 
tained of  pope  Urban  VIII.  a  formal  condemna- 
tion of  the  treatise  wrote  by  Jansenius ;  when  the 
partisans  of  Jansenius  gave  out  that  this  bull 
was  spurious,  and  composed  by  a  person  entirely 
devoted  to  the  Jesuits.  After  the  death  of  Urban 
VIII.,  the  affair  of  Jansenism  began  to  be  more 
warmly  controverted,  and  gave  birth  to  a  great 
number  of  polemical  writings  concerning  grace  ; 
and  what  occasioned  some  mirth,  were  the  titles 
which  each  party  gave  to  their  writings:  one 
writer  published  the  Torch  of  St.  Augustine; 
202 


another  found  Snuffers  for  St.  Augustine's 
Torch ;  and  father  Veron  formed  A  Gag  jot  rAe 
Jansenists,  &c.  In  the  year  1650,  sixty-eight 
bishops  of  France  subscribed  a  letter  to  pope  In- 
nocent X.,  to  obtain  an  inquiry  into  and  condem- 
nation of  the  five  following  propositions,  extracted 
from  Jansenius's  Augustinus  .  1.  Some  of  God's 
commandments  are  impossible  to  be  observed  by 
the  righteous,  even  though  they  "endeavour  with 
all  their  power  to  accomplish  them. — 2.  In  the 
state  of  corrupted  nature,  we  are  incapable  of  re- 
sisting inward  grace. — 3.  Merit  and  demerit,  in  a 
state  of  corrupted  nature,  do  not  depend  on  a 
liberty  which  excludes  necessity,  but  on  a  liberty 
which  excludes  constraint. — i.  The  Seinipela- 
gians  admitted  the  necessity  of  an  inward  pre- 
venting grace  for  the  performance  of  each  par- 
ticular act,  even  for  the  beginning  of  faith ;  but 
tbey  were  heretics  in  maintaining  that  this  grace 
was  of  such  a  nature  that  the  will  of  man  was  able 
either  to  resist  or  obey  it. — 5.  It  is  Semipelagian- 
ism  to  say,  that  Jesus  Christ  died,  or  shed  his 
blood,  for  all  mankind  in  general. 

In  the  year  1652,  the  pope  appointed  a  congre- 
gation for  examining  into  the  dispute  relative  to 
grace.  In  this  congregation  Jansenius  was  con- 
demned ;  and  the  bull  of  condemnation  published 
in  May,  1653,  filled  all  the  pulpits  in  Paris  with 
violent  outcries  and  alarms  against  the  Jansenists. 
In  the  year  1656,  pope  Alexander  VII.  issued  out 
another  bull,  in  which  he  condemned  the  five  pro- 
positions of  Jansenius.  However,  the  Jansenists 
affirmed  that  these  propositions  were  not  to  be 
found  in  this  book  ;  but  that  some  of  his  enemies 
having  caused  them  to  be  printed  on  a  sheet,  in- 
serted them  in  the  book,  and  thereby  deceived  the 
pope.  At  last  Clement  XI.  put  an  end  to  the 
dispute  by  his  Constitution  of  July  17,  1705,  in 
which,  after  having  recited  the  constitutions  of 
his  predecessors  in  relation  to  this  affair,  he  de- 
clared, "That,  in  order  to  pay  a  proper  obedience 
to  the  papal  constitutions  concerning  the  present 
question,  it  is  necessary  to  receive  them  with  a 


JEALOUSY 

respectful  silence."  The  clergy  of  Paris,  the 
same  year,  approved  and  accepted  this  bull,  and 
none  dared  to  oppose  it.  This  is  the  famous  bull 
Unigenitus,  so  called  from  its  beginning  with  the 
words  Unigenitus  Dei  Filius,  &c,  which  has 
occasioned  so  much  confusion  in  France. 

It  was  not  only  on  account  of  their  embracing 
the  doctrines  of  Augustine,  that  the  Jesuits  were 
so  embittered  against  them ;  but  that  which  of- 
fended the  Jesuits,  and  the  other  creatures  of  the 
Roman  pontiff  was,  their  strict  piety,  and  severe 
moral  discipline.  The  Jansenists  cried  out  against 
the  corruptions  of  the  church  of  Rome,  and  com- 
plained that  neither  its  doctrines  nor  morals  re- 
tained any  traces  of  their  former  purity.  They  re- 
proached the  clergy  with  an  universal  depravation 
of  sentiments  and  manners,  and  an  entire  forget- 
fulness  of  the  dignity  of  their  character  and  the 
duties  of  their  vocation  ;  they  censured  the  licen- 
tiousness of  the  monastic  orders,  and  insisted  upon 
the  necessity  of  reforming  their  discipline  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  of  sanctity,  abstinence,  and  self- 
denial,  that  were  originally  prescribed  by  their 
respective  founders.  They  maintained,  also,  that 
the  people  ought  to  be  carefully  instructed  in  all 
the  doctrines  and  precepts  of  Christianity;  and 
that,  for  this  purpose,  the  Holy  Scriptures  and 
public  liturgies  should  be  offered  to  their  perusal 
in  their  mother  tongue ;  and,  finally,  they  looked 
upon  it  as  a  matter  of  the  highest  moment  to  per- 
suade all  Christians  that  true  piety  did  not  con- 
sist in  the  observance  of  pompous  rites,  or  in  the 
performance  of  external  acts  of  devotion,  but  in 
inward  holiness  and  divine  love. 

Notwithstanding  the  above-mentioned  senti- 
ments, the  Jansenists  have  been  accused  of  su- 
perstition and  fanaticism;  and,  on  account  of 
their  severe  discipline  and  practice,  have  been 
denominated  Rigorists.  It  is  said,  that  they 
made  repentance  consist  chiefly  in  those  volun- 
tary sufferings  which  the  transgressor  inflicted 
upon  himself,  in  proportion  to  the  nature  of  his 
crimes  and  the  degree  of  his  guilt.  They  tor- 
tured and  macerated  their  bodies  by  painful  la- 
bour, excessive  abstinence,  continual  prayer,  and 
contemplation ;  nay,  they  carried  these  austeri- 
ties, it  is  said,  to  so  high  a  pitch,  as  to  place  merit 
in  them,  and  to  consider  those  as  the  sacred  vic- 
tims of  repentance  who  had  gradually  put  an  end 
to  their  days  by  their  excessive  abstinence  and 
labour.  Dr.  Haweis,  however,  in  his  Church 
History,  (vol.  iii.  p.  46.)  seems  to  form  a  more 
favourable  opinion  of  them.  "  I  do  not,"  says  he, 
"  readily  receive  the  accusations  that  Papists  or 
Protestants  have  objected  to  them,  as  over-rigor- 
ous and  fanatic  in  their  devotion ;  but  I  will  ad- 
mit many  things  might  be  blameable ;  a  tincture 
of  popery  might  drive  them  to  push  monkish 
austerities  too  far,  and  secretly  to  place  some 
merit  in  mortification,  which  they  in  general  dis- 
claimed ;  yet,  with  all  that  can  be  said,  surely  the 
root  of  the  matter  was  in  them.  When  1  read 
Jansenius,  or  his  disciples  Pascal  or  duesnel,  1 
bow  before  such  distinguished  excellencies,  and 
confess  them  my  brethren ;  shall  I  say  my  fathers  ? 
Their  principles  are  pure  and  evangelical ;  their 
mo-rals  formed  upon  the  apostles  and  prophets  ; 
and  their  zeal  to  amend  and  convert,  blessed  with 
eminent  success." 

JEALOUSY  is  that  particular  uneasiness 
which  arises  from  the  fear  that  some  rival  may 
rob  us  of  the  aflection  of  one  whom  we  greatly 
203 


JESUITS 

love,  or  suspicion  that  he  has  already  done  it. 
The  first  sort  of  jealousy  is  inseparable  from  love 
before  it  is  in  possession  of  its  object ;  the  latter  is 
unjust,  generally  mischievous,  and  always  trou 
blcsome. 

JEHOVAH,  one  of  the  Scripture  names  of 
God,  and  peculiar  to  him,  signifying  the  Being 
who  is  self-existent,  and  gives  existence  to  others. 
The  name  is  also  given  to  Christ,  Is.  xl.  3 ;  and 
is  a  proof  of  his  godhead,  Matt.  iii.  3 ;  Is.  vi. ;  John 
xii.  41.  The  Jews  had  so  great  a  veneration  for 
this  name,  that  they  left  off  the  custom  of  pro- 
nouncing it,  whereby  its  true  pronunciation  was 
forgotten.  They  believe  that  whosoever  knows 
the  true  pronunciation  of  it  cannot  fail  to  be 
heard  of  God. 

JESUITS,  or  the  Society  of  Jesus ;  a  famous 
religious  order  of  the  Romish  church,  founded  by 
Ignatius  Loyola,  a  Spanish  knight,  in  the  six- 
teenth century.  The  plan  which  this  fanatic 
formed  of  its  constitution  and  laws,  was  suggest- 
ed, as  he  gave  out,  by  the  immediate  inspiration 
of  Heaven.  But,  notwithstanding  this  high  pre- 
tension, his  design  met  at  first  with  violent  oppo- 
sition. The  pope,  to  whom  Loyola  had  applied 
for  the  sanction  of  his  authority  to  confirm  the 
institution,  referred  his  petition  to  a  committee  of 
cardinals.  They  represented  the  establishment 
to  be  unnecessary  as  well  as  dangerous,  and  Paul 
refused  to  grant  his  approbation  of  it.  At  last, 
Loyola  removed  all  his  scruples,  by  an  offer  which 
it  was  impossible  for  any  pope  to  resist.  He  pro- 
posed, that  besides  the  three  vows  of  poverty,  of 
chastity,  and  of  monastic  obedience,  which  are 
common  to  all  the  orders  of  regulars,  the  members 
of  his  society  should  take  a  fourth  vow  of  obe- 
dience to  the  pope,  binding  themselves  to  go 
whithersoever  he  should  command  for  the  service 
of  religion,  and  without  requiring  any  thing  from 
the  holy  see  for  their  support.  At  a  time  when 
the  papal  authority  had  received  such  a  shock  by 
the  revolt  of  so  many  nations  from  the  Romish 
church,  at  a  time  when  every  part  of  the  popish 
system  was  attacked  with  so  much  violence  and 
success,  the  acquisition  of  a  body  of  men,  thus 
peculiarly  devoted  to  the  see  of  Rome,  and  whom 
it  might  set  in  opposition  to  all  its  enemies,  was 
an  object  of  the  highest  consequence.  Paul,  in- 
stantly perceiving  this,  confirmed  the  institutior. 
of  the  Jesuits  by  his  bull ;  granted  the  most  ample 
privileges  to  the  members  of  the  society,  and  ap- 
pointed Loyola  to  be  the  first  general  of  the  order, 
The  event  fully  justified  Paul's  discernment  in 
expecting  such  beneficial  consequences  to  the  see 
of  Rome  from  this  institution.  In  less  than  half  a 
century  the  society  obtained  establishments  in 
every  country  that  adhered  to  the  Roman  Catholic 
church;  its  power  and  wealth  increased  ama- 
zingly ;  the  number  of  its  members  became  great ; 
their  character  as  well  as  accomplishments  were 
still  greater ;  and  the  Jesuits  were  celebrated  by 
the  friends  and  dreaded  by  the  enemies  of  the 
Romish  faith,  as  the  most  able  and  enterprising 
order  in  the  church. 

2.  Jesuits,  object  of  the  order  of. — The  primary 
object  of  almost  all  the  monastic  orders  is  to  se-. 
paratemen  from  the  world,  and  from  any  concern 
in  its  affairs.  In  the  solitude  and  silence  of  the 
cloister,  the  monk  is  called  to  work  out  his  salva- 
tion by  extraordinary  acts  of  mortification  and 
piety.  He  is  dead  to  the  world,  and  ought  not  to 
mingle  in  its  transactions.    He  can  be  of  no 


JESUITS 
ocncfit  to  mankind  but  by  his  example  and  by  his 
prayers.  On  the  contrary,  the  Jesuits  are  taught 
to  consider  themselves  as  formed  for  action.  They 
are  chosen  soldiers,  bound  to  exert  themselves 
continually  in  the  service  of  God,  and  of  the  pope, 
his  vicar  on  earth.  Whatever  tends  to  instruct 
the  ignorant,  whatever  can  be  of  use  to  reclaim 
or  oppose  the  enemies  of  the  holy  see,  is  their 
proper  object.  That  they  may  have  full  leisure 
for  this  active  service,  they  are  totally  exempted 
from  those  functions,  the  performance  of  which 
is  the  chief  business  of  other  monks.  They  appeal 
in  no  processions  ;  they  practise  no  rigorous  aus- 
terities ;  they  do  not  consume  one  half  of  their 
time  in  the  repetition  of  tedious  offices ;  but  they 
are  required  to  attend  to  all  the  transactions  of  the 
world,  on  account  of  the  influence  which  these 
mjiy  have  upon  religion :  they  are  directed  to  study 
tfie  disposition  of  persons  in  high  rank,  and  to 
cultivate  their  friendship ;  and,  by  the  very  con- 
stitution and  genius  of  the  order,  a  spirit  of  action 
and  intrigue  is  infused  into  all  its  members. 

3.  Jesuits,  peculiarities  of  their  policy  and 
government. — Other  orders  are  to  be  considered 
as  voluntary  associations,  in  which,  whatever  af- 
fects the  whole  body,  is  regulated  by  the  common 
suffrage  of  all  its  members.  But  Loyola,  full  of 
the  ideas  of  implicit  obedience,  which  he  had  de- 
rived from  his  military  profession,  appointed  that 
the  government  of  his  order  should  be  purely 
monarchical.  A  general  chosen  for  life,  by  depu- 
ties from  the  several  provinces,  possessed  power 
that  was  supreme  and  independent,  extending  to 
every  person  and  to  every  case.  To  his  commands 
they  were  required  to  yield  not  only  outward 
obedience,  but  to  resign  up  to  him  the  inclinations 
of  their  own  wills,  and  the  sentiments  of  their 
own  understandings.  Such  a  singular  form  of 
policy  could  not  fail  to  impress  its  character  on  all 
the  members  of  the  order,  and  to  give  a  peculiar 
force  to  all  its  operations.  There  has  not  been, 
perhaps,  in  the  annals  of  mankind,  any  example 
of  such  a  perfect  despotism  exercised,  not  over 
monks  shut  up  in  the  cells  of  a  convent,  but  over 
men  dispersed  among  all  the  nations  of  the  earth. 
As  the  constitutions  of  the  order  vest  in  the  gene- 
ral such  absolute  dominion  over  all  its  members, 
they  carefully  provide  for  his  being  perfectly  in- 
formed with  respect  to  the  character  and  abilities 
of  his  subjects.  Every  novice  who  offers  himself 
for  a  candidate  for  entering  into  the  order,  is 
obliged  to  manifest  his  conscience  to  the  superior, 
or  a  person  appointed  by  him;  and  is  required  to 
confess  not  only  his  sins  and  defects,  but  to  dis- 
cover the  inclinations,  the  passions,  and  the  bent 
of  the  soul.  This  manifestation  must  be  renewed 
every  six  months.  Each  member  is  directed  to 
observe  the  words  and  actions  of  the  novices,  and 
are  bound  to  disclose  every  thing  of  importance 
concerning  them  to  the  superior.  In  order  that  the 
scrutiny  into  their  character  may  be  as  complete 
H  possible,  -i  long  noviciate  must  expire,  during 
which  they  pass  through  the  several  gradations 
of  rank  in  the  society ;  and  they  must  have 
attained  the  full  age  of  thirty-thiee  years  before 
they  can  be  admitted  to  take  the  final  vows  by 
winch  they  become  professed  members.  By 
these  various  methods,  the  superiors,  under  whose 
immediate  inspection  the  novices  are  placed, 
acquire  a  thorough  knowledge  of  their  disposition 
and  talents;  and  the  general,  by  examining  the 
registers  kept  for  tliis  purpose,  is  enabled  to 
2<>4 


JESUITS 
choose  the  instruments  which  his  absolute  power 
can  employ  in  any  service  for  which  he  thinks 
meet  to  destine  them. 

4.  Jesuits,  progress  of  the  power  and  influence 
of. — As  it  was  the  professed  intention  of  this  os- 
der  to  labour  with  unwearied  zeal  in  promoting 
the  salvation  of  men,  this  engaged  them,  of  course, 
in  many  active  functions.  From  their  first  insti- 
tution, they  considered  the  education  of  youth  as 
their  peculiar  province :  they  aimed  at  being  spi- 
ritual guides  and  confessors ;  they  preached  fre- 
quently, in  order  to  instruct  the  people  ;  they  set 
out  as  missionaries  to  convert  unbelieving  nations. 
Before  the  expiration  of  the  sixteenth  century, 
they  had  obtained  the  chief  direction  of  the  edu- 
cation of  youth  in  every  Catholic,  country  in  Eu- 
rope. They  had  become  the  confessors  of  almost 
all  its  monarchs ;  a  function  of  no  small  impor- 
tance in  any  reign,  but,  under  a  weak  prince, 
superior  to  that  of  minister.  They  were  the  spi- 
ritual guides  of  almost  every  person  eminent  for 
rank  or  power ;  they  possessed  the  highest  degree 
of  confidence  and  interest  with  the  papal  court, 
as  the  most  zealous  and  able  champions  for  its 
authority ;  they  possessed,  at  different  periods, 
the  direction  of  the  most  considerable  courts  in 
Europe;  they  mingled  in  all  affairs,  and  took 
part  in  every  intrigue  and  revolution.  But  while 
they  thus  advanced  in  power,  they  increased  also 
in  wealth :  various  expedients  were  devised  for 
eluding  the  obligation  of  the  vow  of  poverty.  Be- 
sides the  sources  of  wealth  common  to  all  the  re- 
gular clergy,  the  Jesuits  possessed  one  which  was 
peculiar  to  themselves.  Under  the  pretext  of 
promoting  the  success  of  their  missions,  and  of 
facilitating  the  support  of  their  missionaries,  they 
obtained  a  special  licence  from  the  court  of  .Rome, 
to  trade  with  the  nations  which  they  laboured  to 
convert ;  in  consequence  of  this,  they  engaged  in 
an  extensive  and  lucrative  commerce,  both  in  the 
East  and  West  Indies  ;  they  opened  warehouses 
in  different  parts  of  Europe,  in  which  they  vend- 
ed their  commodities.  Not  satisfied  with  trade 
alone,  they  imitated  the  example  of  other  com- 
mercial societies,  and  aimed  at  obtaining  settle 
ments.  They  acquired  possession,  accordingly, 
of  the  large  and  fertile  province  of  Paraguay, 
which  stretches  across  the  southern  continent  of 
America,  from  the  bottom  of  the  mountains  of 
Potosi  to  the  confines  of  the  Spanish  and  Por- 
tuguese settlements  on  the  banks  of  the  river  De  la 
Plata.  Here,  indeed,  it  must  be  confessed,  they 
were  of  service :  they  found  the  inhabitants  in  a 
state  little  different  from  that  which  takes  place 
among  men  when  they  first  begin  to  unite  to- 
gether ;  strangers  to  the  arts ;  subsisting  preca- 
riously by  hunting  or  fishing;  and  hardly  ac- 
quainted with  the  first  principles  of  subordination 
and  government,  The  Jesuits  set  themselves  to 
instruct  and  civilize  these  savages :  they  taught 
them  to  cultivate  the  ground,  build  houses,  and 
brought  them  to  live  together  in  villages,  &c. 
They  made  them  taste  the  sweets  of  society,  and 
trained  them  to  arts  and  manufactures.  Such 
was  their  power  over  them,  that  a  few  Jesuits 
presided  over  some  hundred  thousand  Indians. 
But  even  in  this  meritorious  effort  of  the  Jesuits 
for  the  good  of  mankind,  the  genius  and  spirit  of 
their  order  was  discernible :  they  plainly  aimed 
at  establishing  in  Paraguay  an  independent  em- 
pire, subject  to  the  society  alone,  and  which,  by 
the  superior  excellence  of  its  constitution  ana 


JESUITS 
police,  could  scarcely  have  failed  to  extend  its 
dominion  over  all  the  southern  continent  of 
America.  With  thii  view,  in  order  to  prevent 
the  Spaniards  or  Portuguese  in  the  adjacent  set- 
tlements from  acquiring  any  dangerous  influence 
Over  the  people  within  the  limits  of  the  province 
subject  to  the  society,  the  Jesuits  endeavoured  to 
inspire  the  Indians  with  hatred  and  contempt  of 
these  nations;  they  cut  off  all  intercourse  be- 
tween their  subjects  and  the  Spanish  or  Portu- 
guese settlements.  When  they  were  obliged  to 
admit  any  person  in  a  public  character  from  the 
neighbouring  governments,  they  did  not  permit 
him  to  have  any  conversation  with  their  subjects ; 
and  no  Indian  was  allowed  even  to  enter  the 
house  where  these  strangers  resided,  unless  in 
the  presence  of  a  Jesuit.  In  order  to  render  any 
communication  between  them  as  difficult  as  pos- 
sible, they  industriously  avoided  giving  the  In- 
dians any  knowledge  of  the  Spanish  or  any  other 
European  language;  but  encouraged  the  diffe- 
rent tribes  which  they  had  civilized  to  acquire  a 
rertain  dialect  of  the  Indian  tongue,  and  laboured 
to  make  that  the  universal  language  throughout 
their  dominions.  As  all  these  precautions,  with- 
out military  force,  would  have  been  insufficient  to 
have  rendered  their  empire  secure  and  perma- 
nent, they  instructed  their  subjects  in  the  Euro- 
pean art  of  war,  and  formed  them  into  bodies 
completely  armed,  and  well  disciplined. 

5.  Jesuits,  pernicious  effects  of  this  order  in 
livil  society. — Though  it  must  be  confessed  that 
the  Jesuits  cultivated  the  study  of  ancient  litera- 
ture, and  contributed  much  towards  the  progress 
of  polite  learning;  though  they  have  produced 
eminent  masters  in  'every  branch  of  science,  and 
can  boast  of  a  number  of  ingenious  authors ;  yet, 
unhappily  for  mankind,  their  vast  influence  has 
been  often  exerted  with  the  most  fatal  effects. 
Such  was  the  tendency  of  that  discipline  observed 
by  the  society  in  forming  its  members,  and  such 
the  fundamental  maxims  in  its  constitution,  that 
every  Jesuit  was  taught  to  regard  the  interest  of 
the  order  as  the  capital  object  to  which  every 
consideration  was  to  be  sacrificed.  As  the  pros- 
perity of  the  order  was  intimately  connected  with 
the  preservation  of  the  papal  authority,  the  Jesuits, 
influenced  by  the  same  principle  of  attachment 
to  the  interest  of  their  society,  have  been  the  most 
zealous  patrons  of  those  doctrines  which  tend  to 
exalt  ecclesiastical  power  on  the  ruins  of  civil 
government.  They  have  attributed  to  the  court 
of  Rome  a  jurisdiction  as  extensive  and  absolute 
as  was  claimed  by  the  most  presumptuous  pon- 
tiffs in  the  dark  ages.  They  have  contended  for 
the  entire  independence  of  ecclesiastics  on  the 
civil  magistrates.  They  have  published  such 
tenets  concerning  the  duty  of  opposing  princes 
who  were  enemies  of  the  Catholic  faith,  as  coun- 
tenanced the  most  atrocious  crimes,  and  tended 
to  dissolve  all  the  ties  which  connect  subjects 
with  their  rulers.  As  the  order  derived  both 
reputation  and  authority  from  the  zeal  with  which 
it  stood  forth  in  defence  of  the  Romish  church 
against  the  attacks  of  the  reformers,  its  members, 
proud  of  this  distinction,  have  considered  it  as 
their  peculiar  function  to  combat  the  opinions, 
and  to  check  the  progress  of  the  Protestants. 
They  have  made  use  of  every  art,  and  have  em- 
ployed every  weapon  against  them.  They  have 
set  themselves  in  opposition  to  every  gentle  or 
tolerating  measure  in  their  favour.  They  have 
?X)5 


JESUITS 
incessantly  stirred  up  against  them  all  the  rage 
of  ecclesiastical  and  civil  persecution. — Whoever 
recollects  the  events  which  have  happened  in 
Europe  during  two  centuries  will  find  that  the 
Jesuits  may  justly  be  considered  as  responsible 
for  most  of  the  pernicious  effects  arising  from  that 
corrupt  and  dangerous  casuistry,  from  those  ex^ 
travagant  tenets  concerning  ecclesiastical  power, 
and  from  that  intolerant  spirit,  which  have  been 
the  disgrace  of  the  church  of  Rome  throughout 
that  period,  and  which  have  brought  so  many 
calamities  upon  society. 

6.  Jesuits,  downfall  in  Europe. — Such  werfl 
the  laws,  the  policy  and  the  genius  of  this  formi- 
dable order;  of  which,  however,  a  perfect  know- 
ledge has  only  been  attainable  of  late.  Europe 
had  observed,  for  two  centuries,  the  ambition  and 
power  of  the  order ;  but  while  it  felt  many  fatal 
effects  of  these,  it  could  not  fully  discern  the 
causes  to  which  they  were  to  be  imputed.  It  was 
unacquainted  with  many  of  the  singular  regula- 
tions in  the  political  constitution  or  government 
of  the  Jesuits,  which  formed  the  enterprising 
spirit  of  intrigue  that,  distinguished  its  members, 
and  elevated  the  body  itself  to  such  a  height  of 
power.  It  was  a  fundamental  maxim  with  the 
Jesuits,  from  their  first  institution,  not  to  publish 
the  rules  of  their  order :  these  they  kept  conceal- 
ed as  an  impenetrable  mystery.  They  never  com 
municated  them  to  strangers,  nor  even  to  the 
greater  part  of  their  own  members :  they  refused 
to  produce  them  when  required  by  courts  of  jus- 
tice ;  and,  by  a  strange  solecism  in  policy,  the  civil 
power  in  different  countries  authorised  or  con- 
nived at  the  establishment  of  an  order  of  men, 
whose  constitution  and  laws  were  concealed  with 
a  solicitude  which  alone  was  a  good  reason  for 
having  excluded  them.  During  the  prosecutions 
which  have  been  carried  on  against  them  in  Por- 
tugal and  France,  the  Jesuits  have  been  so  in- 
considerate as  to  produce  the  mysterious  volumes 
of  their  institute.  By  the  aid  of  these,  auther-lc 
records,  the  principles  of  their  government  ma; 
be  delineated,  and  the  sources  of  their  power 
investigated,  with  a  degree  of  certainty  and  pre- 
cision which,  previous  to  that  event,  it  was  im 
possible  to  attain. 

The  pernicious  effects  of  the  spirit  and  consti 
tution  of  this  order  rendered  it  early  obnoxious  to 
some  of  the  principal  powers  in  Europe,  and 
gradually  brought  on  its  downfall.  There  is  a 
remarkable  passage  in  a  sermon  preached  at  Dub- 
lin by  Archbishop  Brown,  so  long  ago  as  the 
year  1551,  and  which  may  be  considered  as 
almost  prophetic.  It  is  as  follows:  "But  there 
are  a  new  fraternity  of  late  sprung  up  who  call 
themselves  Jesuits,  which  will  deceive  many, 
much  after  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees'  manner. 
Amongst  the  Jews  they  shall  strive  to  abolish 
the  truth,  and  shall  come  very  near  to  do  it.  For 
these  sorts  will  turn  themselves  into  several 
forms  ;  with  the  heathen,  a  heathenist ;  with  the 
atheists,  an  atheist;  with  the  Jews,  a  Jew; 
with  the  reformers,  a  relbrmade;  purposely  to 
know  your  intentions,  your  minds,  your  hearts, 
and  your  inclinations,  and  thereby  bring  you,  at 
last,  to  be  like  the  fool  that  said  in  Ins  heart, 
there,  was  no  God.  These  shall  be  spread  over 
the  whole  world,  shall  be  admitted  into  the  coun- 
cils cf  princes,  and  they  never  the  wiser ;  charm- 
ing of  them,  yea,  making  your  princes  reveal 
their  hearts,  and  the  secrets  therein,  and  yet  they 


JESUS 

not  perceive  it ;  which  will  happer  from  falling 
from  the  law  of  God,  by  neglect  of  fulfilling  the 
law  of  God,  and  by  winking  at  their  sins ;  yet,  in 
the  end,  God,  to  justify  his  law,  shall  suddenly 
cut  off  this  society,  even  by  the  hand  of  those  who 
have  most  succoured  them,  and  made  use  of 
them ;  so  that  at  the  end  they  shall  become  odious 
to  all  nations.  They  shall  be  worse  than  Jews, 
having  no  resting-] >lace  upon  earth;  and  then 
shall  a  Jew  have  more  favour  than  a  Jesuit."  This 
singuhr  passage  seems  to  be  accomplished.  The 
emperor  Charles  V.  saw  it  expedient  to  check 
their  progress  in  his  dominions :  they  were  expell- 
ed England  by  proclamation,  2  James  I.,  in  H304  : 
Venice,  in  1006;  Portugal,  in  1759;  France,  in 
1764 ;  Spain  and  Sicily,  in  1767 ;  and  totally  sup- 
pressed and  abolished  by  pope  Clement  XIV.  in 
1773.  Enc.  Brit.;  Mosheim's  Ecc.  Hist.  ;  Har- 
leian  Misc.  vol.  v.  p.  566 ;  Broughton's  Diet. 

JESUS  CHRIST,  the  Lord  and  Saviour  of 
mankind.  He  is  called  Christ  (anointed,)  be- 
cause he  is  anointed,  furnished,  and  sent  by  God 
to  execute  his  mediatorial  office ;  and  Jesus  (Sa- 
viour,) because  he  came  to  save  his  people  from 
their  sins.  For  an  account  of  his  nativity,  offi- 
ces, death,  resurrection,  &c,  the'Teader  is  referred 
to  those  articles  in  this  work.  We  shall  here 
more  particularly  consider  his  divinity,  humanity, 
and  character.  The  divinity  of  Jesus  Christ 
seems  evident,  if  we  consider,  1.  The  language 
of  the  New  Testament,  and  compare  it  with  the 
state  of  the  Pagan  world  at  the  time  of  its  -pub- 
lication. 2.  If  Jesus  Christ  were  not  God,  the 
writers  of  the  New  Testament  discovered  great 
injudiciousness  in  the  choice  of  their  words,  and 
adopted  a  very  incautious  and  dangerous  style. 
The  whole  world,  except  the  small  kingdom  of 
Judea,  worshipped  idols  at  the  time  of  Jesus 
Christ's  appearance.  Jesus  Christ;  the  evan- 
gelists who  wrote  his  history ;  and  the  apostles, 
who  wrote  epistles  to  various  classes  of  men,  pro- 
posed to  destroy  idolatry,  and  to  establish  the 
worship  of  one  only  living  and  true  God.  To 
effect  this  purpose,  it  was  absolutely  necessary 
for  these  founders  of  Christianity  to  avoid  confu- 
sion and  obscurity  of  language,  and  to  express 
their  ideas  in  a  cool  and  cautious  style.  The 
least  expression  that  would  tend  to  deify  a  crea- 
ture, or  countenance  idolatry,  would  have  been  a 
source  of  the  greatest  error.  Hence  Paul  and 
Barnabas  rent  their  clothes  at  the  very  idea  of 
the  multitude's  confounding  the  creature  with 
the  Creator,  Acts  xiv.  The  writers  of  the  New 
Testament  knew  that,  in  speaking  of  Jesus 
Christ,  extraordinary  caution  was  necessary;  yet, 
when  we  take  up  the  New  Testament,  we  find 
6uch  expressions  as  these :  "  The  word  was 
God,  John  i.  1.  God  was  manifest  in  the  flesh, 
1  Tim.  iii.  16.  God  with  us,  Matt.  i.  23.  The 
Jews  crucified  the  Lord  of  Glory,  1  Cor.  ii.  8. 
Jesus  Christ  is  Lord  of  all,  Acts  x.  36.  Christ 
is  over  all ;  God  blessed  for  ever,  Rom.  ix.  5." 
These  arc  a  few  of  many  propositions,  which  the 
New  Testament  writers  lay  down  relative  to 
Jesus  Christ.  If  the  writers  intended  to  affirm 
the  divinity  of  Jesus  Christ,  these  are  words 
at'  truth  and  soberness;  if  not,  the  language  is 
incautious  and  unwarrantable;  and  to  address  it 
to  men  prone  to  idolatry,  for  the  purpose  of  de- 
stroying idolatry,  is  a  strong  presumption  against 
'.heir  inspiration.  It  is  remarkable,  also,  that  the 
richest  words  in  the  Greek  language  are  made 
206 


JESUS 
use  of  to  describe  Jesus  Christ.  This  language, 
which  is  very  copious,  would  have  afforded  lower 
terms  to  express  an  inferior  nature;  but  it  could 
have  afforded  none  higher  to  express  the  nature 
of  the  Supreme  God.  It  is  worthy  of  observa- 
tion, too,  that  these  writers  addressed  their  writ- 
ings, not  to  philosophers  and  scholars,  but  to 
the  common  people,  and  consequently  used 
words  in  their  plain,  popular  signification. — 
The  common  people,  it  seems,  understood  the 
words  in  our  sense  of  them ;  for  in  the  Dioclesian 
persecution,  when  the  Roman  soldiers  burnt  a 
Phrygian  city  inhabited  by  Christians;  men, 
women,  and  children  submitted  to  their  fate,  call- 
ing upon  Christ,  the  God  over  all. — 2.  Com- 
pare the  style  of  the  New  Testament  with  the 
state  of  the  Jews  at  the  time  of  its  publication. 
In  the  time  of  Jesus  Christ,  the  Jews  were  zeaU 
ous  defenders  of  the  unity  of  God,  and  of  that 
idea  of  his  perfections  which  the  Scriptures  ex- 
cited. Jesus  Christ  and  his  apostles  professed 
the  highest  regard  for  the  Jewish  Scriptures ;  yet 
the  writers  of  the  New  Testament  described 
Jesus  Christ  by  the  very  names  and  titles  by 
which  the  writers  of  the  Old  Testament  had  de- 
scribed the  Supreme  God.  Compare  Exod.  iil 
14,  with  John  viii.  58 ;  Is.  xliv.  6,  with  Rev.  L 
11,  17;  Deut.  x.  17,  with  Rev.  xvii.  14 ;  Ps.  xxiv. 

10,  with  1  Cor.  ii.  8 ;  Hos.  i.  7,  with  Luke  ii.  1 1 ; 
Dan.  v.  23,  with  1  Cor.  xv.  4,7;  1  Chron.  xxix. 

11,  with  Col.  ii.  10.  If  they  who  described  Jesus 
Christ  to  the  Jews  by  these  sacred  names  and 
titles  intended  to  convey  an  idea  of  his  deity,  the 
description  is  just  and  the  application  safe;  but 
if  they  intended  to  describe  a  mere  man,  they 
were  surely  of  all  men  the  most  preposterous. 
They  chose  a  method  of  recommending  Jesus  to 
the  Jews  the  most  likely  to  alarm  and  enrage 
them.  Whatever  they  meant,  the  Jews  under- 
stood them  in  our  sense,  and  took  Jesus  for  a 
blasphemer,  John  x.  23. — 3.  Compare  the  per- 
fections which  are  ascribed  to  Jesus  Christ  in 
the  Scriptures,  with  those  which  are  ascribed  te 
God.  Jesus  Christ  declares,  "  All  things  that  the 
Father  hath  are  mine ;"  John  xvi.  15 :  a  very 
dangerous  proposition,  if  he  were  not  God.  The 
writers  of  revelation  ascribe  to  him  the  same  per- 
fections which  they  ascribe  to  God.  Compare 
Jer.  x.  10,  with  Is.  ix.  6;  Exod.  xv.  13,  with  Heb. 
i.  8;  Jer.  xxxii.  19,  with  Is.  ix.  6;  Ps.  cii.  24,  27, 
with  Heb.  xiii.  8 ;  Jer.  xxiii.  24,  with  Eph.  i.  20, 
23 ;  1  Sam.  ii.  5,  with  John  xiv.  30.  If  Jesus 
Christ  be  God  the  ascription  of  the  perfections 
of  God  to  him  is  proper ;  if  he  be  not,  the  apos* 
ties  are  chargeable  with  weakness  or  wickedness, 
and  either  would  destroy  their  claim  of  inspira- 
tion.— 4.  Consider  the  works  that  are  ascribed  to 
Jesus  Christ,  and  compare  them  with  the  claims 
of  Jehovah.  Is  creation  a  work  of  God  ?  "  By 
Jesus  Christ  were  all  things  created,"  Col.  i.  IS. 
Is  preservation  a  work  of  God?  "Jesus  Christ 
upholds  all  things  by  the  word  of  his  power," 
Heb.  i.  3.  Is  the  mission  of  the  prophets  a  work 
of  God?  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Lord  God  of  the 
holy  prophets;  and  it  was  the  spirit  of  Christ 
which  testified  to  them  beforehand  the  suffering? 
of  Christ,  and  the  glory  that  should  follow,  Nen. 
ix.  30;  Rev.  xxii.  6,  16;  1  Pet.  i.  11.  Is  the  sal- 
vation of  sinners  the  work  of  God  ?  Christ  is 
the  Saviour  of  all  that  believe,  John  iv.  42;  Heb. 
v.  9.  Is  the  forgiveness  of  sin  a  work  of  God  7 
'T'uc  Son  of  Man  hath  power  to  forgive  sins, 


JESUS 
Matt.  ix.  6.  The  same  might  be  said  of  the  illu- 
mination of  the  mind ;  the  sanctification  of  the 
heart ;  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  ;  the  judging 
of  the  world ;  the  glorification  of  the  righteous ; 
the  eternal  punishment  of  the  wicked ;  all  which 
works,  in  one  part  of  Scripture,  are  ascribed  to 
God,  and  all  which  in  another  part  of  Scripture  are 
ascribed  to  Jesus  Christ.  Now,  if  Jesus  Christ  be 
not  God,  into  what  contradictions  these  writers 
must  fall !  They  contradict  one  another :  they 
contradict  themselves.  Either  Jesus  C  hrist  is  God, 
or  their  conduct  is  unaccountable. — 5.  Consider 
that  divine  worship  which  the  Scriptures  claim 
for  Jesus  Christ.  It  is  a  command  of  God,  "Thou 
shalt  worship  the  Lord  thy  God,  and  him  only 
shalt  thou  serve,"  Matt.  iv.'20.  Yet  the  Scrip- 
tures command  "  all  the  angels  of  God  to  worship 
Christ,"  Heb.  i.  6.  Twenty  times,  in  the  New 
Testament,  grace,  mercy,  and  peace,  are  implored 
of  Christ,  together  with  the  Father.  Baptism  is 
an  act  of  worship  performed  in  his  name,  Matt, 
xxviii.  19.  Swearing  is  an  act  of  worship ;  a 
solemn  appeal  in  important  cases  to  the  omni- 
scient God ;  and  this  appeal  is  made  to  Christ, 
Rom.  ix.  1.  The  committing  of  the  soul  to  God 
at  death  is  a  sacred  act  of  worship ;  in  the  per- 
formance of  this  act  Stephen  died,  saying,  Lord 
Jesus,  receive  my  spirit,  Acts  vii.  59.  The  whole 
host  of  heaven  worship  him  that  sitteth  upon  the 
throne,  and  the  Lamb  for  ever  and  ever,  Rev.  v. 
14,  15. — 6.  Observe  the  application  of  Old  Tes- 
tament passages  which  belong  to  Jehovah,  to 
Jesus  in  the  New  Testament,  and  try  whether 
you  can  acquit  the  writers  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment of  misrepresentation,  on  supposition  that 
Tesus  is  not  God.  St.  Paul  saySj  "  We  shall  all 
stand  before  the  judgment-seat  of  Christ."  That 
we  shall  all  be  judged,  we  allow;  but  how  do  you 
prove  that  Christ  shall  be  our  judge?  Because, 
adds  the  apostle,  it  is  written,  "  As  I  live,  saith 
the  Lord,  every  knee  shall  bow  to  me,  and  every 
tongue  shall  confess  to  God,"  Rom.  xiv.  10,  11, 
with  Is.  xlv.  20,  &c.  What  sort  of  reasoning  is 
this?  How  does  this  apply  to  Christ,  if  Christ 
be  not  God  ?  And  how  dare  a  man  quote  one 
of  the  most  guarded  passages  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment for  such  a  purpose  ?  John  the  Baptist  is 
he  who  was  spoken  of  by  the  prophet  Esaias, 
saying,  Prepare  ye  the  way,  Matt.  iii.  1,  3.  Isaiah 
saith,  Prepare  ye  the  way  of  the  Lord;  make 
straight  a  highway  for  our  God,  Is.  xl.  3,  &c. 
But  what  has  John  the  Baptist  to  do  with  all 
tliis  description,  if  Jesus  Christ  be  only  a  messen- 

fer  of  Jehovah,  and  not  Jehovah  himself?  for 
saiah  saith,  Prepare  ye  the  way  of  Jehovah. 
Compare  also  Zech.  xii.  10,  with  John  xix.  34, 
37 ;  Is.  vi.  with  John  xii.  39 ;  Is.  viii.  13,  14,  with 
1  Pet.  ii.  8.  Allow  Jesus  Christ  to  be  God,  and  all 
these  applications  aie  proper.  If  we  deny  it,  the 
New  Testament,  we  must  own,  is  one  of  the 
most  unaccountable  compositions  in  the  world, 
calculated  to  make  easy  things  hard  to  be  under- 
stood.— 7.  Examine  whether  events  have  justi- 
fied that  notion  of  Christianity  which  the  pro- 
phets gave  their  countrymen  of  it,  if  Jesus 
Christ  be  not  God.  The  calling  of  the  Gentiles 
from  the  worship  of  idols  to  the  worship  of  the 
one  living  and  true  God,  is  one  event,  which,  the 
prophets  said,  the  coming  of  the  Messiah  should 
bring  to  pass.  If  Jesus  Christ  be  God,  the  event 
answers  the  prophecy ;  if  not,  the  event  is  not 
come  to  pass,  for  Christiana  in  general  worship 
307 


JESUS 
Jesus,  which  is  dolatry,  if  he  be  not  God,  Is.  ii. 
iii.  and  iv. ;  Zeph.  ii.  11;  Zech.  xiv.  9.  The 
primitive  Christians  certainly  worshipped  Him 
as  God.  Plinv,  who  was  appointed  governor  of 
the  province  of  Bithynia  by  the  emperor  Trajan, 
in  the  year  103,  examined  and  punished  several 
Christians  for  their  non-conformity  to  the  esta- 
blished religion  of  the  empire.  In  a  letter  to  the 
empeior,  giving  an  account  of  his  conduct,  he 
declares,  "  they  affirmed  the  whole  of  their  guilt, 
or  their  error,  was,  that  they  met  on  a  certain 
stated  day,  before  it  was  light,  and  addressed 
themselves  in  a  form  of  prayer  to  Christ  as  to 
some  God."  Thus  Pliny  meant  to  inform  the 
emperor  that  Christians  worshipped  Christ. 
Justin  Martyr,  who  lived  about  150  years  after 
Christ,  asserts,  that  the  Christians  worshipped 
the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Spirit.  Besides  his 
testimony,  there  are  numberless  passages  in  the 
fathers  that  attest  the  truth  in  question ;  espe- 
cially in  Tertullian,  Hippolytus,  Felix,  &c. 
Mahomet,  who  lived  in  the  sixth  century,  consi- 
ders Christians  in  the  light  of  infidels  and  idola- 
ters throughout  the  Koran  ;  and,  indeed,  had  not 
Christians  worshipped  Christ,  he  could  have  had 
no  shadow  of  a  pretence  to  reform  their  religion, 
and  bring  them  back  to  the  worship  of  one  God. 
That  the  far  greater  part  of  Christians  have  con- 
tinued to  worship  Jesus  will  not  be  doubted  ;  now, 
if  Christ  be  not  God,  then  the  Christians  have 
been  guilty  of  idolatry ;  and  if  they  have  been 
guilty  of  idolatry,  then  it  must  appear  remarka- 
ble that  the  apostles  who  foretold  the  corruptions 
of  Christianity,  2  Tim.  hi.,  should  never  have 
foreseen  nor  warned  us  against  worshipping 
Christ.  In  no  part  of  the  Scripture  is  there  the 
least  intimation  of  Christians  falling  into  idolatry 
in  this  respect.  Surely  if  this  had  been  an  error 
which  was  so  universally  to  prevail,  those  Scrip- 
tures which  are  able  to  make  us  wise  unto  salva- 
tion, would  have  left  us  a  warning  on  so  important 
a  topic.  Lastly,  consider  what  numberless  passages 
of  Scripture  have  no  sense,  or  a  very  absurd  one, 
if  Jesus  Christ  be  a  mere  man.  See  Rom.  i.  3 ; 
1  Tim.  iii.  16;  John  xiv.  9;  xvii.  5;  Phil.  ii.  6; 
Ps.  ex.  1,  4;  1  Tim.  i.  2 ;  Acts  xxii.12,  and  ix.  17. 
But  though  Jesus  Christ  be  God,  yet  for  our 
sakes,  and  for  our  salvation,  he  took  upon  him 
human  nature;  this  is  therefore  called  his 
humanity.  Marion,  Apelles,  Valentinus,  and 
many  other  heretics,  denied  Christ's  humanity,  as 
some  have  done  since.  But  that  Christ  had  a 
true  human  body,  and  not  a  mere  human  shape, 
or  a  body  that  was  not  real  flesh,  is  very  evident 
from  the  sacred  Scriptures,  Is.  vii.  12;  Luke 
xxiv.  39 ;  Heb.  ii.  14 ;  Luke  i.  42 ;  Phil.  ii.  7,  8-; 
John  i.  14.  Besides  he  ate,  drank,  slept,  walked, 
worked,  and  was  weary.  He  groaned,  bled,  and 
died  upon  the  cross.  It  was  necessary  that  he 
should  thus  be  human,  in  order  to  fulfil  the  divine 
designs  and  prophecies  respecting  the  shedding 
of  his  blood  for  our  salvation,  which  could  not 
have  been  done,  had  he  not  possessed  a  real  body. 
It  is  also  as  evident  that  he  assumed  our  whofe 
nature,  soul  as  well  as  body.  If  he  had  not,  he 
could  not  have  been  capablo  of  that  sore  amaze- 
ment and  sorrow  unto  death,  and  all  those  other 
acts  of  grieving,  feeling,  rejoicing,  &c.  ascribed  to 
him.  It  was  not,  however,  our  sinful  nature  he 
assumed,  but  the  likeness  of  it,  Rom.  viiL  2 ;  for 
he  was  without  sin,  and  did  no  iniquity.  His 
human  nature  must  not  be  confounded  with  his 


JESUS 

divine;  for  though  there  be  an  union  of  natures  in 
Christ,  yet  there  is  not  a  mixture  or  confusion  of 
them  or  their  properties.  His  humanity  is  not 
changed  into  his  deity,  nor  his  deity  into  hu- 
manity ,  hut  the  two  natures  are  distinct  in  one 
person.  How  this  union  exists  is  above  our  com- 
prehension ;  and,  indeed,  if  we  cannot  explain 
how  our  own  bodies  and  souls  are  united,  it  is  not 
to  be  supposed  we  can  explain  this  astonishing 
mystery  of  God  manifest  in  the  flesh.  See 
Mediator. 

We  now  proceed  to  the  character  of  Jesus 
Christ,  which,  while  it  affords  us  the  most  pleas- 
ing subject  for  meditation,  exhibits  to  us  an  ex- 
ample of  the  most  perfect  and  delightful  kind. 

"  Here,"  as  an  elegant  writer  observes,  "  every 
grace  that  can  recommend  religion,  and  every 
virtue  that  can  adorn  humanity,  are  so  blended, 
as  to  excite  our  admiration,  and  engage  our  love. 
In  abstaining  from  licentious  pleasures,  he  was 
equally  free  from  ostentatious  singularity  and 
churlish  sullenness.  When  he  complied  with  the 
established  ceremonies  of  his  countrymen,  that 
compliance  was  not  accompanied  by  any  marks 
of  bigotry  or  superstition ;  when  he  opposed 
their  rooted  prepossessions,  his  opposition  was 
perfectly  exempt  from  the  captious  petulance  of  a 
controversialist,  and  the  undistinguishing  zeal  of 
an  innovator.  His  courage  was  active  in  en- 
countering the  dangers  to  wliich  he  was  exposed, 
and  passive  under  the  aggravated  calamities 
which  the  malice  of  his  foes  heaped  upon  him;  his 
fortitude  was  remote  from  every  appearance  of 
rashness,  and  his  patience  was  equally  exempt 
from  abject  pusillanimity :  he  was  firm  without 
obstinacy,  and  humble  without  meanness. — 
Though  possessed  of  the  most  unbounded  power, 
we  behold  him  living  continually  in  a  state  of 
voluntary  humiliation  and  poverty ;  we  see  him 
daily  exposed  to  almost  every  species  of  want  and 
distress ;  afflicted  without  a  comforter,  persecuted 
without  a  protector ;  and  wandering  about,  accord- 
ing to  his  own  pathetic  complaint,  because  he  had 
not  where,  to  lay  his  head.  Though  regardless  of 
the  pleasures,  and  sometimes  destitute  of  the 
comforts  of  life,  he  never  provokes  our  disgust  by 
the  sourness  of  the  misanthrope,  or  our  contempt 
by  the  inactivity  of  the  recluse.  His  attention  to 
the  welfare  of  mankind  was  evinced  not  only  by 
his  salutary  injunctions,  but  by  his  readiness  to 
embrace  every  opportunity  of  relieving  their  dis- 
tress and  administering  to  their  wants.  In  every 
period  and  circumstance  of  his  life,  we  behold 
dignity  and  elevation  blended  with  love  and  pity ; 
something  which,  though  it  awakens  our  admira- 
tion, yet  attracts  our  confidence.  We  see  power ; 
but  it  is  power  which  is  rather  our  security  than 
i  our  dread;  a  power  softened  with  tenderness,  and 
soothing  while  it  awes.  With  all  the  gentleness 
of  a  meek  and  lowly  mind,  we  behold  an  heroic 
firmness,  which  no  terrors  could  restrain.  In  the 
private  scenes  of  life,  and  in  the  public  occupa- 
tions of  his  ministry  ;  whether  the  object  of  ad- 
miration or  ridicule,  of  love  or  of  persecution  ; 
whether  welcomed  with  hosannas,  or  insulted 
with  anathemas,  we  still  see  him  pursuing  with 
unwearied  constancy  the  same  end,  and  preserv- 
ing the  same  integrity  of  life  and  manners." 
Wmite's  Sermons,  serm.  5. 

Considering  him  as  a  Moral  Teacher,  we 
must  be  struck  with  the  greatest  admiration.  As 
Dr.  Paley  observes,  "  he  preferred  solid  to  popu- 
208 


JESUS 
lar  virtues ;  a  character  which  is  commonly  iH» 
spised,  to  a  character  universally  extolled :  he 
placed,  in  our  licentious  vices,  the  check  in  the 
right,  place,  viz.  upon  the  thoughts :  he  collected 
human  duty  into  two  well-devised  rules ;  he  re 
peated  these  rules,  and  laid  great  stress  upon 
them,  and  thereby  fixed  the  sentiments  of  his 
followers  :  he  excluded  all  regard  to  reputation  in 
our  devotion  and  alms,  and,  by  parity  of  reason, 
in  our  other  virtues :  his  instructions  were  deli- 
vered in  a  form  calculated  for  impression ;  they 
were  illustrated  by  parables,  the  choice  and  struc- 
ture of  which  would  have  been  admired  in  any 
composition  whatever :  he  was  free  from  the  usual 
symptoms  of  enthusiasm,  heat,  and  vehemence 
in  devotion,  austerity  in  institutions,  and  a  wild 
particularity  in  the  description  of  a  future  state : 
he  was  free  also  from  the  depravities  of  his  age 
and  country ;  without  superstition  among  the 
most  superstitious  of  men,  yet-not  decrying  posi- 
tive distinctions  or  external  observances,  but  so- 
berly recalling  them  to  the  principle  of  their  esta- 
blishment, and  to  their  place  in  the  scale  of  human 
duties :  there  was  nothing  of  sophistry  or  trifling, 
though  amidst  teachers  remarkable  for  nothing  so 
much  as  frivolous  subtilties  and  quibbling  expo- 
sitions ;  he  was  candid  and  liberal  in  his  judg- 
ment of  the  rest  of  mankind,  although  belonging 
to  a  people  who  affected  a  separate  claim  to  divine 
favour,  and,  in  consequence  of  that  opinion, 
prone  to  uncharitableness,  partiality,  and  restric- 
tion :  in  his  religion  there  was  no  scheme  of  build- 
ing up  a  hierarchy,  or  of  ministering  to  the  viewo 
of  human  governments :  in  a  word,  there  was 
every  thing  so  grand  in  doctrine,  and  so  delight- 
ful in  manner,  that  the  people  might  well  exclaim 
— '  Surely,  never  man  spake  like  this  man !' 

As  to  his  example,  bishop  Newcome  observes, 
"it  was  of  the  most  perfect  piety  to  God,  and  of 
the  most  extensive  benevolence  and  the  most  ten- 
der compassion  to  men.  He  does  not  merely  ex- 
hibit a  life  of  strict  justice,  but  of  overflowing  be- 
nignity. His  temperance  has  not  the  dark  shades 
of  austerity;  his  meekness  does  not  degenerate 
into  apathy;  his  humility  is  signal,  amidst  a 
splendour  of  qualities  more  than  human;  his  for- 
titude is  eminent  and  exemplary  in  enduring  the 
most  formidable  external  evils,  and  the  sharpest 
actual  sufferings.  His  patience  is  invincible  ;  his 
resignation  entire  and  absolute.  Truth  and  sin- 
cerity shine  throughout  his  whole  conduct. 
Though  of  heavenly  descent,  he  shows  obedience 
and  affection  to  his  earthly  parents ;  he  approves, 
loves,  and  attaches  himself  to  amiable  qualities  in 
the  human  race ;  he-  respects  authority,  religious 
and  civil ;  and  he  evidences  regard  for  his  coun- 
try, by  promoting  its  most  essential  good  in  a 
painful  ministry  dedicated  to  its  service,  by  de- 
ploring its  calamities,  and  by  laying  down  his 
life  for  its  benefit.  Every  one  of  his  eminent  vir- 
tues is  regulated  by  consummate  prudence  ;  and 
he  both  wins  the  love  of  his  friends,  and  extorts 
the  approbation  and  wonder  of  his  enemies. 
Never  was  a  character  at  the  same  time  so  com- 
manding and  natural,  so  resplendent  and  pleas- 
ing, so  amiable  and  venerable.  There  is  a  pecu- 
liar contrast  in  it  between  an  awful  greatness, 
dignity,  and  majesty,  and  the  most  conciliating 
loveliness,  tenderness,  and  softness.  He  now 
converses  with  prophets,  lawgivers,  and  angels; 
and  the  next  instant  he  meekly  endures  the 
dulness  of  his  disciples  and  the  blasphemies  and 


JEWS 
rage  of  the  multitude.  He  now  calls  himself 
greater  than  Solomon ;  one  who  can  command 
legions  of  angels;  and  giver  of  life  to  whomso- 
ever he  pleaseth  ;  the  Son  cf  God,  and  who  shall 
sit  on  his  glorious  throne  to  judge  the  world  :  at 
other  times  we  find  him  embracing  young  chil- 
dren; not  lifting  up  his  voice  in  the  streets,  n<  < 
quenching  the  smoking  flax ;  calling  his  disci- 
ples not  servants,  hut  friends  and  brethren,  and 
comforting  them  with  an  exuberant  and  parental 
affection.  Let  us  pause  an  instant,  and  fill  our 
minds  with  the  idea  of  one  who  knew  all  things, 
heavenly  and  earthly;  searched  and  laid  open  the 
inmost  recesses  of  the  heart ;  rectified  every  pre- 
judice, and  removed  every  mistake  of  a  moral  and 
religious  kind ;  by  a  word  exercised  a  sovereignty 
over  all  nature,  penetrated  the  hidden  events  of 
futurity,  gave  promises  of  admission  into  a  happy 
immortality,  had  the  keys  of  life  and  death, 
claimed  an  union  with  the  Father ;  and  yet  was 
pious,  mild,  gentle,  humble,  affable,  social,  bene- 
volent, friendly,  and  affectionate.  Such  a  charac- 
ter is  fairer  than  the  morning  star.  Each  sepa- 
rate virtue  is  made  stronger  by  opposition  and 
contrast ;  and  the  union  of  so  many  virtues  forms 
a  brightness  which  fitly  represents  the  glory  of 
that  God  'who  inhabiteth  light  inaccessible.'" 
See  Pobaison's  Plea  far  the  Divinity  of  Christ, 
from  which  many  of  the  above  remarks  are  taken ; 
Bp.  BulUs  Judgment  of  the  Catholic  Church; 
Abbadie,  Walerland,  Hawker,  and  Hey,  on  the 
Divinity  of  Christ ;  Reader,  Stackhouse,  and 
Dby ley's  Lives  of  Christ ;  Dr.  Jamieson's  View 
of  the  Doctrine  of  Scripture,  and  the  Primitive 
Faith  concerning  the  Deity  of  Christ;  Owen 
on  the  Glory  of  Christ's  Person;  Hurrion's 
Christ  Crucified;  Bishop  Newcombe's  Observa- 
tions on  our  Lord's  Conduct;  and  Paley's  Evi- 
dences of  Christianity. 

JEWS,  a  name  derived  from  the  patriarch  Ju- 
dah,  and  given  to  the  descendants  of  Abraham 
by  his  eldest  son  Isaac.  We  shall  here  present 
the  reader  with  as  comprehensive  a  view  of  this 
•singular  people,  as  we  can. 

1.  Jews,  History  of  the. — The  Almighty  pro- 
mised Abraliam  that  he  would  render  his  seed 
extremely  numerous:  this  promise  began  to  be 
fulfilled  in  Jacob's  twelve  sons.  In  about  two 
hundred  and  fifteen  years  they  increased  in 
Egypt  from  seventeen  to  between  two  and  three 
millions,  men,  women,  and  children.  While  Jo- 
seph lived,  they  were  kindly  used  by  the  Egyp- 
tian monarchs ;  but  soon  after,  from  a  suspicion 
that  they  would  become  too  strong  for  the  natives, 
they  were  condemned  to  slavery ;  but  the  more 
they  were  oppressed,  the  more  they  grew.  The 
midwives,  and  others,  were  therefore  ordered  to 
murder  every  male  infant  at  the  time  of  its  birth  ; 
but  they  shifting  the  horrible  task,  every  body 
was  then  ordered  to  destroy  the  male  children 
wherever  they  found  them.  After  they  had  been 
thus  oppressed  for  about  one  hundred  years,  and 
on  the  very  day  that  finished  the  four  hundred 
and  thirtieth  year  from  God's  first  promise  of  a 
seed  to  Abraham,  and  about  four  hundred  years 
after  the  birth  of  Isaac,  God,  by  terrible  plagues 
on  the  Egyptians,  obliged  them  to  liberate  the 
Hebrews  under  the  direction  of  Moses  and 
Aaron.  Pharaoh  pursued  them  with  a  mighty 
army  ;  but  the  Lord  opened  a  passage  for  them 
through  the  Red  Sea ;  and  the  Egyptians,  in  at- 
tempting to  follow  them,  were  drowned.  After 
309  3  B 


JEWS 
this,  we  find  them  in  a  dry  and  barren  desert, 
without  any  provision  for  their  journey,  but  God 
supplied  them  with  water  from  a  rock,  and  manna 
and  quails  from  heaven.  A  little  after  they 
routed  the  Amalekites,  who  fell  on  their  rear.  In 
the  wilderness  God  delivered  them  the  law,  and 
confirmed  the  authority  of  Moses.  Three  thou- 
sand of  them  were  cut  off  for  worshipping  the 
golden  calf;  and  for  loathing  the  manna,  they 
were  punished  with  a  month's  eating  of  flesh,  till 
a  plague  broke  out  among  them ;  and  for  their 
rash  belief  of  the  ten  wicked  spies,  and  the  con- 
tempt cf  the  promised  land,  God  had  entirely  de- 
stroyed them,  had  not  Moses's  prayers  prevented. 
They  were  condemned,  however,  to  wander  in 
the  desert  till  the  end  of  forty  years,  till  that 
whole  generation,  except  Caleb  and  Joshua, 
should  be  cut  off  by  death.  Here  they  were 
often  punished  for  their  rebellion,  idolatry,  whore- 
dom, &c.  God's  marvellous  favours,  however, 
were  still  continued  in  conducting  and  supplying 
them  with  meat ;  and  the  streams  issuing  from 
the  rock  of  Meribah,  followed  their  camp  about 
thirty-nine  years,  and  their  clothes  never  waxed 
old.  On  their  entrance  into  Canaan,  God  or- 
dered them  to  cut  off  every  idolatrous  Canaanite ; 
but  they  spared  vast  numbers  of  them,  who  en- 
ticed them  to  wickedness,  and  were  sometimes 
God's  rod  to  punish  them.  For  many  ages  they 
had  enjoyed  little  prosperity,  and  often  relapsed 
into  awful  idolatry,  worshipping  Baalim  and 
Ashtaroth.  Micah  and  the  Danites  introduced 
it  not  long  after  Joshua's  death.  About  this 
time  the  lewdness  of  the  men  of  Gibeah  occa- 
sioned a  war  of  the  eleven  tribes  against  theii 
brethren  of  Benjamin :  they  were  twice  routed 
by  the  Benjamites,  and  forty  thousand  of  them 
were  slain.  In  the  third,  however,  all  the  Ben 
jamites  were  slain,  except  six  hundred.  Vexed 
for  the  loss  of  a  tribe,  the  other  Hebrews  pro- 
vided wives  for  these  six  hundred,  at  the  expence 
of  slaying  most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Jabesh 
Gilead.  Their  relapses  into  idolatry  also  brought 
on  them  repeated  turns  of  slavery  from  the  hea- 
then among  or  around  them.  See  books  of  Judges 
and  Samuel.  Having  been  governed  by  judges 
for  about  three  hundred  and  forty  years,  after  the 
death  of  Joshua,  they  took  a  fancy  to  have  a  king. 
Saul  was  their  first  sovereign,  under  whose 
reign  they  had  perpetual  struggles  with  the 
Ammonites,  Moabites,  and  Philistines.  After 
about  seven  years'  struggling  between  the  eleven 
tribes  that  clave  to  Ishbosheth,  the  son  of  Saul, 
and  the  tribe  of  Judah,  which  erected  themselves 
into  a  kingdom  under  David,  David  became  sole 
monarch.  Under  him  they  subdued  their  neigh- 
bours, the  Philistines,  Edomites,  and  others  ;  and 
took  possession  •  of  the  whole  dominion  which 
has  been  promised  them,  from  the  border  of 
Egypt  to  tne  banks  of  the  Euphrates.  Under 
Solomon  they  had  little  war  :  when  he  died,  ten 
of  the  Hebrew  tribes  formed  a  kingdom  of  Israel, 
or  Ephraim,  for  themselves,  under  Jeroboam,  the 
son  of  Nebat,  in  opposition  to  the  kingdom  of  Ju- 
dah and  Benjamin,  ruled  by  the  family  of  David. 
The  kingdom  of  Israel,  Ephraim,  or  the  ten  tribes, 
had  never  so  much  as  one  pious  king :  idolatrj 
was  always  their  established  religion.  The  king- 
dom of  Judah  had  pious  and  wicked  sovereigns 
by  turns,  though  they  often  relapsed  into  idolatry, 
which  brought  great  distress  upon  them.  See 
books  of  Samuel,  Kings,  and  Chronicles.     Not 


JEWS 
only  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  but  that  of  Judah, 
was  brought  to  the  very  brink  of  ruin  after  the 
death  of  Jehoshaphat.  After  various  changes, 
sometimes  for  the  better,  and  sometimes  for  the 
worse,  the  kingdom  of  Israel  was  ruined,  two 
hundred  and  fifty-four  years  after  its  erection,  by 
So,  king  of  Egypt,  and  Halmanaser,  king  of 
Assyria,  who  invaded  it,  and  destroyed  most  of 
the  people.  Judah  was  invaded  by  Sennacherib ; 
but  Hezekiah's  piety,  and  Isaiah's  prayer,  were 
the  means  of  their  preservation  :  but  under  Ma- 
nasseh, the  Jews  abandoned  themselves  to  horrid 
impiety:  for  which  they  were  punished  by  Esar- 
haddon,  king  of  Assyria,  who  invaded  and  re- 
duced the  kingdom,  and  carried  Manasseh  pri- 
soner to  Babylon.  Manasseh  repented  and  the 
Lord  brought  him  back  to  his  kingdom,  wmere  he 
promoted  the  reformation  ;  but  his  son  Anion  de- 
faced all.  Josiah,  however,  again  promoted  it, 
and  carried  it  to  a  higher  pitch  than  in  the  reigns 
of  David  and  Solomon.  After  Josiah  was  slain 
by  Pharaoh  Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  the  people  re- 
turned to  idolatry,  and  God  gave  them  up  to  ser- 
vitude to  the  Egyptians  and  Chaldeans.  The  fate 
of  their  kings  Jehoas,  Jehoiakim,  Jehoiachin,  and 
Zcdekiah,  was  unhappy.  Provoked  by  Zedckiah's 
treachery,  Nebuchadnezzar  invaded  the  kingdom, 
murdered  vast  numbers,  and  reduced  them  to 
captivity.  Thus  the  kingdom  of  Judah  was 
ruined,  A.  M.  3416,  about  three  hundred  and 
eighty-eight  years  after  its  division  from  that  of 
the  ten  tribes.  In  the  seventieth  year  from  the 
begun  captivity,  the  Jews,  according  to  the  edict 
of  Cyrus,  king  of  Persia,  who  had  overturned  the 
empire  of  Chaldea,  returned  to  their  own  coun- 
try. See  Nehemiah,  Ezra.  Vast  numliers  of 
them,  wrho  had  agreeable  settlements,  remained 
in  Babylon.  After  their  return  they  rebuilt  the 
temple  and  city  of  Jerusalem,  put  away  their 
strange  wives,  and  renewed  their  covenant  with 
<Jod. 

About  3490,  or  334(5,  they  escaped  the  ruin 
designed  them  by  Hainan.  About  3033,  Darius 
Ochue,  king  of  Persia,  ravaged  part  of  Judea, 
and  carried  off  a  great  many  prisoners.  When 
Alexander  was  in  Canaan,  about  3670,  he  con- 
tinued to  them  all  their  privileges;  and  having 
built  Alexandria,  he  settled  vast  numbers  of  them 
there.  About  fourteen  years  after,  Ptolemy  La- 
gus,  the  Greek  king  of  Egypt,  ravaged  Judea, 
and  carried  one  hundred  thousand  prisoners  to 
Egypt)  but  used  them  kindly,  and  assigned  them 
many  places  of  trust.  About  eight  years  after, 
he  transported  another  multitude  of  Jews  to 
Egypt,  and  gave  them  considerable  privileges. 
About  the  same  time,  Seleucus  Nicator,  having 
built  about  thirty  new  cities  in  Asia,  settled  in 
them  as  many  Jews  as  he  could;  and  Ptolemy 
Philadelphia,  of  Egypt,  about  3720,  bought,  the 
freedom  °'  all  the  Jew  slaves  in  Egypt.  Anti- 
Dchue  Epiphanes,  about  3834,  enraged  with  them 
tor  rejoicing  at  the  report  of  his  death,  and  for 
the  peculiar  form  of  their  worship,  in  his  return 
from  Egypt,  forced  his  way  into  Jerusalem,  and 
murdered  forty  thousand  of  them:  and  about  two 
years  after  he  ordered  his  troops  to  pillage  the 
cities  of  Judea,  and  murder  the  men,  and  sell 
the  women  and  cliildren  for  slaves.  Multitudes 
were  killed,  and  ten  thousand  prisoners  carried 
off:  the  temple  was  dedicated  to  Olympius,  an 
idol  of  Greece,  and  the  Jews  exposed  to  the 
basest  treatment.  Mattathias,  the  priest,  with 
210 


JEWS 
his  sons,  chiefly  Judas,  Jonathan,  and  Simon, 
who  were  called  Maccabees,  bravely  fought  for 
their  religion  and  liberties.  Judas,  who  succeed- 
ed his  father  about  3840,  gave  Nicanor  and  the 
king's  troops  a  terrible  defeat,  regained  the  tem- 
ple, and  dedicated  it  anew,  restored  the  daily 
worship,  and  repaired  Jerusalem,  which  was 
almost  in  a  ruinous  heap.  After  his  death,  Jona- 
than and  Simon,  his  brethren,  successively  suc- 
ceeded him;  and  both  wisely  and  bravely  pro- 
moted the  welfare  of  the  church  and  state. 
Simon  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Hircanus,  who 
subdued  Idumca  and  reduced  the  Samaritans. 
In  3899  he  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Janneus, 
who  reduced  the  Philistines,  the  country  of  Moab, 
Amnion,  Gilead,  and  part  of  Arabia.  Under 
these  three  reigns  alone  the  Jewish  nation  was 
independent  after  the  captivity.  After  the  death  of 
the  widow  of  Janneus,  who  governed  nine  years, 
the  nation  was  almost  ruined  with  civil  broils.  In 
3939,  Aristobulus  invited  the  Romans  to  assist  him 
against  Hircanus,  his  elder  brother.  The  coun- 
try was  quickly  reduced,  and  Jerusalem  took  by 
force ;  and  Pompey,  and  a  number  of  his  officers, 
pushed  their  way  into  the  sanctuary,  if  not  into 
the  Holy  of  Holies,  to  view  the  furniture  thereof. 
Nine  years  after,  Crassus,  the  Roman  general, 
pillaged  the  temple  of  its  valuables.  After  Judea 
had  for  more  than  thirty  years  been  a  scene  of 
ravage  and  blood,  and  twenty-four  of  which  had 
been  oppressed  by  Herod  the  Great,  Herod  got 
himself  installed  in  the  kingdom.  About  twenty 
years  before  our  Saviour's  birth,  he,  with  the 
Jews'  consent,  began  to  build  the  temple.  About 
this  time  the  Jews  had  hopes  of  the  Messiah ; 
and  about  A.  M.  4000,  Christ  actually  came, 
whom  Herod  (instigated  by  the  fear  of  losing  his 
ttirone)  sought  to  murder.  The  Jews,  however, 
a  few  excepted,  rejected  the  Messiah,  and  put  him 
to  death.  The  sceptre  was  now  wholly  departed 
from  Judah;  and  Judea,  about  twenty-seven  years 
before,  reduced  to  a  province.  The  Jews,  since 
that  time,  have  been  scattered,  contemned,  per- 
secuted, and  enslaved  among  all  nations,  not 
mixed  with  any  in  the  common  manner,  but  have 
remained  as  a  body  distinct  by  themselves. 

2.  Jews,  scniiinents  of. — The  Jews  commonly 
reckon  but  fourteen  articles  of  their  faith.  Mai- 
monides,  a  famous  Jewish  rabbi,  reduced  them  to 
this  number  when  he  drew  up  their  confession 
about  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century,  and  it 
was  generally  received.  AH  the  Jews  are  obliged 
to  live  and  die  in  the  profession  of  these  thirteen 
articles,  which  are  as  follow; — 1.  That  God  is 
the  creator  of  all  things  •  that  he  guides  and  sup- 
ports all  creatures  :  that  he  has  done  every  thing ; 
and  that  he  still  acts,  and  shall  act  during  the 
whole  eternity. — 2.  That  God  is  one :  there  is  no 
unity  like  his.  He  alone  hath  been,  is,  and  shall 
be  eternally  our  God. — 3.  That  God  is  incorpo- 
real, and  cannot  have  any  material  properties; 
and  no  corporeal  essence  can  be  compared  with 
him. — 4.  That  God  is  the  beginning  and  end  of 
all  things,  and  shall  eternally  subsist. — 5.  That 
God  alone  ought  to  lie  worshipped,  and  none  lieside 
him  is  to  be  adored. — 6.  That  whatever  has  been 
taught  by  the  prophets  is  true. — 7.  That  Moses 
is  the  head  and  father  of  all  contemporary  doc- 
tors, of  those  who  lived  before  or  shall  live  after 
him. — 8.  That  the  law  was  given  by  Moses.— 
9.  That  the  law  shall  never  be  altered,  and  that 
God  will  give  no  other. — 10.  That  God  knows 


JEWS 
all  the  thoughts  and  actions  of  men. — 11.  That 
God  will  regard  the  works  of  all  those  who  have 
performed  what  he  commands,  and  punish  those 
who  have  transgressed  his  laws. — 12.  That  the 
Messiah  is  to  come,  though  he  tarry  a  long  time. 
— 13.  That  there  shall  he  a  resurrection  of  the 
dead  when  God  shall  think  fit. 

The  modern  Jews  adhere  still  as  closely  to  the 
Mosaic  dispensation,  as  their  dispersed  and  de- 
spised condition  will  permit  them.  Their  ser- 
vice consists  chiefly  in  reading  the  law  in  their 
synagogues,  together  with  a  variety  of  prayers. 
They  use  no  sacrifices  since  the  destruction  of 
the  Temple.  They  repeat  blessings  and  particular 
praises  to  God,  not  only  in  their  prayers,  but  on 
all  accidental  occasions,  and  in  almost  all  their 
actions.  They  go  to  prayers  three  times  a  day 
in  their  synagogues.  Their  sermons  are  not 
made  in  Hebrew,  which  few  of  them  now  per- 
fectly understand,  but  in  the  language  of  the 
country  where  they  reside.  They  are  forbidden 
all  vain  swearing,  and  pronouncing^  any  of  the 
names  of  God  without  necessity.  They  abstain 
from  meats  prohibited  by  the  Levitical  law ;  for 
which  reason,  whatever  they  eat  must  be  dressed 
by  Jews,  and  after  a  manner  peculiar  to  them- 
selves. As  soon  as  a  child  can  speak,  they  teach 
him  to  read  and  translate  the  Bible  into  the  lan- 
guage of  the  country  where  they  live.  In  gene- 
ral, they  observe  the  same  ceremonies  which  were 
practised  by  their  ancestors,  in  the  celebration  of 
the  passover.  They  acknowledge  a  two-fold  law 
of  God,  a  written  and  an  unwritten  one;  the 
former  is  contained  in  the  Pentateuch,  or  five 
books  of  Moses ;  the  latter,  they  pretend,  was 
delivered  by  God  to  Moses,  and  handed  down 
from  him  by  oral  tradition,  and  now  to  be  receiv- 
ed as  of  equal  authority  with  the  former.  They 
assert  the  perpetuity  of  their  law,  together  with 
its  perfection.  They  deny  the  accomplishment 
of  the  prophecies  in  the  person  of  Christ;  alleg- 
ing that  the  Messiah  is  not  yet  come,  and  that  he 
will  make  lus  appearance  with  the  greatest 
worldly  pomp  and  grandeur,  subduing  all  nations 
before  him,  and  subjecting  them  to  the  house  of 
Judah.  Since  the  prophets  have  predicted  his 
mean  condition  and  sufferings,  they  confidently 
talk  of  two  Messiahs  ;  one  Ben-Ephraim,  whom 
they  grant  to  be  a  person  of  a  mean  and  afflicted 
condition  in  this  world ;  and  the  ofher,  Ben- 
David,  who  shall  be  a  victorious  and  powerful 
prince. 

The  Jews  pray  for  the  souls  of  the  dead,  be- 
cause they  suppose  there  is  a  paradise  for  the 
souls  of  good  men,  where  they  enjoy  glory  in  the 
presence  of  God.  They  believe  that  the  souls  of 
the  wicked  are  tormented  in  hell  with  fire  and 
other  punishments ;  that  some  are  condemned  to 
be  punished  in  this  manner  for  ever,  while  others 
continue  only  for  a  limited  time;  and  this  they 
call  purgatory,  which  is  not  different  from  hell 
in  respect  of  the  place,  but  of  the  duration.  They 
suppose  no  Jew,  unless  guilty  of  heresy,  or  cer- 
tain crimes  specified  by  the  rabbins,  shall  con- 
tinue in  purgatory  above  a  twelvemonth;  and 
that  there  are  but  few  who  suffer  eternal  punish- 
ment. 

Almost  all  the  modern  Jews  are  Pharisees, 
and  are  as  much  attached  to  tradition  as  their  an- 
cestors were;  and  assert,  that  whoever  rejects 
the  oral  law  deserves  death.  Hence  they  enter- 
lain  an  implacable  hatred  to  the  Caraites,  who 
211 


JEWS 

adhere  to  the  text  of  Moses,  rejecting  the  rabbi 
nistical  interpretation.     See  Caraites. 

There  are  still  some  of  the  Sadducees  in  Afri- 
ca, and  in  several  other  places;  but  they  are  few 
in  number :  at  least  there  are  but  very  few  who 
declare  openly  for  these  opinions. 

There  are  to  this  day  some  remains  of  the  an- 
cient sect  of  the  Samaritans,  who  are  zealous  for 
the  law  of  Moses,  but  are  despised  by  the  Jews, 
because  they  receive  only  the  Pentateuch,  and 
observe  difft  rent  ceremonies  from  theirs.  They 
declare  they  are  no  Sadducees,  but  acknowledge 
the  spirituality  and  immortality  of  the  soul.-— 
There  are  numbers  of  this  sect  at  Gaza,  Damas- 
cus, Grand  Cairo,  and  in  some  other  places  of 
the  east ;  but  especially  at  Sichem,  now  called 
Naplouse,  which  is  risen  out  of  the  ruins  of  the 
ancient  Samaria,  where  they  sacrificed  not  many 
years  ago,  having  a  place  for  this  purpose  on 
Mount  Gerizim. 

David  Levi,  a  learned  Jew,  who  in  1796  pub- 
lished "  Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies  of  the 
Cld  Testament,"  observes  in  that  work,  that 
deism  and  infidelity  have  made  such  large  strides 
in  the  world,  that  they  have  at  length  reached 
even  to  the  Jewish  nation  ;  many  of  whom  are 
at  this  time  so  greatly  infected  with  scepticism, 
by  reading  Bolingbroke,  Hume,  Voltaire,  &c. 
that  they  scarcely  believe  in  a  revelation  ;  much 
less  have  they  any  hope  in  their  future  restoration. 

3.  Jeics,  calamities  of. — All  history  cannot 
furnish  us  with  a  parallel  to  the  calamities  and 
miseries  of  the  Jews  ;  rapine  and  murder,  famine 
and  pestilence,  within ;  fire  and  sword,  and  all 
the  terrors  of  war,  without.  Our  Saviour  wept 
at  the  foresight  of  these  calamities ;  and  it  is 
almost  impossible  for  persons  of  any  humanity  to 
read  the  account  without  being  affected.  The 
predictions  concerning  them  were  remarkable, 
ana  the  calamities  that  came  upon  them  were  the 
greatest  the  world  ever  saw.  Deut.  xxviii.  xxix.; 
Matt.  xxiv.  Now,  what  heinous  sin  was  it  that 
could  be  the  cause  of  such  heavy  judgments'? 
Can  any  other  be  assigned  than  what  the  Scrip 
ture  assigns?  1  Thess.  ii.  15,  16.  "They  both 
killed  the  Lord  Jesus  and  their  own  prophets, 
and  persecuted  the  apostles:  and  so  filled  up 
their  sins,  and  wrath  came  upon  them  to  the 
uttermost."  It  is  hardly  possible  to  consider  the 
nature  and  extent  of  their  sufferings,  and  not 
conclude  the  Jews'  own  imprecation  to  be  singu- 
larly fulfilled  upon  them,  Matt,  xxvii.  25.  "His 
blood  be  on  us  and  our  children."  At  Cesarea 
twenty  thousand  of  the  Jews  were  killed  by  the 
Syrians  in  their  mutual  broils.  At  Damascus 
ten  thousand  unarmed  Jews  were  killed  ;  and  at 
Bethshan  the  heathen  inhabitants  caused  their 
Jewish  neighbours  to  assist  them  against  their 
brethren,  and  then  murdered  thirty  thousand  of 
these  inhabitants.  At  Alexandria  the  Jews  mur- 
dered multitudes  of  the  heathens,  and  were 
murdered  in  their  turn  to  about  fifty  thousand. 
The  Romans  under  Vespasian  invaded  the  coun- 
try, and  took  the  cities  of  Galilee,  Chorazen, 
Bethsaida,  Capernaum,  &c,  where  Christ  had 
been  especially  rejected,  and  murdered  numbers 
of  the  inhabitants.  At  Jerusalem  the  scene  was 
most  wretched  of  all.  At  the  passover,  when 
there  nvght  be  two  or  three  millions  of  people  in 
the  city,  the  Romans  surrounded  it  with  troops, 
trenches,  and  walls,  that  none  might  escape.  The 
three  different  factions  within  murdered  one  aa- 


JEWS 
other.     Titus,  one  of  the  most  merciful  generals 
that  ever  breathed,  iliil  all  in  his  power  to  per- 
suade  them   to  an  advantageous  surrender,  but 
they  scorned  every  proposal.     The  multitudes 
of  unburicd  carcases  corrupted  the  air,  and  pro- 
duced a  pestilence.     The  people  fed  on  one  an- 
other; and  even  ladies,  it  is   said,  broiled  their 
sucking  infants,  and  ate  them.    After  a  siege  of 
six  months,  the  city  was  taken.     They  murder- 
ed almost  every  Jew  they  met  with.     Titus  was 
bent  to  save  the  Tempie,  but  could  not :  there 
were  six  thousand  Jews  who  had  taken  shelter 
in  it,  all  burnt  or  murdered !  The  outcries  of  the 
Jews,    when  they  saw  it,  were  most  dreadful: 
the  whole  city,  except  three  towers  and  a  small 
part  of  the  wall,  were  razed  to  the  ground,  and 
the  foundations  of  the  temple  and  other  places 
were  ploughed  up.    Soon  after  the  forts  of  Hero- 
dian  and  Macheron  were  taken,  the  garrison  of 
Massada  murdered  themselves  rather  than  sur- 
render.    At  Jerusalem  alone,  it  is  said,  one  mil- 
lion one  hundred  thousand  perished  by  sword, 
famine  and  pestilence.  In  other  places  we  hear  of 
two  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  that  were  cut  off, 
besides  vast  numbers  sent  to  Egypt  to  labour  as 
slaves.  About  fifty  years  after,  the  Jews  murder- 
ed about  five  hundred  thousand  of  the  Roman  sub- 
jects, fur  which  they  were  severely  punished  by 
Trajan.  About  130,  one  Barocaba  pretended  that 
he  was  the  Messiah,  and  raised  a  Jewish  army  of 
two  hundred   thousand,  who  murdered  all  the 
heathens  and  Christians  who  came  in  their  way  ; 
but  he  was  defeated  by  Adrian's  forces.     In  this 
war,  it  is  said,  about  sixty  thousand  Jews  were 
slain  and  perished.  Adrian  built  a  city  on  Mount 
Calvary,  and  erected  a  marble   statue  of  swine 
over  the  gate  that  led  to  Bethlehem.     No  Jew 
was  allowed  to  enter  the  city,  or  to  look  to  it  at  a 
distance,  under  pain  of  death.     In  360  they  be- 
gan to  rebuild  their  city  and  temple ;  but  a  terrible 
earthquake  and  flames  of  fire  issuing  from  the 
earth,  killed  the  workmen,   and  scattered  their 
materials.     Nor  till   the   seventh  century  durst 
they  so  much  as  creep  over  the  rubbish  to  bewail 
it,  without   bribing   the   guards.     In  the  third, 
fourth,  and  fifth  centuries,  there  were  many  of 
them  furiously  harassed  and  murdered.     In  the 
sixth  century   twenty  thousand   of  them  were 
slain,  and  as  many  taken  and  sold  for  slaves.     In 
602  they  were  severely  punished  for  their  horrible 
massacre  of  the  Christians  at  Antioch.  In  Spain, 
in  7(X),  they  were  ordered  to  be  enslaved.  In  the 
eighth  and  ninth  centuries  they  were  greatly  de- 
rided and  abused  :  in  some  places  they  were  made 
lo  wear  leathern  girdles,  and  ride  without  stir- 
rups on  asses  and  mules.     In  France  and  Spain 
I  hey  were  much  insulted.  In  the  tenth,  eleventh, 
and  twelfth  centuries,  their  miseries  rather  in- 
creased: they  were  greatly  persecuted  in  E<rypt. 
I'.esides  what  they  suffered"  in  the  East  by  the 
Turkish  ami  sacred  war,  it  is  shocking  to  think 
what  multitudes  of  them  the  eight  croisades  mur- 
dered in  Germany,  Hungary,  Lesser  Asia,  and 
elsewhere.     In  France  multitudes  were  burnt.— 
In  England,  in  1090,  they  were  banished  ;  and  at 
the  coronation  of  Richard  I.  the  mob  fell  upon 
them,  and  murdered  a  great  many  of  them.  About 
one   thousand  and  five  hundred  of  them  were 
burnt  in  the  palace  in  the  city  of  York,  which 
they  set  fire   to,    themselves,  after  killing  their 
wives  and  children.     In  the  thirteenth  and  four- 
teenth centuries  their  condition  was  no  better.  In 
212 


JEWS 
Egypt,  Canaan,  and  Syria,  the  croisaders  still 
harassed  them.  Provoked  with  their  mad  run- 
ning after  pretended  Messiahs,  Caliph  Nasser 
scarce  left  any  of  them  alive  in  his  dominions  of 
Mesopotamia.  In  Persia,  the  Tartars  murdered 
them  in  multitudes.  In  Spain,  Ferdinand  per- 
secuted them  furiously.  About  1349,  the  terrible 
massacre  of  them  at  Toledo  forced  many  of  them 
to  murder  themselves,  or  change  their  religion. 
About  1253  many  were  murdered,  and  others 
banished  from  France,  but  in  12*3  recalled.  In 
1320  and  1330,  the  croisades  of  the  fanatic  shep- 
herds, who  wasted  the  south  of  France,  mas- 
sacred them  ;  besides  fifteen  hundred  that  wero 
murdered  on  another  occasion.  In  1358  they 
were  totally  banished  from  France,  since  which 
few  of  them  have  entered  that  country.  In  1291 
king  Edward  expelled  them  from  England,  to  the 
number  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand.  In 
the  fifteenth,  sixteenth,  and  seventeenth  centu- 
ries, their  miseries  continued.  In  Persia  they 
have  been  terribly  used  :  from  16(33  to  1666,  the 
murder  of  them  was  so  universal,  that  but  a  few 
escaped  to  Turkey.  In  Portugal  and  Spain  they 
have  been  miserably  handled.  About  1392,  six 
or  eight  hundred  thousand  were  banished  liom 
Spain.  Some  were  drowned  in  their  passage  to 
Africa ;  some  by  hard  usage ;  and  many  of  their 
carcasses  lay  in  the  fields  till  the  wild  beasts  de- 
voured them.  In  Germany  they  have  endured 
many  hardships.  They  have  been  banished  from 
Bohemia,  Bavaria,  Cologne,  Nuremberg,  Augs- 
burgh,  and  Vienna :  they  have  been  terribly  mas- 
sacred in  Moravia,  and  plundered  in  Bonn  and 
Bamberg.  Except  in  Portugal  and  Spain,  their 
present  condition  is  generally  tolerable.  In  Hol- 
land, Poland,  and  at  Frankfort  and  Hamburgh, 
they  have  their  liberty.  They  have  repeatedly, 
but  in  vain,  attempted  to  obtain  a  naturalization 
in  England,  and  other  nations  among  whom  they 
are  scattered. 

4.  Jews,  preservation  of. — "  The  preservation 
of  the  Jews,"  says  Basnage,  "in  the  midst  of  the 
miseries  which  they  have  undergone  during  1700 
years,  is  the  greatest  prodigy  that  can  be  imagiiv- 
ed.  Religions  depend  on  temporal  prosperity ; 
they  triumph  under  the  protection  of  a  conqueror : 
they  languish  and  sink  with  sinking  monarchies. 
Paganism,  which  once  covered  the  earth,  is  ex- 
tinct. The  Christian  church,  glorious  in  its 
martyrs,  yet  was  considerably  diminished  by  the 
persecutions  to  which  it  was  exposed ;  nor  was  it 
easy  to  repair  the  breaches  in  it  made  by  those 
acts  of  violence.  But  here  we  behold  a  church 
hated  and  persecuted  for  1700  years,  and  yet  sus- 
taining itself,  and  widely  extended.  Kings  have 
often  employed  the  severity  of  edicts  and  the  hand 
of  executioners  to  ruin  it.  The  seditious  multi- 
tudes, by  murders  and  massacres,  have  committed 
outrages  against  it  still  more  violent  and  tragical. 
Princes  and  people,  Pagans,  Mahometans,  Chris- 
tians, disagreeing  in  so  many  things,  have  united 
in  the  design  of  exterminating  it,  and  have  not 
been  able  to  succeed:  The  bush  of  Moses,  sur- 
rounded with  flames,  ever  burns,  and  is  never 
consumed.  The  Jews  have  been  expelled,  in 
different  times,  from  every  part  of  the  world, 
which  hath  only  served  to  spread  them  in  all  re- 
gions. From  age  to  age  they  have  been  exposed 
to  misery  and  persecution ;  yet  still  they  subsist, 
in  spite  of  the  ignominy  and  the  hatted  which 
hath  pursued  them  in  all  places,  whilst  the  greatest 


JEWS 
monarchies   are  fallen,  and  nothing  remains  of 
them  besides  the  name. 

"The  judgments  which  God  has  exercised 
upon  this  people  are  terrible,  extending  to  the 
men,  the  religion,  and  the  very  land  in  which 
they  dwelt.  The  ceremonies  essential  to  their 
religion  can  no  more  be  observed  :  the  ritual  law, 
which  cast  a  splendour  on  the  national  worship, 
and  struck  the  Pagans  so  much  that  they  sent 
their  presents  and  their  victims  to  Jerusalem,  is 
absolutely  fallen,  for  they  have  no  temple,  no  al- 
tar, no  sacrifices.  Their  land  itself  seems  to  lie 
under  a  never-ceasing  curse.  Pagans,  Christians, 
Mohammedans,  in  a  word,  almost  all  nations, 
have  by  turns  seized  and  held  Jerusalem.  To  the 
Jew  only  hath  God  refused  the  possession  of  this 
small  tract  of  ground,  so  supremely  necessary  for 
him,  since  he  ought  to  worship  on  this  mountain. 
A  Jewish  writer  hath  affirmed,  that  it  is  long 
since  any  Jew  has  been  seen  settled  near  Jerusa- 
lem :  scarcely  can  they  purchase  there  six  feet  of 
land  for  a  burying-place. 

"  In  all  this  there  is  no  exaggeration :  I  am 
irmly  pointing  out  known  facts ;  and,  far  from 
having  the  least  design  to  raise  an  odium  against 
the  nation  from  its  miseries,  I  conclude  that  it 
ought  to  be  looked  upon  as  one  of  those  prodigies 
which  we  admire  without  comprehending  :  since, 
m  spite  of  evils  so  durable,  and  a  patience  so  long 
exercised,  it  is  preserved  by  a  particular  provi- 
dence. The  Jew  ought  to  be  weary  of  expecting 
a  Messiah,  who  so  unkindly  disappoints  his  vain 
hopes:  and  the  Christian  ought  to  have  his  atten- 
tion and  his  regard  excited  towards  men  whom 
God  preserves,  ibr  so  great  a  length  of  time,  un- 
der calamities  which  would  have  been  the  total 
ruin  of  any  other  people." 

5.  Jews,  number  and  dispersion  of. — They 
are  looked  upon  to  be  as  numerous  at  present  as 
they  were  formerly  in  the  land  of  Canaan.  Some 
have  rated  them  at  three  millions,  and  others 
more  than  double  that  number.  Their  dispersion 
is  a  remarkable  particular  in  this  people.  They 
swarm  all  over  the  east,  and  are  settled,  it  is  said, 
in  the  remotest  parts  of  China.  The  Turkish 
empire  abounds  with  them.  There  arc  more  of 
them  at  Constantinople  and  Salonichi  than  in 
any  other  place :  they  are  spread  through  most  of 
the  nations  of  Europe  and  Africa,  and  many  fami- 
lies of  them  are  established  in  the  West  Indies : 
not  to  mention  whole  nations  bordering  on  Pres- 
tcr  John's  country,  and  some  discovered  in  the  in- 
ner parts  of  America,  if  we  may  give  any  credit 
to  their  own  writers.  Their  being  always  in  re- 
hellions  (as  Addison  observes)  while  they  had  the 
Holy  Temple  in  view,  has  excited  most  nations  to 
banish  them.  Besides,  the  whole  people  are  now 
a  race  of  such  merchants  as  are  wanderers  by 
profession ;  and  at  the  same  time  are  in  most,  if 
not  in  all  places,  incapable  of  holding  either  lands 
or  offices,  that  might  engage  them  to  make  any  part 
of  the  world  their  home.  In  addition  to  this,  we 
may  consider  what  providential  reasons  may  be 
assigned  for  their  numbers  and  dispersion.  Their 
firm  adherence  to  their  religion,  and  being  dis- 
persed all  over  the  earth,  has  furnished  every  age 
and  every  nation  with  the  strongest  arguments 
for  the  Christian  faith ;  not  only  as  these  very 
particulars  are  foretold  of  them,  but  as  they  them- 
selves are  the  depositaries  of  these  and  all  other 
prophecies  which  tend  to  their  own  confusion  and 
the  establishment  of  Christianity.  Their  number 
2l.i 


JOACHIMITES 

furnishes  us  with  a  sufficient  cloud  of  witnesses 
that  attest  the  truth  of  the  Bible,  and  their  dis- 
persion spreads  these  witnesses  through  all  parts 
of  the  world. 

G.  Jews,  restoration  of. — From  the  declarations 
of  Scripture  we  have  reason  to  suppose  the  Jews 
shall  be  called  to  a  participation  of  the  blessings 
of  the  Gospel,  Rom.  xi. ;  2  Cor.  iii.  16 ;  Hos.  i.  11, 
and  some  suppose  shall  return  to  their  own  land, 
Hos.  iii.  5;  Is.  Ixv.  17,  &c. ;  Ezek.  xxxvi.  As 
to  the  time,  some  think  about  I860  or  2016;  but 
this,  perhaps,  is  not  so  easy  to  determine  alto- 
gether, though  it  is  probable  it  will  not  be  before 
the  fall  of  Antichrist  and  the  Ottoman  empire. 
Let  us,  however,  avoid  putting  stumbling-blocks 
in  their  way.  If  we  attempt  any  thing  for  their 
conversion,  let  it  be  with  peace  and  love.  Let  us, 
says  one,  propose  Christianity  to  them,  as  Christ 
proposed  it  to  them.  Let  us  lay  before  them  their 
own  prophecies.  Let  us  show  them  their  accom- 
plishment in  Jesus.  Let  us  applaud  their  hatred 
of  idolatry.  Let.  us  show  them  the  morality  of 
Jesus  in  our  lives  and  tempers.  Let  us  never 
abridge  their  civil  liberty,  nor  ever  try  to  force 
their  consciences.  Joscphns's  Hist,  of  the  Jews  ; 
Sped.  No.  495,  vol.  iv. ;  Levi's  Ceremonies  of  the 
Jewish  Religion ;  Buxtorf  de  Synagoga  Ju- 
daira  ;  Spencer  de  hegibus  Heb.  Rit.  ;  Newton 
on  Proph. ;  Warburton's  Address  to  the  Jews. 
in  the  Dedication  of  the  2d  vol.  of  his  Legation  ; 
Sermons  preached  to  the  Jeics  at  Berry  Street, 
by  Dr.  Haiceis  and  others ;  Basnagc's  and 
Orckley's  Hist,  of  the  Jeics  ;  Shaw's  Philosophy 
of  Judaism  ;  Hartley  on  Man,  vol.  ii.  prop.  8., 
vol.  iii.  p.  445,  487;  Bicheno's  Restoration  of  the 
Jews;  Jortin's  Rem.  on  Ecc.  Hist.  vol.  iii.  p. 
427,  447;  Dr.  H.  Jackson's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  163  ; 
Nealc's  Hist,  of  the  Jcies  ;  Pirie's  Posih.  Works, 
vol.  i. ;  F'uller's  Ser.  on  the  Messiah. 

JOACHIMITES,  the  disciples  of  Joachim 
abbotof  Flora,  inCalabria.  Joachim  was  a  Cister- 
cian monk,  and  a  great  pretender  to  inspiration. 
He  relates  of  himself,  that  being  very  young, 
he  went  to  Jerusalem  in  the  dress  of  a  hermit  to 
visit  the  holy  places;  and  that,  while  he  was  in 
prayer  to  God  in  the  church  of  that  city,  God 
communicated  to  him,  by  infusion,  the  knowledge 
of  divine  mysteries,  and  of  the  Holy  Scriptures. 
He  wrote  against  Lombard,  the  master  of  the 
Sentences,  who  had  maintained  that  there  was 
but  one  essence  in  God,  though  there  were  three 
persons ;  and  he  pretended,  that  since  there  wero 
three  persons,  there  must  be  three  essences. 
T his  dispute  was  in  the  year  1195.  Joachim's 
writings  were  condemned  by  the  fourth  Lateral! 
council. 

His  followers,  the  Joachimites,  were  parti- 
cularly fond  of  certain  ternaries.  The  Father, 
they  said,  operated  from  the  beginning  until  the 
coining  of  the  Son  ;  the  Son  from  that  time  to 
theirs,  viz.  the  year  1260;  and  the  Holy  Spirit 
then  took  it  up,  and  was  to  operate  in  his  turn. 
They  likewise  divided  every  thin?  relating  to 
men,  doctrine,  and  manner  of  living,  into  three 
classes,  according  to  the  three  persons  of  the 
Trinity.  The  first  ternary  was  that  of  men; 
of  whom,  the  first  class  was  that  of  married  men, 
which  had  'lasted  during  the  whole  period  of  the 
Father :  the  second  was  that  of  clerks,  which 
lasted  during  the  time  of  the  Son  ;  and  the  last 
was  that  of  monks,  wherein  was  to  be  an  uncom- 
mon efiHision  of  grace  by  the  Holy  Spirit      The 


JUBILEE 
ter,ond  ternary  was  that  of  doctrine,  viz.  the  Old 
Testament,  the  New,  and  the  everlasting  Gos- 
pel: the  first  they  ascribed  to  tl«;  Father,  the 
second  to  the  Son,  and  the  third  to  the  Holy  Spi- 
rit. A  third  ternary  consisted  in  the  manner  of 
living,  viz.  under  the  Father,  men  lived  according 
to  the  flesh ;  under  the  Son,  they  lived  according 
to  the  flesh  and  the  spirit;  and  under  the  Holy 
Ghost,  they  were  to  live  according  to  the  spirit  only. 

JOHN,  ST.,  CHRISTIANS  OF.  See 
Christians. 

JOY,  a  delight  of  the  mind  arising  from  the 
consideration  of  a  present  or  assured  approaching 
possession  of  a  future  good.  When  it  is  mode- 
rate, it  is  called  gladness;  when  raised  on  a 
sudden  to  the  highest  degree,  it  is  then  exidtaiion 
or  transport ;  when  we  limit  our  desires  by  our 
possessions,  it  is  contentment ;  when  our  desires 
are  raised  high,  and  yet  accomplished,  this  is  call- 
ed satin/action  ;  when  our  joy  is  derived  from 
some  comical  occasion  or  amusement,  it  is  mirth; 
if  it  arise  from  considerable  opposition  that  is 
vanquished  in  the  pursuit  of  the  good  we  desire, 
it  is  then  called  triumph  ;  when  joy  has  so  long 
possessed  the  mind  that  it  is  settled  into  a  temper, 
we  call  it  cheerfulness ;  when  we  rejoice  upon 
the  account  of  any  good  which  others  obtain,  it 
may  be  called  sympathy  or  congratulation.  This 
is  natural  joy;  but  there  is, — 2.  A  moral  joy, 
which  is  a  self-approbation,  or  that  which  arises 
from  the  performance  of  any  good  actions ;  this 
is  called  peace,  or  serenity  of  conscience  :  if  the 
action  be  honourable,  and  the  joy  rise  high,  it 
may  be  called  glory. — 3.  There  is  also  a  spiritual 
joy,  which  the  Scripture  calls  a  "fruit  of  the 
Spirit,"  Gal.  v.  22 ;  "  the  joy  of  faith,"  Phil.  i. 
25;  and  "the  rejoicing  of  hope,"  Heb.  iii.  6. 
The  objects  o  it  are,  1.  God  himself,  Ps.  xliii.  4 ; 
Is.  Ixi.  10.-2.  Christ,  Phil.  iii.  3  ;  1  Pet.  i.  8  — 
3.  The  proiiises,  Ps.  cxix.  162. — 4.  The  admin- 
istration o<  the  Gospel,  and  Gospel  ordinances, 
Ps.  lxxxix.  15. — 5.  The  prosperity  of  the  interest 
of  Christ,  Acts  xv.  3 ;  Rev.  xi.  15.  17.— 6.  The 
happiness  of  a  future  state,  Rom.  v.  2 ;  Matt.  xxv. 
1  'he  nut  ure  and  proper t ies  of  th is  joy  •  1 .  1 1  is  or 
should  be  constant,  Phil.  iv.  4. — 2.  It  is  unknown 
to  the  men  of  the  world,  1  Cor.  ii.  14. — 3.  It  is 
unspeakable,  1  Pet.  i.  8.— 1.  It  is  permanent,  John 
xvi.  22:  Watts  on  Pass,  sect  11 ;  Gill's  Body  of 
Div.  p.  111.  3rd  vol.  8vo.  edit.;  Grove's  Mot.  Phil. 
voL  i.  ]'.  356. 

JOY  OF  GOD  relates,  1.  To  the  delight 
and  complacency  he  has  in  himself,  his  own  na- 
ture, and  perfections. — 2.  He  rejoices  in  his  own 
works,  Ps.  civ.  31. — 3.  In  his  Son  Christ  Jesus, 
Matt.  iii.  17. — 1.  In  the  work  of  redemption, 
John  iii.  15. — 5.  In  the  subjects  of  his  grace,  Ps. 
cxhii.  11  ;  Zeph.  iii.  17;  Ps.  cxlix.  4. 

JUBILEE,  a  public  festivity. — Among  the 
Jews  it  was  held  every  49th  or  50th  year,  it  was 
proclaimed  with  the  sound  of  rams'  horns :  no 
servile  work  was  done  on  it ;  the  land  lay  unfilled ; 
what  grew  of  itself  belonged  to  the  poor  and 
needy;  whatever  debts  the  Hebrews  owed  to  one 
another  were  wholly  remitted;  hired  as  well  as 
bond  servants  of  the  Hebrew  race  obtained  their 
liberty ;  inheritances  reverted  to  their  original 
proprietors.  See  the  25th  chap.  Leviticus.  Ju- 
bilee, in  a  more  modern  sense,  denotes  a  grand 
church  solemnity  or  ceremony  celebrated  at 
Rome,  w  herein  the  pope  grants  a  plenary  indul- 
gence to  all  sinners ;  at  least  to  as  many  as  visit 
214 


JUDAISM 
the  churches  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paid  at  Rome, 
The  jubilee  was  first  established  by  Bonifac« 
VJI.  in  1300,  which  was  only  to  return  every 
hundred  years  ;  but  the  first  celebration  brought 
in  such  store  of  wealth,  that  Clement  VI.,  in 
1343,  reduced  it  to  the  period  of  fifty  years.  Ur- 
liin  VI.  in  1389,  appointed  it  to  be  held  every 
thirty-five  years,  that  being  the  age  of  our  Sa- 
viour; and  Paul  II.  and  Sixtus  IV.,  in  1475, 
brought  it  down  to  every  twenty-five,  that  every 
person  might  have  the  benefit  of  it  once  in  his 
life.  Boniface  IX.  granted  the  privilege  of  hold- 
ing jubilees  to  several  princes  and  monasteries: 
for  instance,  to  the  monks  of  Canterbury7,  who 
had  a  jubilee  every  fifty  years,  when  people 
flocked  from  all  parts  to  visit  the  tomb  of  Tho- 
mas-a-Becket.  Afterwards  jubilees  became  more 
frequent :  there  is  generally  one  at  the  inaugura- 
tion of  a  new  pope ;  and  the  pope  grants  them  as 
often  as  the  church  or  himself  have  occasion  for 
them.  To  be  entitled  to  the  privileges  of  the  ju- 
bilee, the  bull  enjoins  fasting,  alms,  and  prayers. 
It  gives  the  priests  a  full  power  to  absolve  in  all 
cases,  even  those  otherwise  reserved  to  the  pope ; 
to  make  commutations  of  vows,  &c.,  in  which  it 
differs  from  a  plenary  indulgence.  During  the 
time  of  jubilee,  all  other  indulgences  are  sus- 
pended. One  of  our  kings,  viz.  Edward  IIL 
caused  his  birth-day  to  be  observed  in  the  manner 
of  a  jubilee,  when  he  became  fifty  years  of  age, 
in  1362,  but  never  before  nor  after.  This  he  did 
by  releasing  prisoners,  pardoning  all  offences,  ex- 
cept treason,  making  good  laws,  and  granting 
many  privileges  to  the  people.  In  1640,  the  Je- 
suits celebrated  a  solemn  jubilee  at  Rome,  that 
being  the  centenary,  or  hundredth  year  from  their 
institution  ;  and  the  same  ceremony  was  observed 
in  all  their  houses  throughout  the  world. 

JUDAISINfc!  CHRISTIANS:  the  first  rise 
of  this  denomination  is  placed  under  the  reign  of 
Adrian.  For  when  this  emperor  had  at  length 
razed  Jerusalem,  entirely  destroyed  its  very 
foundations,  and  enacted  laws  of  the  severest 
kind  against  the  whole  body  of  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple, the  greatest  part  of  the  Christians  who  lived 
in  Palestine,  to  prevent  their  being  confounded 
with  the  Jews,  abandoned  entirely  the  Mosaic 
rites,  and  chose  a  bishop,  namely,  Mark,  a  fo- 
reigner by  nation,  and  an  alien  from  the  common- 
wealth of  Israel.  Those  who  were  strongly  at- 
tached to  the  Mosaic  rites  separated  from  their 
brethren,  and  founded  at  Pera,  a  country  of  Pa- 
lestine, ami  in  the  neighbouring  parts,  particular 
assemblies,  in  which  the  law  of  Moses  maintained 
its  primitive  dignity,  authority,  and  lustre.  The 
body  of  Judaising  Christians,  which  set  Moses 
and  Christ  upon  an  equal  footing  in  point  of  au- 
thority, were  afterwards  divided  into  two  sectSj 
extremely  different  both  in  their  rites  and  opi- 
nions, and  distinguished  by  the  names  of  JNaza?- 
renes  and  Ebionites;  which  see. 

JUDAISM,  the  religious  doctrines  and  rites 
of  the  Jews,  the  descendants  of  Abraham.  Ju- 
daism was  but  a  temporary  dispensation,  and  was 
to  give  way,  at  least  the  ceremonial  part  of  it,  at 
the  coming  of  the  Messiah.  The  principal  sects 
among  the  Jews  were  the  Pharisees,  who  placed 
religion  in  external  ceremony;  the  Sadducees, 
who  were  remarkable  for  their  incredulity;  and 
the  Essenes,  who  were  distinguished  for  their 
austere  sanctity.  At  present,  the  Jews  have  two 
sects;  the  Curaitest  who  admit  no  rule  of  relisnoo 


JUDGMENT 

but  the  law  of  Moses ;  and  the  jRabbinisfs,  who 
add  to  the  law  the  traditions  of  the  Talmud.  See 
those  articles,  ond  books  recommended  under  ar- 
ticle Jews,  in  this  work. 

JUDGING,  RASH,  the  act  of  carelessly,  pre- 
cipitately, wantonly,  or  maliciously  censuring 
others.  Tins  is  an  evil  which  abounds  too  much 
among  almost  all  classes  of  men.  "  Not  content- 
ed with  being  in  the  right  ourselves;,  we  must  find 
all  others  in  the  wrong.  We  claim  an  exclusive 
possession  of  goodness  and  wisdom;  and  from 
approving  warmly  of  those  who  join  us,  we  pro- 
ceed to  condemn,  with  much  acrimony,  not  only 
the  principles,  but  the  characters  of  those  from 
whom  we  differ.  We  rashly  extend  to  every  in- 
dividual the  severe  opinion  which  we  have  un- 
warrantably conceived  of  .a  whole  body.  This  man 
is  of  a  party  whose  principles  we  reckon  slavish ; 
and  therefore  his  whole  sentiments  are  corrupted. 
That  man  belongs  to  a  religious  sect,  which  we 
are  accustomed  to  deem  bigoted,  and  therefore  he 
is  incapable  of  any  generous  and  liberal  thought. 
Another  is  connected  with  a  sect,  which  we  have 
been  taught  to  account  relaxed,  and  therefore  can 
have  no  sanctity.  We  should  do  well  to  consi- 
der, 1.  That  this  practice  of  rash  judging  is  abso- 
lutely forbidden  in  the  sacred  Scriptures,  Matt. 
vii.  1. — 2.  We  thereby  authorize  others  to  requite 
us  in  the  same  kind. — 3.  It  often  evidences  our 
pride,  envy,  and  bigotry. — 4.  It  argues  a  want  of 
charity,  the  distinguishing  feature  of  the  Chris- 
tian religion. — 5.  They  who  are  most  forward  in 
censuring  others  are  often  most  defective  them- 
selves. Barrow's  Works,  vol.  i.  ser.  20;  Blair's 
Ser.  ser  10.  vol.  ii. ;  Saurin's  Ser.  ser.  4  vol.  v. 

JUDGMENT  is  that  act  of  the  mind  whereby 
one  thing  is  affirmed  or  denied  of  another;  or 
that  power  of  the  soul  which  passes  sentence  on 
things  proposed  to  its  examination,  and  deter- 
mines what  is  right  or  wrong;  and  thus  it  ap- 
proves or  disapproves  of  an  action,  or  an  object 
considered  as  true  or  false,  fit  or  unfit,  good  or 
evil.  Dr.  Watts  gives  us  the  following  directions 
to  assist  us  in  judging  right.  1.  We  should 
examine  all  our  old  opinions  afresh,  and  inquire 
what  was  the  gronnd  of  them,  and  whether  our 
assent  were  built  on  just  evidence ;  and  then  we 
should  cast  off  all  those  judgments  which  were 
formed  heretofore  without  due  examination. — 
2.  All  our  ideas  of  objects,  concerning  which  we 
pass  judgment,  should  be  clear,  distinct,  complete, 
comprehensive,  extensive,  and  orderly. — 3.  When 
we  have  obtained  as  clear  ideas  as  we  can,  both 
of  the  subject  and  predicate  of  a  proposition,  then 
we  must  compare  those  ideas  of  the  subject  and 
predicate  together  with  the  utmost  attention,  and 
observe  how  far  they  agree,  and  wherein  they 
differ. — 1.  We  must  search  for  evidence  of  truth 
with  diligence  and  honesty,  and  be  heartily  ready 
to  receive  evidence,  whether  for  the  agreement  or 
disagreement  of  ideas. — 5.  We  must  suspend  our 
judgment,  and  neither  affirm  nor  deny  until  this 
evidence  appears. — 6.  We  must  judge  of  every 
proposition  by  those  proper  and  peculiar  means 
or  mediums,  whereby  the  evidence  of  it  is  to  be 
obtained,  whether  it  be  sense,  consciousness,  in- 
telligence, reason,  or  testimony. — 7.  It  is  very 
useful  to  have  some  general  principles  of  truth 
settled  in  the  mind,  whose  evidence  is  great  and 
obvious,  that  they  may  always  be  ready  at  hand 
to  assist  us  in  judging  of  the  great  variety  of 
things  which  occur. — 8.  Let  the  degrees  of  our 
215 


JUDGMENT 

assent  to  every  proposition  bear  an  exact  propor- 
tion to  the  different  degrees  of  evidence. —  9.  We 
should  keep  our  minds  always  open  to  receive 
truth,  and  never  set  limits  to  our  own  improve- 
ment. Watts' s  Logic,  ch  .4.  p.  231;  Locke  on  the 
Understanding,  p.  222,  25b*,  vol.  i. ;  p.  271,  278, 
vol.  ii. ;  Duncan's  Logic,  p.  145 ;  Rcid  on  tl£ 
Intellectual  Powers,  p.  497,  &C. 

JUDGMENT,  LAST,  the  sentence  that 
will  be  passed  on  our  actions  at  the  last  day. 

I.  The  proofs  of  a  general  judgment  are 
these  :  1.  The  justice  of  God  requires  it ;  for  it  is 
evident  that  this  attribute  is  not  clearly  displayed 
in  the  dispensation  of  things  in  the  present  state. 
—2.  Thess.  i.  6,  7;  Luke  xiv.  26.-2.  The  ac- 
cusations of  natural  conscience  are  testimonies 
in  favour  of  this  belief,  Rom.  ii.  15 ;  Dan.  v.  5, 
6;  Acts  xxiv.  25. — 3.  It  may  be  concluded  from 
the  relation  men  stand  in  to  God,  as  creatures  to 
a  Creator.  He  has  a  right  to  give  them  a  law, 
and  to  make  them  accountable  for  the  breach  of 
it,  Rom.  xiv.  12. — 4.  The  resurrection  of  Christ 
is  a  certain  proof  of  it.  See  Acts  xvii.  31 ;  Rom. 
xiv.  9. — 5.  The  Scripture,  in  a  variety  of  places, 
sets  it  bevond  all  doubt,  Jude  14,  15;  2  Cor.  v. 
10;  Matt,  xxv.;  Rom.  xiv.  10,  11;  2  Thess.  i. 
7,  10 ;  1  Thess.  iv.  1G,  17. 

II.  As  to  the  Judge:  the  Bible  declares  that 
God  will  judge  the  world  by  Jesus  Christ,  Acts 
xvii.  31.  The  triune  God  will  be  the  Judge,  as 
to  original  authority,  power  and  right  of  judg- 
ment; but,  according  to  the  economy  settled 
between  the  three  divine  persons,  the  work  is 
assigned  to  the  Son,  Romans  xiv.  9.  and  10, 
who  will  appear  in  his  human  nature,  John 
v.  27,  Acts  xvii.  31 ;  with  great  power  and 
glory,  1  Thess.  iv.  10,  17 ;  visible  to  every  eye, 
Rev.  i.  7 ;  penetrating  every  heart,  1  Cor.  iv.  5, 
Rom.  ii.  1G ;  with  full  authority  over  all,  Matt. 
xxvii.  18  ;  and  actin<|'with  strict  justice,  2  Tim. 
iv.  8.  As  for  the  concern  of  others  in  the  judg- 
ment ;  angels  will  be  no  otherwise  concerned  than 
as  the  attendants,  gathering  the  elect,  raising  the 
dead,  &c.  but  not  as  advising  or  judging.  Saints 
are  said  to  judge  the  world ;  not  as  co-judges 
with  Christ,  but  as  approvers  of  his  sentence,  and 
as  their  holy  lives  and  conversations  will  rise  up 
in  judgment  against  their  wicked  neighbours. 

III.  As  to  the  persons  that  will  be  judged  ; 
these  will  be  men  and  devils.  The  righteous, 
probably  will  be  tried  first,  as  represented  in  Matt. 
xxv.  They  will  be  raised  first,  though  perhaps 
not  a  thousand  years  before  the  rest,  as  Dr.  Gill 
supposes ;  since  the  resurrection  of  all  the  bodies  of 
the  saints  is  spoken  of  as  in  a  moment,  in  the 
twinkling  of  an  eye,  at  the  last  trump,  in  order  to 
their  meeting  the  Lord  in  the  air,  and  being  with 
him  not  on  earth,  but  for  ever  in  heaven,  1  Cor. 
xv.  52;  1  Thess.  iv.  1G,  17. 

Here  we  may  take  notice  of  a  difficult  question 
which  is  proposed  by  some,  namely,  Whether  the 
sins  of  God's  people  shall  be  published  in  the 
great  day,  though  it  is  certain  they  shall  not  be 
alleged  against  them  to  their  condemnation? 
"Tnis,"  says  Dr.  Ridgley,  "is  one  of  the  secret 
things  which  belong  to  God,  which  he  has  not  so 
fully  or  clearly  revealed  to  us  in  his  word  ;  and 
therefore  we  can  say  little  more  than  what  is 
matter  of  conjecture  about  it.  Some  have  though; 
that  the  sins  of  the  godly,  though  forgiven,  shall 
be  made  manifest,  that  so  the  glory  of  that  grace 
which  has  pardoned  them  may  appear  more  lllus- 


JUDGMENT 
trious,  and  their  obligation  to  God  for  this  further 
enhanced.  They  also  think,  that  the  justice  of 
the  proceedings  of  that  day  requires  it,  since  it  is 
presumed  and  known  by  the  whole  world  that 
Ihey  were  prone  to  sin,  as  well  as  others ;  and, 
liefore  conversion,  as  great  sinners  as  any,  and 
sifter  it  their  sins  had  a  peculiar  aggravation. 
Therefore,  why  should  not  they  be  made  public, 
as  a  glory  due  to  the  justice  and  holiness  of  God, 
whose  nature  is  opposite  to  all  sin?  And  this 
they  further  suppose  to  be  necessary,  that  so  the 
impartiality  of  divine  justice  may  appear.  More- 
over, since  God,  by  recording  the  sins  of  his  saints 
in  Scripture,  has  perpetuated  the  knowledge  there- 
of: and  if  it  is  to  their  honour  that  the  sins  there 
mentioned  were  repented  of,  as  well  as  forgiven, 
why  may  it  not  be  supposed  that  the  sins  of  be- 
lievers shall  be  made  known  in  the  great  day  ? 
And,  besides,  this  seems  agreeable  to  those  ex- 
pressions of  every  word,  and  every  action,  as  being 
to  be  brought  into  judgment,  whether  it  be  good, 
or  whether  it  be  bad. 

"  But  it  is  supposed  by  others,  that  though  the 
making  known  of  sin  that  is  subdued  and  forgiven, 
tends  to  the  advancement  of  divine  grace,  yet  it  is 
sufficient  to  answer  this  end,  as  far  as  God  de- 
signs it  shall  be  answered,  that  the  sins  which 
have  been  subdued  and  forgiven,  should  be  known 
to  themselves,  and  thus  forgiveness  afford  matter 
of  praise  to  God.  Again ;  the  expressions  of 
Scripture,  whereby  forgiveness  of  sin  is  set  forth, 
are  such  as  seem  to  argue  that  those  sins  which 
were  forgiven  shall  not  be  made  manifest :  thus 
they  arc  said  to  be  blotted  out,  Isa.  xliii.  25;  co- 
vered, Ps.  xxxii.  1 ;  subdued  and  cast  into  the 
depths  of  the  sea,  Micah.  vii.  19;  and  remembered 
no  more,  &c.  Jer.  xxxi.  34.  Besides,  Christ's 
being  a  judge,  doth  not  divest  him  of  the  character 
of  an  advocate,  whose  part  is  rather  to  conceal  the 
crimes  of  those  whose  caus&he  pleads,  than  to  ii- 
vulge  them ;  and  to  this  we  may  add,  that  the  law 
which  requires  duty,  and  forbids  the  contrary 
sins,  is  not  the  rule  by  which  they  who  are  in 
Christ  are  to  be  proceeded  against,  for  then  they 
■.ould  not  stand  in  judgment;  but  they  are  dealt 
with  according  to  tiie  tenor  of  the  Gospel,  which 
forgives  and  covers  all  sin.  And,  further,  it  is 
argued  that  the  public  declaring  of  all  their  sins 
Vfore  the  whole  world,  notwithstanding  their  in- 
terest in  forgiving  grace,  would  till  them  with  such 
shame  as  is  hardly  consistent  with  a  state  of  per- 
fect blessedness.  And,  lastly,  the  principal  argu- 
ment insisted  on  is,  that  our  Saviour,  in  Matt. 
xxv.  in  which  he  gives  a  particular  account  of  the 
proceedings  of  that  day,  makes  no  mention  of  the 
sins,  but  only  commends  the  graces  of  his  saints." 

As  to  the  wicked,  they  shall  be  judged,  and  all 
their  thoughts,  words,  and  deeds,  be  brought  into 
judgment,  Ecc.  \ii.  11.  The  fallen  angels,  also, 
arc  said  to  be  reserved  unto  the  judgment  of  the 
great  day,  Jude  (j.  They  shall  receive  their  final 
sentence,  and  be  shut  up  in  the  prison  of  hell,  Rev. 
xx.  Id;  Matt.viii.  29. 

IV.  As  to  the  rule  of  judgment ;  we  are  in- 
formed the  books  will  be  opened,  Rev.  xx.  12. — 
1.  The  book  of  divine  omniscience,  Mai.  iii.  5; 
or  remembrance,  Mai.  iii.  Hi.— 2.  The  book  of 
conscience,  Rom.  i.  V.. — 3.  The  book  of  Provi- 
dence Rom.  ii.  4,  5. — 4.  The  book  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, law,  and  Gospel,  John  xii.  4H ;  Rom.  ii.  l(i ; 
ii.  12.— 5.  The  book  of  life,  Luke  x.  20  ;  Rev.  hi. 
5;  xx.  12,  15. 
2IC 


JUDGMENTS 

V.  As  to  the  time  of  judgment ;  the  soul  wi!) 
be  either  happy  or  miserable  immediately  aftei 
death,  but  the  general  judgment  will  not  be  till 
after  the  resurrection,  Heb.  ix.  27.  There  is  a 
day  appointed,  Acts  xvii.  31,  but.  it  is  unknown 
to  men. 

VI.  As  to  the  -place ;  this  also  is  uncertain. 
Some  suppose  it  will  be  in  the  air,  because  the 
Judge  will  come  in  the  clouds  of  heaven,  and  the 
iiving  saints  will  then  be  changed,  and  the  dead 
saints  raised,  and  both  be  caught  up  to  meet  the 
Lord  in  the  air,  1  Thess.  iv.  1G,  17.  Others  think 
it  will  be  on  the  earth,  on  the  new  earth,  on  which 
they  will  descend  from  the  air  with  Christ.  The 
place  where,  however,  is  of  no  consequence,  when 
compared  with  the  state  in  which  we  shall  appear. 
And  as  the  Scriptures  represent  it  as  certain, 
Eccl.  xi.  9;  unirersal,  2  Cor.  v.  11;  righteous, 
Rom.  ii.  5;  decisive,  1  Cor.  xv.  52;  and  eternal 
as  to  its  consequences,  Heb.  vi.  2,  let  us  be  con- 
cerned for  the  welfare  of  our  immortal  intetests, 
flee  to  the  refuge  set  before  us,  improve  our  pre- 
cious time,  depend  on  the  merits  of  the  Redeemer, 
and  adhere  to  the  dictates  of  the  divine  word,  that 
we  may  be  found  of  him  in  peace.  Bates's 
Works,  p.  449;  Bishop  Hopkins  and  Stoddard 
on  the  Last  Judgment;  Gill's  Body  of  Divinity, 
p.  467,  vol.  ii.  Svo. ;  Boston's  Fourfvld  State, 
Hcrvey's  Works,  new  edition,  pp.  72,  75,  vol.  i. ; 
155,  vol.  iv. ;  82,  233,  vol.  iii. 

JUDGMENTS  OF  GOD,  are  the  punish- 
ments inflicted  by  him  for  particular  crimes.  The 
Scriptures  give  us  many  awful  instances  cf  the 
display  of  divine  justice  in  the  punishment  of  na- 
tions, families,  and  individuals  for  their  iniquities. 
See  Gen.  vii. ;  xix.  25 ;  Exod.  xv. ;  Judges  i.  ti, 
7;  Acts  xii.  23;  Esther  v.  14,  with  chap.  vii.  10; 
2  Kings  xi. ;  Lev.  x.  1,  2 ;  Acts.  v.  1  to  10 ;  Is. 
xxx.  1  to  5;  1  Sam.  xv.  9 ;  1  Kings  xii.  25,  33. 
It  becomes  us,  however,  to  be  exceedingly  cau- 
tious how  we  interpret  the  severe  and  afflictive 
dispensation  of  Providence.  Dr.  Jortin  justly 
observes,  that  there  is  usually  much  rashness  and 
presumption  in  pronouncing  that  the  calamities 
of  sinners  are  particular  judgments  of  God ;  yet, 
saith  he,  if  from  sacred  and  profane,  from  ancient 
and  modern  historians,  a  collection  were  made  ol 
all  the  cruel,  persecuting  tyrants  who  delighted  in 
tormenting  their  fellow-creatures,  and  who  died 
not  the  common  death  of  all  men,  nor  were  visited 
after  the  visitation  of  all  men,  but  whose  plagues 
were  horrible  and  strange,  even  a  sceptic  would  be 
moved  at  the  evidence,  and  would  be  a  pt  to  suspect 
that  it  was  etiov  t»,  that  the  hand  of  God  was  in 
it.  As  Dr.  Jortin  was  no  enthusiast,  and  one 
who  would  not  overstrain  the  point,  we  shall  hero 
principally  follow  him  in  his  enumeration  of  some 
of  the  must  remarkable  instances. 

Herod  the  Great  was  the  first  persecutor  ol 
Christianity.  He  attempted  to  destroy  Jesus 
Christ  himself,  while  he  was  yet  but  a  child,  and 
for  that  wicked  purpose  slew  all  the  male  chil- 
dren that  were  in  and  about  Bethlehem.  "What 
was  the  consequence'!  Josephus  hath  told  us: 
he  had  long  and  grievous  sufferings,  a  burning 
fever,  a  voracious  appetite,  a  difficulty  of  breath- 
ing, swellings  of  his  limbs,  loathsome  ulcers 
within  and  without,  breeding  vermin,  violent  tor- 
ments and  convulsions,  so  that  he  endeavoured 
to  kill  himself,  but  was  restrained  by  his  friends. 
The  Jews  thought  these  evils  to  be  divine  judg- 
J  inents  u[>on  him  for  his  wickedness.     And  what 


JUDGMENTS 
js  still  more  remarkable  in  his  case  is.  he  left  a 
numerous  family  of  children  and  grand-children, 
though  he  had  put  some  to  death,  and  yet  in 
ybout  the  space  of  one  hundred  years  the  whole 
family  was  extinct. 

Herod  Antipas,  who  beheaded  John  the  Bap- 
tist, and  treated  Christ  contemptuously  when  he 
was  brought  before  him,  was  defeated  by  Aretas, 
an  Arabian  king,  and  afterwards  had  his  domin- 
ions taken  from  him,  and  was  sent  into  banish- 
ment along  with  his  infamous  wife  Herodias,  by 
the  emperor  Caius. 

Herod  Agrippa  killed  James  the  brother  of 
John,  and  put  Peter  in  prison.  The  angel  of 
the  Lord  soon  after  smote  him,  and  he  was  eaten 
of  worms,  and  gave  up  the  ghost. 

Judas,  that  betrayed  our  Lord,  died  by  his  own 
hands,  the  most  ignominious  of  all  deaths. 

Pontius  Pilate,  who  condemned  our  blessed 
Saviour  to  death,  was  not  long  afterwards  de- 
posed from  his  office,  banished  lrom  his  country, 
and  died  by  his  own  hands ;  the  divine  vengeance 
overtaking  him  soon  after  his  crime. 

The  high  priest,  Gaiaphas,  was  deposed  by 
Vitellius,  three  years  after  the  death  of  Christ. 
Thus  this  wicked  man,  who  condemned  Christ 
for  fear  of  disobliging  the  Romans,  was  igno- 
miniously  turned  out  of  his  office  by  the  Roman 
governor  whom  he  had  sought  to  oblige. 

Ananias,  the  high  priest,  persecuted  St.  Paul, 
and  insolently  ordered  the  by-standers  to  smite 
him  on  the  mouth.  Upon  which  the  apostle  said, 
God  shall  smile  thee,  thou  whited  wall.  Whe- 
ther he  spake  this  prophetically  or  not,  may  be 
difficult  to  say;  but  certain  it  is,  that  some  time 
after  he  was  slain,  together  with  his  brother,  by 
his  own  son. 

•Ananus,  the  high  priest,  slew  St.  James  the 
Less ;  for  which,  and  ether  outrages,  he  was  de- 
posed by  king  Agrippa  the  Younger,  and  proba- 
bly perished  in  the  last  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 

Nero,  in  the  year  sixty-four,  turned  his  rage 
upon  the  Christians,  and  put  to  death  Peter  and 
Paul,  with  many  others.  Four  years  after,  in  his 
great  distress,  he  attempted  to  kill  himself;  but 
being  as  mean-spirited  and  dastardly  as  he.  was 
wicked  and  cruel,  he  had  not  the  resolution  to  do 
that  piece  of  justice  to  the  world,  and  was  forced 
to  beg  assistance. 

Domitian  persecuted  the  Christians  also.  It 
is  said  he  threw  St.  John  into  a  caldron  of  boiling 
oil,  and  afterwards  banished  him  into  the  isle  of 
Patmos.  In  the  following  year  this  monster  of 
wickedness  was  murdered  by  his  own  people. 

The  Jewish  nation  persecuted,  rejected,  and 
crucified  the  Lord  of  glory.  Within  a  few  years 
after,  their  nation  was  destroyed,  and  the  Lord 
made  their  plagues  wonderful. 

Flaccus  was  governor  of  Egypt  near  the  time 
of  our  Saviour's  death,  and  a  violent  persecutor 
of  the  Jews.  The  wrath  of  God,  however,  ere 
long  overtook  him,  and  he  died  by  the  hands  of 
violence. 

Catullus  was  governor  of  Libya  about  the 
year  seventy-three.  He  was  also  a  cruel  perse- 
cutor of  the  Jews,  and  he  died  miserably.  For 
though  he  was  only  turned  out  of  his  office  by  the 
Romans,  yet  he  fell  into  a  complicated  and  in- 
curable disease,  being  sorely  tormented  both  in 
body  and  mind.  He  was  dreadfully  terrified, 
and  continually  crying  out  that  he  was  haunted 
by  the  ghosts  of  those  whom  he  had  murdered  j 
217  2  O 


JUDGMENTS 
and,  not  being  able  to  contain  himself,  he  leaped 
out  of  his  bed,  as  if  he  were  tortured  with  fire  and 
put  to  the  rack.  His  distemper  increased  till  his 
entrails  were  all  corrupted,  and  came  out  of  Iris 
body ;  and  thus  he  perished,  as  signal  an  exam- 
ple as  ever  was  known  of  the  divine  justice  ren- 
dering to  the  wicked  according  to  their  deeds. 

Caius,  the  Roman  emperor,  was  a  great  perse- 
cutor of  the  Jews  and  Christians,  and  a  blasphe- 
mer of  the  God  of  heaven.  Soon  after  his  atroci- 
ties, however,  he  was  murdered  by  one  of  his 
own  people. 

Severus,  emperor  of  Rome,  was  a  violent  and 
cruel  persecutor  of  the  followers  of  Christ.  He, 
also,  and  all  his  family,  perished  miserably,  about 
the  year  two  hundred  after  our  Saviour. 

About  the  same  time,  Saturninus,  governor  of 
Africa,  persecuted  the  Christians,  and  put  seve- 
ral of  them  to  death.     Soon  after,  he  went  blind. 

Heliogabalus,  the  emperor,  brought  a  new  god 
to  Rome,  and  would  needs  compel  all  his  sub- 
jects to  worship  him.  This  was  sure  to  have 
ended  in  a  persecution  of  the  Christians.  But, 
soon  after,  this  vile  monster  was  slain  by  his  own 
soldiers,  about  the  year  two  hundred  and  twenty- 
two. 

Claudius  Herminianus  was  a  cruel  persecutor 
of  the  Christians  in  the  second  century,  and  he 
was  eaten  of  worms  while  he  lived. 

Decius  persecuted  the  church  about  the  year 
two  hundred  and  fifty  :  he  was  soon  after  killed 
in  battle. 

Gallus  succeeded,  and  continued  the  persecu- 
tion.    He,  too,  was  killed  the  year  following. 

Valerian,  the  emperor,  had  many  good  quali- 
ties; but  yet  he  was  an  implacable  enemy  to  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ  and  his  Gospel.  Some  time 
alter  he  came  to  the  throne,  he  was  taken  prisoner 
by  Sapor,  king  of  Persia,  and  used  like  a  slave 
and  a  dog ;  for  the  Persian  monarch,  from  time 
to  time,  obliged  this  unhappy  emperor  to  bow 
himself  down,  and  offer  him  his  back,  on  which 
to  set  his  foot,  in  order  to  mount  his  chariot  or 
his  horse.  He  died  in  this  miserable  state  of 
captivity. 

yEmilian,  governor  of  Egvpt,  about  two  huiv 
dred  and  sixty-three,  was  a  virulent  persecutor  of 
the  church  of  Christ.  He  was  soon  after  stran- 
gled by  order  of  the  emperor. 

Aurelian,  the  emperor,  just  intending  to  begin 
a  persecution  against  the  followers  of  Christ,  was 
killed  in  the  year  two  hundred  and  seventy-four. 

Maximinus  was  a  persecutor  of  the  church. 
He  reigned  only  three  years,  and  then  fell  under 
the  hands  of  violence. 

About  the  year  three  hundred  was  the  greatest 
possible  contest  between  Christ  and  the  Roman 
emperors,  which  should  have  the  dominion. 
These  illustrious  wretches  seemed  determined  to 
Hot  out  the  Christian  race  and  name  from  under 
heaven.  The  persecution  was  far  more  fierce 
and  brutal  than  it  had  ever  been.  It  was  time, 
therefore,  for  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  great 
head  of  the  church,  to  arise  and  plead  his  own 
cause;  and  so,  indeed,  he  did.  The  examples 
we  have  mentioned  are  dreadful :  these  that  fol- 
low are  not  less  astonishing,  and  they  are  all  de- 
livered upon  the  best  authorities. 

Diocletian  persecuted  the  church  in  three  hun 

dred  and  three.  After  this  nothing  ever  prospered 

with  him.     He  underwent   many  troubles :  his 

senses  became  impaired ;  and  he  quitted  the  empire. 

T 


JUDGMENTS 

Se.verus,  another  persecuting  emperor,  was 
overthrown  and  put  to  death  in  the  year  three 
hundred  and  seven. 

About  the  same  time,  Urbanus,  governor  of 
Palestine,  who  had  signalized  himself  by  torment- 
ing and  destroying  the  disciples  of  Jesus,  met 
with  his  due  reward  ;  for  almost  immediately  af- 
ter the  cruelties  committed,  the  divine  vengeance 
overtook  him.  He  was  unexpectedly  degraded 
and  deprived  of  all  his  honours ;  and,  dejected, 
disspirited,  and  meanly  begging  for  mercy,  was 
put  to  death  by  the  same  hand  that  raised  him. 

Firmilianus,  another  persecuting  governor, 
met  with  the  same  fate. 

Maximianus  Herculius,  another  of  the  wretch- 
ed persecuting  emperors,  was  compelled  to  hang 
himself,  in  the  year  three  hundred  and  ten. 

Maximianus  Galerins,  of  all  tne  tyrants  of  his 
time  the  most  cruel,  was  seized  with  a  grievous 
and  horrible  disease,  and  tormented  with  worms 
and  ulcers  to  such  a  degree,  that  they  who  were 
ordered  to  attend  him  could  not  bear  the  stench. 
Worms  proceeded  from  his  body  in  a  most  fearful 
manner;  and  several  of  his  physicians  were  put 
to  death  because  they  could  not  endure  the  smell, 
and  others  because  they  could  not  cure  him. 
This  happened  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  three 
hundred  and  eleven. 

Maxentius,  another  of  the  inhuman  monsters, 
was  overthrown  in  battle  by  Constantine ;  and  in 
his  flight  he  fell  into  the  Tiber,  and  was  drowned 
in  the  year  three  hundred  and  twelve. 

Maximinus  put  out  the  eyes  of  many  thousands 
of  Christians.  Soon  after  the.  commission  of  his 
cruelties,  a  disease  arose  among  his  own  people, 
which  greatly  affected  their  eyes,  and  took,  away 
their  sight.  He  himself  died  miserably,  and  upon 
the  rack,  his  eyes  starting  out  of  his  head  through 
the  violence  of  his  distemper,  in  the  year  three 
hundred  and  thirteen.  All  his  family  likewise, 
were  destroyed,  his  wife  and  children  put  to  death, 
together  with  most  of  his  friends  and  dependents, 
who  had  been  the  instruments  of  his  cruelty. 

A  Roman  officer,  to  oblige  this  Maximinus, 
greatly  oppressed  the  church  at  Damascus :  not 
long  after,  he  destroyed  himself. 

Licinius,  the  last  of  these  persecuting  empe- 
rors before  Constantine,  was  conquered  and  put 
to  death  in  the  year  three  hundred  and  twenty- 
three.  He  was  equally  an  enemy  to  religion, 
liberty,  and  learning. 

Cyril,  the  deacon,  was  murdered  by  some  Pa- 
gans, at  Heliopolis,  for  his  opposition  to  their 
images.  They  ripped  open  his  belly,  and  .ate  his 
liver :  the  divine  vengeance,  however,  pursued  all 
those  who  had  been  guilty  of  this  crime ;  their 
teeth  came  out,  their  tongues  rotted,  and  they 
lost  their  sight. 

Valens  was  made  emperor  in  364 ;  and  though 
a  Christian  himself,  he  is  said  to  have  caused 
fourscore  presbyters,  who  differed  from  him  in 
opinion,  to  be  put  to  sea,  and  burnt  alive  in  the 
ship.  Afterwards,  in  a  battle  with  the  Goths, 
he  was  defeated  and  wounded,  and  fled  to  a  cot- 
tage, where  he  was  burnt  alive,  as  most  histori- 
ans relate :  all  agree  that  he  perished. 

The  last  Pagan  prince,  who  was  a  formidable 
enemy  to  Christianity,  was  Radagaisus,  a  kimr 
of  the  Coths.  He  invaded  the  Roman  empire 
with  an  army  of  400,01)0  men,  about  the  year 
405.  and  vowed  to  sacrifice  all  the  Romans  to  his 
geds.  The  Romans,  however,  fought  him.  and 
218 


JUDGMENTS 

obtained  a  complete  victory,  taking  him  and  his 
sons  prisoners,  whom  they  put  to  death. 

Hunneric,  the  Vandal,  though  a  Christian, 
was  a  most  cruel  persecutor  of  those  who  differed 
from  him  in  opinion,  about  the  year  of  our  Lord 
484.  He  spared  not  even  those  of  his  own  per- 
suasion, neither  his  friends  nor  his  kindred.  He 
reigned,  however,  not  quite  eight  years,  and  died 
with  all  the  marks  of  divine  indignation  upon  him. 

Julian  the  apostate  greatly  oppressed  the  Chris- 
tians ;  and  he  perished  soon  after,  in  his  rash  ex- 
pedition against  the  Persians. 

Several  of  those  who  were  employed  or  per- 
mitted by  Julian  to  persecute  the  Christians,  are 
said  to  have  perished  miserably  and  remarkably. 
I  will  here  relate  the  fate  of  a  few  of  those  un- 
happy wretches  in  the  words  of  Tillemont,  who 
faithfully  collected  the  account  from  the  ancienta. 
"  We  have  observed,"  says  that  learned  man, 
"that  Count  Julian,  with  Felix,  superintendent 
of  the  finances,  and  Elpidius,  treasurer  to  the 
emperor,  apostates  all  three,  had  received  orders 
to  go  and  seize  the  effects  of  the  church  at  An- 
tioch,  and  carry  them  to  the  treasury.  They  did 
it  on  the  day  of  the  martyrdom  of  St.  Theodoret, 
and  drew  up  an  account  of  what  they  had  seized. 
But  Count  Julian  was  not  content  with  taking 
away  the  sacred  vessels  of  the  church,  and  pro- 
faning them  by  his  impure  hands:  carrying  to 
greater  lengths  the  outrage  he  was  doing  to  Jesus 
Christ,  he  overturned  and  flung  them  down  on 
the  ground,  and  sat  upon  them  in  a  most  criminal 
manner;  adding  to  this  all  the  banters  and  blas- 
phemies that  he  could  devise  against  Christ,  and 
against  the  Christians,  who,  he  said,  were  aban- 
doned of  God." 

Felix,  the  superintendent,  signalized  himself 
also  by  another  impiety ;  for  as  he  was  viewing 
the  rich  and  magnificent  vessels  which  the  empe- 
rors Constantine  and  Constantius  had  given  to 
the  church,  "  Behold,"  said  he,  "  with  what  plate 
the  son  of  Mary  is  served !"  it  is  said,  too,  that 
Count  Julian  and  he  made  it  the  subject  of  ban- 
ter, that  God  should  let  them  thus  profane  his 
temple,  without  interposing  by  visible  miracles. 

But  these  impieties  remained  not  long  unpu- 
nished, and  Julian  had  no  sooner  profaned  the 
sacred  utensils,  than  he  felt  the  effects  of  divine 
vengeance.  He  fell  into  a  grievous  and  unknown 
disease ;  and  his  inward  parts  being  corrupted, 
he  cast  out  his  liver  and  his  excrements,  not  from 
the  ordinary  passages,  but  from  his  miserable 
mouth,  which  had  uttered  so  many  blasphemies* 
His  secret  parts,  and  all  the  flesh  round  about 
them,  corrupted  also,  and  bred  worms ;  and  to 
show  that  it  was  a  divine  punishment,  all  the  art 
of  physicians  could  give  him  no  relief.  In  this 
condition  he  continued  forty  days,  without  speech 
or  sense,  preyed  on  by  worms.  At  length  he 
came  to  himself  again.  The  imposthumes,  how- 
ever, all  over  his  body,  and  the  worms  which 
gnawed  him  continually,  reduced  him  to  the  ut- 
most extremity.  He  threw  them  up,  without 
ceasing,  the  last  three  days  of  his  lite,  with  a 
stench  which  he  himself  could  not  bear. 

The  disease  with  which  God  visited  Felix, 
was  not  so  long.  He  burst  suddenly  in  the  mid- 
dle of  his  body,  and  died  of  an  effusion  of  blood 
in  the  course  of  one  day. 

Elpidius  was  stripped  of  his  effects  in  36(3,  and 
shut  up  in  prison,  where  after  having  continued 
for  some  time,  he  died  without  reputation  and 


JUSTICE 

honour,  cursed  of  all  the  world,  and  surnamed 
the  Apostate. 

To  these  instances  many  more  might  be  added 
nearer  our  own  times,  did  our  room  permit. 
These,  however,  are  sufficient  to  show  us  what 
a  fearful  thing  it  is  to  fall  into  the  hands  of  the 
living  God,  and  how  fruitless  and  awful  it  is  to 
oppose  his  designs,  and  to  attempt  to  stop  the 
progress  of  his  Gospel.  "  Why  do  the  heathen 
rage,  and  the  people  imagine  a  vain  thing  1  He 
that,  sitteth  in  the  heavens  shall  laugh ;  the  Lord 
6hall  have  them  in  derision.  Thou  shalt  break 
them  with  a  rod  of  iron  ;  thou  shalt  dash  them  to 
pieces  as  a  potter's  vessel.  Be  wise  now,  there- 
fore, O  ye  kings;  be  instructed,  ye  judges  of  the 
earth.  Serve  the  Lord  with  fear,  and  rejoice  with 
trembling."  Ps.  ii.  Jortin's  Remarks  on  Eccle- 
siastical History,  vol.  iii.  p.  246,  &c.;  Simpsori's 
Key  to  the  Prophecies,  29  ;  Newton  on  the  Pro- 
phecies, dis.  24 ;  Bryant's  Observations  on  the 
Plagues  of  Egypt;  Tillemont,  Histoire  des 
Emp. 

JUDICIUM  DEI,  or  Judgment  of  God,  was 
a  term  anciently  applied  to  all  extraordinary  trials 
of  secret  crimes ;  as  those  by  arms  and  single 
combat ;  and  the  ordeals,  or  those  by  fire,  or  red 
hot  ploughshares,  by  plunging  the  arm  in  boiling 
water,  or  the  whole  body  in  cold  water,  in  hopes 
that  God  would  work  a  miracle,  rather  than  suf- 
fer truth  and  innocence  to  perish.  These  cus- 
toms were  a  longtime  kept  up  even  among  Chris- 
tians, and  they  are  still  in  use  in  some  nations. 
Trials  of  this  sort  were  usually  held  in  churches, 
in  the  presence  of  the  bishop,  priest,  and  secular 
judges,  after  three  days'  fasting,  confession,  com- 
munion, and  many  adjurations  and  ceremonies, 
described  at  large  by  Du  Cange. 

JUMPERS,  persons  so  called  from  the  prac- 
tice of  jumping  during  the  time  allotted  for  reli- 
gious worship.  This  singular  practice  began,  it 
is  said,  in  the  western  part  of  Wales,  about  the 
year  1760.  It  was  soon  after  defended  by  Mr. 
William  Williams,  (the  Welsh  poet,  as  he  is 
sometimes  called,)  in  a  pamphlet,  which  was  pa- 
tronized by  the  abettors  of  jumping  in  religious 
assemblies.  Several  of  the  more  zealous  itinerant 
preachers  encouraged  the  people  to  cry  out  go- 
goniant  (the  Welsh  word  for  glory,)  amen,  &c. 
&c;  to  put  themselves  in  violent  agitations  ;  and, 
finally,  to  jump  until  they  were  quite  exhausted, 
so  as  often  to  be  obliged  to  fall  down  on  the  floor 
or  field,  where  this  kind  of  worship  was  held. 

JUSTICE  consists  in  an  exact  and  scrupu- 
lous regard  to  the  rights  of  others,  with  a  deli- 
berate purpose  to  preserve  them  on  all  occasions 
sacred  and  inviolate.  It  is  often  divided  into 
commutative  and  distributive  justice.  The  for- 
mer consists  in  an  equal  exchange  of  benefits ; 
the  latter  in  an  equal  distribution  of  rewards  and 
punishments.  Dr.  Watts  gives  the  following 
rules  respecting  justice. — "  1.  It  is  just  that  we 
honour,  reverence,  and  respect  those  who  are  su- 
periors in  any  kind,  Eph.  vi.  1,  3;  1  Pet.  ii.  17; 
1  Tim.  v.  17. — 2.  That  we  show  particular  kind- 
ness to  near  relations,  Prov.  xvii.  17. — 3.  That 
we  love  those  who  love  us,  and  show  gratitude  to 
those  who  have  done  us  good,  Gal.  iv.  15. — 
4.  That  we  pay  the  full  due  to  those  whom  we 
bargain  or  deal  with,  Rom.  xiii.;  Dcut.  xxiv. 
J4. — 5.  That  we  help  our  fellow-creatures  in 
cases  of  great  necessity,  Ex.  xxii.  4. — 6.  Repa- 
lation  to  those  whom  we  have  wilfully  in- 
219 


JUSTIFICATION 
jured."      Watts' s   Serm.  ser.  24,   25,  vol.  ii.; 
Berry  Street  Lcct.  ser.  iv.;  Grove's  Mor.  Phil. 
p.  332,  vol.  ii.;   Wollaston's  Rtlig.  of  Nature,  p. 
137,  141 ;  Jay's  Serm.  vol.  ii.  p.  131. 

JUSTICE  OF  GOD  is  that  perfection  where- 
by he  is  infinitely  righteous  and  just,  both  in 
himself  and  in  all  his  proceedings  with  his  crea- 
tures. Mr.  Ryland  defines  it  thus  :  "  The  ardent 
inclination  of  his  vill  to  prescribe  equal  laws  aa 
the  supreme  governor,  and  to  dispense  equal  re- 
wards and  punishments  as  the  supreme  judge." 
Rev.  xvi.  5;  Ps.  cxlv.  7;  xcvii.  1. — 2.  It  is  dis- 
tinguished into  remunerative  and  punitive  jus- 
tice. Remunerative  justice  is  a  distribution  of 
rewards,  the  rule  of  which  is  not  the  merit  of  the 
creature,  but  his  own  gracious  promise,  James  i. 
12 ;  2  Tim.  iv.  8.  Punitive  or  vindictive  jus- 
tice, is  the  infliction  of  punishment  for  any  sin 
committed  by  men,  2  Thess.  i.  6.  That  God 
will  not  let  sin  go  unpunished  is  evident,  1.  From 
the  word  of  God,  Ex.  xxxiv.  6,  7 ;  Numb.  xiv. 
18  ;  Neh.  i.  3. — 2.  From  the  nature  of  God,  Isa. 
i.  13,  14;  Psal.  v.  5,  6  ;  Heb.  xii.  29.-3.  From 
sin  being  punished  in  Christ,  the  surety  of  his 
people,  1  Pet.  iii.  18. — 4.  From  all  the  various 
natural  evils  which  men  bear  in  the  present  state. 
The  use  we  should  make  of  this  doctrine  is  this: 
1.  We  should  learn  the  dreadful  nature  of  sin, 
and  the  inevitable  ruin  of  impenitent  sinners,  Ps. 
ix.  17. — 2.  We  should  highly  appreciate  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,  in  whom  justice  is  satisfied, 
1  Pet.  iii.  18. — 3.  We  should  imitate  the  justice 
of  God,  by  cherishing  an  ardent  regard  to  the 
rights  of  God,  and  to  the  rights  of  mankind. — 
4.  We  should  abhor  all  sin,  as  it  strikes  directly 
at  the  justice  of  God. — 5.  We  should  derive  com- 
fort from  the  consideration  that  the  judge  of  all 
the  earth  will  do  right,  as  it  regards  ourselves,  the 
church,  and  the  world  at  large,  Psal.  xcvii.  1,  2. 
Ryland' 3  Contemp.  vol.  ii.  p.  439;  Witsius's 
(Economy,  lib.  xi.  ch.  8.  §  1 1 ;  Dr.  Owen  on  the 
Justice  of  God  ;  Gill's  Body  of  Divinity,  p.  155, 
vol.  i.  8vo.;  Elisha  Cole  on  the  Righteousness  of 
God. 

JUSTIFICATION,  a  forensic  term,  and 
signifies  the  declaring  or  pronouncing  a  person 
righteous  according  to  law.  It  stands  opposed  to 
condemnation  ;  and  this  is  the  idea  of  the  word 
whenever  it  is  used  in  an  evangelical  sense,  Rom. 
v.  18;  Deut.  xxv.  1 ;  Prov.  xvii.  15 ;  Matt.  xii.  37. 
It  does  not  signify  to  make  men  holy,  but  the 
holding  and  declaring  them  so.  It  is  defined  by 
the  assembly  thus  :  "  An  act  of  God's  free  grace, 
in  which  he  pardoneth  all  our  sins,  and  accepteth 
us  as  righteous  in  his  sight  only  for  the  right- 
eousness of  Christ  imputed  to  u ;,  and  received  by 
faith  alone.'' 

The  doctrine  of  justification,  says  Mr.  Booth, 
makes  a  very  distinguished  figure  in  that  religion 
which  is  from  above,  and  is  a  capital  article  of 
that  faith  which  was  once  delivered  to  the  saints. 
Far  from  being  a  merely  speculative  point,  it 
spreads  its  influence  through  the  whole  body  of 
divinity,  runs  through  all  Christian  experience, 
and  operates  in  every  part  of  practical  godliness. 
Such  is  its  grand  importance,  that  a  mistake 
about  it  has  a  malignant  efficacy,  and  is  attended 
with  a  long  train  of  dangerous  consequences. 
Nor  can  this  appear  strange,  when  it  is  consider- 
ed, that  the  doctrine  of  justification  is  no  othei 
than  the  way  of  a  sinner's  acceptance  with  God. 
Being  of  such  peculiar  moment,  it  is  inseparably 


JUSTIFICATION 
connected  with  many  other  evangelical  truths, 
the  harmony  and  beauty  of  which  we  cannot  he- 
hold  while  this  is  misunderstood.  It  is,  if  any 
thing  may  he  so  called,  an  essential  article,  and 
Certainly  requires  our  most  serious  consideration. 

Justification,  in  a  theological  sense,  is  either 
legal  or  evangelical.  If  any  person  could  be 
found  that  had  never  broken  the  divine  law,  he 
might  be  justified  by  it  in  a  manner  strictly  legal. 
But  in  this  way  none  of  the  human  race  can 
he  justified,  or  stand  acquitted  before  God.  For 
all  have  sinned;  there  is  none  righteous;  no,  not 
one,  Horn.  iii.  As  sinners,  they  are  under  the 
sentence  of  death  by  his  righteous  law,  and  ex- 
cluded from  all  hope  and  mercy.  That  justifica- 
tion, therefore,  about  which  the  Scriptures  prin- 
cipally treat,  and  which  reaches  the  case  of  a 
sinner,  is  not  by  a  personal,  but  an  imputed 
righteousness  ;  a  righteousness  without  the  law, 
Rom.  iii.  21 ;  provided  by  grace,  and  revealed  in 
the  Gospel ;  for  which  reason,  that  obedience  by 
which  a  sinner  is  justified,  and  his  justification 
itself,  are  called  evangelical.  In  this  affair  there 
is  the  most  wonderful  display  of  divine  justice 
and  bound^ss  grace.  Of  divine  justice,  if  we  re- 
gard the  meritorious  cause  and  ground  on  which 
the  Justifier  proceeds  in  absolving  the  condemned 
sinner,  and  in  pronouncing  him  righteous.  Of 
boundless  grace,  if  we  consider  the  state  and 
character  of  those  persons  to  whom  the  blessing 
is  rrranted.  Justification  may  be  further  distin- 
guished as  being  either  at  the  bar  of  God,  and  in 
the  court  of  conscience ;  or  in  the  sight  of  the 
world,  and  before  our  fellow  creatures.  The  for- 
mer is  by  mere  grace  through  faith  ;  and  the 
latter  is  by  works. 

To  justify,  is  evidently  a  divine  prerogative.  It 
is  God,  that  justijieth,  Rom.  viii.  33.  That  so- 
vereign Being,  against  whom  we  have  so  greatly 
offended,  whose  law  we  have  broken  by  ten  thou- 
sand acts  of  rebellion  against  him,  has,  in  the 
way  of  his  own  appointment,  the  sole  right  of 
acquitting  the  guilty,  and  of  pronouncing  them 
righteous.  He  appoints  the  way,  provides  the 
means,  and  imputes  the  righteousness ;  and  all  in 
perfect  agreement  with  the  demands  of  his  of- 
fended law,  and  the  rigkts  of  his  violated  justice. 
But  although  this  act  is  in  some  places  of  the  in- 
fallible word  more  particularly  appropriated  per- 
sonally to  the  Father,  yet  it  is  manifest  that  all 
the  Three  Persons  are  concerned  in  this  grand 
affair,  and  each  performs  a  distinct  part  in  this 
particular,  as  also  in  the  whole,  economy  of  salva- 
tion. The  eternal  Father  is  represented  as  ap- 
pointing the  way,  and  as  giving  his  own  Son  to 
fierform  the  conditions  of  our  acceptance  before 
lim,  Rom.  vii.  32 ;  the  divine  Son  as  engaged  to 
sustain  the  curse,  and  make  the  atonement;  to 
fulfil  the  terms,  and  provide  the  righteousness  by 
which  we  are  justified,  Tit.  ii.  14  ;  and  the  Holy 
Spirit  as  revealing  to  sinners  the  perfection,  suit- 
ableness, and  frecness  of  the  Saviour's  work, 
enabling  them  to  receive  it  as  exhibited  in  the 
Gospel  of  sovereign  grace  ;  and  testifying  to  their 
consciences  complete  justification  by  it  in  the 
court  of  heaven,  John  xvi.  8,  14. 

As  to  the  objects  of  justification,  the  Scripture 
says  they  are  sinners  and  ungodly.  For  thus 
runs  the  divine  declaration  :  To  him  that  work- 
eth  is  the  reward  of  justification,  and  of  eternal 
life  as  connected  with  it ;  not  reckoned  of  grace, 
but  of  debt.  But  to  tiiin  that  woiketh  not.  but  be- 
220 


JUSTIFICATION 

lievelh  on  htm  that  justijieth — whom!  the  righ- 
teous? the  holy?  the  eminently  pious?  nay,  ve- 
rily, but  the  ungodly  ;  his  faith,  or  that  in  which 
he  believes,  is  counted  unto  him  for  righteousness, 
Rom.  iv.  4,  5  ;  Gal.  ii.  17.  Here,  then,  we  learn, 
that  the  subjects  of  justification,  considered  in 
themselves,  are  not  only  destitute  of  a  perfect 
righteousness,  but  have  performed  no  good 
works  at  all.  They  are  denominated  and  consi- 
dered as  the  ungodly,  when  the  blessing  is  be- 
stowed upon  them.  Not  that  we  are  to  under- 
stand that  such  remain  ungodly.  "  All,"  says 
Dr.  Owen,  "  that  are  justified,  were  before  un- 
godly ;  but  all  that  are  justified,  are,  at  the  same 
instant,  made  godly."  That  the  mere  sinner, 
however,  is  the  subject  of  justification,  appears 
from  hence.  The  Spirit  of  God,  speaking  in  the 
Scripture,  repeatedly  declares  that  we  are  justified 
by  grace.  But  grace  stands  in  direct  opposition 
to  works.  Whoever,  therefore,  is  justified  by 
grace,  is  considered  as  absolutely  unworthy  in 
that  very  instant  when  the  blessing  is  vouchsafed 
to  him,  Rom.  iii.  24.  The  person,  therefore,  that 
is  justified,  is  accepted  without  any  cause  in  him- 
self. Hence  it  appears  that  if  we  regard  the  per- 
sons who  are  justified,  and  their  state  prior  to  the 
enjoyment  of  the  immensely  glorious  privilege, 
divine  grace  appears,  and  reigns  in  all  its  glory. 

As  to  the  way  and  manner  in  which  dinners 
are  justified,  it  may  be  observed  that  the  Divine 
Being  can  acquit  none  without  a  complete  righ- 
teousness. Justification,  as  before  observed,  is 
evidently  a  forensic  term,  and  the  tiling  intended 
by  it  a  judicial  act.  So  that,  were  a  person  to 
be  justified  without  righteousness,  the  judgment 
would  not  be  according  to  truth;  it  would  be  a  false 
and  unrighteous  sentence.  That  righteousness  by 
which  we  are  justified  mustbeequaltothedemands 
of  that  law  according  to  which  the  Sovereign  Judge 
proceeds  in  our  justification.  Many  persons  talk 
of  condit  ions  of  justification  (see  article  Condi- 
tion';) but  the  only  condition  is  Xhatot'perfect  righ- 
teousness :  this  the  law  requires,  nor  does  the  Gos- 
pel  substitute  another.  But  where  shall  we  find,  or 
how  shall  we  obtain  a  justifying  righteousness1? 
Shall  we  flee  to  the  law  for  relief?  (Shall  we  ap- 
ply with  diligence  and  zeal  to  the  performance  of 
duty,  in  order  to  attain  the  desired  end?  The 
apostle  positively  affirms,  that  there  is  no  accept- 
ance  with  God  by  the  works  of  the  law  ;  and  the 
reasons  are  evident.  Our  righteousness  is  im- 
perfect, and  consequently  cannot  justify.  If  jus- 
tification were  by  the  works  of  men,  it  could  not 
be  by  grace  :  it  would  not  be  a  righteousness 
without  works. — There  would  be  no  need  of  the 
righteousness  of  Christ;  and  lastly,  if  justifica- 
tion were  by  the  law,  then  boasting  would  be  en 
couraged ;  whereas  God's  design  in  the  whole 
scheme  of  salvation  is  to  exclude  it,  Rom.  iii.  27 ; 
Eph.  ii.  8,  0.  Nor  is  faith  itself  our  righteous- 
ness, or  that  for  the  sake  of  which  we  are  justified  : 
for,  though  believers  are  said  to  be  justified  by 
faith,  yet  not  for  faith  •  faith  can  only  be  consi 
dered  as  the  instrument,  and  not  the  cause.  That 
faith  is  not  our  righteousness,  is  evident  from  the 
following  considerations  :  No  man's  faith  is  per- 
fect ;  and,  if  it  were,  it  would  not  be  equal  to  the 
demands  of  the  divine  law.  It  could  not,  there- 
fore, without  an  error  in  judgment,  lie  accounted 
a  complete  righteousness.  But  the  judgment  of 
God,  as  before  proved,  is  according  to  truth,  and 
according  to  the  rights  of  Ids  law.     That  obe* 


JUSTIFICATION 
dience  by  which  a  sinner  is  justiiied  is  called  the 
righteousness  of  faith,  righteousness  by  faith, 
and  is  represented  as  revealed  to  faith ;  conse- 
quently, cannot  be  faith  itself.  Faith,  in  the  busi- 
ness of  justification,  stands  opposed  to  all  works ; 
to  him  that  worketh  not  but  believelh.  Now,  if 
it  were  our  justifying  righteousness,  to  consider 
it  in  such  a  light  would  be  highly  improper.  For 
in  such  a  connexion  it  falls  under  the  considera- 
tion of  a  work  ;  a  condition,  on  the  performance 
of  which  our  acceptance  with  God  is  manifestly 
suspended.  If  faith  itself  be  that  on  account  of 
wliich  wc  are  accepted,  then  some  believers  are 
justified  by  a  more,  and  some  by  a  less  perfect 
righteousness,  in  exact  proportion  to  the  strength 
or  weakness  of  their  faith.  That  which  is  the 
end  of  the  law  is  our  righteousness,  which  cer- 
tainly is  not,  faith,  but  the  obedience  of,  our  ex- 
alted substitute,  Rom.  x.  4.  Were  faith  itself 
our  justifying  righteousness,  we  might  depend 
upon  it  before  God,  and  rejoice  in  it.  So  that, 
according  to  this  hypothesis,  not  Christ,  but 
faith,  is  the  capital  thing  ;  the  object  to  which  we 
must  look,  which  is  absurd.  When  the  apostle 
says,  "  faith  was  imputed  to  him  for  righteous- 
ness," his  main  design  was  to  prove  that  the 
eternal  Sovereign  justifies  freely,  without  any 
cause  in  the  creature. 

Nor  is  man's  obedience  to  the  Gospel  as  to  a 
new  and  milder  law  the  matter  of  his  justification 
before  God.  It  was  a  notion  that  some  years  ago 
obtained,  that  a  relaxation  of  the  law,  and  the 
severities  of  it,  has  been  obtained  by  Christ;  and 
a  new  law,  a  remedial  law,  a  law  'of  milder 
terms,  has  been  introduced  by  him,  which  is  the 
Gospel ;  the  terms  of  which  are  faith,  repentance, 
and  obedience ;  and  though  these  are  imperfect, 
yet,  being  sincere,  they  are  accepted  of  by  God 
in  the  room  of  a  perfect  righteousness.  But 
every  part  of  this  scheme  is  wrong,  for  the  law 
is  not  relaxed,  nor  any  of  its  severities  abated ; 
there  is  no  alteration  made  in  it,  either  with  re- 
spect to  its  precepts  or  penalty  :  besides,  the 
scheme  is  absurd,  for  it  supposes  that  the  law 
which  a  man  is  now  under  requires  only  an  im- 
perfect obedience;  but  an  imperfect  righteous- 
ness cannot  answer  its  demands;  for  every  law 
requires  perfect  obedience  to  its  own  precepts;  and 
prohibitions. 

Nor  is  a  profession  of  religion,  nor  sincerity, 
nor  good  works,  at  all  the  ground  of  our  accept- 
ance with  God,  for  all  our  righteousness  is  im- 
perfect, and  must  therefore  be  entirely  excluded. 
By  grace,  saith  the  apostle,  ye  arc  saved,  not  of 
works,  lest  any  man  should  boast,  Eph.  ii.  8,  1*. 
Besides,  the  works  of  sanctification  and  justifica- 
tion are  two  distinct  things  :  the  one  is  a  work 
of  grace  within  men ;  the  other  an  act  of  grace 
for  or  towards  men :  the  one  is  imperfect,  the 
other  complete:  the  one  carried  on  giadually, 
the  other  done  at  once.     See  Sanctification. 

If,  then,  we  cannot  possibly  be  justified  by  any 
of  our  own  performances,  nor  by  faith  itself,  nor 
even  by  the  graces  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  where 
then  shall  we  find  a  righteousness  by  which  we 
can  be  justified  1  The  Scripture  furnishes  us 
with  an  answer — "  By  Jesus  Christ  all  that  be- 
lieve are  justified  from  all  things  from  which 
they  could  not  be  justified  by  the  law  of  Moses." 
Acts  xhi.  38,  39.  "He  was  delivered  for  our 
offences,  and  raised  again  for  our  justification," 
Rotn.  iv.  25.  "Being  justified  by  his  blood  we 
221 


JUSTIFICATION 
shall  be  saved  from  wrath  through  him,"  Rom, 
v.  9.  The  spotless  obedience,  therefore,  the  bit- 
ter sufferings,  and  the  accursed  death  of  our  hea- 
venly Surety,  constitute  that  very  righteousness 
by  which  sinners  are  justified  before  God.  That 
this  righteousness  is  imputed  to  us,  and  that  we 
are  not.  justified  by  a  personal  righteousness,  ap- 
pears from  the  Scripture  with  superior  evidence, 
"  By  the  obedience  of  one  shall  many  be  made 
righteous,"  Rom.  v.  19.  "He  hath  made,  him  to 
be  sin  for  us,  who  knew  no  sin,  that  we  might  be 
made  the  righteousness  of  God  in  him."  2  Cot 
v.  21;  "And  be  found  in  him,  not  having  mine 
own  righteousness  which  is  of  the  law,  but  that 
which  Is  through  the  faith  of  Christ;  the  righ- 
teousness which  is  of  God  by  faith,"  Phil.  iii.  8. 
See  also  Jer.  xxiii.  6  ;  Dan.  ix.  24  ;  the  whole  of 
the  2d  chap,  of  Galatians.  See  articles  RfXOf*- 
ciuation,  Righteousness. 

As  to  the  -properties  of  justification :  1.  It  is 
an  act  of  God's  free  grace,  without  any  merit 
whatever  in  the  creature,  Rom.  iii.  24.  2.  It  is 
an  act  of  justice  as  well  as  grace ;  the  law  being 
perfectly  fulfilled  in  Christ,  and  divine  justice 
satisfied,  Rom.  iii.  26 ;  Ps.  lxxxv.  10.— 3.  It  b 
an  individual  and  instantaneous  act,  done  at  once, 
admitting  of  no  degrees,  John  xix.  30. — 4.  It  is 
irreversible,  and  an  unalterable  act,  Mai.  iii.  6. 

As  to  the  time  of  justification,  divines  are  not 
agreed.  Some  have  distinguished  it  into  decre- 
tive, virtual,  and  actual.  1.  Decretive,  is  God's 
eternal  purpose  to  justify  sinners  in  time  by 
Jesus  Christ. — 2.  Virtual  justification  has  a  re- 
ference to  the  satisfaction  made  by  Christ. — 
3.  Actual,  is  when  we  are  enabled  to  believe  in 
Christ,  and  by  faith  are  united  to  him  Others 
say  it  is  eternal,  because  his  purpose  respecting  it 
was  from  everlasting;  and  that,  as  the  Almighty 
viewed  his  people  in  Christ,  they  were,  of  conse- 
quence, justified  in  his  sight.  But  it  appears  to 
me,  that  the  principle  on  which  the  advocates  for 
this  doctrine  have  proceeded  is  wrong.  They 
have  confounded  the  design  with  the  execution ; 
for  if  this  distinction  be  not  kept  up,  the  ctmost 
perplexity  will  follow  the  consideration  of  every 
subject  which  relates  to  the  decrees  of  God ;  nor 
shall  we  be  able  to  form  any  clear  ideas  of  his 
moral  government  whatever.  To  say,  as  one 
does,  that  the  eternal  will  of  God  to  justify  men 
is  the  justification  of  them,  is  not  to  the  purpose; 
for  upon  the  same  ground  we  might  as  well  say 
that  the  eternal  will  of  God  to  convert  and  glo- 
rify his  people  is  the  real  conversion  and  glorifi- 
cation of  them.  That  it  was  eternally  deter- 
mined that  there  should  be  a  people  who  should 
believe  in  Christ,  and  that  his  righteousness 
should  be  imputed  to  them,  is  not  to  be  disputed ; 
but  to  say  that  these  things  were  really  done 
from  eternity  (winch  we  must  say  if  we  believe 
eternal  justification,)  this  would  be  absurd.  It  is 
more  consistent  to  believe,  that  God  from  eter- 
nity laid  the  plan  of  justification;  that  this  plan 
was  executed  by  the  life  and  death  of  Christ ; 
and  that  the  blessing  is  only  manifested,  received, 
and  enjoyed,  when  we  are  regenerated ;  so  thai 
no  man  can  say,  or  has  any  reason  to  conclude, 
he  is  justified,  until  he  believes  in  Christ,  Ro- 
mans v.  i. 

The  effects  or  blessings  of  justification,  are, — 

1.  An  entire  freedom  from  all  penal  evils  in  tliis 
life,  and  that  which  is  to  come,  1  Cor.  iii.  22. — 

2.  Peace  with  God,  Rom.  v.  1.— 3.  Access  to 

t  2 


KNIPPERDOLINGS 

God  through  Christ,  Ephesians  iii.  12. — 1  Ac- 
ceptance with  God,  Ephesians  v.  27. — 5.  Holy 
confidence  and  security  under  all  the  difficulties 
and  trouhles  of  the  present  state,  2  Timothy  i. 
12. — 6.  Finally,  eternal  salvation,  Romans  viii. 
30;  v.  18. 

Thus  we  have  given  as  comprehensive  a  view 
of  the  doctrine  of  justification  as  the  nature  of 
this  work  will  admit;  a  doctrine  which  is  found- 
ed upon  the  sacred  Scriptures ;  and  which,  so 
far  from  leading  to  licentiousness,  as  some  sup- 
pose, is  of  all  others  the  most  replete  with  mo- 
lives  to  love,  dependence,  and  obedience,  Rom. 
w.  I,  2.  A   doctrine  which  the  primitive  Chris- 


KNOWLEDGE 
tians  held  as  constituting  the  very  essence  of  their 
system ;  which  our  reformers  considered  as  the 
most  important  point ;  which  our  venerable  mar- 
tyrs gloried  in,  and  sealed  with  their  blood;  and 
which,  as  the  church  of  England  observes,  is  a 
"  very  wholesome  doctrine,  and  full  of  comfort." 
See  Dr.  Owen  on  Justification;  Rawlins  on 
Justification;  Edwards's  Sermons  on  ditto; 
Lime-Street  Lcct.  p.  350 ;  Herrcy's  Theron  ana 
Aspasia,  and  Eleven  Letters ;  Wi'herspoon's 
Connexion  between  Justification  and  Holiness; 
GUI  and  Ridglci/s  Div.;  but  especially  Booth'* 
Reign  of  Grace,  to  which  I  am  indebted  for  great 
part  of  the  above  article. 


K. 


KEITHIANS,  a  party  which  separated  from 
the  Quakers  in  Pennsylvania  in  the  year  1G91. 
They  were  headed  by  the  famous  George  Keith, 
from  whom  they  derived  their  name.  Those 
who  persisted  in  their  separation,  after  their 
leader  deserted  them,  practised  baptism,  and  re- 
ceived the  Lord's  Supjier.  This  party  were  also 
callel  Quaker  Baptists,  because  they  retained 
the  language,  dress,  and  manner  of  the  Quakers. 

KEYS,  POWER  OF  THE,  a  term  made 
use  of  in  reference  to  ecclesiastical  jurisdiction, 
denoting  the  power  of  excommunicating  and  ab- 
solving. The  Romanists  say  that  the  pope  has 
the  power  of  the  keys,  and  can  open  and  shut 
paradise  as  he  pleases ;  grounding  their  opinion 
on  that  expression  of  Jesus  Christ  to  Peter — "  I 
will  give  thee  the  keys  ofthe  kingdom  of  heaven." 
Matt.  xvi.  19.  But  every  one  must  see  that  this 
is  an  absolute  perversion  of  Scripture  :  for  the 
keys  of  the  kingdom  of  heaven  most  probably 
refer  to  the  Gospel  dispensation,  and  denote  the 
power  and  authority  of  every  faithful  minister 
to  preach  the  Gospel,  administer  the  sacraments, 
and  exercise  government,  that  men  may  be  ad- 
mitted to  or  excluded  from  the  church,  as  is  pro- 
per.    See  Absolution. 

In  St.  Gregory  we  read  that  it  was  the  custom 
for  the  pope  to  send  a  golden  key  to  princes, 
wherein  they  inclosed  a  little  of  the  filings  of  St. 
Peter's  chain,  kept  with  such  devotion  at  Rome  ; 
and  that  these  keys  were  worn  in  the  bosom,  as 
being  supposed  to  contain  some  wonderful  vir- 
tues! Such  has  been  the  superstition  of  past 
ages! 

KIRK  SESSIONS,  the  name  of  a  petty  eccle- 
siastical judicatory  in  Scotland.  Each  parish, 
according  to  its  extent,  is  divided  into  several  parti- 
cular districts,  every  one  of  which  has  its  own  elder 
and  deacons  ts  oversee  it.  A  consistory  of  the 
ministers,  elders  and  deacon  of  a  parish  form  a 
kirk  session.  These  meet  once,  a  week,  the  mi- 
nister being  their  moderator,  but  without  a  nega- 
tive voice.  It  regulates  matters  relative  to  public 
worship,  elections,  catechising,  visitations,  &e. 
It  judges  in  matters  of  less  scandal ;  but  greater, 
as  adiltery,  are  left  to  the  presbytery,  and  in  all 
cases  an  appeal  lies  from  it  to  the  presbytery. — 
Kirk  sessions  have  likewise  the  care  of  the  poor 
and  roor's  funds.     See  Presbyterians. 

KINDNESS,  civil  behaviour,  favourable  treat- 
ment, or  a  constant  and  habitual  practice  of 
friendly  offices  and  benevolent  actions.  See 
Charity;  Gbntlbnbbb. 

KNIPPERDOLINGS,   a  denomination  in 
222 


the  16th  century;  so  called  from  Bertrand 
Knipnerdoling,  who  taught  that  the  righteous 
before  the  day  of  judgment  shall  have  a  monarchy 
on  earth,  and  the  wicked  be  destroyed;  that  men 
ure  not  justified  by  their  faith  in  Christ  Jesus; 
that  there  is  no  original  sin ;  that  infants  ought 
not  be  baptized,  and  that  immersion  is  the  only 
mode  of  baptism :  that  every  one  has  authority 
to  preach  and  administer  the  sacraments ;  that 
men  are  not  obliged  to  pay  respect  to  magistrates ; 
that  all  things  ought  to  be  in  common,  and  that 
it  is  lawful  to  marry  many  wives. 

KNOWLEDGE  is  defined  by  Mr.  Locke  to 
be  the  perception  ofthe  connexion  and  agreement 
or  disagreement  and  repugnancy  of  our  ideas. 
It  also  denotes  learning,  or  the  improvement  of 
our  faculties  by  reading;  experience,  or  the  ac- 
quiring new  ideas  or  truths,  by  seeing  a  variety 
of  objects,  and  making  observations  upon  them 
in  our  own  minds.  No  man,  says  the  admirable 
Di.  Watts,  is  obliged  to  learn  and  know  every 
thing ;  this  can  neither  he  sought  nor  required, 
for  it  is  utterly  impossible :  yet  all  persons  are 
under  some  obligation  to  improve  their  own  under- 
standing, otherwise  it  will  be  a  barren  deseit,  or 
a  forest  overgrown  with  weeds  and  brambles. 
Universal  ignorance,  or  infinite  error,  will  over- 
spread  the  mind  which  is  utterly  neglected,  and 
lies  without  any  cultivation.  The  following 
rules,  therefore,  should  be  attended  to  for  the  in> 
provement  of  knowledge. — 1.  Deeply  possess 
your  mind  with  the  vast  importance  of  a  good 
judgment,  and  the  rich  and  inestimable  advan- 
tages of  right  reasoning. — 2.  Consider  the  weak- 
nesses, failings,  and  mistakes  of  human  nature  in 
general. — 3.  Be  not  satisfied  with  a  slight  view 
of  things,  but  take  a  wide  survey  now  and  then 
of  the  vast  and  unlimited  regions  of  learning,  the 
variety  of  questions  and  difficulties  belonging  to 
every  science. — 4.  Presume  not  too  much  upon 
a  bright  genius,  a  ready  wit,  and  good  parts ;  for 
this,  without  study,  will  never  make  a  man  of 
knowledge. — 5.  Do  not  imagine  that  large  and 
laborious  reading,  and  a  strong  memory,  can  de- 
nominate you  truly  wise,  without  meditation  and 
studious  thought. — 6.  Be  not  so  weak  as  to  im- 
agine that  a  life  of  learning  is  a  life  of  laziness. — 
7.  Let  the  hope  of  new  discoveries,  as  well  as  the 
satisfaction  and  pleasure  of  known  truths,  ani- 
mate your  daily  industry. — 8.  Do  not  hove? 
always  on  the  surface  of  things,  nor  take  up 
suddenly  with  mere  appearances. — 9.  Once  a 
day,  especially  in  the  early  years  of  life  and  study, 
call  yourselves  to  an  account   what  new  idea9 


KNOWLEDGE 

you  have  gained. — 10.  Maintain  a  constant  watch, 
at  all  times,  against  a  dogmatical  spirit. — 11.  Be 
humble  and  courageous  enough  to  retract  any 
mistake,  and  confess  an  error. — 12.  Beware  of  a 
fanciful  temper  of  mind,  and  a  humorous  conduct. 
—13.  Have  a  care  of  trifling  with  things  impor- 
tant and  momentous,  or  of  sporting  with  things 
awful  and  sacred. — 14.  Ever  maintain  a  virtuous 
and  pious  frame  of  spirit. — 15.  Watch  against 
tiie  pride  of  your  own  reason,  and  a  vain  conceit 
of  your  own  intellectual  powers,  with  the  neglect 
of  divine  aid  and  blessing. — 16.  Offer  up,  there- 
fore, your  daily  requests  to  God,  the  Father  of 
Lights,  that  he  would  bless  all  your  attempts  and 
labours  in  reading,  study,  and  conversation. — 
Watts  on  the  Mind,  chap.  i. ;  Dr.  John  Ed- 
wards's Uncertainty,  Deficiency,  and  Corrup- 
tion of  Human  Knowledge  ;  Rcid's  Intellectual 
Powers  of  Man  ;  Slennet's  Sermon  on  Acts  xxvi. 
24  25. 

KNOWLEDGE  OF  GOD  is  often  taken 
for  the  fear  of  God  and  the  whole  of  religion. 
There  is,  indeed,  a  speculative  knowledge,  which 
consists  only  in  the  belief  of  his  existence,  and 
the  acknowledgment  of  his  perfections,  but  has 
no  influence  on  the  heart  and  conduct.  A  spi- 
ritual saving  knowledge  consists  in  veneration 
for  the  Divine  Being,  Ps.  lxxxix.  7 ;  love  to  him 
as  an  object  of  beauty  and  goodness,  Zech.  ix. 
17 ;  humble  confidence  in  his  mercy  and  promise, 
Ps.  ix.  10 ;  and  sincere,  uniform,  and  persevering 
obedience  to  his  word,  1  John  ii.  3.  It  may  fur- 
ther be  considered  as  a  knowledge  of  God  the 
Father;  of  his  love,  faithfulness,  power,  &c.  Of 
the  Son,  as  it  relates  to  the  dignity  of  his  nature, 
1  John  v.  20 ;  the  suitability  of  his  offices,  Heb. 
ix. ;  the  perfection  cf  his  work,  Ps.  Ixviii.  18 ;  the 
brightness  of  his  example,  Acts  x.  38  ;  and  the 
prevalence  or  his  intercession,  Heb.  vii.  25.  Of 
the  Holy  Ghost,  as  equal  with  the  Father  and 
the  Son ;  of  his  agency  as  cnlightener  and  com- 
forter ;  as  also  in  his  work  of  witnessing,  sancti- 
fying, and  directing  his  people,  John  xv.  xvi. ;  2 
Cor.  iii.  17,  18;  John  hi.  5,  6;  Rom.  viii.  16. 
This  knowledge  may  be  considered  as  experi- 
mental, 2  Tim.  i.  12;  fiducial,  Job  xiii.  15,  16; 
affectionate,  1  John  iii.  19 ;  influential,  Psal.  ix. 
10 ;  Matt.  v.  16 ;  humiliating,  Isa.  vi. ;  Job  xlii. 
5,  6;  satisfying,  Psal.  xxxvi.  7;  Prov.  iii.  17; 
and  superior  to  all  other  knowledge,  Phil.  iii.  8. 
The  advantages  of  religious  knowledge  are  every 
way  great.  It  forms  the  basis  of  true  honour 
and  felicity.  "  Not  all  the  lustre  of  a  noble  birth, 
not  all  the  influence  of  wealth,  not  all  the  pomp 
af  titles,  not  all  the  splendour  of  power,  can  give 
dignity  to  the  soul  that  is  destitute  of  inward  im- 
provement. By  this  we  are  allied  to  angels,  and 
are  capable  of  rising  for  ever  in  the  scale  of  being. 
Such  is  its  inherent  worth,  that  it  hath  always 
lreen  represented  under  the  most  pleasing  images. 
In  particular,  it  hath  been  compared  to  light,  the 
most  valuable  and  reviving  part  of  nature's  works, 
and  to  that  glorious  luminary  which  is  the  most 
beautiful  and  transporting  object  our  eyes  behold. 
If  we  entertain  any  doubts  concerning  the  intrin- 
sic value  of  religious  knowledge,  let  us  look  around 
us,  and  we  shall  be  convinced  how  desirable  it  is 
to  be  acquainted  with  God,  with  spiritual,  with 
eternal  things.  Observe  the  difference  between 
a  cultivated  and  a  barren  country.  While  the 
former  is  a  lovely,  cheerful,  and  delightful  sight, 
the  other  administers  a  swetaele  of  horror.  There 
223 


KNOWLEDGE 
is  an  equal  difference  between  the  nations  among 
whom  the  principles  of  piety  prevail,  and  the  na- 
tions that  are  overrun  with  idolatry,  superstition, 
and  error.  Knowledge,  also,  is  of  great  impor- 
tance to  our  personal  ai.d  private  felicity :  it  fur- 
nishes a  pleasure  that  cannot  be  met  with  in  the 
possession  of  inferior  enjoyments;  a  fine  enter- 
tainment which  adds  a  relish  to  prosperity,  and 
alleviates  the  hour  of  distress.  It  throws  a  lustre 
upon  greatness,  and  reflects  an  honour  upon 
poverty.  Knowledge  will  also  instruct  us  how 
to  apply  our  several  talents  for  the  benefit  of  man- 
kind. It  will  make  us  capable  of  advising  and 
regulating  others.  Hence  we  may  become  the 
lights  of  the  world,  and  diffuse  those  beneficent 
beams  around  us,  which  shall  shine  on  benighted 
travellers,  and  discover  the  path  of  rectitude  and 
bliss.  This  knowledge,  also,  tends  to  destroy 
bigotry  and  enthusiasm.  To  this  we  are  indebted 
for  the  important  change  which  hath  been  made 
since  the  beginning  of  the  Reformation.  To  this 
we  are  indebted  for  the  general  cultivation  and 
refinement  of  the  understandings  of  men.  It  is 
owing  to  this  that  even  arbitrary  governments 
seem  to  have  lost  something  of  their  original  fero- 
city, and  that  there  is  a  source  of  improvement  in 
Europe  which  will,  we  hope,  in  future  times, 
shed  the  most  delightful  influences  on  society, 
and  unite  its  members  in  harmony,  peace,  and 
love.  But  the  advantages  of  knowledge  are  still 
greater,  for  it  points  out  to  us  an  eternal  felicity. 
The  several  branches  of  human  science  are  in- 
tended only  to  bless  and  adorn  our  present  exist- 
ence; but  religious  knowledge  bids  us  provide 
for  an  immortal  being,  sets  the  path  of  salvation 
before  us,  and  is  our  inseparable  companion  in 
the  road  to  glory.  As  it  instructs  in  the  way  to 
endless  bliss,  so  it  will  survive  that  mighty  day 
when  all  worldly  literature  and  accomplishments 
shall  for  ever  cease.  At  that  solemn  period,  in 
which  the  records  and  registers  of  men  shall  be 
destroyed,  the  systems  of  human  policy  be  dis- 
solved, and  the  grandest  works  of  genius  die,  the 
wisdom  which  is  spiritual  and  heavenly  shall  not 
only  subsist,  but  be  increased  to  an  extent  that 
human  nature  cannot  in  this  life  admit.  Our 
views  of  things,  at  present,  are  obscure,  imperfect, 
partial,  and  liable  to  error ;  but  when  we  arrive 
to  the  realms  of  everlasting  light,  the  clouds  that 
shadowed  our  understanding  will  be  removed; 
we  shall  behold  with  amazing  clearness  the  attri- 
butes, ways,  and  works  of  God;  shall  perceive 
more  distinctly  the  design  of  his  dispensations ; 
shall  trace  with  rapture  the  wonders  of  nature 
and  grace,  and  become  acquainted  with  a  thou- 
sand glorious  objects,  of  which  the  imagination 
can  as  yet  have  no  conception." 

In  order  to  increase  in  the  knowledge  of  God, 
there  must  be  dependence  on  Him  from  whom 
all  light  proceeds,  James  i.  6;  attention  to  his 
revealed  will,  John  v.  39;  a  watchful  spirit 
against  corrupt  affections,  Luke  xxi.  34 ;  a  hum- 
ble frame  of  mind,  Ps.  xxv.  9 ;  frequent  medita- 
tion, Ps.  civ.  34 ;  a  persevering  design  for  con- 
formity to  the  divine  image,  Hos.  vi.  3. —  Char- 
nock's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  381 ;  Saurin's  Sermons, 
vol.  i.  ser.  1 ;  Gill's  Body  of  Div.  vol.  iii.  p.  12. 
oct. ;  Tillotson's  Ser  in.  ser.  113 ;  Watts' s  Works, 
vol.  i.  ser.  45 ;  Hall's  Sermon  on  the  Advantagei 
of  Knowledge  to  the  Lower  Classes. 

KNOWLEDGE  OF  GOD.     Sec  Omnj3 

CIEN'CE. 


KORAN 

KORAN,  or  ALCORAN,  the  Scripture  or 
Bible  of  the  Mahometans,  containing  the  revela- 
tions and  doctrines  of  their  pretended  prophet. 

1.  Koran,  divisions  of  the. —  The  Koran  is  di- 
vided into  one  hundred  and  fourteen  lamer  por- 
tions of  very  unequal  length,  which  we  call  chap- 
ters, but  the  Arabians  Sowar,  in  the  singular 
Sura ;  a  word  rarely  used  on  any  other  occasion, 
and  properly  signifying  a  row,  or  a  regular  scries ; 
as  a  course  of  bricks  in  building,  or  a  rank  of 
soldiers  in  an  army,  and  is  the  same  in  Use  and 
import  with  the  Sura,  or  Tora,  of  the  Jews ;  who 
ffiso  call  the  fifty-three  sections  of  the  Pentateuch 
Sedarhn,  a  word  of  the  same  signification.  These 
chapters  are  not,  in  the  manuscript  copies,  distin- 
guished by  their  numerical  order,  but  by  particu- 
lar titles,  which  are  taken  sometimes  from  a  pe- 
culiar subject  treated  of,  or  person  mentioned 
therein  ;  usually  from  the  first  word  of  note,  ex- 
actly in  the  same  manner  as  the  Jews  have 
named  their  Sedarim :  though  the.  word  from 
which  some  chapters  are  denominated  be  very 
distant  towards  the  middle,  or  perhaps  the  end, 
of  the  chapter;  which  seems  ridiculous.  But  the 
occasion  of  this  appears  to  have  been,  that  the 
verse  or  passage  wherein  such  word  occurs,  was, 
in  point  of  time,  revealed  and  committed  to  writ- 
ing before  the  other  verses  of  the  same  chapter 
which  precede  it  in  order ;  and  the  title  being  given 
to  the  chapter  before  it  was  completed,  or  the  pas- 
sages reduced  to  their  present  order,  the  verse 
from  whence  such  title  was  taken  did  not  always 
happen  io  begin  the  chapter.  Some  chapters 
have  two  or  more  titles,  occasioned  by  the  differ- 
ence of  the  copies.  Some  of  them"  being  pre- 
tended to  have  been  revealed  at  Mecca,  and 
others  at  Medina,  the  noting  this  difference  makes 
a  part  of  the  title.  Every  chapter  is  divided  into 
smaller  portions,  of  very  unequal  length  also, 
which  we  customarily  call  verses ;  but  the  Ara- 
bic word  is  Ayat,  the  same  with  the  Hebrew 
Ototh,  and  signifies  signs  or  uonders ;  such  as 
the  secrets  of  God,  his  attributes,  works,  judg- 
ments, and  ordinances  delivered  in  those  verses ; 
many  of  which  have  their  particular  titles,  also, 
imposed  in  the  same  manner  as  those  of  the  chap- 
ters. Besides  these  unequal  divisions,  the  Ma- 
hometans have  also  divided  their  Koran  into 
sixty  equal  portions,  which  they  call  Anzab,  in 
the  singular  Hizb,  each  subdivided  into  four  equal 
parts ;  which  is  likewise  an  imitation  of  the  Jews, 
who  have  an  ancient  division  of  their  Mishna 
into  sixty  portions,  called  Massictolh.  But  the 
Koran  is  more  usually  divided  into  thirty  sections 
only,  named  Ajaza,  from  the  singula.  Joz,  each 
of  twice  the  length  of  the  former,  and  in  like 
manner  subdivided  into  four  parts.  These  divi- 
sions are  for  the  use  of  the  readers  of  the  Koran 
in  the  royal  temples,  or  in  the  adjoining  chapels 
where  the  emperors  and  great  men  are  interred ; 
of  whom  there  are  thirty  belonging  to  every 
chapel,  and  each  reads  his  section  every  day ;  so 
that  the  whole  Koran  is  read  over  once  a  day. 
Next  after  the  title,  at  the  name  of  every  chapter 
except  only  the  ninth,  is  prefixed  the  following 
solemn  form,  by  the  Mahometans  called  the  Bis- 
mallah — "In  the  name  of  the  most  merciful 
God ;"  which  form  they  constantly  place  at  the 
beginning  of  all  their  books  and  writings  in  gene- 
ral, as  a  peculiar  mark  and  distinguishing  charac- 
teristic of  their  religion,  it  being  counted  a  sort 
ef  impiety  to  omit' it.  The  Jews,  and  eastern 
224 


KORAN 
Christians,  for  the  same  purpose,  make  use  : ' 
similar  forms.  But  Mahomet  probably  took  this 
form  from  the  Persian  Magi,  who  began  their 
books  in  these  words,  Benam  Yezdam  bahshaish- 
gher  dadar ;  that  is,  In  the  name  of  the  most 
merciful  just  Gon.  There  are  twenty-nine 
chapters  of  the  Koran,  which  have  this  pecu- 
liarity, that  they  begin  with  certain  letters  ot  the 
alphabet,  some  with  single  ones,  others  with  more, 
These  letters  the  Mahometans  believe  to  be  the 
peculiar  marks  of  the  Koran,  and  to  conceal  seve- 
ral profound  mysteries;  the  certain  understand- 
ing of  which,  the  more  intelligent  confess,  has  not 
been  communicated  to  any  mortal,  their  prophet 
only  excepted ;  notwithstanding  which,  some 
take  the  liberty  of  guessing  at  their  meaning  by 
that  species  of  cabala  called  by  the  Jews  No- 
tarikon. 

2.  Koran,  general  design  of  the. — The  gene- 
ral design  of  the  Koran  was  to  unite  the  profes- 
sors of  the  three  different  religions,  then  followed 
in  the  populous  country  of  Arabia,  (who,  for  the 
most  part,  wandered  without  guides,  the  far 
greater  number  being  idolaters,  the  rest  Jews  and 
Christians,  mostly  of  erroneous  opinion,)  in  the 
knowledge  and  worship  of  one  God,  under  the 
sanction  of  certain  laws  and  ceremonies,  partly 
of  ancient  and  partly  of  novel  institution,  enforced 
by  the  consideration  of  rewards  and  punishments 
both  temporal  and  eternal ;  and  to  bring  them  all 
to  the  obedience  of  Mahomet,  as  the  prophet  and 
ambassador  of  God ;  who,  after  the  repeated  ad- 
monitions, promises,  and  threats  of  former  ages, 
was  sent  at  last  to  establish  and  propagate  God's 
religion  en  earth  ;  and  to  be  acknowledged  chief 
pontiff  in  spiritual  matters,  as  well  as  supreme 
prince  in  temporal.  The  great  doctrine,  then, 
of  the  Koran  is  the  unity  of  God;  to  restore 
which,  Mahomet  pretended,  was  the  chief  end 
of  his  mission  ;  it  being  laid  down  by  him  as  a 
fundamental  truth,  That  there  never  was,  nor 
ever  can  be,  more  than  one  true  orthodox  religion : 
that,  though  the  particular  laws  or  ceremonies 
are  only  temporary,  and  subject  to  alteration,  ac- 
cording to  the  divine  direction  ;  yet  the  substance 
of  it,  being  eternal  truth,  is  not  liable  to  change, 
but  continues  immutably  the  same ;  and  that, 
whenever  this  religion  became  neglected  or  cor- 
rupted in  essentials,  God  had  the  goodness  to  re- 
inform  and  re-admonish  mankind  thereof  by 
several  prophets,  of  whom  Moses  and  Jesus  were 
the  most  distinguished,  till  the  appearance  of 
Mahomet,  who  is  their  seal,  and  no  other  to  be 
expected  after  him.  The  more  effectually  to  en- 
gage people  to  hearken  to  him,  great  part  of  the 
Koran  is  employed  in  relating  examples  of  dread- 
ful punishments  formerly  inflicted  by  God  on 
those  who  rejected  and  abused  his  messengers ; 
several  of  which  stories,  or  some  circumstances  of 
them,  are  taken  from  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, but  many  more  from  the  apocryphal 
books  and  traditions  of  the  Jews  and  Christians 
of  those  ages,  set  up  in  the  Koran  as  truths,  in 
opposition  to  the  Scriptures,  which  the  Jews  and 
Christians  are  charged  with  having  altered ;  and, 
indeed,  few  or  none  of  the  relations  of  circum- 
stances in  the  Koran  were  invented  by  Mahomet, 
as  is  generally  supposed ;  it  being  easy  to  trace 
the  greatest  part  ol  them  much  higher,  as  the  rest 
might  be,  were  more  of  these  books  extant,  and 
were  it  worth  while  to  make  the  inquiry.  The 
rest  of  the  Alcoran  is  taken  up  in  prescribing 


KORAN 

necessary  laws  and  directions,  frequent  admoni- 
tions to  moral  and  divine  virtues,  (he  worship  and 
reverence  of  the  Supreme  Being,  and  resignation 
to  his  will.  One  of  their  most  learned  commen- 
tators distinguishes  the  contents  of  the  Alcoran 
into  allegorical  and  literal ;  under  the  former  are 
comprehended  all  the  ohscure,  parabolical,  and 
enigmatical  passages,  with  such  laws  as  are  re- 
pealed or  abrogated ;  the  latter,  such  as  are  clear, 
and  in  full  force.  The  most  excellent  moral  in 
the  whole  Alcoran,  interpreters  say,  is  that  in  the 
chapter  Al  alraf,  viz.  "  Show  mercy,  do  good  to  all, 
and  dispute  not  with  the  ignorant;"  or,  as  Mr. 
Sale  renders  it,  Use  indulgence,  command  that 
which  is  just,  and  withdraw  far  from  the  igno- 
rant. Mahomet,  according  to  the  authors  of  the 
Keschaf,  having  begged  of  the  angel  Gabriel  a 
more  ample  explication  of  this  passage,  received 
it  in  the  following  terms :  "  Seek,  him  who  turns 
thee  out,  give  to  him  who  takes  from  thee,  par- 
don him  who  injures  thee;  for  God  will  have 
you  plant  in  your  souls  the  roots  of  his  chief  per- 
fections." It  is  easy  to  see  that  this  commentary 
is  borrowed  from  the  Gospel.  In  reality,  the 
necessity  of  forgiving  enemies,  though  frequently 
inculcated  in  the  Alcoran,  is  of  a  later  date  among 
the  Mahometans  than  anjong  the  Christians; 
among  those  later  than  among  the  heathens ;  and 
to  be  traced  originally  among  the  Jews.  (See 
Exod.  xxxiii.  4,  5.)  But  it  matters  not  so  much 
who  had  it  first  as  who  observes  it  best.  The 
caliph  Hassan,  son  of  Hali,  being  at  table,  a  slave 
let  fall  a  dish  of  meat  reeking  hot,  which  scalded 
him  severely.  The  slave  fell  on  his  knees  re- 
hearsing these  words  of  the  Alcoran,  "  Paradise 
is  for  those  who  restrain  their  anger."  "  I  am 
not  angry  with  thee,"  answered  the  caliph.  "  And 
for  those  who  forgive  offences  against  them," 
continues  the  slave.  "  I  forgive  thee  thine,"  re- 
plies the  caliph.  "  But,  above  all,  for  those  who 
return  good  for  evil,"  adds  the  slave.  "I  set 
thee  at  liberty,"  rejoined  the  caliph ;  "and  I  give 
thee  ten  dinars."  There  are  also  a  great  number 
of  occasional  passages  in  the  Alcoran  relating  only 
to  particular  emergencies.  For  this  advantage 
Mahomet  had,  by  his  piecemeal  method  of  re- 
ceiving and  delivering  his  revelations,  that,  when- 
ever he  happened  to  be  perplexed  with  any  thing, 
he  had  a  certain  resource  in  some  new  morse]  of 
revelation.  It  was  an  admirable  contrivance  to 
bring  down  the  whole  Alcoran  orrly  to  the  lowest 
heaven,  not  to  earth  :  since,  had  the  whole  been 
published  at  once,  innumerable  objections  would 
have  been  made,  which  it  would  have  been  im- 
possible for  him  to  have  solved ;  but  as  he  re- 
ceived it  by  parcels,  as  God  saw  fit  they  should 
be  published  for  the  conversion  and  instruction 
of  the  people,  he  had  a  sure  way  to  answer  all 
emergencies,  and  to  extricate  himself  with  honour 
from  any  difficulty  which  might  occur. 

3.  Koran,  history  of  the. — It  is  the  common 
i  tpinion,  that  Mahomet,  assisted  by  one  Sergius, 
a  monk,  composed  this  book :  bu.t  the  Mussul- 
mans believe  it  as  an  article  of  their  faith,  that  the 
prophet,  who,  they  say,  was  an  illiterate  man,  had 
ro  concern  in  inditing  it ;  but  that  it  was  given 
him  by  God,  who,  to  that  end,  made  use  of  the  mi- 
nistry of  the  angel  Gabriel ;  that,  however,  it  was 
communicated  to  him  by  little  and  little,  a  verse  at 
a  time,  and  in  different  places,  during  the  course 
of  23  years. — "  And  hence,"  say  they,  "  proceed 
t'»it  disorder  and  confusion  visibly  in  the  work;" 
225  2  D 


KORAN 

which,  in  truth,  are  so  great,  that  all  their  doc- 
tors have  never  been  able  to  adjust  them;  for 
Mahomet,  or  rather  his  copyist,  having  put  all 
the  loose  verses  promiscuously  in  a  book  together, 
it  was  impossible  ever  to  retrieve  the  order  where 
in  they  were  delivered.  These  23  years  which 
the  angel  employed  in  conveying  the  Alcoran  to 
Mahomet,  are  of  wonderful  service  to  his  fol- 
lowers; inasmuch  as  they  furnish  them  with  an 
answer  to  such  as  tax  them  with  those  glaring 
contradictions  of  which  the  book  is  full,  and 
which  they  piously  father  upon  God  himself; 
alleging  that,  in  the  course  of  so  long  a  time,  he 
repealed  and  altered  several  doctrines  and  pre- 
cepts which  the  prophet  had  before  received  of 
him.  M.  D'Herbelot  thinks  it  probable,  that 
when  the  heresies  of  the  Nestorians,  Eutychians, 
&c.  had  been  condemned  by  oecumenical  coun- 
cils, many  bishops,  pr'ests,  monks,  &c.  being 
driven  into  the  deserts  of  Arabia  and  Egypt,  fur- 
nished the  impostor  with  passages,  and  crude, 
ill-conceived  doctrines,  out  of  the  Scriptures ;  and 
that  it  was  hence  that  the  Alcoran  became  so  full 
of  the  wild  and  erroneous  opinions  of  those  here- 
tics. The  Jews  also,  who  were  very  numerous 
in  Arabia,  furnished  materials  for  the  Alcoran  ; 
nor  is  it  without  some  reason  that  they  boast 
twelve  of  their  chief  doctors  to  have  been  the 
authors  of  this  work.  The  Alcoran,  while  Ma- 
homet lived,  was  only  kept  in  loose  sheets :  his 
successor,  Abubeker,  first  collected  them  into  a 
volume,  and  committed  the  keeping  of  it  to 
Haphsa,  the  widow  of  Mahomet,  in  order  to  be 
consulted  as  an  original ;  and  there  being  a  good 
deal  of  diversity  between  the  several  copies  al- 
ready dispersed  throughout  the  provinces,  Otto- 
man, successor  of  Abubeker,  procured  a  great 
number  of  copies  to  be  taken  from  that  of  Haph 
sa,  at  the  same  time  suppressing  all  the  others 
not  conformable  to  the  original.  The  chief  dif- 
ferences in  the  present  copies  of  this  book  consist 
in  the  points,  which  were  not  in  use  in  the  time 
of  Mahomet  and  his  immediate  successors ;  but 
were  added  since,  to  ascertain  the  reading,  after 
the  example  of  the  Massoretes,  who  added  the 
like  points  to  the  Hebrew  texts  of  Scripture. 
There  are  seven  principal  editions  of  the  Alcoran, 
two  at  Medina,  one  at  Mecca,  one  at  Cufa,  one 
at  Bassora,  one  in  Syria,  and  the  common,  or 
vulgar  edition.  The  first  contains  6*000  verses, 
the  others  surpassing  this  number  by  200  or  236 
verses  ;  but  the  number  of  words  and  letters  is 
the  same  in  all ;  viz.  77,639  words,  and  323,015 
letters.  The  number  of  commentaries  on  the 
Alcoran  is  so  large,  that  the  bare  titles  would 
make  a  huge  volume.  Ben  Oschair  has  written 
the  history  of  them,  entitled  Tarikh  Ben  Os- 
chair. The  principal  among  them  are,  Reid- 
haori,  Thaalebi,  Zamalchschari,  and  Bacai.  The 
Mahometans  have  a  positive  theology  built  en 
the  Alcoran  and  tradition,  as  well  as  a  scholasti- 
cal  one  built  on  reason.  They  have  likewise 
their  casuists,  and  a  kind  of  canon  law,  wherein 
they  distinguish  between  what  is  of  divine  and 
what  of  positive  right.  They  have  their  bene- 
ficiaries, too,  chaplains,  almoners,  and  canons, 
who  read  a  chapter  every  day  out  of  the  Alcoran 
in  their  mosques,  and  have  prebends  annexed  to 
their  office.  The  hatib  of  the  mosque  is  whafc 
we  call  the  parson  of  the  parish ;  and  the  scheiJcs 
are  the  preachers,  who  take  their  texts  out  of  the 
Alcoran. 


KORAN 

4.  Koran,  Mahometan,  faith  concerning. — It  is 
•  In-  general  belief  among  the  Mahometans  that  the 
Koran  is  of  divine  original;  nay,  that  it  is  eter- 
nal and  uncreated  ;  remaining,  as  some  express 
it.  in  the  very  essence  of  God  ;  and  the  very  first 
transcript  has  been  from  everlasting',  by  God's 
throne,  written  on  a  table  of  vast  bigness,  called 
the  preserved  tabic,  in  which  are  also  recorded 
the  divine  decrees,  past  and  future;  that  a  copy 
from  this  table,  in  one  volume  upon  paper,  was, 
by  the  ministry  of  the  angel  Gabriel,  sent  down 
to  the  lowest  heaven,  in  the  month  of  Ramadan), 
on  the  niixht.  of  power,  from  whence  Gabriel  re- 
vealed it  to  Mahomet  in  parcels,  some  at  Mecca, 
and  some  at  Medina,  at  different  times,  during 
the  space  of  twenty-three  years,  ;:s  the  exigency 
af  affairs  required  ;  giving  him,  however,  the  con- 
solation to  show  him  the  whole  (which  they  tell 
us  was  bound  in  silk,  and  adorned  with  gold  and 
precious  stones  of  paradise)  once  a  year;  but 
in  the  last  year  of  his  life  lie  had  the  favour  to 
see  it  twice.  They  say,  that  only  ten  chapters 
were  delivered  entire,  the  rest  being  revealed 
piecemeal,  and  written  down  from  time  to  time 
by  the  prophet's  amanuensis,  in  such  a  part  of 
such  and  such  a  chapter,  till  they  were  completed, 
according  to  the  direction  of  the  angel.  The 
first  parcel  that  was  revealed  is  generally  agreed 
to  have  been  the  first  five  verses  of  the  ninety- 
sixth  chapter.  In  fine,  the  book  of  the  Alcoran 
is  held  in  the  highest  esteem  and  reverence  among 
the  Mussulmans.  They  dare  not  so  much  as 
touch  the  Alcoran  without  being  first  washed,  or 
legally  purified  :  to  prevent  which  an  inscription 
is  put  on  the  cover  or  label, — Let  none  touch  but 
they  who  arc  cie.an.  It  is  read  with  great  care 
and  respect,  being  never  held  below  the  girdle. 
They  swear  by  it;  take  omens  from  it  on  all 
weighty  occasions ;  carry  it  with  them  to  war; 
write  sentences  of  it  on  their  banners ;  adorn  it 
with  gold  and  precious  stones ;  and  knowingly 
will  not  suffer  it  to  be  in  the  possession  of  any  of  a 
different  religion.  Some  say  it  is  punishable  even 
with  death,  in  a  Christian  to  touch  it;  others, 
that  the  veneration  of  the  Mussulmans  leads  them 
to  condemn  the  translating  it  into  any  other  lan- 
guage, as  a  profanation ;  but  these  seem  to  be 
exaggerations.  The  Mahometans  have  taken 
care  to  have  *heir  Scripture  translated  into  the 
Persian,  the  Javan,  the  Malayan,  and  other  lan- 
guages :  though,  out  of  respect  to  the  original,  these 
versions  are  generally,  if  not  always,  interlineated. 
5.  Koran,  success  of  the,  accounted  for. — The 
author  of  the  "View  of  Christianity  and  Ma- 
hometanism,"  observes,  that,  "  by  the  advocates 
of  Mahometanism,  the  Koran  has  always  been 
hi'ld  forth  as  the  greatest  of  miracles,  and  equally 
stupendous  with  the  act  of  raising  the  dead. 
The  miracles  of  Moses  ind  Jesus,  they  say,  were 
transient  and  temporary;  but  that  of  the  Koran 
is  permanent  and  perpetual,  and  therefore  far 
surpasses  all  the  miraculous  events  of  preceding 
ages.  We  will  not  detract  from  the  real  merits 
of  the  Koran  ;  we  allow  it  to  be  generally  elegant 
and  often  sublime:  but  at  the  same  time  we  re- 
ject with  disdain  its  arrogant  pretence  to  any 
thing  supernatural,  all  the  real  excellence  of  the 
work  being  easily  referrible  to  natural  and  visible 
causes,  in  the  language  01  Arabia,  a  language 
extremely  loved  and  diligently  cultivated  tiy  the 
people  to  whom  it  was  vernacular,  Mahomet 
lound  advantages  which  were  never  enjoyed 
2dti 


KORAN 
by  any  former  or  succeeding  impostor.  It  re- 
quires not  the  eye  of  a  philosopher  to  discover  in 
every  soil  arid  country  a  principle  of  national 
pride  :  and  if  we  look  back  tor  many  ages  on  the 
history  of  the  Arabians,  we  shaii  easily  perceive 
that  pride  among  them  invariably  to  haveconsist- 
|  ed  in  the  knowledge  and  improvement  of  their 
native  language.  The  Arabic,  which  lias  Bet  n 
justly  esteemed  thp  most  copious  of  the  eastern 
tongues,  which  had  existed  from  the  most  re- 
mote antiquity,  which  had  been  embellished  hy 
numberless  poets,  and  refined  by  the  constant  ex- 
ercise of  the  natives,  was  the  most  successful  in- 
strument which  Mahomet  employed  in  planting 
his  new  religion  among  them.  Admirably  adapt- 
ed by  its  unrivalled  harmony,  and  by  its  endless 
variety,  to  add  painting  to  expression,  and  to 
pursue  the  imagination  in  its  unbounded  flight, 
it  became  in  the  hands  of  Mahomet  an  irresist  i- 
ble  charm  to  blind  the  judgment  and  to  captivate 
the  fancy  of  his  followers.  Of  that  description 
of  men  who  first  composed  the  adherents  of  Ma- 
homet, and  to  whom  the  Koran  was  addressed, 
few,  probably,  were  able  to  pass  a  very  accurate 
judgment  on  the  propriety  of  the  sentiments,  or 
on  the  beauty  of  the  diction  :  but  ail  could  judge 
of  the  military  ahiiities*of  their  leader;  and  in  the 
midst  of  .their  admiration,  it  is  not  difficult  to 
conceive  that  they  would  ascribe  to  his  composi- 
tions every  imaginary  beauty  of  inspired  lan- 
guage. The  shepherd  and  the  soldier,  though 
awake  to  the  charms  of  those  wild  but  beautiful 
compositions  in  which  were  celebrated  their  fa- 
vourite occupations  of  love  or  war,  were  yet  little 
able  tq  criticise  any  other  works  than  those  which 
were  addressed  to  their  imagination  or  their  heart. 
To  abstract  reasonings  on  the  attributes  and 
the  dispensations  of  the  Deity,  to  the  comparative 
excellencies  of  rival  religions,  to  the  consistency 
of  any  one  religious  system  in  all  its  parts,  and  to 
the  force  of  its  various  proofs,  they  were  quite 
inattentive.  In  such  a  situation,  the  appearance 
of  a  work  which  possessed  something  like  wis- 
dom and  consistence ;  which  prescribed  the  rules 
and  illustrated  the  duties  of  life;  and  which  con- 
tained the  principles  of  a  new  and  comparatively 
sublime  theology,  independently  of  its  real  and  per- 
manent merit,  was  likely  to  excite  their  astonish- 
ment, and  to  become  the  standard  of  future  com- 
position. In  the  first  periods  of  the  literature  of 
every  country,  something  of  this  kind  has  hap- 
pened. The  father  of  Grecian  poetry  very  obvi- 
viously  influenced  the  taste  and  imitation  of  his 
country.  The  modern  nations  of  Europe  all 
possess  some  original  author,  who,  rising  from 
the  darkness  of  former  ages,  has  begun  the  ca- 
reer of  composition,  and  tinctured  with  the  cha- 
racter of  his  own  imagination  the  stream  which 
has  flowed  through  his  posterity.  But  the  pro- 
phet of  Arabia  had  in  this  respect ''advantages 
peculiar  to  himself  His  compositions  were  not 
to  his  followers  the  works  of  man,  but  the  genuine 
language  of  Heaven  which  had  sent  him.  They 
were  not  confined,  therefore,  to  that  admiration 
which  is  so  liberally  bestowed  on  the  earliest  pro- 
ductions of  genius,  or  to  that  fond  attachment 
with  which  men  every  where  regard  the  original 
compositions  of  their  country;  but  with  their 
admiration  they  blended  their  niety.  To  know 
and  to  feel  the  beauties  of  the  Koran,  was  in 
some  respect  to  share  in  the  temper  of  heaven ; 
and  he  who  wa*  most  affected  with  admiration  ifl 


KORAN 
the  perusal  of  its  beauties,  seemed  fitly  the  object 
of  that  mercy  which  had  given  it  to  ignorant  man. 
The  Koran,  therefore,  became  naturally  and  ne- 
cessarily the  standard  of  taste.  With  a  language 
thus  hallowed  in  their  imaginations,  they  were 
too  well  satisfied  cither  to  dispute  its  elegance,  or 
improve  its  structure.  In  succeeding  ages,  the 
additional  sanction  of  antiquity  or  prescription, 
■was  given  to  these  compositions  which  their  fa- 
thers had  admired ;  and  while  the  belief  of  its 
tlnine  original  continues,  that  admiration,  which 
has  thus  become  the  test  and  the  duly  of  the 
faithful,  can  neither  be  altered  nor  diminished. 
When,  therefore,  we  consider  these  peculiar  ad- 
vantages of  the  Koran,  we  have  no  reason  to  be 
surprised  at  the  admiration  in  which  it  is  held. 
But  if,  descending  to  a  more  minute  investigation 
of  it,  we  consider  its  perpetual  inconsistence  and 
absurdity,  we  shall  indeed  have  cause  for  astonish- 
ment at  that  weakness  of  humanity,  which  could 
ever  have  received  such  compositions  as  the  work 
of  the  Deity." 

6.  Koran,  the  style  and  merits  of  the,  examin- 
ed.— "The  first  praise  of  all  the  productions  of 
genius  (continues  this  author)  is  invention ;  that 
quality  of  the  mind,  which,  by  the  extent  and 
quickness  of  its  views,  is  capable  of  the  largest 
conceptions,  and  of  forming  new  combinations  of 
objects  the  most  distant  and  unusual.  But  the 
Koran  bears  little  impression  of  this  transcendant 
character.  Its  materials  are  wholly  borrowed 
from  the  Jewish  and  Christian  Scriptures,  from 
the  Talmudical  legends  and  apocryphal  gospels 
then  current  in  the  East,  and  from  the  traditions 
and  fables  which  abounded  in  Arabia.  The  ma- 
terials collected  from  these  several  sources  are 
here  heaped  together  with  perpetual  and  heedless 
repetitions,  without  any  settled  principle  or  visible 
connexion.     When  a  great  part  of  the  life  of  Ma- 

-  hornet  had  been  spent  in  preparatory  meditation 
on  the  system  he  was  about  to  establish,  its  chap- 
ters were  dealt  out  slowly  and  separately  during 
the  long  period  of  twenty-three  years.  Yet,  thus 
defective  in  its  structure,  and  no  less  objectionable 
in  its  doctrines,  was  the  work  which  Mahomet 
delivered  to  his  followers  as  the  oracles  of  God. 
The  most  prominent  feature  of  the  Koran,  that 
point  of  excellence  in  which  the  partiality  of  its 
admirers  has  ever  delighted  to  view  it,  is  the 
sublime  notion  it  generally  impresses  of  the  na- 
ture and  attributes  of  God.  If  its  author  had 
really  derived  these  just  conceptions  from  the  in- 
spiration of  that  Being  whom  they  attempt  to  de- 
HCribe,  they  would  not  have  been  surrounded,  as 
they  now  are,  on  every  side,  with  error  and  ab- 
surdity. But  it  might  be  easily  proved,  that  what- 
ever it  justly  defines  of  the  divine  attributes  was 
boirowed  from  our  Holy  Scripture ;  which,  even 
from  its  fust  promulgation,  but  especially  from  the 
completion  of  the  New  Testament,  has  extended 
the  views  and  enlightened  the  understandings  of 
mankind;  and  thus  furnished  them  with  arms 
which  have  too  often  been  elfectually  turned 
against  itself  by  its  ungenerous  enemies.  In  this 
instance,  particularly,  the  copy  is  far  below  the 
great  original,  both  in  the  propriety  of  its  images 
anii  the  force  of  its  descriptions.'' 

7.  Koran,  the  sublimity  of  the,  contrasted. — 
"  Our  Holy  Scriptures  are  the  only  compositions 
that  can  enable  the  dim  sight  of  mortality  to  pe- 
netrate into  the  invisible  world,  and  to  behold  a 
glimpse  of  the  divine  perfections.     Accordingly, 

2^7 


KORAN 

when  they  would  represent  to  us  the  happiness  of 
heaven,  they  describe  it,  not  by  any  thing  minute 
and  particular,  but  by  something  general  and 
great ;  something  that,  without  descending  to  any 
determinate  object,  may  at  once,  by  its  beauty  and 
immensity,  excite  our  wishes,  and  elevate  our  af- 
fections. *  Though  in  the  prophetical  and  evan- 
gelical writings,  the  joys  that  shall  attend  us  in  a 
divine  state,  are  often  mentioned  with  ardent,  ad- 
miration, they  are  expressed  rather  by  allusion 
than  by  similitude ,  rather  by  indefinite  and  figu- 
rative terms,  than  by  any  thing  fixed  and  deter- 
minate, '  Eye  hath  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard,  nei- 
ther have  entered  into  the  heart  of  man  the  things 
which  God  hath  prepared  for  them  that  love  him.' 
1  Cor.  ii.  9.  What  a  reverence  and  astonishment 
does  this  passage  excite  in  every  hearer  of  taste 
and  piety  !  What  energy,  and  at  the  same  time, 
what  simplicity  in  the  expression  !  How  sublime, 
and  at  the  same  time  how  obscure,  is  the  imagery ! 
Different  was  the  conduct  of  Mahomet  in  his  de- 
scriptions of  heaven  and  paradise.  Unassisted 
by  the  necessary  influence  of  virtuous  intentions 
and  divine  inspiration,  he  was  neither  desirous, 
nor  indeed  able,  to  exalt  the  minds  of  men  to 
sublime  conceptions,  or  to  rational  expectations. 
By  attempting  to  explain*what  is  inconceivable, 
to  describe  what  is  ineffable,  and  to  materialize, 
what  in  itself  is  spiritual,  he  absurdly  and  im- 
piously aimed  to  sensualize  the  purity  of  the  di- 
vine essence.  Thus  he  fabricated  a  system  of 
incoherence,  a  religion  of  depravity,  totally  repug- 
nant to  the  nature  of  that  Being,  who,  as  he 
pretended,  was  its  object;  but  therefore  more 
likely  to  accord  with  the  appetites  and  concep- 
tions of  a  corrupt  and  sensual  age.  That  we 
may  not  appear  to  exalt  our  Scriptures  thus  far 
above  the  Koran  by  an  unreasonable  preference, 
we  shall  produce  a  part  of  the  second  chapter  of 
the  latter,  which  is  deservedly  admired  by  the 
Mahometans,  who  wear  it  engraved  on  their  or- 
naments, and  recite  it  in  their  prayers.  'God! 
there  is  no  God  but  he;  the  living,  the  self-sub- 
sisting :  neither  slumber  nor  sleep  seizeth  him  :  to 
him  belongeth  whatsoever  is  in  heaven,  and  on 
earth.  Who  is  he  that  can  intercede  with  him 
but  through  his  good  pleasure?  He  knoweth 
that  which  is  past,  and  that  which  is  to  come. 
His  throne  is  extended  over  heaven  and  earth, 
and  the  preservation  of  both  is  to  him  no  burden. 
He  is  the  high,  the  mighty.'  Sale's  Koran,  vol.  ii. 
p.  30.  To  this  description  who  can  refuse  the 
praise  of  magnificence  ?  Part  of  that  magnificence, 
however,  is  to  be  referred  to  that  verse  of  the 
psalmist  whence  it  was  borrowed :  '  He  that  kee[>- 
eth  Israel  shall  neither  slumber  nor  sleep,'  Psal. 
exxi.  1.  But  if  we  compare  it  with  that  other 
passage  of  the  inspired  psalmist  (Psal.  cii.  24 — 
27.)  all  its  boasted  grandeur  is  at  once  obscured, 
and  lost  in  the  blaze  of  a  greater  light !  '  O,  my 
God,  take  me  not  away  in  the  midst  cf  my  days ; 
thy  years  are  throughout  all  generations.  Of  old 
hast  thou  laid  the  foundation  of  the  ea.''h  ;  arid  the 
heavens  are  the  work  of 'Shy  hands.  They  shall 
perish,  but  thou  shalt  endure ;  yea,  all  of  them 
shall  wax  old  like  a  garment ;  as  a  vesture  shalt 
thou  change  them,  and  they  shall  be  changed. 
But  thou  art  the  same,  and  thy  years  shall  have 
no  end.'  The  Koran,  therefore  upon  a  tkir  ex- 
amination, far  from  supporting  its  arrogant  claim 
to  a  supernatural  work,  sinks  below  the  level  of 
many  compositions  confessedly  of  human  original 


LAMA  . 
and  still  lower  does  it  fall  in  our  estimation,  when 
compared  with  that  pure  and  perfect  pattern  which 
we  justly  admire  in  the  Scriptures  of  truth.  It 
is,  therefore,  ahundantly  apparent,  that  no  mira- 
cle was  either  externally  performed  for  the  sup- 
port, oris  internally  involved  in  the  composition  of 
the  Mahometan  revelation."    See  Sale's  Koran; 


LAMA 

Pridcaux's  Life  of  Mahomet ;  Wlule's  Sermonj 
at  Bampton  Lectures  ;  Foster's  ±Wahometanism 
Unveiled;  Wkilaker's  Origin  of  Arianism  ; 
and  article  Mahomktaxism. 

KTISTOLATRyE,  a  branch  of  the  Mono- 
physites,  which  maintained  that  the  body  of 
Christ  before  his  resurrection  was  corruptible 


LABADTSTS  were  so  called  from  their 
founder,  John  Labadie,  a  native  of  France.  He 
was  originally  in  the  Romish  communion ;  but 
leaving  that,  he  became  a  member  of  the  reform- 
ed church,  and  performed  with  reputation  the 
ministerial  functions  in  France,  Switzerland,  and 
Holland.  He  at  length  erected  a  new  commu- 
nity, which  resided  successively  at.  Middleburg, 
in  Zealand,  Amsterdam,  Hervorden,  and  at  Al- 
tona,  where  he  died  about  1674.  After  his  death, 
his  followers  removed  their  wandering  commu- 
nity to  Wiewert,  in  the  district  of  North  Holland, 
where  it  soon  fell  into  oblivion.  If  we  are  to 
judge  of  the  Labadists  by  their  own  account, 
they  did  not  differ  from  the  reformed  church  so 
much  in  their  tenets  and  doctrines  as  in  their 
manners  and  rules  of  discipline ;  yet  it  seems 
that  Labadie  had  some  strange  notions.  Among 
other  things,  he  maintained  that  God  might  and 
did,  on  certain  occasions,  deceive  men ;  that  the 
faithful  ought  to  have  all  things  in  common  :  that 
there  is  no  subordination  or  distinction  of  rank  in 
the  true  church ;  that  in  reading  the  Scriptures 
greater  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  internal 
inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit  than  to  the  words 
of  the  text;  that  the  observation  of  Sunday  was 
a  matter  of  indifference  ;  that  the  contemplative 
life  is  a  state  of  grace  and  union  with  God,  and 
the  very  height  of  perfection. 

LAITY,  the  people  as  distinguished  from  the 
clergy.     See  Clergy. 

LAMA,  GR.AND,  a  name  given  to  the  so- 
vereign pontiff  or  high  priest  of  the  Thibetian 
Tartars,  who  resides  at  Patoli,  a  vast  palace  on  a 
mountain  near  the  banks  of  Barampooter,  about 
seven  miles  from  Lahassa.  The  foot  of  this 
mountain  is  inhabited  by  twenty  thousand  lamas, 
or  priests,  who  have  their  separate  apartments 
round  about  the  mountain,  and  according  to  their 
respective  qualitv  are  placed  nearer  or  at  a  greater 
distance  from  the  sovereign  pontiff.  He  is  not 
only  worshipped  by  the  Thibetians,  but  also  is 
the  great  object  of  adoration  for  the  various  tribes 
of  heathen  Tartars  who  roam  through  the  vast 
tract  of  continent  which  stretches  from  the  banks 
of  the  Wolga  to  Corbea,  on  the  sea  of  Japan. 
He  is  not  only  the  sovereign  pontiff,  the  vicege- 
rent of  the  Deity  on  earth,  but  the  more  remote 
Tartars  are  said  to  absolutely  regard  him  as  the 
Deity  himself,  anil  call  himGod7M.e  everlasting 
Fallicr  of  heaven.  They  believe  him  to  be  im- 
mortal, and  endowed  with  all  knowledge  and  vir- 
tue. Every  year  they  come  up  from  different 
parts  to  worship  and  make  rich  offerings  at  his 
shrine :  even  the  emperor  of  China,  who  is  a 
Manchou  Tartar,  does  not  fail  in  acknowledg- 
ments to  him  in  his  religious  capacity;  and  ac- 
tually entertains,  at  a  great  expense,  in  the  palace 
of  Pekin,  an  inferior  lama,  deputed  as  his  nuncio 
from  Thibet.  The  grand  lama,  it  has  been  said. 
228 


is  never  to  be  seen  but  in  a  secret  place  of  his 
palace,  amidst  a  great  number  of  lamps,  sitting 
cross-legged  on  a  cushion,  and  decked  all  over 
with  gold  and  precious  stones,  where  at  a  dis- 
tance the  people  prostrate  themselves  before  him, 
it  not  being  lawful  for  any  so  much  as  to  kiss  his 
feet.  He  returns  not  the  least  sign  of  respect, 
nor  ever  speaks  even  to  the  greatest  princes ;  but 
only  lays  his  hand  upon  their  heads,  and  they  are 
fully  persuaded  they  receive  from  thence  a  full 
forgiveness  of  all  their  sins. 

The  Sunniasses,  or  Indian  pilgrims,  often  visit 
Thibet  as  a  holy  place  ;  and  the  lama  always  en- 
tertains a  body  of  two  or  three  hundred  in  his 
pay.  Besides  his  religious  influence  and  autho- 
rity, the  grand  lama  is  possessed  of  unlimited 
power  throughout  his  dominions,  which  are  very 
extensive.  The  inferior  lamas,  who  form  the  most 
numerous  as  well  as  the  most  powerful  body  in  the 
state,  have  the  priesthood  entirely  in  their  hands  ; 
and  besides  fill  up  many  monastic  orders  which 
are  held  ingreat  veneration  among  them.  The 
whole  country,  like  Italy,  abounds  with  priests ; 
and  they  entirely  subsist  on  the  great  number  of 
rich  presents  which  are  sent  them  from  the  utmost 
extent  of  Tartary,  from  the  empire  of  the  Great 
Mogul,  and  from  almost  all  parts  of  the  Indies. 

The  opinion  of  those  who  are  reputed  the 
most  orthodox  among  the  Thibetians,  is,  that 
when  the  grand  lama  seems  to  die,  either  of  old 
age  or  infirmity,  his  soul,  in  fact,  only  quits  a 
crazy  habitation  to  look  for  another  younger  or 
better ;  and  is  discovered  again  in  the  body  of  some 
child  by  certain  tokens,  known  only  to  the  lamas 
or   priests,  in  which  order  he  always  appears. 

Almost  all  nations  of  the  east,  except  the  Ma- 
hometans, believe  the  metempsychosis  as  the  most 
important  article  of  their  faith;  especially  the  in- 
habitants of  Thibet  and  Ava,  the  Peguans,  Sia- 
mese, the  greatest  part  of  the  C  hinese  and  Japanese, 
and  the  Moguls  and  Kalmucks,  who  changed  the 
religion  of  Schamanism  for  the  worship  of  the 
grand  lama.  According  to  the  doctrine  of  thrs 
metempsychosis,  the  soul  is  always  in  action,  and 
never  at  rest ;  for  no  sooner  does  she  leave  her  old 
habitation,  than  she  enters  a  new  one.  The  dalai 
lama,  being  a  divine;  person,  can  find  no  better  lodg- 
ing than  the  body  of  his  successor ;  or  Hie  Foe,  re- 
siding in  the  dalai  lama,  which  passes  to  his  suc- 
cessor ;  and  this  being  a  god,  to  whom  all  things 
are  known,  the  dalai  lama  is  therefore  acquainted 
with  every  thing  which  happened  during  his 
residence  in  his  former  body. 

This  religion  is  said  to  have  been  of  three  thou- 
sand years'  standing  ;  and  neither  time  nor  the  in- 
fluence of  men  has  had  the  power  of  shaking 
the  authority  of  the  grand  lama.  This  theocracy  ex 
tends  as  fully  to  temporal  as  to  spiritual  concerns 

Though,  in  the  grand  sovereignty  of  the  lamas, 
the  temporal  power  has  been  occasionally  sepa 


LANGUAGE 
rated  from  the  spiritual  by  slight  revolutions,  they 
have  always  been  united  again  after  a  time  ;  so 
that  in  Thibet  the  whole  constitution  rests  on 
the  imperial  pontificate  in  a  manner  elsewhere 
unknown.  For  as  the  Thibetians  suppose  that 
the  grand  lama  is  animated  by  the  good  Shaka, 
cir  Foe,  who  at  the  decease  of  one  lama  transmi- 
grates into  the  next,  and  consecrates  him  an 
image  of  the  divinity,  the  descending  chain  of 
lamas  is  continued  down  from  him  in  fixed  de- 
grees of  sanctity ;  so  that  a  more  firmly  establish- 
ed sacerdotal  government,  in  doctrine,  customs, 
and  institutions,  than  actually  reigns  over  this 
country,  cannot  be  conceived.  The  supreme 
manager  of  temporal  affairs  is  no  more  than  the 
viceroy  of  the  sovereign  priest,  who,  conformable 
to  the  dictates  of  his  religion,  dwells  in  divine 
tranquillity  in  a  building  that  is  both  temple  and 

Ealace.  If  some  of  his  votaries  in  modern  times 
ave  dispensed  with  the  adoration  of  his  person, 
still  certain  real  modifications  of  the  Shaka  reli- 
gion is  the  only  faith  they  follow.  The  state  of 
sanctity  which  that  religion  incidcates,  consists  in 
monastic  continence,  absence  of  thought,  and  the 
perfect  repose  of  nonentity. 

It  has  been  observed  that  the  religion  of  Thi- 
bet is  the  counterpart  of  the  Roman  Catholic, 
since  the  inhabitants  of  that  country  use  holy 
water  and  a  singing  service ;  they  also  offer  alms, 
prayers,  and  sacrifices  for  the  dead.  They  have 
a  vast  number  of  convents  filled  with  monks  and 
friars,  amounting  to  thirty  thousand ;  who,  be- 
sides the  three  vows  of  poverty,  obedience,  and 
charity,  make  several  others.  They  have  their 
confessors,  who  are  chosen  by  their  superiors, 
and  have  licences  from  their  lamas,  without 
which  they  cannot  hear  confessions  or  impose 
penances.  They  make  use  of  beads.  They 
wear  the  mitre  and  cap  like  the  bishops;  and 
their  dalai  lama  is  nearly  the  same  among  them 
as  the  soverein  pontiff  is  among  the  Romanists. 

LAMBETH  ARTICLES.   See  Articles. 

LAMPETIANS,  a  denomination  in  the  se- 
venteenth century,  the  followers  of  Lampetius,  a 
Syrian  monk.  He  pretended  that  as  man  is  born 
free,  a  Christian,  in  order  to  please  God,  ought 
to  do  nothing  by  necessity ;  and  that  it  is,  there- 
fore, unlawful  to  make  vows,  even  those  of  obe- 
dience. To  this  system  he  added  the  doctrines  oft  he 
Arians,  Carpocratians,  and  other  denominations. 

LANGUAGE,  in  general,  denotes  those  ar- 
ticulate sounds  by  which  men  express  their 
thoughts.  Much  has  been  said  respecting  the 
invention  of  language.  On  the  one  side  it  is  ob- 
served, that  it  is  altogether  a  human  invention, 
and  that  the  progress  of  the  mind,  in  the  inven- 
tion and  improvement  of  language,  is,  by  certain 
natural  gradations,  plainly  discernible  in  the  com- 
position of  words.  But  on  the  other  side  it  is 
alleged,  that  we  are  indebted  to  divine  revelation 
for  the  origin  of  it.  Without  supposing  this,  we 
see  not  how  our  first  parents  could  so  early  hold 
converse  with  God,  or  the  man  with  his  wife. 
Admitting,  however,  that  it  is  of  divine  original, 
we  cannot  suppose  that  a  perfect  system  of  it  was 
all  at  once  given  to  man.  It  is  much  more  natural 
to  think  that  God  taught  our  first  parents  only 
such  language  as  suited  their  present  occasion, 
leaving  them,  as  he  did  in  other  things,  to  en- 
large and  improve  it,  as  their  future  necessities 
should  require.  Without  attempting,  however, 
to  decide  this  controversy,  we  may  consider  lan- 
221) 


LAW 

guage  as  one  of  the  greatest  blessings  belonging 
to  mankind.  Destitute  of  this  we  should  make 
but  small  advancements  in  science,  be  lost  to  all 
social  enjoyments,  and  religion  itself  would  feel 
the  want  of  such  a  power.  Our  wise  Creator 
therefore,  has  conferred  upon  us  this  inestimable 
privilege;  let  us  then  be  cautious  that  our  tongues 
be  not  the  vehicle  of  vain  and  useless  matter,  but 
used  for  the  great  end  of  glorifying  him,  and  do- 
ing good  to  mankind.  What  was  the  first  lan- 
guage taught  man,  is  matter  of  dispute  among 
the  learned,  but  most  think  it  was  the  Hebrew. 
But  as  this  subject,  and  the  article  in  general  lie- 
longs  more  to  philology  than  divinity,  we  refer 
the  reader  to  Dr.  Adam  Smith's  Dissertation  on 
the  Formation  of  Languages ;  Harris's  Hermes: 
Warburton'  s  Divine  Legation  of  Moses,  vol. 
iii. ;  Traite  de  la  Formation  Mcchanique  des 
Langues,  par  le  President  de  Brosses  ;  Blair's 
Rhetoric,  vol.  i.  lect.  vi.;  Gregory's  Essays,  ess.  6 : 
Monboddo's  Origin  and  Progress  of  Language. 

LATITUD1NARIAN,  a  person  not  con- 
forming to  any  particular  opinion  or  standard,  but 
of  such  moderation  as  to  suppose  that  people  will 
be  admitted  into  heaven,  although  of  different 
persuasions.  The  term  was  more  especially  ap- 
plied to  those  pacific  doctors  in  the  seventeenth 
century,  who  offered  themselves  as  mediators  be- 
tween the  more  violent  Episcopalians,  and  the 
rigid  Presbyterians  and  Independents,  respecting 
the  forms  of  church  government,  public  worship, 
and  certain  religious  tenets,  more  especially  those 
that  were  debated  between  the  Arminians  and 
Calvinists.  The  chief  leaders  of  these  Latitudi- 
narians  were  Hales  and  Chillingworth ;  but 
More,  Cudworth,  Gale,  Whitchcot,  and  Tillot- 
son,  were  also  among  the  number.  These  men, 
although  firmly  attached  to  the  church  of  England, 
did  not  go  so  far  as  to  look  upon  it  as  of  divine 
institution;  and  hence  they  maintained,  that 
those  who  followed  other  forms  of  government 
and  worship,  were  not,  on  that  account,  to  be  ex- 
cluded from  their  communion.  As  to  the  doctri- 
nal part  of  religion,  they  took  the  system  of  Epis- 
copius  for  their  model,  and  like  him,  reduced  the 
fundamental  doctrines  of  Christianity  to  a  few 
points ;  and  by  this  rhanner  of  proceeding  they 
endeavoured  to  show  the  contending  parties,  that 
they  had  no  reason  to  oppose  each  other  with 
such  animosity  and  bitterness,  since  the  subjects 
of  their  debates  were  matters  of  an  indifferent  na- 
ture with  respect  to  salvation.  They  met.  how- 
ever, with  opposition  for  their  pains,  and  were 
branded  as  Atheists  and  Deists  by  some,  and  as 
Socinians  by  others  ;  but  upon  the  restoration  of 
Charles  II.  they  were  raised  to  the  first  dignities 
of  the  church,  and  were  held  in  considerable 
esteem.  See  Burnet's  Hist,  ofhisown  Times,  vol. 
i.  b.  1 1.  p.  188 ;  Mosh.  Ecc.  Hist.  vol.  ii.  p.  501.  4to. 

LAURA,  in  church  history,  a  name  given  to 
a  collection  of  little  cells  at  some  distance  from 
each  other,  in  which  the  hermits  of  ancient  times 
lived  together  in  a  wilderness.  These  hermits 
did  not  live  in  community,  but  each  monk  pro- 
vided for  himself  in  his  distinct  cell.  The  most 
celebrated  lauras  mentioned  in  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory were  in  Palestine;  as  the  laura  of  St.  Eu- 
thymus,  St.  Saba,  the  laura  of  the  towers,  &c. 

LAW,  a  rule  of  action ;  a  precept  or  command 
coming  from  a  superior  authority,  which  an  in- 
ferior is  bound  to  obey.  The  manner  in  which 
God  governs  rational  creatures  is  by  a  law,  as  the 


LAW 
rule  of  their  obedience  to  him,  and  which  is  what 
we  call  God's  moral  government  of  the  world. 
He  gave  a  law  to  angels,  which  some  of  them 
kept,  and  have  been  confirmed  in  a  .state  of  obc- 
dienee  to  it;  but  which  Others  broke,  and  thereby 
plunged  themselves  into  destruction  and  misery. 
He  gave,  also,  a  law  to  Adam,  and  which  was 
also  in  the  form  of  a  covenant,  and  in  which 
Adam  stood  as  a  covenant  head  to  all  his  poste- 
rity, Rom.  v. ;  Gen.  ii.  But  our  first  parents  soon 
violated  that  law,  and  fell  from  a  state  of  inno- 
cence to  a  state  of  sin  and  misery.  Hos.  vi.  7 ; 
Gen.  iii.     See  Fall. 

1  'ositirc  laws  are  precepts  which  are  not  found- 
ed upon  any  reasons  known  to  those  to  whom 
they  arc  given.  Thus  in  the  state  of  innocence 
God  gave  the  law  of  the  sabbath;  of  abstinence 
from  the  fruit  of  the  tree  of  knowledge,  &c. 

Law  of  Nature  is  the  will  of  God  relating  to 
human  actions,  grounded  in  the  moral  diiferences 
of  things,  and,  because  discoverable  by  natural 
light,  obligatory  upon  all  mankind,  Rom.  i.  20; 
ii.  14,  1.3.  This  law  is  coeval  with  the  human 
race,  binding  all  over  the  globe,  and  at  all  times ; 
yet,  through  the  corruption  of  reason,  it  is  insuffi- 
cient to  lead  us  to  happiness,  and  utterly  unable 
to  acquaint  us  how  sin  is  to  be  forgiven,  without 
the  assistance  of  revelation. 

Ceremonial  law  is  that  which  prescribed  the 
rites  of  worship  used  under  the  Old  Testament. 
These  rites  were  typical  of  Christ,  and  were  ob- 
ligatory only  till  Christ  had  finished  his  work, 
and  began  to  erect  his  Gospel  church,  Heb.  vii. 
9,  1 1 ;  x.  1 ;  Ephesians  ii.  16 ;  Col.  ri.  14 ;  Gal. 
v.  2,  3. 

Judicial  law  was  that  which  directed  the  po- 
licy of  the  Jewish  nation,  as  under  the  peculiar 
dominion  of  God  as  their  supreme  magistrate, 
and  never,  except  in  things  relative  to  moral  equi- 
ty, was  binding  on  any  but  the  Hebrew  nation. 

Moral  law  is  that  declaration  of  God's  will 
which  directs  and  binds  all  men,  in  every  age  and 
place,  to  their  whole  duty  to  him.  It  was  most 
solemnly  proclaimed  by  God  himself  at  Sinai,  to 
confirm  the  original  law  of  nature,  and  correct 
men's  mistakes  concerning  the  demands  of  it. 
It  is  denominated  perfect;  Psal.  xix.  7;  per- 
petual, Matt.  v.  17,  18;  hohj,  Rom.  vii.  12; 
good,  Rom.  vii.  12;  spiritual,  Romans  vii.  14; 
exceeding  broad,  Psal.  cxix.  96.  Some  deny 
that  it  is  a  rule  of  conduct  to  believers  under 
the  Gospel  dispensation;  but  it  is  easy  to  see 
the  futility  of  such  an  idea ;  for  as  a  transcript 
ot  the  mind  of  God,  it  must  be  the  criterion  of 
moral  good  and  evil.  It  is  also  given  for  that  very 
purpose,  that  we  may  see  our  duty,  and  abstain 
from  every  thing  derogatory  to  the  divine  glory. 
It  affords  us  grand  ideas  of  the  holiness  and 
purity  of  God:  without  attention  to  it,  we  can 
have  no  knowledge,  of  sin.  Christ  himself  came 
not  to  destroy,  but  to  fulfil  it;  and  though  we 
cannot  do  as  he  did,  yet  we  are  commanded  to 
follow  his  example.  Love  to  God  is  the  end  of 
thy  moral  law,  as  well  as  the  end  of  the  Gospel. 
By  the  law,  also,  we  are  led  to  see  the  nature  of 
holiness,  and  our  own  depravity,  and  learn  to  l>e 
humbled  under  a  sense  ot  our  imperfection.  We 
are  not  under  it,  however,  as  a  covenant  of 
works,  Gal.  iii.  13;  or  as  a  source  of  terror, 
Rom.  viii.  1 ;  although  we  must  abide  by  it,  to- 
gether with  the  whole  preceptive  word  of  God,  as 
the  rule  of  our  conduct,  Rom.  iii.  31 ;  vii. 
230 


LEARNING 

Laws,  directive,  are  laws  without  any  punish- 
ment annexed  to  them. 

Laws,  penal,  such  as  have  some  penalty  to  en- 
force them.  All  the  laws  of  God  are  and  cannot 
but  be  penal,  because  every  breach  of  his  law  id 
sin,  and  meritorious  of  punishment. 

Law  of  honour  is  a  system  of  rules  construct- 
ed by  people  of  fashion,  and  calculated  to  facili- 
tate their  intercourse  with  one  another,  and  for 
no  other  purpose.  Consequently  nothing  is  ad- 
verted to  by  the  law  of  honour  but  what  tends  to 
incommode  this  intercourse.  Hence  this  law 
only  prescribes  and  regulates  the  duties  betwixt 
equals,  omitting  such  as  relate  to  the  Supreme 
Being,  as  well  as  those  which  we  owe  to  our  in- 
feriors. In  fact,  this  law  of  honour,  in  most 
instances,  is  favourable  to  the  licentious  in- 
dulgence of  the  natural  passions.  Thus  it  allows 
of  fornication,  adultery,  drunkenness,  prodigality, 
duelling,  and  of  revenge  in  the  extreme,  and  lays 
no  stress  upon  the  virtues  opposite  to  these. 

Laws,  remedial,  a  fancied  law  which  some 
believe  in,  who  hold  that  God,  in  mercy  to  man- 
kind, has  abolished  that  rigorous  constitution  or 
law  that  they  were  under  originally,  and  instead 
of  it  has  introduced  a  more  mild  constitution,  and 
put  us  under  a  new  law,  which  requires  no  more 
than  imperfect  sincere  obedience,  in  compliance 
with  our  poor,  infirm,  impotent  circumstances 
since  the  fall.  I  call  this  a  fancied  law,  because 
it  exists  no  where  except  in  the  imagination  of 
those  who  hold  it.  See  Neonomiaxs,  and  Jus- 
tification. 

Laws  of  nations  are  those  rules  which  by  a 
tacit  consent  are  agreed  upon  among  all  commu- 
nities, at  least  among  those  who  are  reckoned  the 
polite  and  humanized  part  of  mankind.  GUI's 
Body  of  Div.  vol.  i.  p.  454,  oct.  425 ;  vol.  iii. 
ditto  ;  Paley's  Mor.  Phil.  vol.  i.  p.  2  ;  Cumber- 
land's Law  of  Nature ;  Grore's  Mor.  Phil.  vol. 
ii.  p.  117;  Booth's  Death  of  Legal  Hope ;  Ing- 
lish  and  Burder's  Pieces  on  the  Moral  Law ; 
Watts's  Works,  vol.  i.  ser.  49,  8vo.  edition,  and 
vol.  ii.  p.  '143,  &c. ;   Scott's  Essays. 

LAY-BROTHERS,  among  the  Romanists, 
illiterate  persons,  who  devote  themselves  at  some 
convent  to  the  service  of  the  religious.  They 
wear  a  different  habit  from  that  of  the  religious, 
but  never  enter  into  the  choir,  nor  are  present  at 
the  chapters ;  nor  do  they  make  any  other  vow 
than  that  of  constancy  and  obedience. 

LAYMAN,  one  who  follows  a  secular  em- 
ployment, and  is  not  in  orders :  opposed  to  a 
clergyman. 

LEARNING,  skill  in  any  science,  or  thai 
improvement  of  the  mind  which  we  gain  by 
study,  instruction,  observation,  &c.  An  atten- 
tive examination  of  ecclesiastical  history  will 
lead  us  to  see  how  greatly  learning  is  indebted  to 
Christianity,  and  that  Christianity,  in  its  turn, 
has  been  much  served  by  learning.  "All  the 
useful  learning,"  says  Dr.  Jortin,  "which  is  now 
to  be  found  in  the  world,  is  in  a  great  measure 
owing  to  the  Gospel.  The  Christians,  who  had 
a  great  veneration  for  the  Old  Testament,  have 
contributed  more  than  the  Jews  themselves  U> 
secure  and  explain  those  books.  The  Christians 
in  ancient  times  collected  and  preserved  the 
Greek  versions  of  the  Scriptures,  particularly 
the  Septuagint,  and  translated  the  originals  into 
Latin.  To  Christians  were  due  the  Old  Hexa- 
pla ;  and  in  later  tunes  Christians  have  published 


LEARNING 

the  Polyglots  and  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch. 

ft  was  the  study  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  which 
excited  Christiana  from  early  times  to  study 
chronology,  sacred  and  secular;  and  here  much 
knowledge  of  history,  and  some  skill  in  astronomy, 
were  needful.  The  New  Testament,  being  writ- 
ten in  Greek,  caused  Christians  to  apply  them- 
selves also  to  the  study  of  that  language.  As  the 
Christians  were  opposed  by  the  Pagans  and  the 
Jews,  they  were  excited  to  the  study  of  Pagan  and 
Jewish  literature,  in  order  to  expose  the  absurdi- 
ties of  the  Jewish  traditions,  the  weakness  of 
Paganism,  and  the.  imperfections  and  insufficiency 
of  philosophy.  The  first  fathers,  till  the  third 
century,  were  generally  Greek  writers.  In  the 
third  century  the  Latin  language  was  much  upon 
the  decline,  but  the  Christians  preserved  it  from 
sinking  into  absolute,  barbarism.  Monkery,  in- 
deed, produced  many  sad  effects ;  but  Providence 
here  also  brought  good  out,  of  evil ;  for  the  monks 
were  employed  in  the  transcribing  of  books,  and 
many  valuable  authors  would  have  perished  if  it 
had  not  been  for  the  monasteries.  In  the  ninth 
century,  the  Saracens  were  very  studious,  and 
contributed  much  to  the  restoration  of  letters. 
But,  whatever  was  good  in  the  Mahometan  re- 
ligion, it  is  in  no  small  measure  indebted  to  Chris- 
tianity for  it,  since  Mahometanism  is  made  up 
for  the  most  part  of  Judaism  and  Christianity. 
If  Christianity  had  been  suppressed  at  its  iirst 
appearance,  it  is  extremely  probable  that  the 
Latin  and  Greek  tongues  would  have  been  lost  in 
the  revolutions  of  empires,  and  the  irruptions  of 
barbarians  in  the  east  and  in  the  west ;  for  the 
old  inhabitants  would  have  had  no  conscientious 
and  religious  motives  to  keep  up  their  language  ; 
and  then,  together  with  the  Latin  and  Greek 
tongues,  the  knowledge  of  antiquities  and  the 
undent  writers  would  have  been  destroyed.  To 
whom,  then,  are  we  indebted  for  the  knowledge 
of  antiquity,  for  every  thing  that  is  called  philo- 
sophy, or  the  lilerce  humaniores? — to  Christians. 
To  whom  for  grammars  and  dictionaries  of  the 
learned  languages? — to  Christians.  To  whom 
for  chronology,  and  the  continuation  of  history 
through  many  centuries'? — to  Christians.  To 
whom  for  rational  systems  of  moralitj',  and  im- 
provements in  natural  philosophy,  and  for  the 
applications  of  these  discoveries  to  religious  pur- 
poses?— to  Christians.  To.  whom  for  metaphy- 
sical researches,  carried  as  far  as  the  subject  will 
permit? — to  Christians.  To  whom  for  the  moral 
rules  to  be  observed  by  nations  in  war  and  peace  ? 
— to  Christians  To  whom  for  jurisprudence, 
and  for  political  knowledge,  and  for  settling  the 
rights  of  subjects,  both  civil  and  religious,  upon  a 
proper  foundation? — to  Christians.  To  whom 
for  the  Reformation  ? — to  Christians. 

"As  religion  hath  been  the  chief  preserver  of 
erudition,  so  erudition  hath  not  been  ungrateful 
to  her  patroness,  but  hath  contributed  largely  to 
the  support  of  religion.  The  useful  exposition 
of  the  Scriptures,  the  sober  and  sensible  defences 
of  revelation,  the  faithful  representations  of  pure 
and  undented  Christianity ;  these  have  been  the 
works  of  learned,  judicious,  and  industrious  men." 
Nothing,  however,  is  more  common  than  to  hear 
the  ignorant  decry  all  human  learning  as  entirely 
useless  in  religion ;  and  what  is  still  more  re- 
markable, even  some,  who  call  themselves  preach- 
ers, entertain  the  same  sentiments.  But  to  such 
we  can  only  say  what  a  judicious  preacher  ob- 
•231 


LECTURE 

served  upon  a  public  occasion,  that  If  all  men  had 
been  as  unlearned  as  themselves  they  never  would 
have  had  a  text  on  which  to  have,  displayed  their 
ignornnce.  Dr.  Jortin's  Sermons,  vol.  vii.  charge 
1 ;  Mrs.  H.  More's  Hints  to  a.  Young  Princess, 
vol.  i.  p.  64*;  Cook's  Mis.  Scr.  on  Matt.  vi.  3  ;  Dr. 
Stennett's  Ser.  on  Acts  xxvi.  24,  23. 

LECTURES,  RELIGIOUS,  are  discourse? 
or  sermons  delivered  by  ministers  on  any  subject 
in  theology.  Beside  lectures  on  the  Sabbath-day, 
many  think  proper  to  preach  on  week  days; 
sometimes  at  five  o'clock  in  the  morning,  before 
people  go  to  work,  and  at  seven  in  the  evening, 
af'.er  they  have  done.  In  London  there  is  preach- 
ing almost  every  forenoon  and  evening  in  the 
week,  at  some  place  or  other.  It  may  be  objected, 
however,  against  week-day  preaching,  that  it  has 
a  tendency  to  take  people  from  their  business, 
and  that  the  number  of  places  open  on  a  Sabbath- 
day  supersedes  the  necessity  of  it.  But  in  answer 
to  this,  may  it  not  be  observed,  1.  That  people 
stand  in  need  at  all  times  of  religious  instruction, 
exhortation,  and  comfort? — 2.  That  there  is  a 
probability  of  converting  sinners  then  as  well  as 
at  other  times  ? — 3.  That  ministers  are  command- 
ed to  be  instant  in  season  and  out  of  season? — 
And,  4.  It  gives  ministers  an  opportunity  of  hear- 
ing one  another,  which  is  of  great  utility.  After 
all,  it  must  be  remarked,  that  he  who  can  hear  the 
truth  on  a  Sabbath-day  does  not  act  consistently 
to  neglect  his  family  or  business  to  be  always 
present  at  week-day  lectures ;  nor  is  he  altogether 
wise  who  has  an  opportunity  of  receiving  in- 
struction, vet  altogether  neglects  it. 
_  LECTURES,  BAMPTON,  a  course  of 
eight  sermons  preached  annually  at  the  university 
of  Oxford,  set  on  foot  by  the  Reverend  John 
Bampton,  canon  of  Salisbury. — According  to  tha 
directions  in  his  will,  they  are  to  be  preached  upon 
either  of  the  following  subjects: — To  confirm  and 
establish  the  Christian  faith,  and  to  confute  all 
heretics  and  schismatics ;  upon  the  divine  au- 
thority of  the  holy  Scriptures;  upon  the  authority 
of  the  writings  of  the  primitive  fathers,  as  to  the 
faith  and  practice  of  the  primitive  church ;  upon 
the  divinity  of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesii3 
Christ ;  upon  the  divinity  of  the  Holy  Ghost ; 
upon  the  articles  of  the  Christian  faith,  as  com- 
prehended in  the  Apostles'  and  Nicene  creeds. 
For  the  support  of  this  lecture,  he  bequeathed  his 
lands  and  estates  to  the  chancellor,  masters,  and 
scholars  of  the  university  of  Oxford  for  ever,  upon 
trust  that  the  vice-chancellor  for  the  time  being 
take  and  receive  all  the  rents  and  profits  thereof; 
and,  after  all  taxes,  reparations,  and  necessary 
deductions  made,  to  pay  all  the  remainder  to  the 
endowment  of  these  divinity  lecture  sermons. 
He  also  directs  in  his  will,  that  no  pesson  shall 
be  qualified  to  preach  these  lectures  unless  he 
have  taken  the  degree  of  master  of  arts,  at  least, 
in  one  of  the  two  universities  of  Oxford  or  Cam- 
bridge, and  that  the  same  person  shall  never 
preach  the  same  sermon  twice.  A  number  of  ex- 
cellent sermons  preached  at  this  lecture  are  now 
before  the  public.  A  more  enlarged  a-ccount  of 
this  lecture  may  be  seen  in  the  Christian  Ob- 
server for  May,  1809. 

LECTURES,  BOYLE'S.  See  Boyle's  Lec- 
tures. 

LECTURE,  MERCHANTS',  a  lecture  set 
up  in  the  year  1672  by  the  Presbyterians  and  In- 
dependents, to  show  their  agreement  among  them- 


LECTURERS 
selves,  as  well  as  to  support  the  doctrines  of  the 
Reformation  against  the  prevailing  errors  of  popery, 
Socimamsm,  and  infidelity.  The  principal  mi- 
nisters for  learning  anil  popularity  were  chosen 
as  lecturers;  such  as  Dr.  Bates,  Dr.  Manton, 
Dr.  Owen,  Mr.  Baxter,  Mr.  Collins,  Jenkins, 
Mead,  and  afterwards  Mr.  Alsop,  Howe,  Cole, 
and  others.  It  was  encouraged  and  supported  by 
some  of  the  principal  merchants  and  tradesmen 
of  the  city.  Some  misunderstanding  taking 
place,  the  Presbyterians  removed  to  Salter's-hall, 
and  the  Independents  remained  at  Pinner's-hall, 
and  each  party  filled  up  their  numbers  out  of 
their  respective  denominations.  This  lecture  is 
kept  up  to  the  present  day,  and  is,  we  believe,  now 
held  at  Broad-street  Meeting  every  Tuesday 
morning. 

LECTURES,  MORNING,  certain  casuisti- 
cal lectures,  which  were  preached  by  some  of  the 
most  able  divines  in  London.  The  occasion  of 
these  lectures  seems  to  be  this : — During  the 
troublesome  times  of  Charles  I.  most  of  the  citi- 
zens having  some  near  relation  or  friend  in  the 
army  of  the  earl  of  Essex,  so  many  bills  were 
sent  up  to  the  pulpit  every  Lord's  Day  for  their 
preservation,  that  the  minister  had  neither  time 
to  read  them,  nor  to  recommend  their  cases  to 
God  in  prayer ;  it  was,  therefore,  agreed  bv  some 
London  divines  to  separate  an  hour  for  this  pur- 
pose every  morning,  one- half  to  be  spent  in  prayer, 
and  the  other  in  a  suitable  exhortation  to  the 
people.  When  the  heat  of  the  war  was  over,  it 
became  a  casuistical  lecture,  and  was  carried  on  till 
the  restoration  of  Charles  II.  These  sermons 
were  afterwards  published  in  several  volumes 
quarto,  under  the  title  of  the  Morning  Exercises. 
The  authors  were  the  most  eminent  preachers  of 
the  day :  Mr.  (afterwards  archbishop)  Tillotson 
was  ope  of  them.  It  appears  that  these  lectures 
were  held  every  morning  for  one  month  onlv ;  and 
from  the  preface  to  the  volume,  dated  IC89,  the 
time,  was  afterwards  contracted  to  a  fortnight. 
Alost  of  these  were  delivered  at  Cripplegate 
church,  some  at  St.  Giles's,  and  a  volume  against 
popery  in  Southwark.  Mr.  Neale  observes,  that 
this  lecture  was  afterwards  revived  in  a  different 
form,  and  continued  in  his  day.  It  was  kept  up 
long  afterwards  at  several  places  in  the  summer, 
a  week  at  each  place ;  but  latterly  the  time  was 
exchanged  for  the  evening. 

LECTURES,  MOVER'S.  See  Mover's 
Lectures. 

LECTURE,  WARBURTONIAN,  a  lec- 
ture founded  by  bishop  Warburton  to  prove  the 
truth  of  revealed  religion  in  general,  and  the 
Christian  in  particular,  from  the  completion  of 
the  prophecies  in  the  Old  and  New  Testament 
which  relate  to  the  Christian  church,  especially 
to  the  apostacy  of  papal  Rome.  To  this  founda- 
tion we  owe  the  admirable  discourses  of  Hurd, 
Halifax,  Bagot,  Apthorpe,  and  many  others. 

LECTURERS,  in  the  church  of  England, 
are  an  order  of  preachers  distinct  from  the  rector, 
vicar,  and  curate.  They  are  chosen  by  the  vis- 
try,  or  chief  inhabitants  of  the  parish,  supported 
by  voluntary  subscriptions  and  legacies,  and  are 
usually  the  afternoon  preachers,  and  sometimes 
officiate  on  some  staled  day  in  the  week.  Where 
there  are  lectures  founded  by  the  donations  of 

!)ious  persons,  the  lecturers  are  appointed  by  the 
ounders,  without  any  interposition  or  consent  of 
rectors  of  churches;    &e.  though  with  the  leave 
833 


LEGION 

and  approbation  of  the  bishop ;  such  as  that  of 
Lady  Meyer's  at  St.  Paul's.  But  the  lecturer  is 
not  entitled  to  the  pulpit  without  the  consent,  of 
the  rector  or  vicar,  who  is  possessed  of  the  free 
hold  of  the  church. 

LEGAL  or  MOSAIC  DISPENSATION. 
See  Dispensation. 

LEGALIST,  strictly  speaking,  is  one  who 
acts  according  to  or  consistent  with  the  law ;  but 
in  general  the  term  is  made  use  of  to  denote  one 
who  expects  salvation  by  his  own  works.  We 
may  further  consider  a  legalist  as  one  who  has  no 
proper  conviction  of  the  evil  of  sin ;  who,  although 
he  pretends  to  abide  by  the  law,  yet  has  not  a  just 
idea  of  its  spirituality  and  demands.  He  is  igno- 
rant of  the  grand  scheme  of  salvation  by  free 
grace :  proud  of  his  own  fancied  righteousness, 
he  submits  not  to  the  righteousness  of  God ;  he 
derogates  from  the  honour  of  Christ,  by  mixing 
his  own  works  with  his ;  and  in  fact,  denies  the 
necessity  of  the  wjjrk  of  the  Spirit,  by  supposing 
that  he  has  ability  in  himself  to  perform  all  those 
duties  which  God  had  required.  Such  is  the  cha- 
racter of  the  legalist ;  a  character  diametrically 
opposite  to  that  of  the  true  Christian,  whose  sen- 
timent corresponds  with  that  of  the  apostle,  who 
justly  observes,  "  By  grace  are  ye  saved,  through 
faith,  and  that  not  of  yourselves :  it  is  the  gift  of 
God.  Not  of  works  lest  any  man  should  boast." 
Eph.  ii.  8,  9. 

LEGATE,  a  cardinal  or  bishop  whom  the 
pope  sends  as  his  ambassador  to  sovereign  princes. 

LEGEND,  originally  a  book,  in  the  Romish 
church,  containing  the  lessons  that  were  to  be 
read  in  divine  service ;  from  hence  the  word  was 
applied  to  the,  histories  of  the  lives  of  the  saints, 
because  chapters  were  read  out  of  them  at  matins 
but  as  the  golden  legend,  compiled  by  James  de 
Varase,  about  the  year  1090,  contained  in  it  se- 
veral ridiculous  and  romantic  stories,  the  word  is 
now  used  by  Protestants  to  signify  any  incredible 
or  inauthentic  narrative.  Hence,  as  Dr.  Jortin  ob- 
serves, we  have  false  legends  concerning  the  mi- 
racles of  Christ,  of  his  apostles,  and  of  ancient 
Christians;  and  the  writers  of  these  fables  had, 
in  all  probability,  as  good  natural  abilities  as  the 
disciples  of  Christ,  and  some  of  them  wanted 
neither  learning  nor  craft;  and  yet  they  betray 
themselves  by  faults  against  chronology,  against 
history,  against  manners  and  customs,  against 
morality,  and  against  probability.  A  liar  of  this 
kind  can  never  pass  undiscovered  ;  but  an  honest 
relater  of  truth  and  matter  of  fact  is  safe :  he 
wants  no  artifice,  and  fears  no  examination. 

LEGION,  THEBEAN,  a  name  given,  in 
the  time  of  Dioclesian,  to  a  whole  legion  of 
Christians,  consisting  of  more  than  six  thousand 
men,  who  were  said  to  have  suffered  martyrdom 
by  the  order  of  Maximian.  Though  this  story 
hath  never  wanted  patrons,  yet  it  is  disbelieved 
by  many.  Dr.  Jortin,  in  his  usual  facetious  way, 
says,  that  it  stands  upon  the  authority  of  one 
Eucherius,  bishop  of  Lyons,  and  a  writ  it  of  (he 
fifth  century,  who  had  it  from  Theodorus,  an- 
other bishop,  who  had  the  honour  and  felicity  to 
find  the  relics  of  these  martyrs  by  revelation,  and 
perhaps  by  the  smell  of  the  banes! 

LEGION,  THTJNDERING,  a  name  given 
to  those  Christians  who  served  in  the  lloman 
army  of  Marcus  Antoninus  in  the  second  cen- 
tury. Thi'  occasion  of  it  was  this: — When  that 
einoerox  was  at  war  with  the  Marcomanni,  liia 


LESSONS 
army  was  incl  >sed  by  the  enemy,  and  reduced  to 
the  most,  deplorable  condition  by  the  thirst  under 
which  they  languished  in  a  parched  desert.  Just 
at  this  time  they  were  remarkably  relieved  by  a 
sudden  and  unexpected  rain.  This  event  was 
attributed  to  the  Christians,  who  were  supposed 
to  have  effected  this  by  their  prayers ;  and  the 
name  of  the  thundering  legion  was  given  to 
them,  on  account  of  the  thunder  and  lightning 
that  destroyed  the  enemy,  while  the  shower  re- 
vived the  fainting  Romans.  Whether  this  was 
really  miraculous  or  not,  has  been  disputed  among 
learned  men.  They  who  wish  to  see  what  has 
been  said  on  both  sides,  may  consult  Witsius 
Dv<scrtat.  de  Lcgionc  Fulminalrice,  which  is 
subjoined  to  his  jEgyp/.iaca,  in  defence  of  this 
miracle ;  as  also,  what  is  alleged  against  it  by 
Dan.  Lauroque,  in  a  discourse  upon  that  subject, 
subjoined  to  the  Adversaria  Sacra  of  Matt. 
Lauroque,  his  father.  The  controversy  between 
Sir  Peter  King  and  Mr.  Moyle  upon  this  subject 
is  also  worthy  of  attention. 

LENT,  a  solemn  time  of  fasting  in  the  Chris- 
tian church,  observed  ac  a  time  of  humiliation  be- 
fore Ea.;ter.  The  Romish  church,  and  some  of 
the  Protestant  communion,  maintain,  that  it  was 
always  a  fast  of  forty  days,  and,  as  such,  of  apos- 
tolical institution.  Others  think  that  it  was  of 
ecclesiastical  institution,  and  that  it  was  variously 
observed  in  different  churches,  and  grew  by  de- 
grees from  a  fast  of  forty  hours  to  a  fast  of  forty 
days.  This  is  the  sentiment  of  Morton,  bishop 
Taylor,  Du  Moulin,  Daille,  and  others.  An- 
ciently the  manner  of  observing  Lent  among 
those  who  were  piously  disposed,  was  to  abstain 
from  food  till  evening:  their  only  refreshment 
was  a  supper,  and  it  was  indifferent  whether  it 
was  ilesh  or  any  other  food,  provided  it  was  used 
with  sobriety  and  moderation.  Lent  was  thought 
the  proper  time  for  exercising  more  abundantly 
every  species  of  charity :  thus,  what  they  spared  of 
their  own  bodies,  by  abridging  them  of  a  meal,  was 
usually  given  to  the  poor :  they  employed  their  va- 
cant hours  in  visiting  the  sick  and  those  that  were  in 
prison ;  in  entertaining  strangers,  and  reconciling 
differences.  The  imperial  laws  forbade  all  prosecu- 
tion of  men  in  criminal  actions  that  might  bring 
them  to  corpora!  punishment  and  torture  during 
the  whole  season.  This  was  a  time  of  more  than 
ordinary  strictness  and  devotion,  and,  therefore, 
in  many  of  the  great  churches,  they  had  religious 
assemblies  for  prayer  and  preaching  every  day. 
All  public  games  and  stage  plays  were  prohibited 
at.  this  season,  and  also  the  celebration  of  all  festi- 
vals, birth-days,  and  marriages.  The  Christians 
of  the  Greek  church  observe  four  Lents;  the 
first  commences  on  the  fifteenth  of  November ; 
the  second  is  the  same  with  our  Lent ;  the  third 
begins  the  week  after  Whitsuntide,  and  continues 
till  the  festival  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul;  and 
ihe  fourth  commences  on  the  first  of  August,  and 
lasts  no  longer  thin  till  the  fifteenth.  These 
Lents  are  observed  with  great  strictness  and  aus- 
terity, but  on  Saturdays  and  Sundays  they  in- 
dulge themselves  in  drinking  wine  and  using  oil, 
which  are  prohibited  on  other  days. 

LESSONS,  among  ecclesiastical  wrriters,  aie 
portions  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  read  in  churches 
at  the  time  of  divine  service.  In  the  ancient 
church,  reading  the  Scripture  was  one  part  of 
the  service  of  the  catechumen,  at  which  all  per- 
sons were  allowed  <.<*  be  present  in  order  to  ob- 
233  2  U 


LIBATlOiN 

tain  instruction.  The  church  of  England,  in 
the  choice  of  lessons,  proceeds  as  follows : — for 
all  the  first  lessons  on  ordinary  days,  she  directs 
to  begin  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  with  Gene- 
sis, and  so  continue  till  the  books  of  the  ( 'Id 
Testament  are  read  over,  only  omitting  Chroni- 
cles, which  are  for  the  most  part  the  same  with 
the  books  ef  Samuel  and  Kings;  and  other  par- 
ticular chapters  in  other  books,  either  because 
they  contain  the  names  of  persons,  places,  or 
other  matters  less  profitable  to  ordinary  readers. 
The  course  of  the  first  lessons  for  Sundays  is 
regulated  after  a  different  manner :  from  Advent 
to  Septuagesima  Sunday,  some  particular  chap- 
ters of  Isaiah  are  appointed  to  be  read,  because 
that  book  contains  the  clearest  prophecies  con- 
cerning Christ.  Upon  Septuagesima  Sunday, 
Genesis  is  begun;  because  that  book,  which  treats 
of  the  fall  of  man,  and  the  severe  judgment  of 
God  inflicted  on  the  world  for  sin,  best  suits  with 
a  time  of  repentance  and  mortification.  After 
Genesis  follow  chapters  out  of  the  hooks  of  the 
Old  Testament,  as  they  lie  in  order ;  only  on  fes- 
tival Sundays,  such  as  Raster,  Whitsunday,  &c, 
the  particular  history  i  elating  to  that  day  is  ap- 
pointed to  be  read ;  and  on  the  saints'  days  the 
church  appoints  lessons  out  of  the  moral  books, 
such  as  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes,  &c.  as  containing 
excellent  instructions  for  the  conduct  of  life.  As 
to  the  second  lessons,  the  church  observes  the 
same  course  both  on  Sundays  and  week-days 
reading  the  Gospel  and  Acts  of  the  Apostles  ia 
the  morning,  and  the  Epistles  in  the  evening,  in 
the.  order  they  stand  in  the  New  Testament ;  ex- 
cepting on  saints'  days  and  holy  days,  when  such 
lessons  are  appointed  as  either  explain  the  mys- 
tery, relate  the  history,  or  apply  the  example  to  us. 

LEUCOPETRIANS,  the  name  of  a  fanati- 
cal sect  which  sprung  up  in  the  Greek  and  easi- 
era  churches  towards  the  close  of  the  twelfth 
century;  they  professed  to  believe  in  a  double 
trinity,  rejected  wedlock,  abstained  from  flesh, 
treated  with  the  utmost  contempt  the  sacraments 
of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  all  the 
various  branches  of  external  worship :  placed  the 
essence  of  religion  in  internal  prayer  alone  :  and 
maintained,  as  it  is  said,  that  an  evil  being  or 
genius  dwelt  in  the  breast  of  every  mortal,  and 
could  be  expelled  from  thence  by  no  other  me- 
thod than  by  perpetual  supplication  to  the  Su- 
preme Being.  The  founder  of  this  sect  is  said 
to  have  been  a  person  called  Leucopetrus,  and 
his  chief  disciple  Tychicus,  who  corrupted  by 
fanatical  interpretations  several  books  of  Scrip- 
tare,  and  particularly  St.  Matthew's  Gospel. 

LEVITY,  lightness  of  spirit,  in  opposition  to 
gravity.  Nothing  can  be  more  proper  than  for  a 
Christian  to  wear  an  air  of  cheerfulness,  and  to 
watch  against  a  morose  and  gloomy  disposition. 
But  though  it  be  his  privilege  to  rejoice,  yet  he 
must  be  cautious  of  that  volatility  of  spirit  which 
characterises  the  unthinking,  and  marks  the  vain 
professor.  To  be  cheerful  without  levity,  and 
grave  without  austerity,  form  both  a  happy  and 
dignified  character. 

LIBATION,  the  act  of  pouring  wine  on  the 
ground  in  divine  worship.  Sometimes  other 
liquids  have  been  used,  as  oil,  milk,  water,  honey, 
but  mostly  wine. — Among  the  Greeks  and  Ro- 
mans it  was  an  essential  part  of  solemn  sacri- 
fices. Libations  were  also  in  use  among  the 
I  Hebrews,  who  poiu-ed  a  bin  of  wine  on  the  \;c~ 


LIBERALITY 

tim  alter  it  was  killed,  and  the  several  pieces  of 
the  sacrifice  were  laid  on  the  altar  ready  to  be 
consumed  in  the  flames. 

LIBERALITY,  bounty;  a  generous  disposi- 
tion of  mind,  exerting  itself  in  giving  largely.  It 
>s  thus  distinguished  from  generosity  and  boun- 
ty : — Liberality  implies  acts  of  mere  giving  or 
Spending;  generosity,  acts  of  greatness;  bounty, 
acts  of  kindness.  Liberality  is  a  natural  dispo- 
sition; generosity  proceeds  from  elevation  of  sen- 
timent; bounty,  from  religious  motives.  Liberality 
denotes  freedom  of  spirit ;  generosity,  greatness 
df  soul;  bounty,  openness  of  heart. 

LIBERALITY  of  sentiment,  a  generous  dis- 
position a  man  feels  towards  another  who  is  of  a 
different  opinion  from  himself;  or,  as  one  defines 
it,  "  that  generous  expansion  of  mind  which  en- 
ables it  to  look  beyond  all  petty  distinctions  of 
party  and  system,  and,  in  the  estimate  cf  inert  and 
tilings,  to  rise  superior  to  narrow  prejudices." 
As  liberality  of  sentiment  is  often  a  cover  for 
error  and  scepticism  on  the  one  hand,  and  as  it  is 
too  little  attended  to  by  the  ignorant  and  bigoted 
an  the  other,  we  shall  here  lay  before  our  readers 
a  view  of  it  by  a  masterly  writer.  "  A  man  of 
liberal  sentiments  must  be  distinguished  from  him 
who  hath  no  religious  sentiments  at  all.  He  is 
otne  who  hath  seriously  and  effectually  investi- 
gated, both  in  his  Bible  and  on  his  knees,  in  pub- 
lic assemblies  and  in  private  conversations,  the 
important  articles  of  religion.  He  hath  laid  down 
principles,  he  hath  inferred  consequences;  in  a 
word,  he  hath  adopted  sentiments  of  his  own. 

"  He  must  be  distinguished  also  from  that  tame 
undiscerning  domestic  among  good  people,  who, 
though  he  has  sentiments  of  his  own,  yet  has  not 
judgment  to  estimate  the  worth  and  value  of  one 
sentiment  beyond  another. 

"  Now  a  generous  believer  of  the  Christian  re- 
ligion is  one  who  will  never  allow  himself  to  try  to 
propagate  hit)  sentiments  by  the  commission  of 
sin.  No  collusion,  no  bitterness,  no  wrath,  no 
undue  influence  of  any  kind,  will  he  apply  to 
make  his  sentiments  receivable;  and  no  living 
thing  will  be  less  happy  for  his  being  a  Christian. 
He  will  exercise  his  liberality  by  allowing  those 
who  differ  from  him  as  much  virtue  and  integrity 
as  he  possibly  can. 

"  There  are,  among  ;t  multitude  of  arguments 
to  enforce  such  a  disposition,  the  following  worthy 
of  our  attention. 

"  First,  We  should  exercise  liberality  in  union 
with  sentiment,  because  of  the  different  capaci- 
ties, advantages,  and  tasks  of  mankind.  Religion 
employs  the  capacities  of  mankind,  just  as  the 
air  employs  their  lungs  and  their  organs  of  speech. 
The  fancy  of  one  is  lively,  of  another  dull.  The 
judgment  of  one  is  elastic ;  of  another  feeble,  a 
damaged  spring.  The  memory  of  one  is  reten- 
tive; that  of  another  is  treacherous  as  the  wind. 
The  passions  of  this  man  are  lofty,  vigorous,  ra- 
pid ;  those  of  that  man  crawl,  and  hum.  and  buz, 
and,  when  on  wing,  sail  only  round  the  circum- 
ference of  a  tulip.  Is  it  conceivable  that  capa- 
bility, so  different  in  every  thing  else,  should  be 
all  alike  in  religion'!  The  advantages  of  mankind 
differ.  [low  should  he  who  hath  no  parents,  no 
boolu,  no  tutor,  no  companions,  equal  him  whom 
Providence  hath  gratified  with  them  all ;  who, 
when  he  looks  over  the  treasures  of  his  own 
knowledge,  can  say,  this  I  had  of  a  Greek,  that  I 
learned  of  a  Roman;  tlus  information  I  acquit  ad 
234 


LIBERALITY 
of  my  tutor,  that  was  a  present  of  my  tattler:  a 
friend  gave  me  this  branch  of  knowledge,  an  ac- 
quaintance bequeathed  me  that  ?  The  tasks  of 
mankind  differ ;  so  I  call  the  employments  and 
exercise's  of  life.  In  my  opinion,  circumstances 
make  great  men :  and  if  we  have  not  Cffisars  in 
the  state,  and  Pauls  in  the  church,  it  is  becausB 
neither  church  nor  state  are  in  the  circumstances 
in  which  they  were  in  the  days  of  those  greai 
men.  Push  a  dull  man  into  a  river,  and  endarv 
gcr  his  life,  and  suddenly  he  will  discover  inven- 
tion, and  make  efforts  beyond  himself.  The 
world  is  a  fine  school  of  instruction.  Poverty, 
sickness,  pain,  loss  of  children,  treachery  of 
friends,  malice  of  enemies,  and  a  thousand  other 
things,  drive  the  man  of  sentiment  to  his  Bible, 
and,  so  to  speak,  bring  him  home  to  a  repast  with 
his  benefactor,  God.  Is  it  conceivable,  that  he, 
whose  young  and  tender  heart  is  yet  unpractised 
in  trials  of  this  kind,  can  have  ascertained  and 
tasted  so  many  religious  truths  as  the  sufferer 
has? 

"  We  should  believe  the  Christian  religion 
with  liberality,  in  the  second  place,  because  every 
part  of  the  Christian  religion  inculcates  gene 
rosily.  Christianity  gives  us  a  character  of  God ; 
but,  my  God  !  what  a  character 'does  it  give  ! 
God  is  Love.  Christianity  teaches  the  doctrine 
of  Providence ;  but  what  a  providence !  Upon 
whom  doth  not  its  light  arise  ?  Is  there  an  ani- 
malcule so  little,  or  a  wretch  so  forlorn,  as  to  be 
forsaken  and  forgotten  of  his  God  !  Christianity 
teaches  the  doctrine  of  redemption ;  but  the  re- 
demption of  whom? — of  all  tongues,  kindred, 
nations,  and  people  ;  of  the  infant  of  a  span,  and 
the  sinner  of  a  hundred  years  old  ;  a  redemption 
generous  in  its  principle,  generous  in  its  price, 
generous  in  its  effects  ;  fixed  sentiments  of  divine 
munificence,  and  revealed  with  a  liberality  for 
which  we  have  no  name.  In  a  word,  the  illiberal 
Christian  always  acts  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  his 
religion :  the  liberal  man  alone  thoroughly  urn 
derstands  it. 

"  Thirdly,  Wc  should  be  liberal,  because  nc 
other  spirit  is  exemplified  in  the  infallible  guides 
whom  we  profess  to  follow.  I  set  one  Paul 
against  a  whole  army  of  uninspired  men  :  'Some 
preach  Christ  of  good-will,  and  some  of  envy  and 
strife.  What  then?  Christ  is  preached  ;  and  1 
therein  do  rejoice,  yea,  and  will  rejoice.  One 
eateth  all  things,  another  eateth  herbs;  but  why 
dost  thou  judge  thy  brother  ?  We  shall  all  stand 
before  the  judgment-seat  of  Christ.'  We  often 
inquire,  What  was  the  doctnne  of  Christ,  and 
what  was  the  practice  of  Christ;  suppose  we 
were  to  institute  a  third  question,  Of  what  tem- 
per was  Christ? 

"  Once  more  :  We  should  be  liberal  as  well  as 
orthodox,  because  truth,  especially  the  truths  of 
Christianity,  do  not  want  any  support  from  our 
illiberality.  Let  the  little  bee  guard  it?  little  ho- 
ney with  its  little  sting;  perhaps  its  little  life 
may  depend  a  little  while  on  that  little  nourish- 
ment. Let  the  fierce  bull  shake  his  head,  and 
nod  his  horn,  and  thre;ifen  his  enemy,  whp 
geeks  to  eat  his  flesh,  anil  wear  his  coat,  and  live 
by  his  death  :  poor  fellow  !  his  life  is  in  danger  ; 
I  forgive  his  bellowing  and  his  rage.  But  the 
Christian  religion, — is  that  in  danger?  and  what 
human  efforts  can  render  that  true  which  is 
false,  that  odious  which  is  lovely  ?  Christianity 
is  in  no  danger,  and  therefore  it  gives  its  pro- 


LIBERTINES 
lessors  life  and  breath,  and  all  things,  except  a 
power  of  injuring  others. 

"  In  fine,  liberality  in  the  profession  of  religion 
is  a  wise  and  innocent  'policy.  The  bigot  lives 
at  home  ;  a  reptile  he  crawled  into  existence,  and 
there  in  his  hole  he  lurks  a  reptile  still.  A  gene- 
rous Christian  goes  out  of  his  own  party,  asso- 
ciates with  others,  and  gains  improvement  by  all. 
It  is  a  Persian  proverb,  A  liberal  hand  is  better 
than  a  strong  arm.  The  dignity  of  Christianity 
is  better  supported  by  acts  of  liberality  than  by 
accuracy  of  reasoning;  but  when  both  go  together, 
when  a  man  of  sentiment  can  clearly  state  and 
ably  defend  his  religious  principles,  and  when  Ms 
heart  is  as  generous  as  his  principles  are  inflexi- 
ble, he  possesses  strength  and  beauty  in  an  emi- 
nent degree."     See  Theol.  Misc.  vol.  i.  p.  39. 

LIBERTINE,  one  who  acts  without  restraint, 
and  pays  no  regard  to  the  precepts  of  religion. 

LIBERTINES,  according  to  some,  were  such 
Jews  as  were  free  citizens  of  Rome ;  they  had  a 
separate  synagogue  at  Jerusalem,  and  sundry  of 
them  concurred  in  the  persecution  of  Stephen, 
Acts  vi.  9.  Dr.  Guyse  supposes  that  those  who 
had  obtained  this  privilege  by  gift  were  called 
libcrti  (free  men,)  and  those  who  had  obtained  it 
by  purchase,  libertini  (made  free,)  in  distinction 
from  original  native  free  men.  Dr.  Doddridge 
thinks  that  they  were  called  Libertines  as  having 
been  the  children  of  freed  men,  that  is,  of  eman- 
cipated captives  or  slaves.  See  Doddridge  and 
Guyse  on  Acts  vi.  9. 

LIBERTINES,  a  religious  sect,  which  arose 
in  the  year  1525,  whose  principal  tenets  were, 
that  the  Deity  was  the  sole  operating  cause  in 
the  mind  of  man,  and  the  immediate  author  of  all 
human  actions ;  that,  consequently,  the  distinc- 
tions of  good  and  evil,  which  had  been  establish- 
ed with  regard  to  those  actions,  were  false  and 
groundless,  and  that  men  could  not,  properly 
speaking,  commit. sin;  that  religion  consisted  in 
the  union  of  the  spirit,  or  rational  soul,  with'  the 
Supreme,  Being ;  that  all  those  who  had  attained 
this  happy  union,  by  sublime  contemplation  and 
elevation  of  mind,  were  then  allowed  to  indulge, 
without  exception  or  restraint,  their  appetites  or 
passions ;  that  all  their  actions  and  pursuits  were 
then  perfectly  innocent ;  and  that,  after  the  death 
of  the  body,  they  were  to  be  united  to  the  Deity. 
They  likewise  said  that  Jesus  Christ  was  nothing 
but  a  mere  je  nc  seal  quoi,  composed  of  the 
spirit  of  God  and  the  opi  nion  of  men.  These  max- 
ims occasioned  their  being  called  Libertines;  and 
the  word  has  been  used  in  an  ill  sense  ever  since. 
This  sect  spread  principally  in  Holland  and  Bra- 
bant. Their  leaders  were  one  duintin,  a  Pi- 
card,  Pockesius,  Ruffus,  and  another,  called  Cho- 
pin, who  joined  with  Gluintin,  and  became  his 
disciple.  They  obtained  footing  in  France 
through  the  favour  and  protection  of  Margaret, 
queen  of  Navarre,  and  sister  to  Francis  I.,  and 
found  patrons  in  several  of  the  reformed  churches. 

Libertines  of  Geneva  were  a  cabal  of  rakes 
rather  than  fanatics  ;  for  they  made  no  pretence 
to  any  religious  system,  but  pleaded  only  for  the 
liberty  of  leading  voluptuous  and  immoral  lives. 
This  cabal  was  composed  of  a  certain  number  of 
licentious  citizens,  who  could  not  bear  the  severe 
discipline  of  Calvin.  There  were  also  among 
them  several  who  were  not  only  notorious  for 
their  dissolute  and  scandalous  manner  of  living 
but  also  for  then*  atheistical  impiety  and  contempt 

235 


LITANY 
of  all  religion.  To  this  odious  class  belonged  onn 
Gruet,  who  denied  the  divinity  of  the  Christian 
religion,  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  the  differ- 
ence between  moral  good  and  evil,  and  rejected 
with  disdain  the  doctrines  that  are  held  most 
sacred  among  Christians  far  which  impieties  he. 
was  at  last  brought  before  the  civil  tribunal  in  the 
year  1550,  and  condemned  to  death. 

LIBERTY  denotes  a  state  of  freedom,  in  con- 
tradistinction to  slavery  or  restraint. — 1.  Nalurat 
liberty,  or  liberty  of  choice,  is  that  in  which  our 
volitions  are  not  determined  by  any  foreign  cause 
or  consideration  whatever  offered  to  it,  but  by  it- 
own  pleasure. — 2.  External  liberty,  or  liberty  of 
action,  is  opposed  to  a  constraint  laid  on  the  ex- 
ecutive powers ;  and  consists  in  a  power  of  ren- 
dering our  volitions  effectual. —  3.  Philosophical 
liberty  consists  in  a  prevailing  disposition  to  act 
according  to  the  dictates  of  reason,  i.  e.  in  such  a 
manner  as  shall,  all  things  considered,  most  effec- 
tually promote  our  happiness. — 4.  Moral  liberty 
is  said  to  be  that  in  which  there  is  no  interposi- 
tion  of  the  will  of  a  superior  being  to  prohibit  or 
determine  our  actions  in  any  particular  under 
consideration.  See  Necessity,  Will. — 5.  Li- 
berty of  conscience  is  freedom  from  restraint  in 
our  choice  of,  and  judgment  about  matters  of  re- 
ligion.— G.  Spiritual  liberty  consists  in  freedom 
from  the  curse  of  the  moral  law ;  from  the  servi 
tude  of  the  ritual ;  from  the  love,  power,  and  guilt 
of  sin ;  from  the  dominion -of  Satan;  from  the 
corruptions  of  the  world  ;  from  the  fear  of  death, 
and  the  wrath  to  come,  Rom.  vi.  14 ;  viii.  1 ;  Gal. 
iii.  13 ;  John  viii.  3G  ;  Rom.  viii.  21 ;  Gal.  v.  1 ; 
Thess.  i.  10.  See  articles  Materialists,  Pre- 
destination ;  and  Doddridge's  Led.  p.  50,  vol. 
i.  oct;  Watls's  Phil.  sect.  v.  p.  288;  Jon.  Ed- 
wards on  the  Will;  Locke  on  Und.;  Grove's 
Mor.  Phil.  sect.  18,  19 ;  J.  Palmer  on  Liberty 
of  Man;  Martin's  Queries  and  Remarks  on 
Human  Liberty;  Charnocks  Works,  p.  175,  &c. 
vol.  ii.;  Saurin's  Serm.  vol.  iii.  ser.  4. 

LIE.     See  Lying. 

LIFE,  a  state  of  active  existence. — 1.  Human 
life  is  the  continuance  or  duration  of  our  present 
state,  and  which  the  Scriptures,  represent  as  short 
and  vain,  Job  xiv.  1,  2 ;  James  iv.  14. — 2.  Spi- 
ritual life  consists  in  our  being  in  the  favour  of 
God,  influenced  by  a  principle  of  grace,  and  liv- 
ing dependent  on  him.  It  is  considered  as  of 
divine  origin,  Col.  iii.  4  ;  hidden,  iii.  3 ;  peaceful, 
Rom.  viii.  G  secure,  John  x.  28. — 3.  Eternal 
life  is  that  never-ending  state  of  existence  which 
the  saints  shall  enjoy  in  heaven,  and  is  glorious, 
Col.  iii.  4 ;  holy,  Rev.  xxi.  27 ;  and  blissful,  1 
Pet.  i.  4 ;   2  Cor.  iv.  17.     See  Heaven. 

LIGHT  OF  NATURE.     See  Nature. 

LIGHT,  DIVINE.     See  Knowledge,  Re> 

LIGION. 

LITANY,  a  general  supplication  used  in  pub' 
lie  worship  to  appease  the  wrath  of  the  Deity, 
and  to  request  those  blessings  a  person  wants, 
The  words  comes  from  the  Greek  Kirxvua,  "sup- 
plication," of  mtxi'siu,  "  I  beseech."  At  first,  the 
use  of  litanies  was  not  fixed  to  any  stated  time 
but  were  only  employed  as  exigencies  required. 
They  were  observed,  in  imitation  of  the  INine- 
vites,  with  ardent  supplications  and  fastings,  to 
avert  the  threatened  judgments  of  fire,  earth- 
quakes, inundations,  or  hostile  invasions.  Ahout 
the  year  400,  litanies  began  to  be  used  in  proces- 
sions, the  people  walking  barefoot,  and  relating 


LITURGY 
them  with  great  devotion ;  and  it  is  pretended  that  ] 
by  this  means  several  eountries  were  delivered 
from  great  calamities.  The  days  on  which  they 
were  used  were  called  Rogation  days ;  these  were 
appointed  by  the  cations  of  different  councils  till 
it  was  decreed  by  the  council  of  Toledo,  that  they 
should  he  used  every  month  throughout  the  year; 
and  thus,  by  degrees,  they  came  to  be  used 
weekly  on  Wednesdays  and  Fridays,  the  ancient 
stationary  days  for  fasting.  To  these  days  the 
rubrick  of  the  church  of  England  has  added  Sun- 
days, as  being  the  greatest  day  for  assembling  at 
divine  service.  Before  the  last  review  of  the 
common  prayer,  the  litany  was  a  distinct  service 
by  itself,  and  used  sometimes  after  the  morning 
prayer  was  over ;  at  present  it  is  made  one  office 
with  the  morning  service,  being  ordered  to  be 
read  after  the  third  collect  for  grace,  instead  of 
the  intereessional  prayers  in  the  daily  service. 

LITURGY  denotes  all  the  ceremonies  in 
general  belonging  to  divine  service.  The  word 
comes  from  the  Greek  xsn-oupyia,  "service,  pub- 
lic ministry,"  formed  of  \£n-os,  "public,"  and 
ifyov,  "  work."  In  a  more  restrained  significa- 
tion, liturgy  is  used  among  the  Romanists  to  sig- 
nify the  mass,  and  among  us  the  common  prayer. 
All  who  have  written  on  liturgies  agree,  that,  in 
primitive  days,  divine  service  was  exceedingly 
simple,  clogged  with  a  very  few  ceremonies,  and 
eonsisted  of  but  a  small  number  of  prayers;  but, 
by  degrees,  they  increased  the  number  of  cere- 
monies, and  added  new  prayers,  to  make  the 
office  look  more  awful  and  venerable  to  the  peo- 
ple. At  length,  things  were  carried  to  such  a 
pitch,  that  a  regulation  became  necessary ;  $nd 
it  was  found  necessary  to  put  the  service  and  the 
manner  of  performing  it  into  writing,  and  this 
was  what  they  called  a  liturgy.  Liturgies  have 
been  different  at  different  times  and  in  different 
countries.  We  have  the  liturgy  of  St.  Chrysos- 
tom,  of  St.  Peter,  the  Armenian  liturgy,  Galli- 
can  liturgy,  &c.  &c  "  The  properties  required 
in  a  public  liturgy,"  says  Paley,  "are  these:  it 
must  be  compendious ;  express  just  conceptions 
of  the  divine  attributes — recite  such  wants  as  a 
congregation  are  likely  to  feel,  and  no  other ;  and 
contain  as  few  controverted  propositions  as  possi- 
ble." The  liturgy  of  the  church  of  England  was 
composed  in  the  year  1547,  and  established  in  the 
second  year  of  king  Edward  VI.  In  the  fifth 
year  of  this  king  it  was  reviewed,  because  some 
things  were  contained  in  that  liturgy  which 
showed  a  compliance  with  the  superstition  of 
those  times,  and  some  exceptions  were  taken 
against  it  by  some  learned  men  at  home,  and  by 
Calvin  abroad.  Some  alterations  were  made  in 
it,  which  consisted  in  adding  the  general  confes- 
sion, and  absolution,  and  the  communion  to  be- 
£in  with  the  Ten  Commandments.  The  use  of 
eil  in  confirmation  and  extreme  unction  was  left 
out,  and  also  prayers  for  souls  departed,  and  what 
related  to  a  belief  of  Christ's  real  presence  in  the 
cueharist.  This  liturgy,  so  reformed,  was  esta- 
blished by  the  acts  of  the  5th  and  6th  Edward 
VI.  c.  1.  However,  it  was  abolished  by  queen 
Mary,  who  enacted,  that  the  service  should  stand 
as  it  was  m  >;i  commonlyused  in  the  last  year  of 
the  reigp  of  kin;:  Henry  VIII. — That  of  Ed- 
ward VI.  wan  re-established,  with  some  altera- 
tions, by  Elizabeth.  Sunn;  further  alterations 
were  introduced,  in  consequence  of  the  review  of 
the  common  prayer  bookj  by  order  of  king  James, 


LOLLARDS 

in  the  first  year  of  his  reign,  particularly  in  the 
office  of  private  baptism,  in  several  rubrics,  an/1 
other  passages,  with  the  addition  of  five  or  six 
new  prayers  and  thanksgivings,  and  all  that  part 
of  the  catechism  which  contains  the  doctrine  of 
the  sacraments.  The  book  of  common  prayer, 
so  altered,  remained  in  force  from  the  first  year 
of  king  James  to  the  fourteenth  of  Charles  II. — 
The  last  review  of  the  liturgy  was  in  the  year 
1661.  Many  supplications  have  been  since  made 
for  a  review,  but  without  success.  Bingham?* 
Orig.  Keel.  p.  13  ;  Broughton's  Did.;  Bennett, 
Robinson,  and  Clarkson,  on  Liturg.  passim;  A 
Letter  to  a  Dissenting  Minister  on  the  Expe- 
diency of  Forms,  and  Erekcll's  Answer;  Ro- 
gers's Lectures  on  the  Litwgy  of  the  Church  of 
England;  Biddulph'i  Essays  on  the  Liturgy ; 
Orion's  Letters,  vol.  i.  p.  16.  24. 

LIVERPOOL  LITURGY,  a  liturgy  so  call- 
ed from  its  first  publication  at  Liverpool.  It  was 
composed  by  some  of  the  Presbyterians,  who, 
growing  weary  of  extempore  prayer,  thought  a 
form  more  desirable.  It  made  its  appearance  in 
1752.  Mr.  Orton  says  of  it,  "  It  is  scarcely  a 
Christian  liturgy.  In  the  collect,  the  name  of 
Christ  is  hardly  mentioned;  and  the  Spirit  is 
quite  banished  from  it."  It  was  little  better  than 
a  deistical  composition.  Orton's  Letters,  vol.  L. 
p.  80,  81 :  Bogue  and  Bennett's  Hist,  of  Diss 
vol.  iii.  p.  342. 

LOLLARDS,  a  religious  sect,  differing  in 
many  points  from  the  church  of  Rome,  which 
arose  in  Germany,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
fourteenth  century ;  so  called,  as  many  writers 
have  imagined,  from  Walter  Lollard,  who  began 
to  dogmatize  in  1315,  and  was  burnt  at  Cologne  j 
though  others  think  that  Lollard  was  no  surname, 
but  merely  a  term  of  reproach  applied  to  all  here- 
tics who  concealed  the  poison  of  error  under  the 
appearance  of  piety. 

The  monk  of  Canterbury  derives  the  origin  of 
the  word  lollard  among  us  from  lolium,  "a  tare," 
as  if  the  Lollards  were  the  tares  sown  in  Christ's 
vineyard.  Abelly  says,  that  the  word  signifies 
"praising  God,"  from  the  German  loben,  "to 
praise,"  and  herr,  "lord;"  because  the  Lollards 
employed  themselves  in  travelling  about  from 
place  to  place,  singing  psalms  and  hymns.  Others, 
much  to  the  same  purpose,  derive  lollhard,  lul- 
hard.  or  lollert,  htllert,  as  it  was  written  by  the 
ancient  Germans,  from  the  old  German  word, 
lullcn,  lollcn,  or  lallcn,  and  the  termination  hard, 
with  which  many  of  the  High  Dutch  words  end. 
Lollcn  signifies,  "to  sing  with  a  low  voice,"  and 
therefore*  lollard  is  a  singer,  or  one  who  frequently 
sings;  and  in  the  vulgar  tongue  of  the  Germans 
it  denotes  a  person  who  is  continually  praising 
God  with  a  song,  or  singing  hymns  to  his  honour. 

The  Alexians  or  Cellites  were  called  Lollards, 
because  they  were  public  singers,  who  made  it 
their  business  to  inter  the  bodies  of  those  who 
died  of  the  plague,  and  sang  a  dirge  over  them  in 
a  mournful  and  indistinct  tone,  as  they  carried 
them  to  the  grave.  The  name  was  afterwards 
assumed  by  persona  that  dishonoured  it ;  for  we 
find  among  those  Lollards  who  made  extraordi- 
nary pretences  to  religion,  and  spent  the  greatest 
part  of  their  time  in  meditation,  prayer,  and  such 
acts  of  piety,  there  were  many  al>ominable  hypo- 
crites, who  entertained  the  most  ridiculous  opi- 
nions, and  concealed  the  most  enormous  vices 
under  the  specious  mask  of  tfci*  •mraordinarv 


LORD 

profession.  Many  injurious  aspersions  were 
therefore  propagated  against  those  who  assumed 
this  name  by  the  priests  and  monks ;  so  that,  by 
degrees,  any  person  who  covered  heresies  or 
crimes  under  the  appearance  of  piety  was  called 
a  Lollard.  Thus  the  name  was  not  used  to  de- 
note any  one  particular  sect,  but  was  formerly 
common  to  all  persons  or  sects  who  were  sup- 
posed to  be  guilty  of  impiety  towards  God  or  the 
church,  under  an  external  profession  of  great 
piety.  However,  many  societies,  consisting  both 
of  men  and  women,  under  the  name  of  Lollards, 
were  formed  in  most  parts  of  Germany  and  Flan- 
ders, and  were  supported  partly  by  their  manual 
labours,  and  partly  by  the  charitable  donations  of 
pious  persons.  The  magistrates  and  inhabitants 
of  the  towns  where  these  brethren  and  sisters 
resided,  gave  them  particular  marks  of  favour  and 
protection,  on  account  of  their  great  usefulness  to 
the  sick  and  needy.  They  were  thus  supported 
against  their  malignant  rivals,  and  obtained  many 
papal  constitutions,  by  which  their  institute  was 
confirmed,  their  persons  exempted  from  the  cog- 
nizance of  the  inquisitor,  and  subjected  entirely 
to  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops ;  but  as  these 
measures  were  insufficient  to  secure  them  from 
molestation,  Charles  duke  of  Burgundy,  in  the 
year  1472,  obtained  a  solemn  bull  from  pope 
Sextus  IV.  ordering  that  the  Cellites,  or  Lollards, 
should  be  ranked  among  the  religious  orders,  and 
delivered  from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops. 
And  pope  Julius  II.  granted  them  still  greater 
privileges,  in  the  year  1506.  Mosheim  informs 
us,  that  many  societies  of  this  kind  are  still  sub- 
sisting at  Cologne,  and  in  the  cities  of  Flanders, 
though  they  have  evidently  departed  from  their 
ancient  rules. 

Lollard  and  his  followers  rejected  the  sacrifice 
of  the  mass,  extreme  unction,  and  penances  for 
sin  ;  arguing  that  Christ's  sufferings  were  suf- 
ficient. He  is  likewise  said  to  have  set  aside 
baptism,  as  a  thing  of  no  effect;  and  repentance 
as  not  absolutely  necessary,  &c.  In  England, 
the  followers  of  Wicklifle  were  called,  by  way  of 
"iproach,  Lollards,  from  the  supposition  that 
there  was  some  affinity  between  some  of  their 
tenets ;  though  others  are  of  opinion  that  the 
English  Lollards  came   from  Germany.     See 

WlCKI.IFFITF.S. 

LONG  SUFFERING  OF  GOD.  See  Pa- 
tience of  Gon. 

LORD,  a  term  properly  denoting  one  who  has 
dominion.  Applied  to  God,  the  supreme  governor 
and  disposer  of  all  tilings.     See  God. 

LORD'S  DAY.     See  Sabbath. 

LORD'S  NAME  TAKEN  IN  VAIN,  con- 
sists, first,  in  using  it  lightly  or  rashly,  in  excla- 
mations, adjurations,  and  appeals  in  common 
conversation. — 2.  Hypocritically  in  our  prayers, 
thanksgivings,  &c. — 3.  Superstitiously,  as  when 
the  Israelites  carried  the  ark  to  the  iield  of  battle, 
to  render  them  successful  against  the  Philistines, 
1  Sam.  iv.  3,  4. — 4.  Wantonly,  in  swearing  by 
him,  or  creatures  in  his  stead,  Matt,  v  34,  37. — 

5.  Angrily,  or  sportfully  cursing,  and  devoting 
ourselves  or  others  to  mischief  and  damnation. — 

6.  Perjuring  ourselves,  attesting  that  which  is 
false,  Mai.  iii.  5. — 7.  Blasphemously  reviling 
God,  or  causing  others  to  do  so,  Rom.  ii.  24.  Per- 
haps there  is  no  sin  more  common,  as  to  the  prac- 
tice, and  less  thought  of  as  to  the  guilt  of  it,  than 
this.    Nor  is  it  thus  common  with  the  vulgar 

237 


LORD 

only,  but  with  those  who  call,  themselves  wisp, 
humane,  and  moral.  They  tremble  at  the  idea  of 
murder,  theft,  adultery,  &c,  while  they  forget  that 
the  same  law  which  prohibits  the  commission  of 
these  crimes,  does,  with  equal  force,  forbid  that 
of  profaning  his  name.  No  man,  therefore,  what- 
ever his  sense,  abilities,  or  profession  may  be, 
can  be  held  guiltless,  or  be  exonerated  from  tha 
charge  of  being  a  wicked  man,  while  he  lives  in 
Vne  habitual  violation  of  this  part  of  God's  sacred 
law.  A  very  celebrated  female  writer  justly  ob- 
serves, that  "It  is  utterly  inexcusable;  it  has 
none  of  the  palliatives  of  temptation  whicn  other 
vices  plead,  and  in  that  respect  stands  distinguish- 
ed from  all  others  both  in  i-ts  nature  and  degree  of 
guilt.  Like  many  other  sins,  however,  it  is  at 
once  cause  and  effect ;  it  proceeds  from  want  of 
love  and  reverence  to  the  best  of  Beings,  and 
causes  the  want  of  that  love  both  in  themselves 
and  others.  This  species  of  profaneness  is  not 
only  swearing,  but,  perhaps,  in  some  respects, 
swearing  of  the  worst  soTt ;  as  it  is  a  direct  breach 
of  an  express  command,  and  offends  against  the 
very  letter  of  that  law  which  says,  in  so  many 
words :  '  Thou  shalt  not  take  the  name  of  the 
Lord  thy  God  in  vain.'  It  offends  against  polite- 
ness and  good  breeding,  for  those  who  commit  it 
little  think  of  the  pain  they  are  inflicting  on  the 
sober  mind,  which  is  deeply  wounded  when  it 
hears  the  holy  name  it  loves  dishonoured ;  and  it 
is  as  contrary  to  good  breeding  to  give  pain,  as  it 
is  to  true  piety  to  be  profane.  It  is  astonishing 
that  the  refined  and  elegant  should  not  reprobate 
this  practice  for  its  coarseness  and  vulgarity,  as 
much  as  the  pious  abhor  it  for  its  sinfulness. 

"  I  would  endeavour  to  give  some  faint  idea  of 
the  grossness  of  this  offence  by  an  analogy,  (oh, 
how  inadequate!)  with  which  the  feeling  hear^ 
even  though  not  seasoned  with  religion,  may  yet 
be  touched.  To  such  I  would  earnestly  say*— 
Suppose  you  had  some  beloved  friend — to  put  the 
case  still  more  strongly,  a  departed  friend — a  re- 
verend parent,  perhaps — whose  image  never  oc- 
curs without  awakening  in  your  bosom  senti- 
ments of  tender  love  and  lively  gratitude ;  how 
would  you  feel  if  you  heard  this  honoured  name 
bandied  about  with  unfeeling  familiarity  and  in- 
decent levity ;  or,  at  best,  thrust  into  every  pause 
of  speech  as  a  vulgar  expletive? — Does  not  your 
affectionate  heart  recoil  at  the  thought  1  And  yet 
the  hallowed  name  of  your  truest  Benefactor, 
your  heavenly  Father,  your  best  Friend,  to  whom 
you  are  indebted  for  all  you  enjoy ;  who  gives  you 
those  very  friends  in  whom  you  so  much  delight, 
those  very  talents  with  which  you  dishonour  him, 
those  very  organs  of  speech  with  which  you  blas- 
pheme him,  is  treated  with  an  irreverence,  a  con- 
tempt, a  wantonness,  with  which  you  cannot  bear 
the  very  thought  or  mention  of  treating  a  human 
friend.  His  name  is  impiously,  is  unfeelingly,  is 
ungratefully  singled  out  as  the  object  of  decided 
irreverence,  of  systematic  contempt,  of  thoughtless 
levity.  His  sacred  name  is  used  indiscriminately 
to  express  anger,  joy,  grief,  surprise,  impatience ; 
and,  what  is  almost  still  more  unpardonable  than 
all,  it  is  wantonly  used  as  a  mere  unmeaning  ex- 
pletive, which  being  excited  by  no  temptation, 
can  have  nothing  to  extenuate  it;  which,  causing 
no  emotion,  can  have  nothing  to  recommend  it, 
unless  it  be  the  pleasure  of  the  sin."  Mrs.  More 
on  Education,  vol.  ii.  p.  87;  Gill's  Body  cf  IHo^ 
vol.  iii.  p.  427 ;  Brown's  System  of  Rel.  p.  52G, 


LORD 

LORD'S  PRAYER  is  that  which  our  Lord 
gave  to  his  disciples  on  the  Mount.  According 
to  wh;it  is  said  in  tiu-  sixth  chapter  of  Matthew, 
it  was  given  as  ■  director}/  ;  but  fan  Luke  xi.  1, 
some  argue  that  it  was  given  as  a  form.  Some 
have  urged  that  the  second  and  fourth  petition  of 
that  prayer  could  lx>  intended  only  for  temporary 
use  :  but  it  is  answered,  that  such  a  sense  may  be 
put  upon  those  petitions  as  shall  suit  all  Chris- 
tians in  all  aires ;  for  it  is  always  our  duty  to  pray 
that  Christ's  kingdom  may  be  advanced  in  the 
world,  and  to  profess  our  daily  dependence  on 
God's  providential  care.  Nevertheless,  there  is 
no  reason  to  believe  that  Christ  meant  that  his 
people  should  always  use  this  as  a  set  form:  for, 
if  that  had  been  the  case,  it  would  not  have  been 
varied  as  it  is  by  the  two  evangelists,  Matt,  vi., 
Luke  xi.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  they  both  agree 
in  the  main,  as  to  the  sense,  yet  not  in  the  ex- 
press words;  and  the  doxology  which  Matthew 
gives  at  large  is  wholly  left  out  in  Luke.  And, 
besides,  we  do  not  find  that  the  disciples  ever  used 
it  as  a  form.  It  is,  however,  a  most  excellent 
summary  of  prayer,  for  its  brevity,  order,  and 
matter;  and  it  is  very  lawful  and  laudable  to  make 
use  of  any  single  petition,  or  the  whole  of  it,  pro- 
vided a  formal  and  superstitious  use  of  it  be  avoid- 
ed. That  great  zeal,  as  one  observes,  which  is  to 
lie  found  in  some  Christians  either  for  or  against 
it,  is  to  be  lamented  as  a  weakness;  and  it  will 
become  us  to  do  all  that  we  can  to  promote  on 
each  side  more  moderate  sentiments  concerning 
the  use  of  it.  See  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lee. 
191;  Harrow's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  48;  Archbishop 
Leighton's  Explanation  of  it;  West  on  the 
Lord's  Prayer  ;  Gill's  Body  of  Dvo.  vol.  iii.  p. 
3d2,  8vo.  ;  Fordijcc  on  Edification  by  Public  In- 
struction, p.  11,  12  ;  Mcndam's  Exposition  of  the 
Lord's  Prayer. 

LORD'S  SUPPER  is  an  ordinance  which 
our  Saviour  instituted  as  a  commemoration  of  his 
death  and  sufferings.  1.  It  is  called  a  sacrament, 
that  is,  a  sign  and  an  oath.  An  outward  and 
visible  sign  of  an  inward  and  spiritual  grace  ;  an 
oath,  by  which  we  bind  our  soids  with  a  bond 
unto  the  Lord.  Some,  however,  reject  this  term 
as  not  being  scriptural;  as  likewise  the  idea  of 
swearing  or  vowing  to  the  Lord.  See  Vow. — 
2.  It  is  called  the  Lord's  Supper,  because  it  was 
first  instituted  in  the  evening,  and  at  the  close  of 
the  Passover  supper ;  and  because  we  therein  feed 
upon  Christ,  the  bread  of  life,  Rom.  iii.  20;  1 
Cor.  xi. — 3.  It  is  called  the  communion  with 
( ihrist,  and  with  his  people,  as  herein  we  have 
communion,  1  Cor.  xii.  13.  x.  17. — 4.  It  is  called 
the  eucharist,  a  thanksgiving,  because  Christ,  in 
the  instituting  of  it,  gave  thanks,  1  Cor.  xi.  24, 
aaid  because  we,  in  the  participation  of  it,  must 
give  thanks  likewise— 15.  It  is  called  a  feast,  and 
by  some  a  feast,  upon  a  sacrifice,  (though  not  a 
sacrifice  itself,)  in  allusion  to  the  custom  of  the 
Jews  feasting  upon  their  sacrifices,  1  Cor.  x.  18. 

As  to  the  nature  of  this  ordinance,  we  may 
observe,  that,  in  participating  of  the  bread  and 
wine,  we  do  not  consider  it  as  expiatory,  but,  1. 
As  a  commemorating  ordinance.  We  are  here 
to  remember  the  person,  love,  and  death  of  Christ. 
1  Cor.  xi.  24. — 2.  A  confessing  ordinance.  We 
hereby  profess  our  esteem  for  Christ,  and  depen- 
dence upon  him. — ;S.  A  communicating  ordi- 
nance :  blessings  of  grace  are  hern  communicated 
V>  us. — 4.  A  covenanting  ordinance.  God,  in 
238 


LORD 

and  oy  this  ordinance,  as  it  were,  declares  that 
he  is  ours,  and  we  by  it  declare  to  be  his. — 5.  A 
standing  ordinance,  for  it  is  to  be  observed  to 
the  end  of  time,  1  Cor.  xi.  2ti.  It  seems  to  l>e 
quite  an  indifferent  thing,  what  bread  is  used  in 
this  ordinance,  or  what  coloured  wine,  for  Christ 
took  that  which  was  readies*.  The  eating  of  the 
bread  and  drinking  of  the  wine  being  always  con- 
nected in  Christ's  example,  they  ought  never  to 
be  separated ;  wherever  one  is  given  the  other 
should  not  be  withheld.  This  bread  and  wine 
are  not  changed  into  the  real  body  and  blood  of 
Christ,  but  are  only  emblems  thereof.  See  Tran- 
substantiate on. 

The  subjects  rf  this  nrdinancc  should  be  such 
as  make  a  credible  profession  of  the  Gospel ;  the 
ignorant,  and  those  whose  lives  are  immoral, 
have  no  right  to  it ;  nor  should  it  ever  be  admin*  . 
isle-red  as  a  test  of  civil  obedience,  for  this  is  per- 
verting the  design  of  it.  None  but  true  believers 
cm  approach  it  with  profit;  yet  we  cannot  ex- 
clude any  who  make  a  credible  profession,  for 
God  only  is  the  judge  of  the  heart,  while  we 
can  only  act  according  to  outward  appearances. 

Much  has  been  said  respecting  the  time  of  ad- 
ministering it.  Some  plead  for  the  morning, 
others  the  afternoon,  and  some  for  the  evening; 
which  latter,  indeed,  was  the  time  of  the  first 
celebration  of  it,  and  is  most  suitable  to  a  supper. 
How  often  it  is  to  be  observed,  cannot  he  pre- 
cisely ascertained  from  Scripture.  Some  have 
been  for  keeping  it  every  day  in  the  week ;  others, 
four  times  a  week ;  some  every  Lord's  Da}', 
which  many  think  is  nearest  the  apostolic  prac- 
tice, Acts  xx.  7. — Others  have  kept  it  three 
times  a  year,  and  some  once  a  year :  but  the  most 
common  is  once  a  month.  It  evidently  appears, 
however,  both  from  Scripture,  1  Cor.  xi.  2fi,  and 
from  the  nature  of  the  ordinance,  that  it  ought  to 
be  frequent. 

As  to  the  posture.  Dr.  Doddridge  justly  ob- 
serves, that  it  is  greatly  to  be  lamented  that 
Christians  have  perverted  an  ordinance,  intended 
as  a  pledge  and  means  of  their  mutual  union, 
into  an  occasion  for  discord  and  contention,  by 
laying  such  a  disproportionate  stress  on  the  man- 
ner iir  which  it  is  to  be  administered,  and  the 
posture  in  which  it  is  to  be  received.  As  to  the 
latter,  a  table  posture  seems  most  eligible,  as 
having  been  used  by  Christ  and  his  apostles,  and 
being  peculiarly  suitable  to  the  notion  of  a  sacred  k 
feast;  and  kneeling,  which  was  never  introduced 
into  the  church  till  transubstantiation  was  re- 
ceived, may  prove  an  occasion  of  superstition. 
Nevertheless,  provided  it  be  not  absolutely  im- 
posed as  a  term  of  communion,  it  will  be  the  part 
of  Christian  candour  to  acquiesce  in  the  use  of  it 
in  others  by  whom  it  is  preferred,  it  appears 
that  standing  was  at  least  frequently  used  in  the 
Christian  church,  viz.  always  on  the  Lord's  Day, 
and  between  Easter  and  Whitsuntide.  The 
manner  in  which  this  ordinance  is  administered, 
both  in  the  church  of  England,  and  among  Pro- 
testant Dissenters,  is  so  well  known,  that  we 
need  say  nothing  of  it  here. 

We  will  only  subjoin  a  few  directions  in  what 
frame  of  mind  we  should  attend  upon  this  ordi- 
nance. It  should  be  with  sorrow  for  our  past 
sins,  and  easiness  and  calmness  of  affection,  free 
from  the  disorders  and  ruffles  of  passion  ;  with  a 
holy  awe  and  reverence  of  the  Divine  Majesty, 
yet  with  a  gracious  confidence  and  earnest  desires 


LOTS 

towards  God  ;  with  raised  expectations ;  prayer, 
joy,  and  thanksgiving,  and  love  to  all  men. 
When  coming  from  it,  we  should  admire  the 
condescensions  of  divine  grace;  watch  against 
the  snares  of  Satan,  and  the  allurements  of  the 
world ;  rejoice  in  the  finished  work  of  Christ, 
depend  upon  the  gracious  influence  of  the  Spirit, 
that  we  may  keep  up  a  sense  of  the  divine  favour, 
and  be  longing  for  heaven,  where  we  hope  at  last 
to  join  the  general  assembly  of  the  first-born. 

The  advantages  arising  from  the  participa- 
tion of  the  Lord's  Supper  are  numerous. — 1.  It 
is  a  mean  of  strengthening  our  faith  in  the  Lord 
Jesus  Christ. — 2.  It  affords  great  consolation  and 
joy. — 3.  It  increases  love. — <1.  It  has  a  tendency 
to  enlighten  our  minds  in  the  mystery  of  godli- 
ness.— 5.  It  gives  us  an  utter  aversion  to  all 
kinds  of  sin,  and  occasions  a  hearty  grief  for  it. — 
)i.  It  has  a  tendency  to  excife  and  strengthen  all 
holy  desires  in  us. — 7.  It  renews  our  obligations 
to  our  Lord  and  Master. — 8.  It  binds  the  souls 
of  Christians  one  to  another.  See  Case's  Ser- 
■rrwns,  ser.  7;  and  Henry  Earlc,  Doolitlle,  Grove, 
and  Robertson,  on  the  Lord's  Supper ;  Dr. 
Owen's.  Charnock's,  Dr.  Cudivorth's,  Mr.  Wil- 
lel's,  Dr.  Worthington' s,  Dr.  Watts's,  Bishop 
IVarburton's,  Bishop  Cleaner's,  and  Dr.  Bell's 
Pieces  on  the  Subject.  A  variety  of  other  trea- 
tises, explanatory  of  the  nature  and  design  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  may  be  seen  in  almost  any  cata- 
logue. 

LOT  is  a  mutual  agreement  to  determine  an 
uncertain  event,  no  other  ways  determinable,  by 
an  appeal  to  the  providence  of  God,  on  casting  or 
throwing  something.  This  is  a  decisory  lot, 
Prov.  xvi.  33;  xviii.  18.  The  matter,  therefore, 
to  be  determined,  in  order  to  avoid  guilt,  should 
be  important,  and  no  other  possible  way  left  to 
determine  it;  and  the  manner  of  making  the  ap- 
peal solemn  and  grave,  if  we  would  escape  the 
guilt  of  taking  the  name  of  God  in  vain.  Wan- 
tonly, without  necessity,  and  in  a  ludicrous  man- 
ner, to  make  this  appeal,  must  he  therefore  highly 
blameable.  And  if  thus  the  decisory  lot,  when 
wantonly  and  unnecessarily  employed,  be  crimi- 
nal, equally,  if  not  more  so,  must  the  divinalory 
lot  be,  which  is  employed  for  discovering  the  will 
of  God :  this,  being  no  mean  of  God's  appoint- 
ment, must  he  superstitious,  and  the  height  of 
presumption. 

LOTS,  SACRED,  or  Sortes  Sanctorum, 
Lots  of  the  Sa,ints,  a  species  of  divination  prac- 
tised in  the  earlier  ages  of  Christianity,  and  which 
consisted  in  casually  openino-  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures, and  from  the  words  which  first  presented 
themselves,  deducing  the  future  lot  of  the  inquirer. 
They  were  evidently  derived  from  the  Sortes  Vir- 
gilixma,  or  Sortes  Homericce,  of  the  Pagans. 
These  were  so  called  from  the  poems  of  Virgil 
or  Homer  being  used  as  the  means  of  divining 
the  fate  of  the  consulter;  the  first  verse  which 
struck  the  eye  on  opening  the  volume  being  con- 
sidered as  oracular.  This  abuse  among  Chris- 
tians arose  from  the  superstition  of  the  people 
and  the  ignorance  of  the  bishops,  when  the 
church  had  degenerated  from  its  primitive  purity, 
and  the  people  of  God,  by  being  "  mingled  among 
the  heathen,"  had  learned  their  works.  Some- 
times the  persons  who  were  desirous  of  prying 
into  futurity,  or  ascertaining  the  will  of  God  in 
particular  circumstances,  entered  the  churches, 
ifter  solemn  preparation,  during  the  celebration 
'?22 


LOVE 

of  divine  service,  and  regarded  the  first  sentence 
they  he^ftd  as  the  decision  of  heaven.  The  fol- 
lowing circumstance  illustrative  of  the  methods 
sometimes  resorted  to  for  obtaining  an  oracular 
decision  of  a  point  of  duty,  is  related  by  Gregory 
of  Tours,  of  Consortia,  daughter  of  Eucherius, 
bishop  of  Lyons.  She  having  chosen  a  religioua 
life,  determined  to  take  the  vril ;  but  being  ad- 
dressed by  a  young  man  of  rank  and  influence, 
who  was  desirous  of  marrying  her,  found  herself 
placed  in  a  critical  situation,  knowing  that  if  she 
refused  the  ofler  of  marriage,  she  should  incur 
the  displeasure  of  his  friends,  and  create  a  violent 
opposition  to  herself  and  family.  In  this  dilemma 
she  requested  to  be  allowed  seven  days  to  consider 
of  the  proposal.  These  she  spent  in  fasting  and 
prayer.  When  the  time  had  elapsed,  the  young 
man,  accompanied  by  the  most  illustrious  matrons 
of  the  country,  came  to  receive  her  answer.  "  I 
cannot  either  accept  or  refuse  you  as  my  hus- 
band," said  she  to  him,  "all  is  in  the  hands  of 
God ;  but,  if  you  are  willing,  we  will  go  to  the 
church  and  have  mass  said,  and  afterwards  we 
will  lay  the  Gospels  on  the  altar,  and  after  having 
offered  a  prayer  together,  we  will  open  the  book 
and  learn  the  will  of  God  from  the  passage  which 
first  presents  itself  to  us."  The  proposition  ap- 
pearing reasonable  was  accepted,  and  the  pro* 
liminary  ceremonies  being  performed,  Consortia 
opened  the  volume  and  read,  "He  that  loveth 
father  or  mother  more  than  me,  is  not  worthy  of 
me,"  Matt.  x.  37.  Penetrated  with  joy,  she  told, 
the  young  man  she  could  not  be  his  spouse,  but 
must  go  and  dedicate  herself  to  God,  according 
to  her  former  resolution.  See  Bibliomancy. 
Townley's  Essays  on  various  Subjects  of  Eccle- 
siastical History  and  Antiquity. — B. 

LOVE  consists  in  approbation  of,  and  inclina 
tion  towards  an  object  that  appears  to  us  as  good. 
It  has  been  distinguished  into,  1.  Love  of  esteem, 
which  arises  from  the  mere  consideration  of  some 
excellency  in  an  object,  and  belongs  either  to 
persons  or  things. — 2.  Love  of  benevolence,  which 
is  an  inclination  to  seek  the  happiness  or  welfare 
of  any  thing. — 3.  Lore  of  complacence,  which 
arises  from  the  consideration  of  any  object  agree- 
able to  us,  and  calculated  to  afford  us  pleasure. 

LOVE  TO  GOD  is  a  divine  principle  im- 
planted in  the  mind  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  whereby 
we  reverence,  esteem,  desire,  and  delight  in  Him 
as  the  chief  good.  It  includes  a  knowledge  of 
his  natural  excellencies,  Psal.  viii.  1,  and  a  con- 
sideration of  his  goodness  to  us,  1  John  iv.  19. 
Nor  can  these  two  ideas,  I  think,  be  well  sepa- 
rated :  for,  however  some  may  argue  that  genuine 
love  to  God  should  arise  only  from  a  sense  of  his 
amiableness,  yet  I  think  it  will  be  difficult  to  con- 
ceive how  it  can  exist,  abstracted  from  the  idea 
of  his  relative  goodness.  The  passage  last  re- 
ferred to  is  to  the  point,  and  the  representations 
given  us  of  the  praises  of  the  saints  in  heaven 
accord  with  the  same  sentiment ;  "  Thou  ait 
worthy,  for  thou  hast  redeemed  us  by  thy  blood," 
Rev.  v.  9.  See  Sklk-Love.  "  Love  to  God  is 
a  subject,"  says  bishop  Porteus;,  "  which  it  con- 
cerns us  to  inquire  carefully  into  the  true  nature 
of.  And  it  concerns  us  the  more,  because  it  has 
been  unhappily  brought  into  disrepute  by  the 
extravagant  conceits  of  a  few  devout  enthusiasts 
concerning  it.  Of  these,  some  have  treated  the  love 
of  God  in  so  refined  a  way,  and  carrieil  it  to  such 
heights  of  seraphic  ecstacy  and  rapture,  that  com- 


LOVE 
mon  minds  must  for  over  despair  of  cither  fol^ 
lowing  or  understanding  them ;  whilst  others 
have  described  it  in  such  warm  and  indelicate 
terms  as  are  much  better  suited  to  the  grossness 
of  earthly  passion,  than  the  purity  of  spiritual 
affection. 

"  But  the  accidental  excesses  of  this  holy  sen- 
timent can  be  no  just  argument  against  its  gene- 
ral excellence  and  utility. 

"  We  know  that  even  friendship  itself  has 
sometimes  been  abused  to  the  most  unworthy 
purposes,  and  led  men  to  the  commission  of  the 
most  atrocious  crimes.  Shall  we,  therefore,  utterly 
discard  that  generous  passion,  and  consider  it  as 
nothing  more  than  the  unnatural  fervour  of  a  ro- 
mantic imagination  7  Every  heart  revolts  against 
so  wild  a  thought !  And  why,  then,  must  we 
suffer  the  love  of  God  to  be  banished  out  of  the 
world,  because  it  has  been  sometimes  improperly 
represented  or  indiscreetly  exercised  ?  It  is  not 
either  from  the  visionary  mystic,  the  sensual 
fanatic,  or  the  frantic  zealot,  but  from  the  plain 
word  of  God,  that  we  are  to  take  our  ideas  of  this 
divine  sentiment.  There  we  find  it  described  in 
ail  its  native  purity  and  simplicity.  The  marks 
by  which  it  is  there  distinguished  contain  nothing 
enthusiastic  or  extravagant."  It  may  be  con- 
sidered, 1.  As  sincere,  Matt.  xxii.  36,  38. — 
2.  Constant,  Rom.  viii. — 3.  Universal  of  all  his 
attributes,  commandments,  ordinances,  &c. — 
4.  Progressive,  1  Thess.  v.  12;  2  Thess.  i.  3; 
Eph.  hi.  If). — 5.  Superlative,  Lam.  iii.  24. — 
6.  Eternal,  Rom.  viii.  This  love  manifests  itself, 
I.  In  a  desire  to  be  like  God. — 2.  In  making  his 
glory  the  supreme  end  of  our  actions,  I  Cor.  xi. 
31. — 3.  In  delighting  in  communion  with  him, 
1  John  i.  3. — 4.  In  grief  under  the  hidings  of  his 
face,  Job  xxiii.  2. — 5.  In  relinquishing  all  that 
stands  in  opposition  to  his  will,  Phil.  iii.  8. — 
6.  In  regard  to  his  house,  worship,  and  ordi- 
nances, Ps.  lxxxiv. — 7.  In  love  for  his  truth  and 
people,  Ps.  cxix ;  John  xiii.  35. — 8.  By  confi- 
dence in  his  promises,  Ps.  lxxi.  1. — And,  lastly, 
by  obedience  to  his  word,  John  xiv.  15;  1  John 
li.  3.  Gill's  Body  of  Div.  p.  94,  vol.  iii.  octavo ; 
Walls's  Discourses  on  Love  to  God ;  Scott's 
Serm.  ser.  14;  Bellamy  on  Religion,  p.  2,  and 
Signs  of  Counterfeit  Love,  p.  82;  Bishop  Por- 
teus's  Serm.  vol.  i.  se-.  1. 

LOVE,  BROTHERLY,  is  affection  to  our 
neighbours,  and  especially  to  the  saints,  prompt- 
ing us  to  every  act  of  kindness  toward  them.  It 
docs  not,  indeed,  consist  merely  in  pity  to  and  re- 
lief of  others,  1  Cor.  xiii.;  in  love  to  our  benefac- 
tors only,  and  those  who  are  related  to  us,  Matt. 
v.  46,  47.  It  must  flow  from  love  to  God,  and 
extend  to  all  mankind  ;  yea,  we  are  required  by 
the  highest  authority  to  love  even  our  enemies, 
Matt.  v.  44,  not  so  as  to  countenance  them  in 
their  evil  actions,  but  to  forgive  the  injuries  they 
have  done  to  us.  Love  to  good  men,  also,  must 
be  particularly  cultivated,  for  it  is  the  command 
of  Christ,  John  xiii.  34 ;  they  belong  to  the  same 
Father  and  family,  Gal.  vi.  10 ;  we  hereby  give 
proof  of  our  discipleship,  John  xiii.  35.  The  ex- 
ample of  Christ  should  allure  us  to  it,  1  John  iii. 
16.  It  is  creative  of  a  variety  of  pleasing  sensa- 
tions, and  prevents  a  thousand  evils  :  it  is  the 
greatest  of  all  graces,  1  Cor.  xiii.  13. — It  answers 
the  end  of  the  law,  1  Tim.  i.  5 ;  resembles  the 
inhabitants  of  a  better  world,  and  without  it  every 
other  attainment  is  of  no  avail.  1  Cor.  xiii.  Tliis 
240 


LUCIANISTS 
love  should  show  itself  by  praying  for  our  bre 
thren,  Eph.  vi.  18;  bearing  one  another's  bur  • 
dens,  by  assisting  and  relieving  each  other,  GaL 
vi.  2.  By  forbearing  with  one  another,  Col.  iii 
13.  By  reproving  and  admonishing  in  the  spirit 
of  meekness,  Ptov.  xxvii.  5,  6.  By  establishing 
each  other  in  the  truth  ;  by  conversation,  exhor- 
tation, and  stirring  up  one  another  to  the  several 
duties  of  religion,  both  public  and  private,  Jude, 
20,  21 ;  Heb.  x.  24,  25.     See  Charity. 

LOVE  OF  GOD,  is  either  his  natural  delight 
in  that  which  is  good,  Isa.  Ixi.  8,  or  that  especial 
affection  he  bears  to  his  people,  1  John  iv.  19* 
Not  that  he  possesses  the  passion  of  love  as  we 
do ;  but  it  implies  his  absolute  purpose  and  will  to 
deliver,  bless,  and  save  his  people.  The  love  of 
God  to  his  people  appears  in  his  all-wise  designs 
and  plans  for  their  happiness,  Eph.  iii.  10. — 2.  In 
the  choice  of  them,  and  determination  to  sanctify 
and  glorify  them.  2  Thess.  ii.  13. — 3.  In  the  gift 
of  his  Son  to  die  for  them,  and  redeem  them  from 
sin,  death,  and  hell,  Rom.  v.  9;  John  iii.  16. — 
4.  In  the  revelation  of  his  will,  and  the  declara- 
tion of  his  promises  to  them,  2  Peter  i.  4. — 5.  In 
the  awful  punishment  of  their  enemies,  Ex.  xix. 
4. — 6.  In  his  actual  conduct  towards  them ;  in 
supporting  them  in  life,  blessing  them  in  death, 
and  bringing  them  to  glory,  Rom.  viii.  30,  &c; 
vi.  23.  The  properties  of  this  love  may  be 
considered  as,  1.  Everlasting,  Jer.  xxxi.  3 ;  Eph. 
i.  4. — 2.  Immutable,  Mai.  iii.  6 ;  Zeph.  iii.  17.— 
3.  Free ;  neither  the  sufferings  of  Christ  nor  the 
merits  of  men  are  the  cause,  but  his  own  good 
pleasure,  John  iii.  16. — 4.  Great  and  unspeakable, 
Eph.  ii.  4,  6;  iii.  19;  Ps.  xxxvi.  7. 

LOVE,  FAMILY  OF.  A  sect  that  arose 
in  Holland,  in  the  sixteenth  century,  founded  by 
Henry  Nicholas,  a  Westphalian.  He  main- 
tained that  he  had  a  commission  from  heaven  to 
teach  men  that  the  essence  of  religion  consisted 
in  the  feelings  of  divine  love;  that  all  other  theo- 
logical tenets,  whether  they  related  to  objects  of 
faith  or  modes  of  worship,  were  of  no  sort  of  mo- 
ment; and,  consequently,  that  it  was  a  matter  of 
the  most  perfect  indifference  what  opinions  Chris- 
tians entertained  concerning  the  divine  nature, 
provided  their  hearts  burned  with  the  pure  and 
sacred  flame  of  piety  and  love. 

LOVE  OF  THE  WORLD.    See  World. 

LOVE  FEASTS.     SeeAGAP^:. 

LOW  CHURCHMAN,  those  who  disap- 
proved of  the  schism  made  in  the  church  by  the 
Nonjurors,  and  who  distinguished  themselves  by 
their  moderation  towards  dissenters,  and  were 
less  ardent  in  extending  the  limits  of  ecclesiastical 
authority.     See  High  Churchmen. 

LUCIANISTS,  or  Lucanists,  a  sectsocall- 
ed  from  Lucianus,  or  Lucanus,  a  heretic  of  the 
second  century,  being  a  disciple  of  Marcion, 
whose  errors  he  followed,  adding  some  new  one* 
to  them.  Epiphanius  says  he  abandoned  Mar- 
cion, teaching  that  people  ought  not  to  marry, 
for  fear  of  enriching  the  Creator :  and  yet  other 
authors  mention,  that  he  held  this  error  in  com- 
mon with  Marcion  and  other  Gnostics.  He  de- 
nied the  immortality  of  the  soul,  asserting  it  to 
be  material. 

There  was  another  s»-ct  of  Lucianists,  who  ap- 
peared some  time  after  the  Arians.  They  taught, 
that  the  Father  had  been  a  Father  always,  and 
that  he  had  the  name  even  before  he  begot  tha 
Son,  as  having  in  him  the  power  and  faculty  of 


LUTHERANS 
{feneration;  and  in  this  manner  they  accounted 
for  the  eternity  of  the  Son. 

LUCIFERIANS,  a  sect  who  adhered  to  the 
schism  of  Lucifer,  bishop  of  Cagliari,  in  the 
fourth  century,  who  was  banished  by  the  em- 
peror Constantius,  for  having  defended  the  Ni- 
cene  doctrine  concerning  the  three  persons  in  the 
Godhead.  It  is  said,  also,  that  they  believed  the 
soul  to  be  corporeal,  and  to  be  transmitted  from 
the  father  to  the  children.  The  Lucifeiians  were 
numerous  in  Gaul,  Spain,  Egypt,  &c.  The  oc- 
casion of  this  schism  was,  that  i^ucifer  would  not 
allow  any  acts  he  had  done  to  be  abolished. 
There  were  but  two  Luciferian  bishops,  but  a 
great  number  of  priests  and  deacons.  The  Luci- 
ferians  bore  a  great  aversion  to  the  Arians. 

LUKEWARMNESS,  applied  to  the  affec- 
tions, indifference,  or  want  of  ardour.  In  respect 
to  re-'igion,  hardly  any  thing  can  be  more  culpable 
than  this  spirit. — If  there  he  a  God  possessed  of 
unspeakable  rectitude  in  his  own  nature,  and  un- 
bounded goodness  towards  his  creatures,  what  can 
be  more  inconsistent  and  unbecoming  than  to  be 
frigid  and  indifferent  in  our  devotions  to  him  ? 
Atheism,  in  some  respects,  cannot  be  worse  than 
lukewarmness.  The  Atheist  disbelieves  the  ex- 
istence of  a  God,  and  therefore  cannot  worship 
him  at  all;  the  lukewarm  owns  the  existence, 
sovereignty,  and  goodness  of  the  Supreme  Being, 
but  denies  him  that  fervour  of  affection,  that  de- 
votedness  of  heart,  and  activity  of  service,  which 
the  excellency  of  his  nature  demands,  and  the 
authority  of  his  word  requires.  Such  a  character, 
therefore,  is  represented  as  absolutely  loathsome 
to  God,  and  obnoxious  to  his  v;rath,  Rev.  iii. 
15, 16. 

The  general  signs  of  a  lukeicarm  spirit  are 
such  as  these :  Neglect  of  private  prayer ;  a  pre- 
ference of  worldly  to  religious  company ;  a  lax 
attendance  on  public  ordinances;  omission  or 
careless  perusal  of  God's  word ;  a  zeal  for  some 
appendages  of  religion,  while  languid  about  re- 
ligion itself;  a  backwardness  to  promote  the  cause 
of  God  in  the  world,  and  a  rashness  of  spirit  in 
censuring  those  who  are  desirous  to  be  useful. 

If  we  inquire  the  causes  of  such  a  spirit,  we 
shall  find  them  to  be — worldly  prosperity ;  the 
influence  of  carnal  relatives  and  acquaintances  ; 
indulgence  of  secret  sins ;  the  fear  of  man ;  and 
sitting  under  an  unfaithful  ministry. 

The  inconsistency  of  it  appears  if  we  consider, 
that  it  is  highly  unreasonable ;  dishonourable  to 
God ;  incompatible  with  the  genius  of  the  Gos- 
pel ;  a  barrier  to  improvement ;  a  death-blow  to 
usefulness ;  a  direct  opposition  to  the  commands 
of  Scripture  ;  and  tends  to  the  greatest  misery. 

To  overcome  such  a  state  of  mind  we,  should 
consider  how  offensive  it  is  to  God  ;  how  incon- 
gruous with  the  very  idea  and  nature  of  true  re- 
ligion ;  how  injurious  to  peace  and  felicity  of 
mind ;  how  ungrateful  to  Jesus  Christ,  whose 
whole  life  was  labour  for  us  and  our  salvation ; 
how  grievous  to  the  Holy  Spirit ;  how  dreadful 
an  example  to  those  who  have  no  religion ;  how 
unlike  the  saints  of  old,  and  even  to  our  enemies 
in  the  worst  of  causes;  how  dangerous  to  our 
immortal  souls,  since  it  is  indicative  of  our  want 
of  love  to  God,  and  exposes  us  to  just  condemna- 
tion, Amos  vi.  1. 

LUTHERANS,  those  Christians  who  follow 
the  opinions  of  Martin  Luther,  the  celebrated  ie- 
fortner  of  the  church,  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
5341  2F 


LUTHERANS 

In  order  that  we  may  trace  the  rise  and  progress 
of  Lutheranism,  we  must  here  refer  to  the  life  of 
Luther  himself.  Luther  was  a  native  of  Eisleton, 
in  Saxony,  and  born  in  1483.  Though  his  parents 
were  poor,  he  received  a  learned  education,  during 
the  progress  of  which  he  gave  many  indications 
of  uncommon  vigour  and  acuteness  of  genius. 
As  his  mind  was  naturally  susceptible  of  serious 
impressions,  and  tinctured  with  somewhat  of  that 
religious  melancholy  which  delights  in  the  soli- 
tude and  devotion  of  a  monastic  life,  he  retired 
into  a  convent  of  Augustinian  friars;  where  hi 
acquired  great  reputation  not  only  for  piety,  but 
for  love  of  knowledge,  and  unwearied  application 
to  study.  The  cause  of  this  retirement  is  said  to 
have  been,  that  he  was  once  struck  by  lightning, 
and  his  companion  killed  by  his  side  by  the  same 
flash.  He  had  been  taught  the  scholastic  philo- 
sophy, which  was  in  vogue  in  those  days,  and 
made  considerable  progress  in  it :  but  happening 
to  find  a  copy  of  the  Bible  which  lay  neglected  in 
the  library  of  his  monastery,  he  applied  himself  to 
the  study  of  it  with  such  eagerness  and  assiduity, 
as  quite  astonished  the  monks ;  and  increased  his 
reputation  for  sanctity  so  much,  that  he  was 
chosen  professor,  first  of  philosophy,  and  after- 
wards of  theology,  in  Wittemhurg,  on  the  Elbe, 
where  Frederic,  elector  of  Saxony,  had  founded 
an  university. 

While  Luther  continued  to  enjoy  the  highest 
reputation  for  sanctity  and  learning,  Tetzel,  a 
Dominican  friar,  came  to  Wittemhurg  in  order 
to  publish  indulgences.  Luther  beheld  his  suc- 
cess with  great  concern :  and  having  first  in- 
veighedAgainst  indulgences  from  the  pulpit,  he 
afterwards  published  ninety-five  theses,  contain- 
ing his  sentiments  on  that  subject.  These  he  pro- 
posed not  as  points  fully  established,  but  as  sub- 
jects of  inquiry  and  disputation.  He  appointed  a 
day  on  which  the  learned  were  invited  to  impugn 
them,  either  in  person  or  by  writing  ;  and  to  the 
whole  he  subjoined  solemn  protestations  of  his 
high  respect  for  the  apostolic  see,  and  of  his  im- 
plicit submission  to  its  authority.  No  opponent 
appeared  at  the  time  prefixed  :  the  theses  spread 
over  Germany  with  astonishing  rapidity,  and 
were  read  with  the  greatest  eagerness. 

Though  Luther  met  with  no  opposition  for 
some  little  time  after  he  began  to  publish  his  new 
doctrines,  it  was  not  long  before  many  zealous 
champions  arose  to  defend  those  opinions  with 
which  the  wealth  and  power  of  the  clergy  were  so 
strictly  connected.  Their  cause,  however,  was 
by  no  means  promoted  by  these  endeavours  :  the 
people  began  to  call  in  question  even  the  autho- 
rity of  the  canon  law,  and  of  the  pope  himself. 
The  court  of  Rome  at  first  despised  these  new 
doctrines  and  disputes ;  but  at  last  the  attention 
of  the  pope  being  raised  by  the  great  success  of 
the  reformer,  and  the  complaints  of  his  adversa  ■ 
ries,  Luther  was  summoned,  in  the  month  of 
July,  1518,  to  appear  at  Rome,  within  sixty  day ts, 
before  the  auditor  of  the  chamber.  One  of  Lu- 
ther's adversaries,  named  Prierius,  who  had  writ- 
ten against  him,  was  appointed  to  examine  his 
doctrines,  and  to  decide  concerning  them.  The 
pope  wrote  at  the  same  time  to  the  elector  of 
Saxony,  beseeching  him  not  to  protect  a  man 
whose  heretical  and  profane  tenets  were  so  shock- 
ing to  pious  ears ;  and  enjoined  the  provincial  of 
the  Augustinians  to  check,  by  his  authority,  the 
rashness  of  an  arrogant  monk,  which  brought 


LUTHERANS 

disgrace  upon  their  order,  and  gave  offence  and 
disturbance  to  the  whole  church. 

From  these  letters,  and  the  appointment  of  his 
open  enemy  Prierius  to  be  Ins  judge,  Luther 
easily  saw  what  sentence  he  might  expect  at 
Rome  ;  and  therefore  discovered  the  utmost  soli- 
citude to  have  his  cause  tried  in  Germany,  and 
before  a  less  suspected  tribunal.  He  wrote  a 
submissive  letter  to  the  pope,  in  which  he  pro- 
mised an  unreserved  obedience  to  his  will,  for  as 
yet  he  entertained  no  doubt  of  the  divine  original 
of  the  pope's  authority;  and,  by  the  intercession 
af  the  other  professors,  Cajetan,  the  pope's  legate 
in  Germany,  was  appointed  to  hear  and  deter- 
mine the  cause.  Luther  appeared  before  him 
without  hesitation;  but  Cajetan  thought  it  be- 
low his  dignity  to  dispute  the  point  with  a  person 
so  much  his  inferior  in  rank;  and  therefore  re- 
quired him,  by  virtue  of  the  apostolic  powers  with 
which  he  was  clothed,  to  retract  the  errors  which 
he  had  uttered  with  regard  to  indulgences  and 
the  nature  of  faith,  and  to  abstain  for  the  future 
from  the  publication  of  new  and  dangerous  opi- 
nions ;  and,  at  the  last,  forbad  him  to  appear  in 
his  presence,  unless  he  promised  to  comply  with 
what  had  been  required  of  him. 

This  haughty  and  violent  manner  Bf  proceed- 
ing, together  with  some  other  circumstances, 
gave  Luther's  friends  such  strong  reasons  to  sus- 
pect that  even  the  imperial  safe-conduct  would 
not  be  able  to  protect  him  from  the  legate's  power 
and  resentment,  that  they  prevailed  on  him  se- 
cretly to  withdraw  from  Augsburgh,  where  he 
had  attended  the  legate,  and  to  return  to  his  own 
country.  But  before  his  departure,  acHrding  to 
a  form  of  which  there  had  been  some  examples, 
he  prepared  a  solemn  appeal  from  the  legate,  ill- 
informed  at  that  time  concerning  his  cause,  to  the 
pope,  when  he  should  receive  more  full  intima- 
tion with  respect  to  it.  Cajetan,  enraged  at  Lu- 
ther's abrupt  retreat,  and  at  the  publication  of  his 
appeal,  wrote  to  the  elector  of  Saxony,  complain- 
ing of  both ;  and  requiring  him,  as  he  regarded 
the  peace  of  the  church,  or  the  authority  of  its 
head,  either  to  send  that  seditious  monk  a  pri- 
soner to  Rome,  or  to  banish  hiin  out  of  his  terri- 
tories. Frederic  had  hitherto,  from  political  mo- 
tives, protected  Luther,  as  thinking  he  might  be 
of  use  in  checking  the  enormous  power  of  the 
see,  of  Rome ;  and  though  all  Germany  resounded 
with  his  fame,  the  elector  had  never  yet  admitted 
him  into  his  presence.  But  upon  this  demand 
made  by  the  cardinal,  it  became  necessary  to 
throw  off  somewhat  of  liis  former  reserve.  He 
had  been  at  great  expense,  and  bestowed  much 
attention  on  founding  a  new  university,  an  object 
of  considerable  importance  to  every  German 
prince ;  and  foreseeing  how  fatal  a  blow  the  re- 
moval of  Luther  would  be  to  his  reputation,  he 
not  only  declined  complying  with  either  of  the 
pope's  rcqbests,  but  openly  discovered  great  con- 
cern for  Luther's  safety. 

The  situation  of  our  reformer,  in  the  mean 
time,  became  daily  more  and  more  alarming.  He 
knew  very  well  what  were  the  motives  which  in- 
duced the  elector  to  aiford  him  protection,  and 
that  he  could  by  no  means  depend  on  a  continu- 
ance of  his  friendship.  If  he  should  he  obliged 
to  quit  Saxony,  he  had  no  other  asylum,  and 
must  stand  exposed  to  whatever  punishment  the 
rage  or  bigotry  of  his  enemies  could  inflict;  and 
so  ready  were  liis  adversaries  to  condemn  him, 
212 


LUTHERANS 
that  he  had  been  declared  a  heretic  at  Rome  be- 
fore the  expiration  of  the  sixty  days  allowed  him 
in  the  citation  for  making  his  appearance.  Not- 
withstanding all  this,  however,  he  discovered  no 
symptoms  of  timidity  or  remissness;  but  continu- 
ed to  vindicate  his  own  conduct  and  opinions,  and 
to  inveigh  against  those  of  his  adversaries  with 
more  vehemence  than  ever.  Being  convinced, 
therefore,  that  the  pope  would  soon  proceed  to  the 
most  violent  measures  against  him,  lie  appealed 
to  a  general  council,  which  he  affirmed  to  lie  the 
representative  of  the  Catholic  church,  and  supe- 
rior in  power  to  the  pope,  who,  being  a  fallible 
man,  might  err,  as  St  Peter,  the  most  perfect  of 
his  predecessors,  had  done. 

The  Court  of  Rome  was  equally  assiduous,  in 
the  mean  time,  to  crush  the  author  of  these  new 
doctrines,  which  gave  them  so  much  uneasiness. 
A  bull  was  issued  by  the  pope,  of  a  date  prior  to 
Luther's  appeal,  in  which  he  magnified  the  vir 
tues  of  indulgences,  and  subjected  to  the  heaviest 
ecclesiastical  censures  all  who  presumed  to  teach 
a  contrary  doctrine.  Such  a  clear  decision  of  the 
sovereign  pontiff  against  him  might  have  been 
very  fatal  to  Luther's  cause,  had  not  the  death  of 
the  emperor  Maximilian,  which  happened  on 
January  17,  1519,  contributed  to  give  matters  a 
different  turn.  Both  the  principles  and  interest 
of  Maximilian  had  prompted  him  to  support  the 
authority  of  the  see  of  Rome ;  but,  in  consequence 
of  his  death,  the  vicariate  of  that  part  of  Ger- 
many which  is  governed  by  the  Saxon  laws  de- 
volved to  the  elector  of  Saxony;  and,  under  the 
shelter  of  his  friendly  administration,  Luther 
himself  enjoyed  tranquillity;  and  his  opinions 
took  such  root  in  different  places,  that  they  could 
never  afterwards  be  eradicated.  At  the  same 
time,  as  the  election  of  an  emperor  was  a  point 
more  interesting  to  the  pope  (Leo  X.)  than  a 
theological  controversy  which  he  did  not  under- 
stand, and  of  which  he  could  not  foresee  the  con- 
sequences, he  was  so  extremely  solicitous  not  to 
irritate  a  prince  of  such  considerable  influence*! 
the  electoral  college  as  Frederic,  that  he  discover- 
ed a  great  unwillingness  to  pronounce  the  sen- 
tence of  excommunication  against  Luther,  which 
his  adversaries  continually  demanded  with  the 
most  clamorous  importunity. 

From  the  reason  just  now  given,  and  Leo's 
natural  aversion  to  severe  measures,  a  suspension 
of  proceedings  against  Luther  took  place  for  eigh- 
teen months,  though  perpetual  negociations  were 
carried  on  during  this  interval,  in  order  to  bring 
the  matter  to  an  amicable  issue.  The  mariner 
in  which  these  were  conducted  having  given  our 
reformer  many  opportunities  of  observing  the 
corruption  of  the  court  of  Rome,  its  obstinacy  in 
adhering  to  established  errors,  and  its  indifference 
about  truth,  however  clearly  proposed  or  strongly 
proved,  he  began,  in  1520,  to  utter  some  doubts 
with  regard  to  the  divine  original  of  the  papal 
authority,  which  he  publicly  disputed  with  Eccius, 
one  of  his  most  learned  and  formidable  antagon- 
ist. The  dispute  was  indecisive,  both  parties 
claiming  the  victory ;  but  it  must  have  been  very 
mortifying  to  the  partisans  of  the  Romish  church 
to  hear  such  an  essential  point  of  their  doctrine 
publicly  attacked. 

The" papal  authority  being  once  suspected,  Lu- 
ther proceeded  to  push  on  his  inquiries  and  at- 
tacks  from  one  doctrine  to  another,  till  at  last  he 
began  to  shake  the  firmest  foundations  on  which 


LUTHERANS 
the  wealth  and  power  of  the  church  were  esta- 
blished. Leo  then  began  to  perceive  that  there 
were  no  hopes  of  reclaiming  such  an  incorrigible 
neretic,  and  therefore  prepared  to  pronounce  the 
sentence  of  excommunication  against  him.  The 
college  of  cardinals  was  often  assembled,  in  order 
to  prepare  the  sentence  with  due  deliberation ; 
and  the  ablest  canonists  were  consulted  how  it 
might  be  expressed  with  unexceptionable  formal- 
ity. At  last  it  was  issued  on  the  15th  of  June, 
1520.  Forty-one  propositions,  extracted  out  of 
Luther's  works,  were  therein  condemned  as  he- 
retical, scandalous,  and  offensive  to  pious  ears ; 
all  persons  were  forbidden  to  read  his  writings, 
upon  pain  of  excommunication ;  such  as  had  any 
of  them  in  their  custody  were  commanded  to 
commit  them  to  the  flames;  he  himself,  if  he  did 
not,  within  sixty  days,  publicly  recant  his  errors, 
and  burn  his  books,  was  pronounced  an  obstinate 
heretic,  excommunicated,  and  delivered  to  Satan 
for  the  destruction  of  the  flesh ;  and  all  secular 
princes  were  required,  under  pain  of  incurring 
the  same  censure,  to  seize  his  person,  that  he 
might  be  punished  as  his  crimes  deserved. 

Luther  was  not  in  the  least  disconcerted  by  this 
sentence,  which  he  had  for  some  time  expected. 
He  renewed  his  appeal  to  this  general  council ; 
(ieclared  the  pope  to  be  that  Antichrist  or  man  of 
sin  whose  appearance  is  foretold  in  the  New  Tes- 
tament ;  declaimed  against  his  tyranny  with 
greater  vehemence  than  ever ;  and  at  last,  by  way 
of  retaliation,  having  assembled  all  the  professors 
and  students  in  the  university  of  Wittemberg, 
with  great  pomp,  and  in  the  presence  of  a  vast 
multitude  of  spectators,  he  cast  the  volumes  of 
the  canon  law,  together  with  the  bull  of  excom- 
munication, into  the  flames.  The  manner  in 
which  this  action  was  justified,  gave  still  more 
offence,  than  the  action  itself.  Having  collected 
from  the  canon  law  some  of  the  most  extravagant 
propositions  with  regard  to  the  plenitude  and  om- 
nipotence of  the  pope's  power,  as  well  as  the  sub- 
ordination of  a'l  secular  jurisdiction  to  his  autho- 
rity, he  published  these  with  a  commentary, 
pointing  out  the  impiety  of  such  tenets,  and  their 
evident  tendency  to  subvert  all  civil  government. 

On  the  accession  of  Charles  V.  to  the  empire, 
Luther  found  himself  in  a  very  dangerous  situa- 
ation.  Charles,  in  order  to  secure  the  pope's 
friendship,  had  determined  to  treat  him  with 
great  severity.  His  eagerness  to  gain  this  point 
rendered  him  not  averse  to  gratify  the  papal  le- 
gates in  Germany,  who  insisted,  that,  without 
any  delay,  or  formal  deliberations,  the  diet  then 
sitting  at  Worms  ought  to  condemn  a  man  whom 
the  pope  had  already  excommunicated  as  an  in- 
corrigible heretic.  Such  an  abrupt  manner  of 
proceeding,  however,  being  deemed  unprecedent- 
ed and  unjust  by  the  members  of  the  diet,  they 
made  a  point  of  Luther's  appearing  in  person, 
and  declaring  whether  he  adhered  or  not  to  those 
opinions  which  had  drawn  upon  him  the  cen- 
sures of  the  church.  Not  only  the  emperor,  but. 
all  the  princes  through  whose  territories  he  had 
!  j  pass,  granted  him  a  safe-conduct ;  and  Charles 
wrote  to  him  at  the  same  time,  requiring  his  im- 
mediate attendance  on  the  diet,  and  renewing  his 
E>ro:nises  of  protection  from  any  injury  or  vio- 
enee.  Luther  did  not  hesitate  one  moment  about 
yielding  obedience ;  and  set  out  for  Worms,  at- 
tended by  the  herald  who  had  brought  the  empe- 
ror's letter  and  safe-conduct.  While  on  his  jour- 
2-13 


LUTHERANS 

ney,  many  of  his  friends,  whom  the  fate  of  Huss 
under  similar  circumstances,  and  notwithstand- 
ing the  same  security  of  an  imperial  safe-conduct, 
filled  with  solicitude,  advised  and  entreated  him 
not  to  rush  wantonly  into  the  midst  of  danger. 
But  Luther,  superior  to  such  terrors,  silenced 
them  with  this  reply :  "  I  am  lawfully  called," 
said  he,  "  to  appear  in  that  city ;  and  thither  I 
will  go  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  though  as  many 
devils  as  there  are  tiles  on  the  houses  were  there 
combined  against  me." 

The  reception  which  he  met  with  at  Worms, 
was  such  as  might  have  been  reckoned  a  full  re- 
ward for  all  his  labours,  if  vanity  and  the  love  of 
applause  had  been  the  principles  by  which  he 
was  influenced.  Greater  crowds  assembled  to 
behold  him  than  had  appeared  at  the  emperor's 
public  entry ;  his  apartments  were  daily  filled 
with  princes  and  personages  of  the  highest  rank  ; 
and  he  was  treated  with  a  homage  more  sin- 
cere, as  well  as  more  flattering,  than  any  which 
pre-eminence  in  birth  or  condition  can  command. 
At  his  appearance  before  the  diet  he  behaved 
with  great  decency  and  with  equal  firmness.  He 
readily  acknowledged  an  excess  of  acrimony  and 
vehemence  in  his  controversial  writings  ;  but  re- 
fused to  retract  his  opinions,  unless  lie  were  con- 
vinced of  their  falsehood,  or  to  consent  to  their 
being  tried  by  any  other  rule  than  the  word  of 
God.  When  neither  threats  nor  entreaties 
could  prevail  on  him  to  depart  from  this  reso- 
lution, some  of  the  ecclesiastics  proposed  to  imi- 
tate the  example  of  the  council  of  Constance 
and,  by  punishing  the  author  of  this  pestilenl  $ 
heresy,  who  was  now  in  their  power,  to  deliver 
the  church  at  once  from  such  an  evil.  But  the 
members  of  the  diet  refusing  to  expose  the  Ger- 
man integrity  to  fresh  reproach  by  a  second  vio- 
lation of  public  faith,  and  Charles  being  no  less 
unwilling  to  bring  a  stain  upon  the  beginning  of 
his  administration  by  such  an  ignominious  ac- 
tion, Lu  her  was  permitted  to  depart  in  safety. 
A  few  days  after  he  had  left  the  city,  a  severe 
edict  was  published  in  the  emperor's  name,  and 
by  authority  of  the  diet,  depriving  him,  as  an  ob- 
stinate and  excommunicated  criminal,  of  all  the 
privileges  which  he  enjoyed  as  a  subject  of  ths 
empire  ;  forbidding  any  prince  to  harbour  or  pro- 
tect him  ;  and  requiring  all  to  seize  his  person  as 
soon  as  the  term  specified  in  his  protection  should 
be  expired. 

But  this  rigorous  decree  had  no  considerable 
effect ;  the  execution  of  it  being  prevented  partly 
by  the  multiplicity  of  occupations  which  the  com- 
motions in  Spain,  together  with  the  wars  in  Italy 
and  the  Low  Countries,  created  to  the  emperor; 
and  partly  by  a  prudent  precaution  employed  by 
the  elector  of  Saxony,  Luther's  faithful  patron. 
As  Luther,  on  his  return  from  Worms,  was 
passing  near  Altenstrain,  in  Thuringia,  a  num- 
ber of  horsemen,  in  masks,  rushed  suddenly  ouft 
of  a  wood,  where  the  elector  had  appointed  them 
to  lie  in  wait  for  him,  and,  surrounding  his  com* 
pany,  carried  him,  after  dismissing  all  his  attend- 
ants, to  Worthing,  a  strong  castle,  not  far  distant. 
There  the  elector  ordered  him  to  be  supplied 
with  every  thing  necessary  or  agreeable;  but  the 
place  of  his  retreat  was  carefully  concealed,  until 
the  fury  of  the  present  storm  against  him  began 
to  abate,  upon  a  change  in  the  political  system 
of  Europe.  In  this  solitude  wnere  he  remained 
nine  months,  and  which  he  frequently  called  his 


LUTHERANS 
Palmos,  after  the  name  of  that  island  to  which 
the  apostle  John  was  banished,  ho  exerted  his 
usual  vigour  and  industry  in  defence  of  his  doc- 
trines, or  in  confutation  of  his  adversaries ;  pub- 
lishing several  treatises,  which  revived  the  spirit 
of  his  followers,  astonished  to  a  great  degree,  and 
disheartened  at  the  sudden  disappearance  of  their 
leader. 

Luther,  weary  at  length  of  his  retirement,  ap- 
peared publicly  again  at  Wittemberg,  upon  the 
8th  of  March,  1522.  He  appeared,  indeed,  with- 
out the  elector's  leave ;  hut  immediately  wrote 
him  a  letter  to  prevent  him  taking  it  ill.  The 
edict  of  Charles  V.,  severe  as  it  was,  had  given 
little  or  no  check  to  Luther's  doctrine ;  for  the 
emperor  was  no  sooner  gone  into  Flanders,  than 
his  edict  was  neglected  and  despised,  and  the  doc- 
trine seemed  to  spread  even  faster  than  before. 
Carolostadius,  in  Luther's  absence,  had  pushed 
things  on  faster  than  his  leader,  and  had  attempt- 
ed to  abolish  the  use  of  mass,  to  remove  images 
out  of  the  churches,  to  set  aside  auricular  confes- 
sion, invocation  of  saints,  the  abstaining  from 
meats ;  had  allowed  the  monks  to  leave  the  mo- 
nasteries, to  neglect  their  vows,  and  to  marry ;  in 
short,  had  quite  changed  the  doctrine  and  disci- 
pline of  the  church  at  Wittemberg :  all  which, 
though  not  against  Luther's  sentiments,  was 
yet  blamed  by  him,  as  being  rashly  and  un- 
seasonably done.  Lutheranism  was  still  con- 
fined to  Germany ;  it  was  not  to  go  to  France  ; 
and  Henry  VIII.  of  England  made  the  most 
rigorous  acts  to  hinder  it  from  invading  his  realm. 
*  Nay,  he  did  something  more :  to  show  his  zeal 

for  religion  and  the  holy  see,  and  perhaps  his 
skill  in  theological  learning,  he  wrote  a  treatise 
Of  the  Seven  Sticramenls,  against  Luther's  book 
Of  the  Captivity  of  Babylon,  which  he  present- 
ed to  Leo  X.  in  October,  1521.  The  pope  re- 
ceived it  very  favourably,  and  was  so  well  pleased 
with  the  king  of  England,  that  he  complimented 
him  with  the  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith.  Lu- 
ther, however,  paid  no  regard  to  his  kingship,  buj 
answered  him  with  great  sharpness,  treating  both 
his  person  and  performance  in  the  most  con- 
temptuous manner.  Henry  complained  of  Lu- 
ther's rude  usage  of  him  to  the  princes  of  Saxony  : 
and  Fisher,  bishop  of  Rochester,  replied  to  his 
answer,  in  behalf  of  Henry's  treatise ;  but  neither 
the  king's  complaint,  nor  the  bishop's  reply,  were 
attended  with  any  visible  effects. 

Luther,  though  he  had  put  a  stop  to  the  vio- 
lent proceedings  of  Carolostadius,  now  made  open 
war  on  the  pope  and  bishops ;  and,  that  he  might 
make  the  people  despise  their  authority  as  much 
as  possible,  he  wrote  one  book  against  the  pope's 
bull,,  and  another  against  the  order  falsely  called 
the  Order  of  Bhhopa.  The  same  year,  1522, 
he  wrote  a  letter,  dated  July  the  29th,  to  the  as- 
sembly of  the  states  of  Bohemia ;  in  which  he 
assured  them  that  he  was  labouring  to  establish 
their  doctrine  in  Germany,  and  exhorted  them 
not  to  return  to  the  communion  of  the  church  of 
Rome  ;  and  he  published  also  this  year  a  trans- 
lation of  the  New  Testament  in  the  German 
tongue,  which  was  aLerwards  corrected  by  him- 
self and  Melancthon.  This  translation  having 
been  printed  several  times,  and  being  in  every 
body's  hands,  Ferdinand,  archduke  of  Austria, 
the  emperor's  brother,  made  a  very  severe  edict, 
to  hinder  the  farther  publication  of  it ;  and  for- 
bade all  the  subjects  of  his  Imperial  Majesty  to 
244 


LUTHERANS 
have  any  copies  of  it,  or  of  Luther's  other  books. 
Some  other  princes  followed  his  example ;  and 
Luther  was  so  angry  at  it,  that  he  wrote  a  trea- 
tise Of  the  Secular  Poorer,  in  which  he  accuses 
them  of  tyranny  and  impiety.  The  diet  of  the 
empire  was  held  at  Nuremberg,  at  the  end  of 
the  year,  to  which  Hadrian  VI.  sent  his  brietj 
dated  November  the  25th  ;  for  Leo  X.  died  upon 
the  2d  of  December,  1521,  and  Hadrian  had  been 
elected  pope  upon  the  9th  of  January  following. 
In  his  brief,  among  other  things,  he  observes  to 
the  diet  how  he  had  heard,  with  grief,  that  Mar- 
tin Luther,  after  the  sentence  of  Leo  X.,  which 
was  ordered  to  be  executed  by  the  edict  of  Worm*, 
continued  to  teach  the  same  errors,  and  daily  to 
publish  books  full  of  heresies;  that  it  appeared 
strange  to  him  that  so  large  and  so  religious  a 
nation  could  be  seduced  by  a  wretched  apostate 
friar ;  that  nothing,  however,  could  be  more  per- 
nicious to  Christendom ;  and  that,  therefore,  he 
exhorts  them  to  use  their  utmost  endeavours  to 
make  Luther,  and  the  authors  of  those  tumults, 
return  to  their  duty ;  or,  if  they  refuse,  and  con- 
tinue obstinate,  to  proceed  against  them  accord- 
ing to  the  laws  of  the  empire,  and  the  severity  of 
the  last  edict. 

The  resolution  of  this  diet  was  published  in 
the  form  of  an  edict,  upon  the  fith  of  March, 
1523 ;  but  it  had  no  effect  in  checking  the  Lu- 
therans, who  still  went  on  in  the  same  triumphant 
manner.  This  year  Luther  wrote  a  great  many 
pieces ;  among  the  rest,  one  upon  the  dignity  and 
office  of  the  supreme  magistrate ;  which  Frederic, 
elector  of  Saxony,  is  said  to  have  been  highly 
pleased  with.  He  sent,  about  the  same  time,  a 
writing  in  the  German  language  to  the  Waldeiv- 
ses,  or  Pickards,  in  Bohemia  and  Moravia,  who 
had  applied  to  him  "about  worshipping  the  body 
of  Christ  in  the  eucharist."  He  wrote,  also, 
another  book,  which  he  dedicated  to  the  senate 
and  people  of  Prague,  "  about  the  institution  of 
ministers  of  the  church."  He  drew  up  a  form 
of  saying  mass.  He  wrote  a  piece,  entitled,  An 
Example  of  Popish  Doctrine  and  Divinity; 
which  Dupin  calls  a  satire  against  nuns,  and 
those  who  profess  a  monastic  life.  He  wrote  also 
against  the  vows  of  virginity,  in  his  preface  to  his 
commentary  on  1  Cor.  viii. ;  and  his  exhortations 
here  were,  it  seems,  followed  with  effect;  for, 
soon  after,  nine  nuns,  among  whom  was  Cathe- 
rine de  Bore,  eloped  from  the  nunnery  at  Nimpfc- 
schen,  and  were  brought,  by  the  assistance  of 
Leonard  Coppen,  a  burgess  of  Torgau,  to  Wit- 
temberg. Whatever  oil'ence  this  proceeding 
might  give  to  the  Papists,  it  was  highly  extolled 
by  Luther ;  who,  in  a  book  written  in  the  Ger- 
man language,  compares  the  deliverance  of  these 
nuns  from  the  slavery  of  monastic  life  to  that  of 
the  souls  which  Jesus  Christ  has  delivered  by  his 
death.  This  year  Luther  had  occasion  to  canonize 
two  of  his  followers,  who,  as  Melchior  Adam  re- 
lates, were  burnt  at  Brussels,  in  the  beginning  of 
July,  and  were  the  first  who  suffered  martyrdom 
for  his  doctrine.  He  wrote  also  a  consolatory 
letter  to  three  noble  ladies  at  Misnia,  who  weni 
banished  from  the  duke  of  Saxony's  court  at  Fri 
burg,  for  reading  his  books. 

In  the  beginning  of  the  year  1521,  Clcir.ent 
Vll.  sent  a  legate  into  Germany  to  the  diet  which 
was  to  he  held  at  Nuremberg.  Hadrian  VI.  died 
in  October,  1523,  and  was  succeeded  by  Clement 
upon  the  19th  of  November.    A  little  before  his 


LUTHERANS 
death  he  canonized  Benno,  who  was  bishop  of 
Meissen,  in  the  time  of  Gregory  VII.  and  one 
of  the  most  zealous  defenders  of  the  holy  see. 
Luther,  imagining  that  this  was  done  directly 
to  oppose  him,  drew  up  a  piece  with  this  title, 
Against  the  new  idol  and  old  devil  set  up  at 
Meissen,  in  which  he  treats  the  memory  of  Gre- 
gory with  great  freedom,  and  does  not  spare,  even 
Hadrian.  Clement  VII. 's  legate  represented  to 
the  diet  of  Nuremberg  the  necessity  of  enforcing 
the  execution  of  the  edict  of  Worms,  which  had 
been  strangely  neglected  by  the  princes  of  the 
empire ;  but,  notwithstanding  the  legate's  solici- 
tations, which  were  very  pressing,  the  decrees  of 
that  diet  were  thought  so  inelfectual,  that  they 
were  condemned  at  Rome,  and  rejected  by  the 
emperor. 

In  October,  1524,  Luther  flung  off' the  monas- 
tic habit ;  which,  though  not  premeditated  and 
designed,  was  yet  a  very  proper  preparative  to  a 
step  he  took  the  year  after :  we  mean  his  mar- 
riage with  Catherine  de  Bore. 

His  marriage,  however,  did  not  retard  his  ac- 
tivity and  diligence  in  the  work  of  reformation. 
He  revised  the  Augsburg  Confession  of  Faith, 
and  apology  for  the  Protestants  when  the  Pro- 
testant religion  was  first  established  on  a  firm 
basis.     See  Protestants  and  Reformation. 

After  this,  Luther  had  little  else  to  do  than  to 
eit  down  and  contemplate  the  mighty  work  he 
had  finished ;  for  that  a  single  monk  should  be 
able  to  give  the  church  so  rude  a  shock,  that  there 
needed  but  such  another  entirely  to  overturn  it, 
may  very  well  seem  a  mighty  work.  He  did, 
indeed,  little  else ;  for  the  remainder  of  his  life 
was* spent  in  exhorting  princes,  states,  and  uni- 
versities, to  confirm  the  Reformation  which  had 
been  brought  about  through  him ;  and  publish- 
ing from  time  to  time  such  writings  as  might 
encourage,  direct,  and  aid  them  in  doing  it.  The 
emperor  threatened  temporal  punishment  with 
armies,  and  the  pope  eternal  with  bulls  and  anathe- 
mas; but  Luther  cared  for  none  of  their  threats. 

In  the  year  1533,  Luther  wrote  a  consolatory 
epistle  to  the  citizens  of  Oschatz,  who  had  suffer- 
ed some  hardships  for  adhering  to  the  Augsburg 
Confession  of  Faith ;  in  which,  among  other 
things,  he  says,  "  The  ,devil  is  the  host,  and  the 
world  is  his  inn  ;  so  that  wherever  you  come,  you 
will  be  sure  to  find  this  ugly  host."  He  had  also 
about  this  time  a  terrible  controversy  with  George 
duke  of  Saxony,  who  had  such  an  aversion  to 
Luther's  doctrine,  that  he  obliged  his  subjects  to 
take  an  oath  that  they  would  never  embrace  it. 
However,  sixty  or  seventy  citizens  of  Leipsic 
were  found  to  have  deviated  a  little  from  the 
Catholic  way  in  some  point  or  other,  and  they 
were  known  previously  to  have  consulted  Luther 
about  it ;  upon  which  George  complained  to  the 
Elector  John,  that  Luther  had  not  only  abused 
his  person,  but  also  preached  up  rebellion  among 
his  subjects.  The  elector  ordered  Luther  to  be 
acquainted  with  this ;  and  to  be  told,  at  the  same 
time,  that  if  he  did  not  acquit  himself  of  this 
charge,  he  could  not  possibly  escape  punishment. 
But  Luther  easily  refuted   the   accusation,  by 

E roving,  that  he  had  been  so  far  from  stirring  up 
is  subjects  against  him  on  the  score  of  religion, 
that,  on  the  contrary,  he  had  exhorted  them  ra- 
ther to  undergo  the  greatest  hardships,  and  even 
■suffer  themselves'  to  be  banished. 

In  the  year  1534,  the  Bible,  translated  by  him 
245 


LUTHERANS 
into  German,  was  first  printed,  as  the  old  privi- 
lege, dated  Bibliopolis,  under  the  elector's  hand, 
shows ;  and  it  was  published  the  same  year.  He 
also  published  this  year  a  book  against  masses, 
and  the  consecration  of  priests,  in  which  he  re- 
lates a  conference  he  had  with  the  devil  upon 
those  points ;  for  it  is  remarkable  in  Luther's 
whole  history,  that  he  never  had  any  conflicts  of 
any  kind  within,  but  the  devil  was  always  his  an- 
tagonist. In  February,  1537,  an  assembly  was 
held  at  Smalkald  about  matters  of  religion,  to 
which  Luther  and  Melancthon  were  called.  At 
this  meeting  Luther  was  seized  with  so  grievous 
an  illness,  that  there  were  no  hopes  of  his  reco- 
very. He  was  afflicted  with  the  stone,  and  had 
a  stoppage  of  urine  for  eleven  days.  In  this  ter- 
rible condition  he  would  needs  undertake  to 
travel,  notwithstanding  all  that  his  friends  could 
say  or  do  to  prevent  him :  his  resolution,  how- 
ever, was  attended  with  a  good  effect ;  for  the 
night  after  his  departure  he  began  to  be  better. 
As  he  was  carried  along  he  made  his  will,  in 
which  he  bequeathed  his  detestation  of  popery  to 
his  friends  and  brethren ;  agreeably  to  what  he 
used  to  say ;  Pestis  eram  virus,  morions  ero  mors 
tua,  papa;  i.  e.  "I  was  the  plague  of  popery  in 
my  life,  and  shall  continue  to  be  so  in  my  death." 
This  year  the  pope  and  the  court  of  Rome, 
finding  it  impossible  to  deal  with  the  Protestants 
by  force,  began  to  have  recourse  to  stratagem. 
They  affected,  therefore,  to  think,  that  though 
Luther  had,  indeed,  carried  things  on  with  a  high 
hand,  and  to  a  violent  extreme,  yet  what  he  had 
pleaded  in  defence  of  these  measures  was  not  en- 
tirely -without  foundation.  They  talked  with  a 
seeming  show  of  moderation ;  and  Pius  III.,  who 
succeeded  Clement  VII.,  proposed  a  reformation 
first  among  themselves,  and  even  went  so  far  as 
to  fix  a  place  for  a  council  to  meet  at  for  that  pur- 
pose. '  But  Luther  treated  this  farce  as  it  de- 
served to  be  treated ;  unmasked  and  detected  it 
immediately;  and,  to  ridicule  it  the  more  strongly, 
caused  a  picture  to  be  drawn,  in  which  was  re- 
presented the  pope  seated  on  high  upon  a  throne, 
some  cardinals  about  him  with  foxes'  tails  on, 
and  seeming  to  evacuate  upwards  and  down- 
wards, (sursum  dcorsnm  repurgare,  as  Melchior 
Adam  expresses  it.)  This  was  fixed  over  against 
the  title-page,  to  let  the  reader  see  at  once  th\ 
scope  and  design  of  the  book ;  which  was  to  ex- 
pose that  cunning  and  artifice  with  which  these 
subtle  politicians  affected  to  cleanse  and  purify 
themselves  from  their  errors  and  superstitions. 
Luther  published,  about  the  same  time,  a  confu- 
tation of  the  pretended  grant  of  Constantine  to 
Sylvester,  bishop  of  Rome  ;  and  also  some  letters 
of  John  Huss,  written  from  his  prison  at  Con- 
stance to  the  Bohemians.  In  this  manner  was 
Luther  employed  till  his  death,  which  happened 
in  the  year  1546. 

A  thousand  lies  were  invented  by  the  Papists 
about  Luther's  death.  Some  said  that  he  died 
suddenly;  others,  that  he  killed  himself;  others, 
that  the  devil  strangled  him;  others,  that  his 
corpse  stunk  so  abominably,  that  they  were  forwd 
to  leave  it  in  the  way,  as  it  was  carried  to  be  in- 
terred. Nay,  lies  were  invented  about  his  death, 
even  while  he  was  yet  alive.  Luther,  however, 
to  give  the  most  effectual  refutation  of  this  ac- 
count of  his  death,  put  forth  an  advertisement  of 
his  being  alive  ;  and,  to  be  even  with  the  Papists 
for  the  malice  they  hud  shown  in  this  he,  wrote  a 
v  2 


LUTHERANS 
book  at  the  same  time,  to  prove  that  "  the  papacy 
was  founded  by  the  devil." 

Lutheranism  has  undergone  some  alterations 
since  the  time  of  its  founder.  Luther  rejected 
the  epistle  of  St.  James  as  inconsistent  with  the 
doctrine  of  St.  Paul  in  relation  to  justification ; 
he  also  set  aside  the  Apocalypse  :  both  of  which 
are  now  received  as  canonical  in  the  Lutheran 
church. 

Luther  reduced  the  number  of  sacraments  to 
two,  v;z.,  baptism  and  the  eucharist ;  but  he  be- 
lieved the  impanation  or  consubstantiation ;  that 
is,  that  the  matter  of  the  bread  and  wine  remain 
with  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ ;  and  it  is  in 
this  article  that  the  main  difference  between  the 
Lutheran  and  the  English  churches  consists. 

Luther  maintained  the  mass  to  be  no  sacrifice ; 
exploded  the  adoration  of  the  host,  auricular  con- 
fession, meritorious  works,  indulgences,  purga- 
tory, the  worship  of  images,  &c,  which  had  been 
introduced  in  the  corrupt  times  of  the  Romish 
church.  He  also  opposed  the  doctrine  of  free 
will,  maintained  predestination,  and  asserted  our 
justification  to  be  solely  by  the  imputation  of  the 
merits  and  satisfaction  of  Christ.  He  also  op- 
posed the  fastings  of  the  Romish  church,  monas- 
tical  vows,  the  celibacy  of  the  clergy,  &c. 

The  Lutherans,  however,  of  all  Protestants, 
are  said  to  differ  least  from  the  Romish  church ; 
as  they  affirm  that  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ 
are  materially  present  in  the  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  though  in  an  incomprehensible 
manner ;  and  likewise  represent  some  religious 
rites  and  institutions,  as  the  use  of  images  in 
churches,  the  distinguishing  vestments  of  the 
clergy,  the  private  confession  of  sins,  the  use  of 
wafers  in  the  administration  of  the  Lord's  Sup- 
per, the  form  of  exorcism  in  the  celebration  of 
baptism,  and  other  ceremonies  of  the  like  nature, 
as  tolerable,  and  some  of  them  as  useful.  The 
Lutherans  maintain,  with  regard  to  the  divine 
decrees,  that  they  respect  the  salvation  or  misery 
of  men,  in  consequence  of  a  previous  knowledge 
of  their  sentiments  and  characters,  and  not  as 
free  and  uncontinual,  and  as  founded  on  the 
mere  will  of  God.  Towards  the  close  of  the  se- 
venteenth century,  the  Lutherans  began  to  enter- 
tain a  greater  liberality  of  sentiment  than  they 
had  before  adopted,  though  in  many  places  they 
persevered  longer  in  severe  and  despotic  principle 
than  other  Protestant  churches.  Their  public 
teachers  now  enjoy  an  unbounded  liberty  of  dis- 
senting from  the  decisions  of  those  symbols  or 
creeds  which  were  once  deemed  almost  infallible 
rules  of  faith  and  practice,  and  of  declaring  their 
dissent  in  the  manner  they  judge  the  most  expe- 
dient. Mosheim  attributes  this  change  in  their 
sentiments,  to  the  maxim  which  they  generally 
adopted,  that  Christians  were  accountable  to  God 
alone  for  their  religious  opinions;  and  that  no 
individual  could  be  justly  punished  by  the  ma- 
gistrate for  his  erroneous  opinions,  while  he  con- 
ducted himself  like  a  virtuous  and  obedient  sub- 
ject, and  made  no  attempts  to  disturb  the  peace 
and  order  of  chil  society.  In  Sweden,  the  Lu- 
theran church  is  episcopal ;  in  Norway  the  same. 
In  Denmark,  under  the  name  of  superintendent, 
all  episcopal  authority  is  retained  ;  whilst  through 
Germany  the  superior  power  is  vested  in  a  con- 
sistory, over  which  there  is  a  president,  with  a 
distinction  of  rank  and  privileges,  and  a  subordi- 
nation of  inferior  clergy  to  their  superiors,  dif- 
246 


LYING 

ferent  from  the  parity  of  Presbyterianism.  Mo» 
heim's  Eccles.  History;  Life  of  Luther;  Haueis't 
Ch.  Hist.  vol.  ii.  p.  454  ;  Enc.  Brit.;  Robertson's 
Hist,  of  Charles  V.,  vol.  ii.  p.  42 ;  Luther  on  the 
Galatians. 

LUTHERAN  (EVANGELICAL) 
CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
The  name  Lutheran  is  derived  from  the  great 
reformer.  It  is  said  that  the  term  evangelical 
was  given  to  his  followers  by  Luther.  It  is  still 
preferred  to  that  of  Lutheran  by  some  of  the  de- 
nomination. They  settled  in  Pennsylvania  and 
the  adjoining  states  on  their  arrival  in  this  coun- 
try. The  churches  were  for  a  considerable  time 
supplied  with  ministers  from  Germany,  some  of 
whom  were  eminent  men.  The  Rev.  H.  M. 
Muhlenburg,  the  fiist  Lutheran  preacher  in  this 
country,  was  sent  from  London  in  1743.  They 
are  now  found  in  Pennsylvania,  New  York, 
North  Carolina,  Maryland,  and  in  other  states. 
The  Augsburgh  Confession  is  the  acknowledged 
standard  of  faith  among  the  Lutherans.  The 
Church  government  is  in  its  essential  features 
congregational.  District  Synods  (whose  power 
is  simply  advisory,)  composed  of  clerical  and  lay 
members,  meet  annually.  There  is  also  a  general 
Synod,  convening  biennially,  formed  by  dele- 
gates from  such  of  the  annual  Synods  as  re- 
cognise it.  The  Evangelical  Lutherans  have 
four  Theological  Seminaries.  In  18-14,  the  num- 
ber of  ministers  was  believed  to  be  about  450, 
and  of  congregations  about  1400 ;  very  con- 
siderable additions  have  since  been  made.  [But 
for  a  very  well  written  and  copious  history  of  the 
past  and  present  state  of  this  large  body  of 
Christians,  (from  the  highest  source,)  see  the 
APPENDIX  of  this  work,  No.  VI.] 

LUXURY,  a  disposition  of  mind  addicted  to 
pleasure,  riot,  and  superfluities.  Luxury  implies 
a  giving  one's  self  up  to  pleasure ;  voluptuous- 
ness, an  indulgence  in  the  same  to  excess. 
Luxury  may  be  further  considered  as  consisting 
in,  1.  Vain  and  useless  expenses. — 2.  In  a  parade 
beyond  what  people  can  afford. — 3.  In  affecting 
to  be  above  our  own  rank. — 4.  In  living  in  a 
splendour  that  does  not  agree  with  the  public 
good.  In  order  to  avoid  if,  we  should  consider 
that  it  is  ridiculous,  troublesome,  sinful,  and 
ruinous.  Robinson's  Claude,  vol.  i.  p.  382; 
Ferguson  on  Society,  part  vi.  sect.  2. 

LYING,  speaking  falsehoods  wilfully,  with  an 
intent  to  deceive.  Thus,  by  Grove,  "A  lie  is  an 
affirmation  or  denial  by  words,  or  any  other 
signs,  to  which  a  certain  determinate  meaning  is 
affixed,  of  something  contrary  to  our  real  thoughts 
and  intentions."  Thus,  by  Paley,  "  A  lie  is  a 
breach  of  promise ;  for  whoever  seriously  ad- 
dresses his  discourse  to  another,  tacitly  promises 
to  speak  the  truth,  because  he  knows  that  the 
truth  is  expected."  There  are  various  kind  of 
lies.  1.  The  peryncious  lie,  uttered  for  the  hurt  or 
disadvantage  of  our  neighbour. — 2.  The  officious 
lie,  uttered  for  our  own  or  our  neighbour's  advan- 
tage.— 3.  The  ludicrous  and  jocose  lie,  uttered  by 
way  of  jest,  and  only  for  mirth's  sake  in  common 
converse.— 4.  Pious  frauds,  as  they  are  im- 
properly called;  pretended  inspirations,  forged 
books,  counterfeit  miracles,  are  species  01  lies. — 
5.  Lies  of  the  conduct,  for  a  lie  may  be  told  in 
gestures  as  well  as  in  words  ;  as  when  a  trades- 
man shuts  up  his  windows  to  induce,  his  creditors 
to  believe  that  he  is  abroad. — 6.  Lies  oioniission,  as 


MAGDALEN 
when  an  author  wilfully  omits  what  ought  to  he 
related  ;  and  may  we  not  add — 7.  That  all  eq\i\r 
vocation  and  mental  reservation  come  under  the 
guilt  of  lying.  The  evil  and  injustice  of  lying 
appear,  1.  From  its  being  a  breach  of  the  natural 
and  universal  right  of  mankind  to  truth  in  the  in- 
tercourse of  speech. — 2.  From  its  being  a  violation 
of  God's  sacred  law,  Phil.  iv.  8 ;  Lev.  xix.  1 1 ; 
Col.  iii.  9. — 3.  The  faculty  of  speech  was  be- 
stowed as  an  instrument  of  knowledge,  not  of 
deceit ;  to  communicate  our  thoughts,  not  to  hide 
them.— -4.  It  is  esteemed  a  reproach  of  so  heinous 
and  hateful  a  nature  for  a  man  to  be  called  a  liar, 


MAGI 

that  sometimes  the  life  and  blood  of  the  slanderer 
have  paid  for  it. — 5.  It  has  a  tendency  to  dissolve 
all  society,  and  to  indispose  the  mind  to  religious 
impressions. — G.  The  punishment  of  it  is  con- 
siderable :  the  loss  of  credit,  the  hatred  of  those 
whom  we  have  deceived,  and  an  eternal  separa- 
tion from  God  in  the  world  to  come,  Rev.  xxi.  8 ; 
xxii.  15;  Psalm  ci.  7.  See  Equivocation. — 
Grove's  Mor.  Phil.  vol.  i.  ch.  11 ;  Paleifs  Mor. 
Phil.  vol.  i.  ch.  15 ;  Doddridge's  Led.  lect.  68 ; 
Wattes  Ser.  vol.  i.  ser.  22  ;  Evans's  Ser.  vol.  ii. 
ser.  13 ;  South's  Ser.  vol.  i.  ser.  12 ;  Dr.  Liu 
mont's  Serm.  vol.  i.  ser.  11  and  12. 


M. 


MACARIANS,  the  followers  of  Macarius,  an 
Egyptian  monk,  who  was  distinguished  towards 
the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century  for  his  sanctity 
and  virtue.  In  his  writings  there  are  some  super- 
stitious tenets,  and  also  certain  opinions  that  seem 
tainted  with  Origenism.  The  name  has  been  also 
applied  to  those  who  adopted  the  sentiments  of 
Macarius,  a  native  of  Ireland,  who,  about  the 
close  of  the  ninth  century,  propagated  in  France 
the  tenet  afterwards  maintained  by  Averrhoes, 
that  one  individual  intelligence  or  soul  performed 
the  spiritual  and  rational  functions  in  all  the  hu- 
man race. 

MACEDONIANS,  the  followers  of  Mace- 
donius,  bishop  of  Constantinople,  who,  through 
the  influence  of  the  Eunomians,  was  deposed  by 
the  council  of  Constantinople  in  360,  and  sent 
into  exile.  He  considered  the  Holy  Ghost  as  a 
divine  energy  diffused  throughout  the  universe, 
and  not  as  a  person  distinct  from  the  Father  and 
the  Son.  The  sect  of  the  Macedonians  was 
crushed  before  it  had  arrived  at  its  full  maturity 
by  the  council  assembled  by  Theodosius  in  381, 
at  Constantinople.     See  Skmtarians. 

MACHIAVELLIANISM,  the  doctrine  or 
principles  of  Machiavel,  as  laid  down  in  his  trea- 
tise entitled  The  Prince,  and  which  consist  in 
doing  any  thing  to  compass  a  design,  without  any 
regard  to  the  peace  or  welfare  of  subjects,  the 
dictates  of  honesty  and  honour,  or  the  precepts  of 
eligion.  This  work  has  been  translated  into 
many  languages,  and  written  against  by  many 
authors,  though  the  world  is  not  agreed  as  to  the 
motives  of  the  writer ;  some  thinking  he  meant  to 
recommend  tyrannical  maxims;  others,  that  he 
only  delineated  them  to  excite  abhorrence. 

MAGDALEN,  RELIGIOUS  OF  ST.  a 
name  given  to  divers  communities  of  nuns,  con- 
sisting generally  of  penitent  courtezans,  sometimes 
also  called  Magdalanettes.  They  were  establish- 
ed at  Mentz  in  1542 ;  at  Paris  in  1492 ;  at  Na- 
fles  in  132*1;  at  Rouen  and  Bourdeaux  in  1618. 
n  each  of  these  monasteries  there  were  three 
kinds  of  persons  and  congregations :  the  first 
consisted  of  those  who  were  admitted  to  make 
vows,  and  those  bear  the  name  of  St.  Magdalen  ; 
the  congregation  of  St.  Martha  was  the  second, 
and  was  composed  of  those  whom  it  was  not 
thought  proper  to  admit  to  vows  finally ;  the  con- 
gregation of  St.  Lazarus  was  composed  of  such 
as  were  detained  by  force.  The  religious  of  St. 
Magdalen  at  Rome  were  established  by  Pope 
Leo  X.  Clement  V1I1.  settled  a  revenue  on 
them  ;  and  farther  apitointed,  that  the  effects  of 
247 


all  public  prostitutes  dying  intestate  should  fall  to 
them ;  and  that  the  testaments  of  the  rest  should 
be  invalid,  unless  they  bequeathed  a  portion  of 
their  effects,  which  was  to  be  at  least  a  fifth  part 
of  them. 

MAGI,  or  MAGIANS,  an  ancient  religious 
sect  of  Persia,  and  other  eastern  countries,  who, 
abominating  the  adoration  of  images,  worshipped 
God  only  by  fire,  in  which  they  were  directly  op- 
posite to  the  Sabians.  SeeSABiANs.  The  Magi 
believed  that  there  were  two  principles,  one  the 
cause  of  all  good,  and  the  other  the  cause  of  all 
evil ;  in  which  opinion  t^iey  were  followed  by  the 
sect  of  the  Manichees.  See  Manichkes.  They 
called  the  good  principle  Jazden,  and  Ormuzd, 
and  the  evil  principle  Ahraman,  or  Aherman. 
The  former  was  by  the  Greeks  called  Oromasdes, 
and  the  latter  Arimanius.  The  reason  of  their 
worshipping  fire  was,  because  they  looked  upon 
it  as  the  truest  symbol  of  Oromasdes,  or  the  good 
god;  as  darkness  was  of  Arimanius,  or  the  evil 
god.  In  all  their  temples  they  had  fire  continually 
burning  upon  their  altars,  and  in  their  own  pri- 
vate houses. 

The  religion  of  the  Magi  fell  into  disgrace  o  1 
the  death  of  those  ringleaders  of  that  sect  who 
had  usurped  the  sovereignty  after  the  death  of 
Cambyses ;  and  the  slaughter  that  was  made  of 
the  chief  men  among  them  sunk  it  so  low,  that 
Sabianism  every  where  prevailed  against  it ;  Da- 
rius and  most  of  his  followers  on  that  occasion 
crointf  over  to  it.  But  the  affection  which  the 
people  had  for  the  religion  of  their  forefathers  not 
being  easily  to  be  rooted  out,  the  famous  impostor 
Zoroaster,  some  ages  after,  undertook  to  revive 
and  reform  it. 

The  chief  reformation  this  pretended  prophet 
made  in  the  Magian  religion  was  in  the  first 
principle  of  it ;  for  he  introduced  a  god  superior 
both  to  Oromasdes  and  Arimanius.  Dr.  Prideaux 
is  of  opinion  that  Zoroaster  took  the  hint  of  this 
alteration  in  their  theology  from  the  prophet 
Isaiah,  who  brings  in  God,  saying  to  Cyrus  king 
of  Persia,  I  am  the  Lord,  and  there  is  none  else  ; 
I  form  the  light,  and  create  darkness  ;  I  make 
peace,  and  create  evil,  chap.  xlv.  7.  In  short, 
Zoroaster  held  that  there  was  one  supreme  inde- 
pendent Being,  and  under  him  two  principles,  or 
angels ;  one  the  angel  of  light  or  good,  and  the 
other  the  angel  of  evil  or  darkness ;  that  there  is 
a  perpetual  struggle  between  them,  which  shall 
last  to  the  end  of  the  world ;  that  then  the  angel 
of  darkness  and  his  disciples  shall  go  into  a  world 
of  their  own,  where  they  shall  be  punished  in 


MAGIC 

eveilasting  darkness;  and  the  angel  of  light  and 
Ilia  disciples  shall  also  go  into  a  world  of  their  own, 
where  they  shall  be  rewarded  in  everlasting  light. 

Zoroaster  was  the  first  who  built  fire-temples ; 
the  Magians  before  his  time  performing  their  de- 
votion on  the  tops  of  hills  and  in  the  open  air,  by 
which  means  they  were  exposed  to  the  inconve- 
nience of  rain  and  tempests,  which  often  extin- 
guished their  sacred  fires.  To  procure  the  greater 
veneration  for  these  sacred  fires,  he  pretended  to 
nave  received  fire  from  heaven,  which  he  placed 
on  the  altar  of  the  first  fire-temple  he  erected, 
which  was  that  of  Xis,  in  Media,  from  whence 
they  say  it  was  propagated  to  all  the  rest.  The 
Magian  priests  kept  their  sacred  fire  with  the 
greatest  diligence,  watching  it  day  and  night,  and 
never  suffering  it  to  be  extinguished.  They  fed 
it  only  with  wood  stript  of  the  bark,  and  they 
never  blowed  it,  with  their  breath  or  with  bellows, 
for  fear  of  polluting  it :  to  do  either  of  these  was 
death  by  their  law.  The  Magian  religion,  as  re- 
formed by  Zoroaster,  seems  in  many  things  to 
be  built  upon  the  plan  of  the  Jewish.  The 
Jews  had  their  sacred  fire  which  came  down  from 
heaven  upon  the  altar  of  burnt-offerings,  which 
they  never  suffered  to  go  out,  and  with  which  all 
their  sacrifices  and  cblations  were  made.  Zoro- 
aster, in  like  manner,  pretended  to  have  brought 
his  holy  fire  from  heaven ;  and  as  the  Jews  had  a 
Shekinah  of  the  divine  presence  among  them, 
resting  over  the  mercy-seat  in  the  Holy  of  Holies, 
Zoroaster  likewise  told  his  Magians  to  look  upon 
the  sacred  fire  in  their  temples  as  a  Shc/dnah,  in 
which  God  especially  dwelt. — From  these  and 
some  other  instances  of  analogy  between  the 
Jewish  and  Magian  religion,  Prideaux  infers  that 
Zoroaster  had  been  first  educated  and  brought  up 
in  the  Jewish  religion. 

The  priests  of  the  Magi  were  the  most  skilful 
mathematicians  and  philosophers  of  the  an-e  in 
which  they  lived,  insomuch  that  a  learned  man 
and  a  Magian  became  equivalent  terms.  This 
proceeded  so  far.  that  the  vulgar,  looking  on  their 
knowledge  to  he  more  than  natural,  imagined  they 
were  inspired  by  some  supernatural  power.  And 
hence  those  who  practised  wicked  and  diabolical 
arts,  taking  upon  themselves  the  name  of  Ma- 
gians, drew  on  it  that  ill  signification  which  the 
word  Magician  now  bears  among  us. 

The  Magian  priests  were  all  of  one  tribe,  as 
among  the  Jews,  none  but  the  son  of  a  priest  was 
capable  of  bearing  that  office  among  them.  The 
royal  family  among  the  Persians,  as  long  as  this 
sect  subsisted,  was  always  of  the  sacerdotal  tribe. 
They  were  divided  into  three  orders :  the  inferior 
clergy ;  the  superintendants,  or  bishops,  and  the 
archirnagus,  or  arch-priest. 

Zoroaster  had  the  address  to  bring  over  Darius 
to  his  new-reformed  religion,  notwithstanding  the 
strongest  opposition  of  the  Sabians;  and  from 
that  time  it  became  the  national  religion  of  all 
that  country,  and  so  continued  for  many  ages 
after,  till  it  was  supplanted  by  that  of  Mahomet. 
Zoroaster  composed  a  book  containing  the  prin- 
ciples of  the  Magian  religion.  It  is  called  Zenda- 
vesta,  and  by  contraction  Zend.     See  Zend. 

MAGIC,  a  science  which  teaches  to  produce 
surprising  and  extraordinary  effects;  a  corres- 
pondence with  bad  spirits,  by  means  of  which  a 
person  is  able  to  perform  surprising  things.  This 
was  strictly  lbrbidden  by  the  law  of  God,  on  pain 
oi  death,  Lev.  xix.  31. 
248 


MAHOMETANISM 

MAGISTER  DISCIPLINE,  or  Masteb 
of  Discipline,  the  appellation  of  a  certaic 
ecclesiastical  officer  in  the  ancient  Christian 
church.  It  was  a  custom  in  some  places,  parti- 
cularly in  Spain,  in  the  time  of  the  Gothic  kings, 
about  the  end  of  the  fifth  century,  for  parents  to 
dedicate  their  children  very  young  to  the  service 
of  the  church.  For  this  purpose  they  were  taken 
into  the  bishop's  family,  and  educated  under  him 
by  some  grave  and  discreet  person  whom  the 
bishop  deputed  for  that  purpose,  and  set  over 
them,  by  the  name  of  Presbyter,  or  Magister 
Disciplines,  whose  chief  business  it  was  to  inspect 
their  behaviour,  and  instruct  them  in  the  rules 
and  discipline  of  the  church. 

MAGNANIMITY,  greatness  of  soul ;  a  dis- 
position of  mind  exerted  in  contemning  dangers 
and  difficulties,  in  scorning  temptations,  and  des- 
pising earthly  pomp  and  splendour.  Cicero  de 
Offic  lee.  i.  chap.  20 ;  Grove's  Moral  Phil.  p. 
2G8,  vol.  ii.  See  articles  Courage,  Fortitude, 
in  this  work;  Steele's  Christian  Hero;  Walts 
on  Self-Murder. 

MAHOMETANISM,  the  system  of  religion 
formed  and  propagated  by  Mahomet,  and  still 
adhered  to  by  his  followers.  It  is  professed  by 
the  Turks  and  Persians,  by  several  nations 
among  the  Africans,  and  many  among  the  East 
Indians. 

Mahomet  was  born  in  the  reign  of  Anushir- 
wan  the  Just,  emperor  of  Persia,  about  the  end 
of  the  sixth  century  of  the  Christian  era.  He 
came  into  the  world  under  some  disadvantages* 
His  father  Abd'allah  was  a  younger  son  of  Abd'- 
almotalleb;  and  dying  very  young,  and  in  his 
father's  life-time,  left  his  widow  and  infant  son 
in  very  mean  circumstances,  his  whole  subsis- 
tence consisting  but  of  five  camels  and  one  Ethi- 
opian she-slave.  Abd'almotalleb  was  therefore 
obliged  to  take  care  of  his  grandchild  Maho- 
met; which  he  not  only  did  during  his  life,  but 
at  his  death  enjoined  his  eldest  son  Abu  Taleb, 
who  was  brother  to  Abd'allah  by  the  same  mo- 
ther, to  provide  for  him  for  the  future ;  which  he 
very  affectionately  did,  and  instructed  him  in  the 
business  of  a  merchant,  which  he  followed  :  and 
to  that  end  he  took  him  into  Syria,  when  he  was 
but  thirteen.  He  afterwards  recommended  him 
to  Khadijah,  a  noble  and  rich  widow,  for  her 
factor ;  in  whose  service  he  behaved  himself  so 
well,  that,  by  making  him  her  husband,  she  soon 
raised  him  to  an  equality  with  the  richest  in 
Mecca. 

After  he  began  by  this  advantageous  match  to 
live  at  his  ease,  it  was,  that  he  formed  the  scheme 
of  establishing  a  new  religion,  or,  as  he  expressed 
it,  of  replanting  the  only  true  and  ancient  one, 
professed  by  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham,  Moses, 
Jesus,  and  all  the  prophets,  by  destroying  the 
gn>ss  idolatry  into  which  the  generality  of  his 
countrymen  had  fallen,  and  weeding  out  the  cor- 
ruptions and  superstitions  which  the  latter  Jews 
and  Christians  had,  as  he  thought,  introduced 
into  their  religion,  and  reducing  it  to  its  original 
purity,  which  consisted  chiefly  in  the  worship  of 
one  ( Jud. 

Before  he  made  any  attempt  abroad,  he  rightly 
judged  that  it  was  necessary  for  him  to  begin 
with  the  conversion  of  his  own  household.  Hav- 
ing, therefore,  retired  with  his  family,  as  he  had 
done  several  times  before,  to  a  cave  in  mount 
Hara,  he  there  opened  the  secret  of  lus  mission 


"MAHOMET  ANISM 
to  his  Wife  Khadijah ;  and  acquainted  her,  that  the 
angel  Gabriel  had  just  before  appeared  to  him, 
an  i  told  him  that  he  was  appointed  the  apostle 
Of  God  :  he  also  repeated  to  her  a  passage  which 
te  pretended  had  been  revealed  to  him  by  the 
ministry  of  the  angel,  with  those  other  cireum- 
6tances  of  this  first  appearance  which  are  related 
by  the  Mahometan,  writers.  Khadijah  received 
the  news  with  great  joy,  swearing  by  Him  in 
whose  hands  her  soul  was,  that  she  trusted  he 
would  be  the  prophet  of  his  nation ;  and  imme-, 
diately  communicated  what  she  had  heard  to  her 
cousin  Warakah  Ebn  Nawfhl,  who,  being  a 
Christian,  could  write  in  the  Hebrew  character, 
and  was  tolerably  well  versed  in  the  Scriptures ; 
and  he  readily  came  into  her  opinion,  assuring 
her  that  the  same  angel  who  had  formerly  ap- 
peared unto  Moses  was  now  sent  to  Mahomet. 
The  first  overture  the  prophet  made  was  in  the 
month  of  Ramadan,  in  the  fortieth  year  of  his 
age,  which  is  therefore  usually  called  the  year  of 
his  mission. 

Encouraged  by  so  good  a  beginning,  he  re- 
solved to  proceed,  and  try  for  some  time  what  he 
could  do  by  private  persuasion,  not  daring  to 
hazard  the  whole  affair  by  exposing  it  too  suddenly 
to  the  public.  He  soon  made  proselytes  of  those 
under  his  own  roof,  viz.  his  wife  Khadijah,  his 
servant  Zeid  Ebn  Haretha,  to  whom  he  gave  his 
freedom  on  that  occasion,  (which  afterwards  be- 
came a  rule  to  his  followers,)  and  his  cousin  and 
pupil  Ali,  the  son  of  Abu  Taleb,  though  then 
very  young :  but  this  last,  making  no  account  of 
the  other  two,  used  to  style  himself  the  first  of 
believers.  The  next  person  Mahomet  applied  to 
was  Abd'allah  Ebn  Abi  Kohafa,  surnamed  Abu 
Beer,  a  man  of  great  authority  among  the  Ko- 
reish,  and  one  whose  interest  he  well  knew  would 
be  of  great  service  to  him,  as  it  soon  appeared ; 
for  Abu  Beer,  being  gained  over,  prevailed  also 
on  Othman  Ebn  Affan,  Abd'alraham  Ebn  Awf, 
Saad  Ebn  Abbi  Wakkus,  At  Zobeir  al  A  warn, 
and  Telha  Ebn  Obeid'allah,  all  principal  men  of 
Mecca,  to  follow  his  example.  These  men  were 
six  chief  companions,  who,  with  a  few  more, 
were  converted  in  the  space  of  three  years :  at 
the  end  of  which,  Mahomet  having,  as  he  hoped, 
a  sufficient  interest  to  support  him,  made  his 
mission  no  longer  a  secret,  but  gave  out  that  God 
had  commanded  him  to  admonish  his  near  rela- 
tions ;  and  in  order  to  do  it  with  more  convenience 
and  prospect  of  success,  he  directed  Ali  to  prepare 
an  entertainment,  and  invited  the  sons  and  de- 
scendants of  Abd'almotalleb,  intending  then  to 
open  his  mind  to  them. — This  was  done,  and 
about  forty  of  them  came ;  but  Abu  Laheb,  one 
of  his  uncles,  making  the  company  break  up  be- 
fore Mahomet  had  an  opportunity  of  speaking, 
obliged  him  to  give  them  a  second  invitation  the 
next  day ;  and  when  they  were  come,  he  made 
them  the  following  speech  :  "  I  know  no  man  in 
all  Arabia  who  can  offer  his  kindred  a  more  ex- 
cellent thing  than  I  now  do  to  you ;  I  offer  you 
happiness,  both  in  this  life,  and  in  that  which  is 
to  come :  God  Almighty  hath  commanded  me  to 
call  you  unto  him.  Who,  therefore,  among  you, 
will  be  assistant  to  me  herein,  and  become  my 
brother  and  my  vicegerent  1"  All  of  them  hesi- 
tating and  declining  the  matter,  Ali  at  length 
rose  up,  and  declared  that  he  would  be  his  assist- 
ant, and  vehemently  threatened  those  who  should 
oppose  him.  Mahome*  upon  this  embraced  Ah 
2-19  2  Or 


MAHOMET  AN1SM 
with  great  demonstrations  of  affection,  and  de- 
sired all  who  were  present  to  hearken  to  and  obey 
him  as  his  deputy ;  at  which  the  company  broke 
out  into' a  great  laughter,  telling  Abu  Taleb  that 
he  must  now  pay  obedience  to  his  son. 

This  repulse,  however,  was  so  far  from  dis- 
couraging Mahomet,  that  he  began  to  preach  in 
public  to  the  people,  who  heard  him  with  some 
patience,  till  he  came  to  upbraid  them  with  the  idol- 
atry, obstinacy,  and  perverseness  of  themselves 
and  their  fathers;  which  so  highly  provoked 
them,  that  they  declared  themselves  his  enemies ; 
and  would  soon  have  procured  his  ruin,  had  he 
not  been  protected  by  Abu  Taleb.  The  chief  of 
the  Koreish  warmly  solicited  this  person  to  de- 
sert his  nephew,  making  frequent  remonstrances 
against  the  innovations  he  was  attempting ;  which 
proving  ineffectual,  they  at  length  threatened  him 
with  an  open  rupture  if  he  did  not  prevail  on 
Mahomet  to  desist.  At  this  Abu  Taleb  was  so 
far  moved,  that  he  earnestly  dissuaded  his  nephew 
from  pursuing  the  affair  any  further,  representing 
the  great  danger  that  he  and  his  friends  must 
otherwise  run.  But  Mahomet  was  not  to  be  in- 
timidated ;  telling  his  uncle  plainly,  that  if  they 
set  the  sun  against  him  on  his  right  hand,  and 
the  moon  on  his  left,  he  would  not  leave  his  en- 
terprise ;  and  Abu  Taleb,  seeing  him  so  firmly 
resolved  to  proceed,  used  no  further  arguments, 
but  promised  to  stand  by  him  against  all  hia 
enemies. 

The  Koreish,  finding  they  could  prevail  neither 
by  fair  words  nor  menaces,  tried  what  they  could 
do  by  force  and  ill  treatment;  using  Mahomet's 
followers  so  very  injuriously,  that  it  was  not  safe 
for  them  to  continue  at  Mecca  any  longer ;  where- 
upon Mahomet  gave  leave  to  such  of  them  as 
had  no  friends  to  protect  them  to  seek  for  refuge 
elsewhere.  And  accordingly,  in  the  fifth  year  of 
the  prophet's  mission,  sixteen  of  them,  four  of 
whom  were  women,  fled  into  Ethiopia;  and 
among  them  Othman  Ebn  Affan,  and  his  wife 
Rakiah,  Mahomet's  daughter.  This  was  the 
first  flight ;  but  afterwards  several  others  followed 
them,  retiring  one  after  another,  to  the  number 
of  eighty -three  men,  and  eighteen  women,  besides 
children.  These  refugees  were  kindly  received 
by  the  Najashi,  or  king  of  Ethiopia,  who  refused 
to  deliver  them  up  to  those  whom  the  Koreish 
sent  to  demand  them,  and,  as  the  Arab  writers 
unanimously  attest,  even  professed  the  Mahome- 
tan religion. 

In  the  sixth  year  of  his  mission,  Mahomet  had 
the  pleasure  of  seeing  Ms  party  strengthened  by 
the  conversion  of  his  uncle  Hamza,  a  man  of 
great  valour  and  merit;  and  of  Omar  Ebn  al 
Kattab,  a  person  highly  esteemed,  and  once  a 
violent  opposer  of  the  prophet.  As  persecution 
generally  advances  rather  than  obstructs  the 
spreading  of  a  religion,  Islamism  made  so  great 
a  progress  among  the  Arab  tribes,  that  the  Ko- 
reish, to  suppress  it  effectually,  if  possible,  in  the 
seventh  year  of  Mahomet's  mission,  made  a  so- 
lemn league  or  covenant  against  the  Hashemites, 
and  the  family  of  Abd'almotalleb,  engaging  them- 
selves to  contract  no  marriages  with  any  of  them, 
and  to  have  no  communication  with  them ;  and 
to  give  it  the  greater  sanction,  reduced  it  into 
writing,  and  laid  it  up  in  the  Caaba.  Upon  this 
the  tribe  became  divided  into  two  factions  ;  and 
the  family  of  Hashcm  all  repaired  to  Abu  Taleb, 
as  their  head;  except  only  Abd'al  Uzza,  sumanied 


MAHOMETANISM 

Abu  Lahcb,  who,  out  of  inveterate  hatred  to  his 
nephew  and  his  doctrine,  went  over  to  the  oppo- 
site party,  whose  chief  was  Abu  Sosian  Ebn 
Harb,  of  the  family  of  Ommeya. 

The  families  continued  thus  at  variance  for 
three  years ;  but  in  the  tenth  year  of  his  mission, 
Mahomet  told  his  uncle  Abu  Taleb,  that  God 
had  manifestly  showed  his  disapprobation  of  the 
league  which  the  Korcish  had  made  against  them, 
by  sending  a  worm  to  eat  out  every  word  of  the 
instrument  except  the  name  of  God.  Of  this 
accident"  Mahomet  had  probably  some  private  no- 
tice; for  Abu  Taleb  went  immediately  to  the 
Koreish,  and  acquainted  them  with  it;  offering, 
if  it  proved  false,  to  deliver  his  nephew  up  to  them ; 
but,  in  case  it  were  true,  he  insisted  that  they 
ought  to  lay  aside  their  animosity,  and  annul  the 
league  they  had  made  against  the  Hashemites. 
To  this  they  acquiesced ;  and  going  to  inspect 
the  writing,  to  their  great  astonishment  found  it 
to  be  as  Abu  Taleb  had  said :  and  the  league  was 
thereupon  declared  void. 

In  the  same  year  Abu  Taleb  died  at  the  age 
of  above  fourscore,  and  it  is  the  general  opinion 
that  he  died  an  infidel ;  though  others  say,  that 
when  he  was  at  the  point  of  death  he  embraced 
Mahometanism,  and  produce  some  passages  out 
of  his  poetical  compositions  to  confirm  their  as- 
sertion. About  a  month,  or,  as  some  write,  three 
days  after  the  death  of  this  great  benefactor  and 
patron,  Mahomet  had  the  additional  mortification 
to  lose  his  wife  Khadijah,  who  had  so  generously 
made  his  fortune.  For  which  reason  this  year  is 
called  the  year  of  mourning. 

On  the  death  of  these  two  persons,  the  Koreish 
began  to  be  more  troublesome  than  ever  to  their 
prophet,  and  especially  some  who  had  formerly 
been  his  intimate  friends;  insomuch  that  he  found 
himself  obliged  to  seek  for  shelter  elsewhere,  and 
first  pitched  upon  Tayef,  about  sixty  miles  east 
from  Mecca,  for  the  place  of  his  retreat.  Thither, 
therefore,  he  went,  accompanied  by  his  servant 
Zeid,  and  applied  himself  to  two  of  the  chief  of 
the  tribe  of  Thakif,  who  were  the  inhabitants  of 
that  place ;  but  they  received  him  very  coldly. 
However,  he  staid  there  a  month ;  and  some  of 
the  more  considerate  and  tetter  sort  of  men  treated 
him  with  little  respect ;  but  the  slaves  and  infe- 
rior people  at  length  rose  against  him  ;  and  bring- 
ing him  to  the  wall  of  the  city,  obliged  him  to 
depart,  and  return  to  Mecca,  while  he  put  him- 
self under  the  protection  of  Al  Motaam  Ebn  Adi. 

This  repulse  greatly  discouraged  his  followers. 
However,  Mahomet  was  not  wanting  to  himself; 
but  boldly  continued  to  preach  to  the  public  as- 
semblies at  the  pilgrimage,  and  gained  several 
proselytes ;  and  among  them  six  of  the  inhabitants 
of  Yathreb,  of  the  Jewish  tribe  of  Khazraj  ;  who, 
on  their  return  home,  failed  not  to  speak  much  in 
recommendation  of  their  new  religion,  and  ex- 
horted their  fellow  citizens  to  embrace  the  same. 

In  the  twelfth  year  of  his  mission  it  was  that 
Mahomet  gave  out  that  he  had  made  his  night 
journey  from  Mecca  to  Jerusalem,  and  thence  to 
heaven,  so  much  spoken  of  by  all  that  write  of 
him.  Dr.  Prideaux  thinks  he  invented  it  cither 
to  answer  the  expectations  of  those  who  demand- 
ed some  miracle  as  a  proof  of  his  mission ;  or  else, 
by  pretending  to  have  conversed  with  God,  to 
establish  the  authority  of  whatever  he  should 
think  fit  to  leave  behind  by  way  of  oral  tradition, 
and  make  his  sayings  to  serve  the  same  purpose 
250 


MAHOMETANISM 
as  the  oral  law  of  the  Jews.  But  it  does  not  ar> 
pear  that  Mahomet  himself  ever  expected  so  great 
a  regard  should  be  paid  to  his  sayings  as  his  fol- 
lowers have  since  done  ;  and.  seeing  he  all  along 
disclaimed  any  power  jf  performing  miracles,  it 
seems  rather  to  have  been  a  fetch  of  policy  to  raise 
his  reputation,  by  pretending  to  have  actually 
conversed  with  God  in  heaven,  as  Moses  had 
heretofore  done  in  the  mount,  and  to  have  re- 
ceived several  institutions  immediately  from  him, 
whereas,  before,  he  contented  himself  with  per- 
suading them  that  he  had  all  by  the  ministry  of 
Gabriel. 

However,  this  story  seemed  so  absurd  and  in- 
credible, that  several  of  his  followers  left  him  upon 
it ;  and  had  probably  ruined  the  whole  design, 
had  not  Abu  Beer  vouched  for  his  veracity,  and 
declared  that  if  Mahomet  affirmed  it  to  be  true, 
he  verily  believed  the  whole.  Which  happy  in- 
cident not  only  letrieved  the  prophet's  credit,  but 
increased  it  to  such  a  degree,  that  he  was  secure 
of  being  able  to  make  his  disciples  swallow  what- 
ever he  pleased  to  impose  on  them  for  the  future. 
And  this  fiction,  notwithstanding  its  extrava- 
gance, was  one  of  the  most  artful  contrivances 
Mahomet  ever  put  in  practice,  and  what  chiefly 
contributed  to  the  raising  of  his  reputation  to  that 
great  height  to  which  it  afterwards  arrived. 

In  this  year,  called  by  the  Mahometans  the  ac- 
ccpted  year,  twelve  men  of  Yathreb  or  Medina, 
of  whom  ten  were  of  the  tribe  of  Khazraj,  and 
the  other  two  of  that  of  Aws,  came  to  Mecca, 
and  took  an  oath  of  fidelity  to  Mahomet  at  Al 
Akaba,  a  hill  on  the  north  of  that  city.  This  oath 
was  called  the  icoman's  oath  ;  not  that  any  wo- 
men were  present  at  this  time,  but  because  a  man 
was  not  thereby  obliged  to  take  up  arms  in  de- 
fence of  Mahomet  or  his  religion  j  it  being  the 
same  oath  that  was  afterwards  exacted  of  the 
women,  the  form  of  which  we  have  in  the  Koran, 
and  is  to  this  effect,  viz.  That  they  should  renounce 
all  idolatry ;  and  that  they  should  not  steal,  nor 
commit  fornication,  nor  kill  their  children  (as  the 
pagan  Arabs  used  to  do  when  they  apprehended 
they  should  not  be  able  to  maintain  them),  nor 
forge  calumnies  ;  and  that  they  should  obey  the 
prophet  in  all  things  that  were  reasonable.  When 
they  had  solemnly  engaged  to  all  this,  Mahomet 
sent  one  of  his  disciples  named  Masab  Ebn  Omair 
home  with  them,  to  instruct  them  more  fully  in 
the  grounds  and  ceremonies  of  his  new  religion. 

Masab,  being  arrived  at  Medina,  by  the  assist- 
ance of  those  who  had  been  formerly  converted, 
gained  several  proselytes,  particularly  Osed  Ebn 
Hodcira,  a  chief  man  of  the  city,  and  Saad  Ebn 
Moadh,  prince  of  the  tribe  of  the  Aws  ;  Maho- 
metanism spreading  so  fast,  that  there  was  scarce 
a  house  wherein  there  were  not  some  who  had 
embraced  it. 

The  next  year,  being  the  thirteenth  of  Ma- 
homet's mission,  Masab  returned  to  Mecca,  ac- 
companied by  seventy-three  men  and  two  women 
of  Medina  who  had  professed  Islamism,  besides 
some  others  who  were  as  yet  unbelievers.  On 
their  arrival  they  immediately  sent  to  Mahomet, 
and  offered  him  their  assistance,  of  which  he  was 
now  in  great  need;  for  his  adversaries  were  by 
this  time  grown  so  powerful  in  Mecca,  that  he 
could  not  stay  there  much  longer  without  immi- 
nent danger.  Wherefore  he  accepted  their  pro- 
posal, and  met  them  one  night,  by  appointment, 
at  Al  Akaba  above  mentioned,  attended  by  his 


MAHOMETANISM 
ancle  Al  Abbas ;  who,  though  he  was  not  then  a 
believer,  wished  his  nephew  well,  and  made  a 
speech  to  those  of  Medina;  wherein  he  told 
them,  that,  as  Mahomet  was  obliged  to  quit  his 
native  city  and  seek  an  asylum  elsewhere,  and 
they  had  offered  him  their  protection,  they  would 
do  well  not  to  deceive  hiin :  that  if  they  were  not 
firmly  resolved  to  defend,  and  not  betray  him, 
they  had  better  declare  their  minds,  and  let  him 
provide  for  his  safety  in  some  other  manner. — 
Upon  their  protesting  their  sincerity,  Mahomet 
swore  to  be  faithful  to  them,  on  condition  that 
they  should  protect  him  against  all  insults  as 
heartily  as  they  would  their  own  wives  and  fami- 
lies. They  then  asked  him,  what  recompence 
they  were  to  expect,  if  they  should  happen  to  be 
killed  in  his  quarrel?  He  answered,  Paradise. 
Whereupon  they  pledged  their  faith  to  him,  and 
so  returned  home  after  Mahomet  had  chosen 
twelve  out  of  their  number,  who  were  to  have  the 
same  authority  among  them  as  the  twelve  apos- 
tles of  Christ  had  among  his  disciples. 

Hitherto  Mahomet  had  propagated  his  religion 
oy  fair  means ;  so  that  the  whole  success  of  his 
enterprise  before  his  flight  to  Medina  must  be 
attributed  to  persuasion  only,  and  not  to  compul- 
sion. For  before  this  second  oath  of  fealty  or 
inauguration  at  Al  Akaba,  he  had  no  permission 
to  use  any  force  at  all ;  and  in  several  places  of 
the  Koran,  which  he  pretended  were  revealed 
during  his  stay  at  Mecca,  he  declares  his  business 
was  only  to  preach  and  admonish ;  that  he  had 
no  authority  to  compel  any  person  to  embrace  his 
religion ;  and  that,  whether  people  believe  or  not, 
was  none  of  his  concern,  but  belonged  solely  unto 
God.  And  he  was  so  far  from  allowing  his  fol- 
lowers to  use  force,  that  he  exhorted  them  to 
bear  patiently  those  injuries  which  were  offered 
them  on  account  of  their  faith ;  and,  when  per- 
secuted himself,  chose  rather  to  quit  the  place  of 
his  birth,  and  retire  to  Medina,  than  to  make  any 
resistance.  But  this  great  passiveness  and  mode- 
ration seem  entirely  owing  to  his  want  of  power, 
and  the  great  superiority  of  his  opposers,  for  the 
first  twelve  years  of  his  mission ;  for  no  sooner 
was  he  enabled,  by  the  assistance  of  those  of  Me- 
dina, to  make  head  against  his  enemies,  than  he 
gave  out,  that  God  had  allowed  him  and  his  fol- 
lowers to  defend  themselves  against  the  infidels ; 
and  at  length,  as  his  forces  increased,  he  pretend- 
ed to  have  the  divine  leave  even  to  attack  them, 
and  destroy  idolatry,  and  set  up  the  true  faith  by 
the  sword  ;  finding  by  experience,  that  his  designs 
would  otherwise  proceed  very  slowly,  if  they 
were  not  utterly  overthrown ;  and  knowing,  on 
the  other  hand,  that  innovators,  when  they  de- 
pend solely  on  their  own  strength,  and  can  com- 
pel, seldom  run  any  risk ;  from  whence,  says 
Maehiavel,  it  follows,  that  all  the  armed  prophets 
have  succeeded,  and  the  unarmed  ones  have 
failed.  Moses,  Cyrus,  Theseus,  and  Romulus, 
would  not  have  been  able  to  establish  the  observ- 
ance of  their  institution  for  any  length  of  time, 
had  they  not  been  armed.  The  first  passage  of 
the  Koran  which  gave  Mahomet  the  permission 
of  defending  himself  by  arms,  is  said  to  have  been 
that  in  the  twenty-second  chapter  ;  after  which, 
a  great  number  to  the  same  purpose  were  re- 
vealed. 

Mahomet,  having  provided  for  the  security  of 
his  companions,  as  well  as  his  own,  by  the  league 
offensive  and  defensive  which  he  had  now  con- 
251 


MAHOMETANISM 
eluded  with  those  of  Medina,  directed  them  to 
repair  thither,  which  they  accordingly  did;  but 
himself,  with  Abu  Beer  and  Ali,  staid  behind, 
having  not  yet  received  the  divine  permission,  as 
he  pretended,  to  leave  Mecca.  The  Koreish,  fear- 
ing the  consequence  of  this  new  alliance,  began 
to  think  it  absolutely  necessary  to  prevent  Ma- 
homet's escape  to  Medina;  and  having  held  a 
council  thereon,  after  several  milder  expedients 
had  been  rejected,  they  came  to  a  resolution  that 
he  should  be  killed  ;  and  agreed  that  a  man 
should  be  chosen  out  of  every  tribe  for  the  execu- 
tion of  this  design ;  and  that  each  man  should 
have  a  blow  at  him  with  his  sword,  that  the  guilt 
of  his  blood  might  fall  equally  on  all  the  tribes,  to 
whose  united  power  the  Hashemites  were  much 
inferior,  and  therefore  durst  not  attempt  to  re- 
venge their  kinsman's  death. 

This  conspiracy  was  scarce  formed,  when,  by 
some  means  or  other,  it  came  to  Mahomet'b 
knowledge  ;  and  he  gave  out  that  it  was  revealed 
to  him  by  the  angel  Gabriel,  who  had  now  order- 
ed him  to  retire  to  Medina.  Whereupon,  to 
amuse  his  enemies,  he  directed  Ali  to  lie  down 
in  his  place,  and  wrap  himself  up  in  his  green 
cloak,  which  he  did ;  and  Mahomet  escaped, 
miraculously,  as  they  pretended,  to  Abu  Beer's 
house,  unperceived  by  the  conspirators,  who  had 
already  assembled  at  the  prophet's  door.  They, 
in  the  mean  time,  looking  through  the  crevice, 
and  seeing  Ali,  whom  they  took  to  be  Mahomet 
himself,  asleep,  continued  watching  there  till 
morning,  when  Ah  arose,  and  they  iound  them- 
selves deceived. 

From  Abu  Beer's  house  Mahomet  and  he  went 
to  a  cave  in  mount  Thur,  to  the  south-east  of 
Mecca,  accompanied  only  by  Amor  Ebn  Fohei- 
rah,  Abu  Beer's  servant,  and  Abd'allah  Ebn 
Oreitah,  an  idolator  whom  they  had  hired  for  a 
guide.  In  this  cave  they  lay  hid  three  days,  to  avoid 
the  search  of  their  enemies  ;  which  they  very  nar- 
rowly escaped,  and  not  without  the  assistance  of 
more  miracles  than  one ;  for  some  say  that  the 
Koreish  were  struck  with  blindness,  so  that  they 
could  not  find  the  cave ;  others,  that  after  Mar 
hornet  and  his  companions  were  got  in,  two 
pigeons  laid  their  eggs  at  the  entrance,  and  a 
spider  covered  the  mouth  of  the  cave  with  her 
web,  which  made  them  look  no  further.  Abu 
Beer,  seeing  the  prophet  in  such  imminent  dan- 
ger, became  very  sorrowful ;  whereupon  Maho- 
met comforted  him  with  these  words,  recorded  in 
the  Koran  :  Be  not  grieved,  for  God  is  with  us. 
Their  enemies  being  retired,  they  left  the  cave, 
and  set  out  for  Medina  by  a  by-road ;  and  having 
fortunately,  or,  as  the  Mahometans  tell  us,  mi- 
raculously, escaped  some  who  were  sent  to  pur 
sue  them,  arrived  safely  at  that  city ;  whither  Ali 
followed  them  in  three  days,  after  he  had  settled 
some  affairs  at  Mecca. 

Mahomet  being  securely  settled  at  Medina, 
and  able  not  only  to  defend  himself  against  the 
insults  of  his  enemies,  but  to  attack  them,  began 
to  send  out  small  parties  to  make  reprisals 
on  the  Koreish  ;  the  first  party  consisting  of  no 
more  than  nine  men,  who  intercepted  and  plun 
dered  a  caravan  belonging  to  that  tribe,  md  in 
the  action  took  two  prisoners.  But  what  esta- 
blished his  affairs  very  much,  and  was  the  foua- 
dation  on  which  he  built  all  his  succeeding 
greatness,  was  the  gaining  of  the  battle  of  Bedr, 
which  was  fought  in  the  second  year  of  the 


MAHOMETANISM 
Hegira,  and  is  so  famous  in  the  Mahometan  his- 
tory. Some  reckon  no  less  than  twenty-seven 
expeditions,  wherein  Mahomet  was  personally 
present,  in  nine  of  which  he  gave  battle,  besides 
several  other  expeditions  in  which  he  was  not 
present.  His  forces  he  maintained  partly  by 
the  contributions  of  his  followers  for  this  purpose, 
which  he  called  by  the  name  of  zacat,  or  alms, 
and  the  paying  of  which  he  very  artfully  made 
one  main  article  of  his  religion :  and  partly  by 
ordering  a  fifth  part  of  the  plunder  to  be  brought 
into  the  public  treasury  for  that  purpose,  in  which 
matter  he  likewise  pretended  to  act  by  the  divine 
direction. 

In  a  few  years,  by  the  success  of  his  arms, 
notwithstanding  he  sometimes  came  off  with  the 
worst,  he  considerably  raised  his  credit  and  power. 
In  the  sixth  year  of  the  Hegira  he  set  out  with 
1400  men  to  visit  the  temple  of  Mecca,  not  with 
any  intent  of  committing  hostilities,  but  in  a 
peaceable  manner.  However,  when  he  came  to 
Al  Hodeibiya,  which  is  situated  partly  within 
and  partly  without  the  sacred  territory,  the  Ko- 
reish  sent  to  let  him  know  that  they  would  not 
permit  him  to  enter  Mecca,  unless  he  forced 'his 
way  :  whereupon  he  called  his  troops  about  him, 
and  they  all  took  a  solemn  oath  of  fealty  or  ho- 
mage to  him,  and  he  resolved  to  attack  the  city ; 
hut  those  of  Mecca  sending  Arwa  Ebn  Masu'n, 
prince  of  the  tribe  of  Thakif,  as  their  ambassador, 
to  desire  peace,  a  truce  was  concluded  between 
them  for  ten  years,  by  which  any  person  was 
allowed  to  enter  into  a  league  either  with  Maho- 
met, or  with  the  Koreish,  as  he  thought  fit. 

In  the  seventh  year  of  the  Hegira,  Mahomet 
began  to  think  of  propagating  his  religion  beyond 
the  bounds  of  Arabia,  and  sent  messengers  to  the 
neighbouring  princes,  with  letters  to  invite  them 
to  Mahometanism.  Nor  was  this  project  with- 
out some  success :  Khosru  Parviz,  then  king  of 
Persia,  received  Ms  letter  with  great  disdain,  and 
tore  it  in  a  passion,  sending  away  the  messenger 
very  abruptly;  which,  when  Mahomet  heard,  he 
said,  God  shall  tear  his  kingdom.  And  soon 
after  a  messenger  came  to  Mahomet  from  Bad- 
han,  king  of  Yaman,  who  was  a  dependent  on 
the  Persians,  to  acquaint  him*  that  he  had  re- 
ceived orders  to  send  him  to  Khosru.  Mahomet 
put  off  his  answer  till  the  next  morning,  and  then 
told  the  messenger  it  had  been  revealed  to  him 
that  night  that  Khosru  was  slain  by  his  son 
Shiruyeh :  adding,  that  he  was  well  assured  his 
new  religion  and  empire  should  rise  to  as  great  a 
height  as  that  of  Khosru  ;  and  therefore  bid  him 
advise  his  master  to  embrace  Mahometanism. 
The  messenger  being  returned,  Badhan  in  a  few 
clays  received  a  letter  from  Shiruyeh,  informing 
him  of  his  father's  death,  and  ordering  him  to 
give  the  prophet  no  further  disturbance.  Where- 
upon Badhan,  and  the  Persians  with  him,  turned 
Mahometans. 

_  The  emperor  Heraclius,  as  the  Arabian  histo- 
rians assure  us,  received  Mahomet's  letter  with 
great  respect,  laying  it  on  his  pillow,  and  dis- 
missed the  bearer  honourably.  And  some  pre- 
tend that  he  would  have  professed  this  new  faith, 
had  he  not  been  afraid  of  losing  his  crown. 

Mahomet  wrote  to  the  same  effect  to  the  king 
of  Ethiopia,  though  he  had  been  converted  before, 
according  to  the  Arab  writers;  and  to  Mokaw- 
kas,  governor  of  Egypt,  who  gave  the  messenger 
a  very  favourable  reception,  and  sent  several 
2b2 


MAHOMETANISM 

valuable  presents  to  Mahomet,  and  among  the 
rest  two  girls,  one  of  whom,  named  Mary,  became 
a  great  favourite  with  him.  He  also  sent  letters 
of  the  like  purport  to  several  Arab  princes  ;  par- 
ticularly one  to  Al  Hareth.Ebn  Abi  Shamer, 
king  of  Ghassan,  who,  returning  for  answer  that 
he  would  go  to  Mahomet  himself,  the  prophet 
said,  May  his  kingdom  perish!  Another  to 
Hawdha  Ebn  Ali,  king  of  Yamama,  who  was  a 
Christian,  and,  having  some  time  before  professed 
Islamism,  had  lately  returned  to  his  former  faith: 
this  prince  sent  back  a  very  rough  answer,  upon 
which  Mahomet  cursing  him,  he  died  soon  after; 
and  a  third  to  Al  Mondar  Ebn  Sawa,  king  of 
Bahrein,  who  embraced  Mahometanism,  and  all 
the  Arabs  of  that  country  followed  his  example. 

The  eighth  year  of  the  Hegira  was  a  very  for- 
tunate year  to  Mahomet.  In  the  beginning  of  it 
Khaled  Ebn  al  Walid  and  Amru  Ebn  al  As, 
both  excellent  sJdiers,  the  first  of  whom  after- 
wards conquered  Syria  and  other  countries,  and 
the  latter  Egypt,  became  proselytes  to  Mahomet- 
anism. And  soon  after  the  prophet  sent  3000 
men  against  the  Grecian  forces,  to  revenge  the 
death  of  one  of  his  ambassadors,  who,  being  sent 
to  the  governor  of  Bosra  on  the  same  errand  as 
those  who  went  to  the  above-mentioned  princes, 
was  slain  by  an  Arab  of  the  tribe  of  Ghassan,  at 
Muta,  a  town  in  the  territory  of  Balka,  in  Syria, 
about  three  days'  journey  eastward  from  Jerusa- 
lem, near  which  town  they  encountered.  The 
Grecians  being  vastly  superior  in  number,  (for, 
including  the  auxiliary  Arabs,  they  had  an  army 
of  100,000  men,)  the  Mahometans  were  repulsed 
in  the  first  attack,  and  lost  successively  three  of 
their  generals,  viz.  Zeid  Ebn  Harctha,  Mahomet's 
frced-man  j  Jassar,  the  son  of  Abu  Taleb ;  and 
Abdalia  Ebn  Rawalia :  but  Khaled  Ebn  al  Walid, 
succeeding  to  the  command,  overthrew  the  Greeks 
with  great  slaughter,  and  brought  away  abun- 
dance of  rich  spoil :  on  occasion  of  which  action 
Mahomet  gave  him  the  title  of  Self  min  soyuf 
Allah,  "one  of  the  swords  of  God." 

In  this  year  also  Mahomet  took  the  city  of 
Mecca,  the  inhabitants  whereof  had  broken  the 
truce  concluded  on  two  years  before;  for  the 
tribe  of  Beer,  who  were  confederates  with  the 
Koreish,  attacking  those  of  Kozaali,  who  were 
allies  of  Mahomet,  killed  several  of  them,  being 
supported  in  the  action  by  a  party  of  the  Koreish 
themselves.  The  consequence  of  this  violation 
was  soon  apprehended,  and  Abu  Sosian  himself 
made  a  journey  to  Medina  on  purpose  to  heal  the 
breach  and  renew  the  truce,  but  in  vain ;  for 
Mahomet,  glad  of  this  opportunity,  rpfused  to 
see  him ;  whereupon  he  applied  to  Abu  Beer  and 
Ali ;  but  they  giving  him  no  answer,  he  was 
obliged  to  return  to  Mecca  as  he  came. 

Mahomet immediately  gave  orders  for  prepara- 
tions to  be  made  that  he  might  surprise  the 
Meccans  while  they  were  unprovided  to  receive 
him :  in  a  little  time  he  began  his  march  thither; 
and  by  the  time  he  came  near  the  city,  his  forces 
were  increased  to  ten  thousand  men.  Those  of 
Mecca  not  being  in  a  condition  to  defend  them- 
selves against  so  formidable  an  army,  surrendered 
at  discretion,  and  Abu  Sosian  saved  his  life  by 
turning  Mahometan.  About  twenty-eight  of 
the  idolaters  were  killed  by  a  party  under  the 
command  of  Khaled ;  but  this  happened  con- 
trary to  Mahomet's  orders,  who,  when  he  entered 
the  town,  pardoned  all  the  Koreish  on  their  Mb- 


MAHOMETANISM 

mission,  except  only  six  men  and  four  women, 
who  were  more  obnoxious  than  ordinary,  (some 
of  them  having  apostatized,)  and  were  solemnly 
proscribed  by  the  prophet  himself;  but  of  these 
no  more  than  one  man  and  one  woman  were  put 
to  death,  the  rest  oDtaining  pardon  on  their  em- 
bracing Mahometanism,  and  one  of  the  women 
making  her  escape. 

The  remainder  of  this  year  Mahomet  em- 
ployed in  destroying  the  idols  in  and  round  Mecca, 
sending  several  of  the  generals  on  expeditions  for 
that  purpose,  and  to  invite  the  Arabs  to  Islainism ; 
wherein  it  is  no  wonder  if  they  now  met  with 
success. 

The  next  year,  being  the  ninth  of  the  Hegira, 
the  Mahometans  call  the  year  of  embassies ;  for 
the  Arabs  had  been  hitherto  expecting  the  issue 
of  the  war  between  Mahomet  and  the  Koreish  ; 
but,  as  soon  as  that  tribe,  the  principal  of  the 
whole  nation,  and  the  genuine  descendants  of 
Ishmael,  whose  prerogatives  none  offered  to  dis- 
pute, had  submitted,  they  were  satisfied  that  it 
was  not  in  their  power  to  oppose  Mahomet ;  and 
therefore  began  to  come  in  to  him  in  great  num- 
bers, and  to  send  embassies  to  make  their  submis- 
sions to  him,  both  to  Mecca,  while  he  staid  there, 
and  also  to  Medina,  whither  he  returned  this 
year.  Among  the  rest,  five  kings  of  the  tribe 
of  Hamyar  professed  Mahometanism,  and  sent 
ambassadors  to  notify  the  same. 

In  the  tenth  year  Ali  was  sent  into  Yaman  to 
propagate  the  Mahometan  faith  there  :  and,  as  it 
is  said,  converted  the  whole  tribe  of  Hamdan  in 
one  day.  Their  example  was  quickly  followed  by 
all  the  inhabitants  of  that  province,  except  only 
those  of  Najran,  who,  being  Christians,  chose 
rather  to  pay  tribute. 

Thus  was  Mahometanism  established,  and 
idolatry  rooted  out,  even  in  Ma*homet's  lifetime, 
(for  he  died  the  next  year,)  throughout  all  Arabia, 
except  only  Yamama,  where  Moseilama,  who 
set  up  also  as  a  prophet,  as  Mahomet's  competitor, 
had  a  great  party,  and  was  not  reduced  till  the 
kalifat  of  Abu  Beer  ;  and  the  Arabs  being  then 
united  in  one  faith,  and  under  one  prince,  found 
themselves  in  a  condition  of  making  those  con- 
quests which  extended  the  Mahometan  faith  over 
so  great  a  part  of  the  world. 

1.  Mahometans,  tenets  of  the. — The  Mahome- 
tans divide  their  religion  into  two  general  parts, 
faith  and  practice ;  of  which  the  first  is  divided 
into  six  distinct  branches :  Belief  in  God,  in  his 
angels,  in  his  Scriptures,  in  his  prophets,  in  the 
resurrection  and  final  judgment,  and  in  God's  ab- 
solute decrees.  The  points  relating  to  practice 
are,  prayer,  with  washings,  &c.  alms,  fasting,  pil- 
grimage to  Mecca,  and  circumcision. 

Of  the  Mahometan  faith. — 1.  That  both  Ma- 
homet, and  those  among  his  followers  who  are 
reckoned  orthodox,  had  and  continue  to  have  just 
and  true  notions  of  God  and  his  attributes,  ap- 
pears so  plain  from  the  Koran  itself,  and  all  the 
Mahometan  divines,  that  it  would  be  loss  of  time 
to  refute  those  who  suppose  the  God  of  Mahomet 
to  be  different  from  the  true  God,  and  only  a  fic- 
titious deity  or  idol  of  his  own  creation. 

2.  The  existence  of  angels  and  their  purity, 
are  absolutely  required  to  be  believed  in  the  Ko- 
ran ;  and  he  is  reckoned  an  infidel  who  denies 
there  are  such  beings,  or  hates  any  of  them,  or 
asserts  any  distinction  of  sexes  among  them. 
They  believe   them  to   have   pure    and   subtle 

253 


MAHOMETANISM 

bodies,  created  of  fire  ;  that  they  neither  eat  nor 
drink,  nor  propagate  their  species  ;  that  they  have 
various  forms  and  offices,  some  adoring  God  in 
different  postures,  others  singing  praises  to  him, 
or  interceding  for  mankind.  They  hold,  that 
some  of  them  are  employed  in  writing  down  the 
actions  of  men ;  others  in  carrying  the  throne  of 
God,  and  other  services. 

3.  As  to  the  Scriptures,  the  Mahometans  are 
taught  by  the  Koran,  that  God,  in  divers  ages  of 
the  world,  gave  revelations  of  his  will  in  writing 
to  several  prophets,  the  whole  and  every  one 
of  which  it  is  absolutely  necessary  for  a  good 
Moslem  to  believe.  The  number  of  these  sacred 
books  were,  according  to  them,  one  hundred  and 
four ;  of  which  ten  were  given  to  Adam,  fifty  to 
Seth,  thirty  to  Edris  or  Enoch,  ten  to  Abraham ; 
and  the  other  four,  being  the  Pentateuch,  the 
Psalms,  the  Gospel,  and  the  Koran,  were  suc- 
cessively delivered  to  Moses,  David,  Jesus,  and 
Mahoiriet :  which  last  being  the  seal  of  the  pro- 
phets, those  revelations  are  now  closed,  and  no 
more  are  to  be  expected.  All  these  divine  books, 
except  the  four  last,  they  agree  to  be  now  entirely 
lost,  and  their  contents  unknown;  though  the 
Sabians  have  several  books  which  they  attribute 
to  some  of  the  antediluvian  prophets.  And  of 
those  four,  the  Pentateuch,  Psalms,  and  Gospel, 
they  say,  have  undergone  so  many  alterations  and 
corruptions,  that  though  there  may  possibly  be 
some  part  of  the  true  word  of  God  therein,  yet 
no  credit  is  to  be  given  to  the  present  copies  in  the 
hands  of  the  Jews  and  Christians. 

4.  The  number  of  the  prophets  which  have 
been  from  time  to  time  sent  by  God  into  the 
world,  amounts  to  no  less  than  224,000,  according 
to  one  Mahometan  tradition  :  or  to  124,000,  ac- 
cording to  another;  among  whom  313  were  apos- 
tles, sent  with  special  commissions  to  reclaim 
mankind  from  infidelity  and  superstition ;  and 
six  of  them  brought  new  laws  or  dispensation^ 
which  successively  abrogated  the  preceding  :  these 
were  Adam,  Noah,  Abraham,  Moses,  Jesus,  and 
Mahomet.  All  the  prophets  in  general,  The  Ma- 
hometans believe  to  have  been  free  from  great 
sins  and  errors  of  consequence,  and  professors  of 
'one  and  the  same  religion,  that  is,  Islamism,  not- 
withstanding the  different  laws  and  institutions 
which  they  observed.  They  allow  of  degrees 
among  them,  and  hold  some  of  them  to  be  more 
excellent  and  honourable  than  others.  The  first 
place  they  give  to  the  revealers  and  establish- 
es of  new  dispensations,  and  the  next  to  the 
apostles. 

In  this  great  number  of  prophets  they  not  only 
reckon  divers  patriarchs  and  persons  named  in 
Scripture,  but  not  recorded  to  have  been  prophets 
(wherein  the  Jewish  and  Christian  writers  have 
sometimes  led  the  way,)  as  Adam,  Seth,  Lot, 
Ishmael,  Nun,  Joshua,  &c.  and  introduce  some 
of  them  under  different  names,  as  Enoch,  Heber 
and  Jethro,  who  are  called  in  the  Koran,  Edris, 
Hud,  and  Shoaib:  but  several  others  whose 
very  names  do  not  appear  in  Scripture  (though 
they  endeavour  to  find  some  persons  there  to  fix 
them  on,)  as  Saleh,  Khedr,  Dhu'lkefl,  &c. 

5.  The  belief  of  a  general  resurrection  and  a 
future  judgment. 

The  time  of  the  resurrection  the  Mahometans 
allow  to  be  a  perfect  secret  to  all  but  God  alone ; 
the  angel  Gabriel  himself  acknowledging  his  ig- 
norance in  this  point,  when  Mahomet  asked  him 
W 


MAHOMETANISM 
about  it.    However,  they  say  the  approach  of 
that  day  may  be  known  from  certain  signs  which 
are  to  precede  it. 

After  examination   is  past,   (the  account  of 
which  is  too  Iofjg  and  tedious  for  this  place,)  and 
every  one's  works  weighed  in  a  just  balance,  they 
say,  that  mutual  retaliation  will  follow,  according 
to  which  every  creature  will  take  vengeance  one 
of  another,  or  have  satisfaction  made  them  for  the 
injuries  which  they  have  suffered.    And,  since 
there  will  then  be  no  other  way  of  returning  like 
for  like,  the  manner  of  giving  this  satisfaction  will 
be  by  taking  away  a  proportional  part  of  the  good 
works  of  him  who  offered  the  injury,  and  adding 
:t  to  those  of  him  who  suffered  it.     Which  being 
done,  if  the  angels  (by  whose  ministry  this  is  to 
be  performed)  say,  Lord,  we  hare  given  to  every 
one  his  due,  and  there  remaincth  of  this  person1  a 
good  trorks  so  much  as  equallelh  the  weight  of 
an  ant,  God  will,  of  his  mercy,  cause  it  to  be 
doubled  unto  him,  that  he  may  be  admitted  into 
Paradise  ;  but  if,  on  the  contrary,  his  good  works 
be  exhausted,  and  there  remain  evil  works  only, 
and   there   be  any  who  have  not  yet  received 
satisfaction  froiru'him,  God  will  order  that  an 
equal  weight  of  their  sins  be  added  unto  bis,  that 
he  may  be  punished  for  them  in  their  stead,  and 
he  will  be  sent  to  hell  laden  with  both.  This  will 
be  the  method  of  God's  dealing  with  mankind. 
As  to  brutes,  after  they  shall  have  likewise  taken 
vengeance  of  one  another,  he  will  command  them 
to  be  changed  into  dust ;  wicked  men  being  re- 
served to  more  grievous  punishment,  so  that  they 
shall  cry  out,  on  hearing  this  sentence  passed  on 
the  brutes,  Would  to  God,  that  ice  ivercdust  also! 
As  to  the  genii,  many  Mahometans  are  of  opinion 
that  such  of  them  as  are  true  believers,  will  un- 
dergo the  same  fate  as  the  irrational  animals,  and 
have  no  other  reward  than  the  favour  of  being 
converted  into  dust :  and  for  this  they  quote  the 
authority  of  their  prophet. 

The  trials  being  over,  and  the  assembly  dis- 
solved, the  Mahometans  hold,  that  those  who  are 
to  be  admitted  into  Paradise  will  take  the  right 
hand  way,  and  those  who  are  destined  into  hell 
fire  will  tike  the  left :  but  both  of  them  must  first 
pass  the  bridge  called  in  Arabic  Al  Sirat,  which, 
they  sa}',  is  laid  over  the  midst  of  hell,  and  de- 
scribe to  be  finer  than  a  hair,  and  sharper  than 
the  edge  of  a  sword  ;  so  that  it  seems  very  diffi- 
cult to  conceive  how  any  one  shall  be  able  to 
stand  upon  it;  for  which  reason  most  of  the 
sect  of  the  Motazahtes  reject  it  as  a  fable  ;  though 
the  orthodox  think  it  a  sufficient  proof  of  the 
truth  of  this  article,  that  it  was  seriously  affirmed 
by  him  who  never  asserted  a  falsehood,  meaning 
their  prophet ;  who,  to  add  to  the  difficulty  of  the 
passage,  has  likewise  declared,  that  this  bridge  is 
beset  on  each  side  with  briers  and  hooked  thorns, 
which  will,  however,  be  no  impediment  to  the 
good ;  for  they  shall  pass  with  wonderful  ease  and 
swiftness,  like  lightning,  or  the  wind,  Mahomet 
and  his  Moslems  leading  the  way;  whereas  the 
wicked,  what  with  the  slipperiness  and  extreme 
narrowness  of  the  path,  the  entangling  of  the 
thorns,  and  the  extinction  of  the  light  which  di- 
rected the  former  to  Paradise,  will  soon  miss  their 
footing,  and  fall  down  headlong  into  hell,  which 
is  gaping  beneath  them. 

As  to  the  punishment  of  the  wicked,  the  Ma- 
hometans are   taught,  that   hell  is  divided  into 
seven  stories  or  apartments,  one  below  another, 
254 


MAHOMETAN  ISM 

deigned  fbr  the  reception  of  as  many  distinct 
classes  of  the  damned. 

The  first,  which  they  call  Jehenan,  they  ssv, 
will  be  the  receptacle  of  those  who  acknowledged 
one  God,  that  is,  the  wicked, Mahometans;  who, 
after  having  been  punished  arcording  to  their  de- 
merits, will  at  length  be  released;  the  second, 
named  Ladka,  they  assign  to  the  Jews  :  the  third, 
named  al  Hotama,  to  the  Christians;  the  fourth, 
named  al  Sair,  to  the  Sabians ;  the  fifth,  named 
Sakar,  to  the  Magians;  the  sixth,  named  al  Ja- 
hin,  to  the  idolaters;  and  the  seventh,  which  is 
the  lowest  and  worst  of  all,  and  is  called  al  Haw- 
yat,  to  the  hypocrites,  or  those  who  outwardly 
professed  some  religion,  but  in  their  hearts  were 
of  none.  Over  each  of  these  apartments  they 
believe  there  will  be  set  a  guard  of  angels,  nine- 
teen in  number ;  to  whom  the  damned  will  con- 
fess the  just  judgment  of  God,  and  beg  them  to 
intercede  with  him  for  some  alleviation  of  their 
pain,  or  that  they  may  be  delivered  by  being  an- 
nihilated. 

Mahomet  has,  in  his  Koran  and  traditions, 
been  very  exact  in  describing  the  various  tor- 
ments of  hell,  which,  according  to  him,  the  wick- 
ed will  suffer  both  from  intense  heat  and  excessive 
cold.  We  shall,  however,  enter  into  no  detail  of 
them  here ;  but  only  observe,  that  the  degrees  of 
these  pains  will  also  vary  in  proportion  to  the 
crimes  of  the  sufferer,  and  the  apartment  he  is 
condemned  to ;  and  that  he  who  is  punished  the 
most  lightly  of  all  will  be  shod  with  shoes  of  fire, 
the  fervour  of  which  will  cause  his  skull  to  boil 
like  a  cauldron.  The  condition  of  these  unhappy 
wretches,  as  the  same  prophet  teaches,  cannot  tie 
properly  called  either  life  or  death;  and  their 
misery  will  be  greatly  increased  by  their  despair 
of  being  ever  delivered  from  that  place,  since,  ac- 
cording to  that  frequent  expression  in  the  Koran, 
they  must  remain  therein  for  ever.  It  must  lie 
remarked,  however,  that  the  infidels  alone  will 
be  liable  to  eternity  of  damnation ;  for  the  Mos- 
lems, or  those  who  have  embraced  the  true  reli- 
gion, and  have  been  guilty  of  heinous  sins,  will 
be  delivered  thence  after  the}'  shall  have  expiated 
their  crimes  by  their  sufferings.  The  time  which 
these  believers  shall  be  detained  there,  according 
to  a  tradition  handed  down  from  their  prophet, 
will  not  be  less  than  nine  hundred  years,  nor 
more  than  seven  thousand.  And,  as  to  the  man- 
ner of  their  delivery,  they  say  that  they  shall  he 
distinguished  by  the  marks  of  prostration  on 
those  parts  of  their  bodies  with  which  they  used 
to  touch  the  ground  in  prayer,  and  over  which 
the  fire  will  therefore  have  no  power;  and  that 
being  known  by  this  characteristic,  they  will  be 
released  by  the  mercy  of  God,  at  the  intercession 
of  Mahomet  and  the  blessed :  whereupon  those 
who  shall  have  been  dead  will  be  restored  to  lifh, 
as  has  been  said ;  and  those  whose  bodies  shall 
have  contracted  any  sootiness  or  filth  from  the 
flames  and  smoke  of  hell,  will  be  immersed  hi 
one  of  the  rivers  of  Paradise,  called  the  River  of 
Life,  which  will  wash  them  whiter  than  pearls. 

The  righteous,  as  the  Mahometans  are  taught 
to  believe,  having  surmounted  the  difricullieSj 
and  passed  the  sharp  bridge  above-mentioneJ, 
before  they  enter  Paradise,  will  be  refreshed  by 
drinking  at  the  pond  of  their  prophet,  who  de- 
scribes it  to  be  an  exact  square,  of  a  month's 
journey  in  compass;  its  water,  which  is  supplied 
by  two  pipes  from  al  Cawthay,  one  of  the  rivers 


MAHOMETANISM 
of  Paradise,  being  whiter  than  milk  or  silver,  an  J 
more  odoriferous  than  musk,  with  as  many  cups 
set  around  it  as  there  are  stars  in  the  firmament ; 
of  which  water,  whoever  drinks,  will  thirst  no 
more  for  ever.  This  is  the  first  taste  which  the 
blessed  will  have  of  their  future  and  now  near 
approaching  felicity. 

Though  Paradise  be  so  very  frequently  men- 
tioned in  the  Koran,  yet  it  is  a  dispute  among  the 
Mahometans,  whether  it  be  already  created,  or  to 
be  created  hereafter ;  the  Motazalites  and  some 
other  sectaries  asserting,  that  there  is  not  at  pre- 
sent any  such  place  in  nature,  and  that  the  Para- 
dise which  the  righteous  will  inhabit  in  the  next 
life  will  be  different  from  that  from  which  Adam 
was  expelled.  However,  the  orthodox  profess 
the  contrary,  maintaining  that  it  was  created 
even  before  the  world,  and  describe  it,  from  their 
prophet's  traditions,  in  the  following  manner : 

They  say  it  is  situated  above  the  seven  hea- 
vens, (or  in  the  seventh  heaven,)  and  next  under 
the  throne  of  God ;  and,  to  express  the  amenity 
of  the  place,  tell  us,  that  the  earth  of  it  is  of  the 
finest  wheat-flower,  or  of  the  purest  musk,  or,  as 
others  will  have  it,  of  saffron ;  that  its  stones  are 
pearls  and  jacinths,  the  walls  of  its  buildings  en- 
riched with  gold  and  silver,  and  that  the  trunks 
Of  all  its  trees  are  of  gold;  among  which  the 
most  remarkable  is  the  tree  called  tuba,  or  the 
tree  of  happiness.  Concerning  this  tree,  they 
fable,  that, it  stands  in  the  palace  of  Mahomet, 
though  a  branch  of  it  will  reach  to  the  house  of 
every  true  believer;  that  it  will  be  laden  with 
pomegranates,  grapes,  dates,  and  other  fruits,  of 
surprising  bigness,  and  of  tastes  unknown  to 
mortals.  So  that,  if  a  man  desire  to  eat  of  any 
particular  kind  of  fruit,  it  will  immediately  be 
presented  him ;  or,  if  he  choose  flesh,  birds  ready 
dressed  will  be  set  before  him,  according  to  his 
wish.  They  add,  that  the  boughs  of  this  tree  will 
spontaneously  bend  down  to  the  hand  of  the  person 
who  would  gather  of  its  fruits,  and  that  it  will  sup- 
ply the  blessed  not  only  with  food,  but  also  with 
silken  garments,  and  beasts  to  ride  on  ready  saddled 
and  bridled,  and  adorned  with  rich  trappings,  which 
will  burst  forth  from  its  fruits ;  and  that  this  tree 
is  so  large,  that  a  person  mounted  on  the  fleetest 
horse  would  not  be  able  to  gallop  from  one  end 
of  its  shade  to  the  other  in  one  hundred  years. 

As  plenty  of  water  is  one  of  the  greatest  addi- 
tions to  the  pleasantness  of  any  place,  the  Koran 
often  speaks  of  the  rivers  of  Paradise  as  a  princi- 
pal ornament  thereof;  some  of  these  rivers,  they 
say,  flow  with  water,  some  with  milk,  some  with 
wine,  and  others  with  honey ;  all  taking  their  rise 
from  the  root  of  the  tree  tuba. 

But  all  these  glories  will  be  eclipsed  by  the  re- 
splendent and  ravishing  girls  of  Paradise,  called, 
from  their  large  black  eyes,  Hur  al  oyun,  the  en- 
joyment of  whose  company  will  be  a  principal  feli- 
city of  the  faithful.  These,  they  say,  are  created 
not  of  clay,  as  mortal  women  are,  but  of  pure 
musk :  being,  as  their  prophet  often  affirms  in 
his  Koran,  free  from  all  natural  impurities,  de- 
fects, and  inconveniences  incident  to  the  sex  ;  of 
the  strictest  modesty,  and  secluded  from  public 
view  in  pavilions  of  hollow  pearls,  so  large,  that, 
as  some  traditions  have  it,  one  of  them  will  be  no 
less  than  four  parasangs  (or,  as  others  say,  sixty 
miles)  long,  and  as  many  broad. 

The  name  which  the  Mahometans  usually 
give  to  this  happy  mansion  is  al  Jannat,  or. 
255 


MAHOMETANISM 
"  the  Garden  ;"  and  sometimes  they  call  it,  with 
an  addition,  Jannat  al  Ferdaws,  "the  Garden 
of  Paradise ;"  Jannat  Adan,  "the  Garden  of 
Eden,"  (though  they  generally  interpret  the  word 
Eden  not  according  to  its  acceptation  in  He- 
brew, but  according  to  its  meaning  in  their 
own  tongue,  wherein  it  signifies  "  a  settled  01 
perpetual  habitation;")  Jannat  al  Mawa,  "the 
Garden  of  Abode;"  Jannat  al  Maim,  "the 
Garden  of  Pleasure :"  and  the  like  :  by  which 
several  appellations  some  understand  so  many 
different  gardens,  or  at  least  places  of  different 
degrees  of  felicity,  (for  they  reckon  no  less  than 
one  hundred  such  in  all,)  the  very  meanest 
whereof  will  afford  its  inhabitants  so  many  plea- 
sures and  delights,  that  one  would  conclude  they 
must  even  sink  under  them,  had  not  Mahomet 
declared  that,  in  order  to  qualify  the  blessed  for 
a  full  enjoyment  of  them,  God  will  give  to  every 
one  the  abilities  of  one  hundred  men. 

6.  God's  absolute  decree  and  predestination 
both  of  good  and  evil.  The  orthodox  doctrine 
is,  that  whatever  hath  or  shall  come  to  pass  in 
this  world,  whether  it  be  good,  or  whether  it  be 
bad,  proceedeth  entirely  from  the  divine  will,  and 
is  irrevocably  fixed  and  recorded  from  all  eter- 
nity in  the  preserved  table ;  God  having  secretly 
predetermined  not  only  the  adverse  and  prosper- 
ous fortune  of  every  person  in  this  world,  in  the 
most  minute  particulars,  but  also  his  faith  or  infi- 
delity, his  obedience  or  disobedience,  and  conse- 
quently his  everlasting  happiness  or  misery  after 
death ;  which  fate  or  predestination  it  is  not  pos- 
sible by  any  foresight  or  wisdom  to  avoid. 

II.  Religious  •practice.  1.  The  first  point  is 
■prayer,  under  which  are  also  comprehended  those 
legal  washings  or  purifications  which  are  neces- 
sary preparations  thereto. 

For  the  regular  performance  of  the  duty  of 
prayer  among  the  Mahometans,  it  is  requisite, 
while  they  pray,  to  turn  their  faces  towards  the 
temple  of  Mecca ;  the  quarter  where  the  same  is 
situated  being,  for  that  reason,  pointed  out  within 
their  mosques  by  a  niche,  which  they  call  at 
Mehrab:  and  without,  by  the  situation  of  the 
doors  opening  into  the  galleries  of  the  steeples : 
there  are  also  tables  calculated  for  the  ready  find- 
ing out  their  Keblah,  or  part  towards  which  they 
ought  to  pray,  in  places  where  they  have  no 
other  direction. 

2.  Alms  are  of  two  sorts,  legal  and  voluntary. 
The  legal  aims  are  of  indispensable  obligation, 
being  commanded  by  the  law,  which  directs  and 
determines  both  the  portion  which  is  to  be  given, 
and  of  what  things  it  ought  to  consist ;  but  the 
voluntary  alms  are  left  to  every  one's  liberty,  to 
give  more  or  less  as  he  shall  see  fit.  The  former 
kind  of  alms  some  think  to  be  properly  called 
zacat,  and  the  latter  sadakat,  though  this  name 
be  also  frequently  given  to  the  legal  alms.  Thfy 
are  called  zacat,  either  because  they  increase  i 
man's  store  by  drawing  down  a  blessing  thereon, 
and  produce  in  his  soul  the  virtue  of  liberality ;  or 
because  they  purify  the  remaining  part  of  one's 
substance  from  pollution,  and  the  soul  from  the 
filth  of  avarice ;  and  sadakat,  because  they  are  a 
proof  of  a  man's  sincerity  in  the  worship  of  God- 
Some  writers  have  called  the  legal  alms  tithes  ; 
but  improperly,  since  in  some  cases  they  fall 
short,  and  in  others  exceed  that  proportion. 

3.  Fasting  is  a  duty  of  so  gTeat  moment,  thtt 
Mahomet  used  to  say  it  was  the  gate  of  religion; 


MAHOMETANISM 

anil  that  the  odour  of  the  month  of  him  whofast- 
eth  is  more  grateful  to  God  than  that  of  musk; 
and  Al  Ghazali  reckons  fasting  one  fourth  part 
of  the  faith.  According  to  the  Mahometan 
divines,  there  are  three  degrees  of  fasting:  1.  The 
restraining  the  belly  and  other  parts  of  the  body 
from  satisfying  their  lusts. — 2.  The  restraining 
the  ears,  eyes,  tongue,  hands,  feet,  and  other 
members  from  sin. — 3.  The  fasting  of  the  heart 
from  worldly  cares,  and  restraining  the  thought 
from  every  thing  besides  God. 

4.  The  pilgrimage  to  Mecca  is  so  necessary  a 
point  of  practice,  that  according  to  a  tradition  of 
Mahomet,  he  who  dies  without  performinor  it, 
may  as  well  die  a  Jew  or  a  Christian  ;  and  the 
same  is  expressly  commanded  in  the  Koran. — 
See  Pilgrimage. 

TIL  Mahometanism,  causes  of  the  success  of. 
The  rapid  success  which  attended  the  propaga- 
tion of  this  new  religion  was  owing  to  causes  that 
are  plain  and  evident,  and  must  remove,  or 
rather  prevent  our  surprise,  when  they  are  atten- 
tively considered.  The  terror  of  Mahomet's 
arms,  and  the  repeated  victories  which  were  g  lin- 
ed by  him  and  his  successors,  were,  no  doubt,  the 
irresistible  arguments  that  persuaded  such  multi- 
tudes to  embrace  his  religion,  and  submit  to  his 
dominion.  Besides,  his  law  was  artfully  and 
marvellously  adapted  to  the  corrupt  nature  of 
man ;  and,  in  a  most  particular  manner,  to  the 
manners  and  opinions  of  the  Eastern  nations, 
and  the  vices  to  which  they  were  naturally  ad- 
dicted :  for  the  articles  of  faith  which  it  proposed 
were  few  in  number,  and  extremely  simple;  and 
the  duties  it  required  were  neither  many  nor 
difficult,  nor  such  as  were  incompatible  with  the 
empire  of  appetites  and  passions.  It  is  to  be  ob- 
served farther,  that  the  gross  ignorance  under 
which  the  Arabians,  Syrians,  Persians,  and  the 
greatest  part  of  the  Eastern  nations,  laboured 
at  this  time,  rendered  many  an  easy  prey  to  the 
artifice  and  eloquence  of  this  bold  adventurer. 
To  these  causes  of  the  progress  of  Mahomet- 
anism,  we  may  add  the  bitter  dissensions  and 
cruel  animosities  that  reigned  among  the  Chris- 
Can  sects,  particularly  the  Greeks,  ^Nestorians, 
Eutychians,  and  Monophysites ;  dissensions  that 
filled  a  great  part  of  the  East  with  carnage,  as- 
sassinations, and  such  detestable  enormities,  as 
rendered  the  very  name  of  Chiistianity  odious  to 
many.  We  might  add  here,  that  the  Monophy- 
sites and  Nestorians,  full  of  resentment  against 
the  Greeks,  from  whom  they  had  suffered  the 
bitterest  and  most  injurious  treatment,  assisted 
the  Arabians  in  the  conquest  of  several  pro- 
vinces, into  which,  of  consequence,  the  religion 
of  Mahomet  was  afterwards  introduced.  Other 
causes  of  the  sudden  progress  of  that  religion  will 
naturally  occur  to  such  as  consider  attentively  its 
spirit  and  genius,  and  the  state  of  the  world  at 
this  time. 

IV.  Mahometanism,  subversion  of. — Of  things 
yet  to  come  it  is  difficult  to  say  any  thing  with 
precision.  We  have,  however,  some  reason  to 
believe,  from  the  aspect  of  Scripture  prophecy, 
that,  triumphant  as  this  sect  has  been,  it  shall  at 
last  come  to  nought.  As  it  arose  as  a  scourge  to 
Christendom  about  the  time  that  Antichrist  ob- 
tained a  temporal  dominion,  so  it  is  not  improba- 
ble but  they  will  have  their  downfall  nearly  at  the 
■ame  period.  The  ninth  chapter  of  Revelations 
6eems  to  refer  wholly  to  thia  imposture:  "  tlie 
256 


MAN 
four  angels  were  loosed,"  says  the  prediction,  15th 
verse,  "  which  were  prepared  for  an  hour,  and  a 
day,  and  a  month,  and  a  year,  for  to  slay  the  third 
part  of  men."  This  period,  in  the  language  of 
prophecy,  makes  3!)1  years,  which  being  added 
to  the  year  when  the  four  angels  were  loosed, 
will  bring  us  down  to  1S44,  or  thereabouts,  for 
the  final  destruction  of  the  Mahometan  empire. 
It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  though  the 
event  is  certain,  the  exact  time  cannot  be  easily 
ascertained.  Prideaux's  Life  of  Mahomet ;  Mo- 
shcim's  Eccl.  Hist.  cent.  vii.  ch.  2 ;  Sale's  Pre- 
liminary Discourse,  prefixed  to  his  English 
Translation  of  the  Koran ;  Simpson's  Key  to 
Proph.  sect.  19;  Bishop  Newton,  Mede,  and 
Gill,  on  Rev.  ix. ;  Miller's  Propagation  of 
Christianity,  vol.  i.  ch.  1;  Uln'le's  Sermons  at 
Bampton  Lee. ;  Enc.BriL;  Foster' s  Mahomet* 
anism  Unveiled. 

MALEVOLENCE  is  that  disposition  of  mind 
which  inclines  us  to  wish  ill  to  any  person.  It 
discovers  itself  in  frowns  and  a  lowenng  counte- 
nance ;  in  uncharitableness,  in  evil  sentiments ; 
hard  speeches  to  or  of  its  object :  in  cursing  and 
reviling;  and  doing  mischief  either  with  open 
violence  or  secret  spite,  as  far  as  there  is  power. 

MALICE  is  a  settled  or  deliberate  determina- 
tion to  revenge  or  do  hurt  to  another.  It  more 
frequently  denotes  the  disposition  of  inferior 
minds  to  execute  every  purpose  of  mischief  within 
the  more  limited  circle  of  their  abilities.  It  is  a 
most  hateful  temper  in  the  sight  of  God,  strictly 
forbidden  in  his  holy  word,  Col.  iii.  8 — 12,  dis- 
graceful to  rational  creatures,  and  every  way 
inimical  to  the  spirit  of  Christianity,  Matt.  v.  44. 
See  Charity,  Love. 

MALIGNITY,  a  disposition  obstinately  bad 
or  malicious.  Malignancy  and  malignity  a"re 
words  nearly  synonymous.  In  some  connexions 
malignity  seems  rather  more  pertinently  applied 
to  a  radical  depravity  of  nature ;  and  malignancy 
to  indications  of  this  depravity  in  temper  and 
conduct  in  particular  instances. 

MAN,  a  being  consisting  of  a  rational  soul 
and  organical  body.  By  some  he  is  defined  thus  : 
"  He  is  the  head  of  the  animal  creation ;  a  being 
who  feels,  reflects,  thinks,  contrives,  and  acts; 
who  has  the  power  of  changing  his  place  upon 
the  earth  at  pleasure ;  who  possesses  the  faculty 
of  communicating  his  thoughts  by  means  of 
speech,  and  who  has  dominion  over  all  other 
creatures  on  the  face  of  the  earth."  We  shall 
here  present  the  reader  with  a  brief  account  of 
his  formation,  species,  and  different  state.  1.  His 
formation.  Man  was  made  last  of  all  the  crea- 
tures, being  the  chief  and  master-piece  of  the 
whole  creation  on  earth.  He  is  a  compendium 
of  the  creation,  and  therefore  is  sometimes  called 
a  microcosm,  a  little  world,  the  world  in  minia- 
ture :  something  of  the  vegetable,  animal,  and 
rational  world  meet  in  him;  spirit  and  matter; 
yea,  heaven  and  earth  centre  in  him ;  he  is  the 
bond  that  connects  them  both  together.  The 
constituent,  and  essential  parts  of  man  created  by 
God  are  two;  body  and  soul.  The  one  was  made 
out  of  the  dust ;  the  other  was  breathed  into  him. 
The  body  is  formed  with  the  greatest  precision  and 
exactness ;  every  muscle,  vein,  artery,  yea,  the 
least  fibre,  in  its  proper  place ;  all  in  just  proportion 
and  symmetry,  in  subserviency  to  the  use  of  each 
other,  and  for  the  good  of  the  whole,  Psal.  exxix. 
14.     It  is  also  made  erect,  to  distinguish  it  fnm 


MAN 
the  four-footed  animals,  who  look  downward  to 
the  earth.  Man  was  made  to  look  upward  to 
the  heavens,  to  contemplate  them,  and  the  glory 
of  God  displayed  in  them  :  to  look  up  to  God,  to 
worship  and  adore  him.  In  the  Greek  language, 
man  has  his  name,  «i/fip»5roS ;  from  turning  and 
looking  upwards.  The  soul  is  the  other  part  of 
man.  which  is  a  substance  or  subsistence ;  it  is  not 
an  accident,  or  quality,  inherent  in  a  subject;  but 
capable  of  subsisting  without  the  body.  It  is  a  spi- 
ritual substance,  immaterial,  immortal.  See  Soul. 
2.  Man,  (liferent  species  of. — According  to 
Linnams  and  Buffon,  there  are  six  different  spe- 
cies among  mankind.  The  first  are  those  under 
the  Polar  regions,  and  comprehend  the  Lapland- 
ers, the  Esquimaux  Indians,  the  Samoied  Tar- 
tars, the  inhabitants  of  Nova  Zembla,  Boran- 
dians,  the  Greenlanders,  and  the  people  of  Kamt- 
schatka.  The  visage  of  men  in  these  countries 
is  large  and  broad ;  the  nose  flat  and  short ;  the 
eyes  of  a  yellowish  brown,  inclining  to  blackness ; 
the  cheek-bones  extremely  high ;  the  mouth 
large ;  the  lips  thick,  and  turning  outwards ;  the 
voice  thin,  and  squeaking;  and  the  skin  a  dark 
grey  colour.  They  are  short  in  stature,  the 
generality  being  about  four  feet  high,  and  the 
tallest  not  more  than  five.  They  are  ignorant, 
stupid,  and  superstitious. — 2.  The  second  are  the 
Tartar  race,  comprehending  the  Chinese  and 
Japanese.  Their  countenances  are  broad  and 
wrinkled,  even  in  youth ;  their  noses  short  and 
flat;  their  eyes  little,  cheek-bones  high,  teeth 
large,  complexions  olive,  and  the  hair  black. — 
3.  The  third  are  the  southern  Asiatics,  or  inhabi- 
tants of  India.  These  are  of  a  slender  shape, 
long  straight  black  hair,  and  generally  Roman 
noses.  They  are  slothful,  submissive,  cowardly, 
and  effeminate. — 4.  The  negroes  of  Africa  con- 
stitute the  fourth  striking  variety  in  the  human 
species.  They  are  of  a  black  colour,  having 
downy  soft  hair,  short  and  black;  their  beards 
often  turn  grey,  and  sometimes  white :  their 
noses  are  flat  and  short;  their  lips  thick,  and 
their  teeth  of  an  ivory  whiteness.  These  have 
been  till  of  late  the  unhappy  wretches  who  have 
been  torn  from  their  families,  friends,  and  native 
lands,  and  consigned  for  life  to  misery,  toil,  and 
bondage;  and  that  by  the  wise,  polished,  and 
the  Christian  inhabitants  of  Europe,  and,  above 
all,  by  the  monsters  of  England ! ! — 5.  The  na- 
tives of  America  are  the  fifth  race  of  men  :  they 
are  of  a  copper  colour,  with  black  thick  straight 
hair,  flat  noses,  high  cheek-bones,  and  small 
eyes. — 6.  The  Europeans  may  be  considered  as 
the  sixth  and  last  variety  of  the  human  kind, 
whose  features  we  need  not  describe.  The  Eng- 
lish are  considered  as  the  fairest. 

3.  Man,  different  states  of. — The  state  of  man 
has  been  divided  into  fourfold  :  his  primitive  state ; 
fallen  state ;  gracious  state ;  and  future  state. 
1.  His  state  of  innocence.  God,  it  is  said,  made 
man  upright,  Eccl.  vii.  29 ;  without  a-ny  imper- 
fection, corruption,  or  principle  of  corruption  in 
his  body  or  soul ;  with  light  in  his  understanding, 
holiness  in  his  will,  and  purity  in  his  aflfections. 
This  constituted  his  original  righteousness,  which 
was  universal,  both  with  respect  to  the  subject  of 
it,  the  whole  man,  and  the  object  of  it,  the  whole 
law.  Being  thus  in  a  state  of  holiness,  he  was 
necessarily  in  a  state  of  happiness.  He  was  a 
very  glorious  creature,  the  favourite  of  heaven, 
the  lord  of  the  world,  possessing  perfect  tranquillity 
257  2  // 


MANICHEES 
in  his  own  breast,  and  immortal.  Yet  he  was  not 
without  law ;  for  to  the  law  of  nature,  which  was 
impressed  on  his  heart,  God  superadded  a  positive 
law,  not  to  eat  of  the  forbidden  fruit,  Gen.  ii.  17, 
under  the  penalty  of  death  natural,  spiritual,  and 
eternal.  Had  he  obeyed  this  law,  he  might  have 
had  reason  to  expect  that  he  would  not  only  have 
had  the  continuance  of  his  natural  and  spiritual 
life,  but  have  been  transported  to  the  upper  para- 
dise. 2.  His  fall. — Man's  righteousness,  how- 
ever, though  universal,  was  not  immutable,  as  the 
event  has  proved.  How  long  he  lived  in  a  state 
of  innocence  cannot  easily  be  ascertained,  yet 
most  suppose  it  was  but  a  very  short  time.  The 
positive  law  which  God  gave  him  he  broke,  by 
eating  the  forbidden  fruit.  The  consequence  ot 
this  evil  act  was,  that  man  lost  the  chief  good ; 
his  nature  was  corrupted ;  his  powers  depraved, 
his  body  subject  to  corruption,  Ms  soul  exposed  to 
misery,  his  posterity  all  involved  in  ruin,  subject 
to  eternal  condemnation,  and  for  ever  incapable 
to  restore  themselves  to  the  favour  of  God,  to 
obey  his  commands  perfectly,  and  to  satisfy  his 
justice,  Gal.  iii. ;  Rom.  v. ; "  Gen.  iii. ;  Eph.  ii.  ; 
Rom.  iii.  passim.  See  Fall. — 3;  His  recovery. 
— Although  man  has  fallen  by  his  iniquity,  yet 
he  is  not  left  finally  to  perish.  The  Divine  being, 
foreseeing  the  fall,  in  infinite  love  and  mercy  made 
provision  for  his  relief.  Jesus  Christ,  according 
to  the  divine  purpose,  came  in  the  fulness  of  time 
to  be  his  Saviour,  and,  by  virtue  of  his  sufferings, 
all  who  believe  are  justified  from  the  curse  of  the 
law.  By  the  influences  of  the  Holy  Spirit  he  is 
regenerated,  united  to  Christ  by  faith,  and  sanc- 
tified. True  believers,  therefore,  live  a  fife  of 
dependence  on  the  promises ;  of  regularity  and 
obedience  to  God's  word ;  of  holy  joy  and  peace ; 
and  have  a  hope  full  of  immortality. — 4.  His  fu- 
ture stale. — As  it  respects  the  impenitent,  it  is  a 
state  of  separation  from  God,  and  eternal  punish- 
ment, Matt.  xxv.  46.  But  the  righteous  shall 
rise  to  glory,  honour,  and  everlasting  joy.  To  the 
former,  death  will  be  the  introduction  to  misery ; 
to  the  latter,  it  will  be  the  admission  to  felicity. 
All  will  be  tried  in  the  judgment-day,  and  sen- 
tence pronounced  accordingly.  The  wicked  will 
be  driven  away  in  his  wickedness,  and  the  righ- 
teous be  saved  with  an  everlasting  salvation.  But 
as  these  subjects  are  treated  on  elsewhere,  we  re- 
fer the  reader  to  the  articles  Grace,  Heaven, 
Hell,  Sin.  Hartley's  Observations  on  Man  ; 
Boston's  Fourfold  Slate ;  Kaimes's  Sketches  of 
the  History  of  Man  ;  Locke  on  Und. ;  Reid  on 
the  Active  and  Intellectual  Powers  of  Man; 
Wollaston'  s  Religion  of  Nature  ;  Harris's  Phi- 
losophical Arrangements. 

MANICHEES,  or  Manicheans,  (Man- 
chiai),  a  sect  of  ancient  heretics,  who  asserted 
two  principles ;  so  called  from  their  author  Manes, 
or  Manichwus,  a  Persian  by  nation,  and  educated 
among  the  Magi,  being  himself  one  of  that  num- 
ber before  he  embraced  Christianity. 

This  heresy  had  its  first  rise  about  the  year 
277,  and  spread  itself  principally  in  Arabia, 
Egypt,  and  Africa.  St.  Epiphanius,  who  treats 
of  it  at  large,  observes  that  the  true  name  of  this 
heresiarch  was  C  ubricus ;  and  that  he  changed 
it  for  Manes,  which  in  the  Persian  or  Babylonish 
language  signifies  vessel.  A  rich  widow,  whose 
servant  he  had  been,  dying  without  issue,  left  him 
stores  of  wealth ;  after  which  he  assumed  the  titla 
of  the  apostle,  or  envoy  of  Jesus  Christ. 
w2 


MANICHEES 

Manes  was  not  contented  with  the  quality  of 
upostle  of  Jesus  Christ,  hut  ho  also  assumed  that 
of  the  Paraclete,  whom  Christ  had  promised  to 
send;  which  Augustine  explains,  by  saying,  that 
Manes  endeavoured  to  persuade  men  that  the 
Holy  Ghost  did  personally  dwell  in  him  with  full 
authority  He  left  several  disciples  ;  and  among 
others,  Addas,  Thomas,  and  Hernias.  These  he 
sent  in  his  lifetime  into  several  provinces  to  preach 
his  doctrine. 

Manes,  having  undertaken  to  cure  the  king  of 
Persia's  son,  and  not  succeeding,  was  put  in  prison 
upon  the  young  prince's  death,  whence  he  made 
his  escape;  but  he  was  apprehended  soon  after, 
and  flayed  alive. 

However,  the  oriental  writers  cited  by  D'Her- 
belot,  and  Hyde,  tell  us  that  Manes,  after  having 
been  protected  in  a  singular  manner  by  Hormiz- 
das,  who  succeeded  Sapor  on  the  Persian  throne, 
but  who  was  not  able  to  defend  him,  at  length, 
against  the  united  hatred  of  the  Christians,  the 
Magi,  the  Jews,  and  the  Pagans,  was  shut  up  in 
a  strong  castle,  to  serve  him  as  a  refuge  against 
those  who  persecuted  him  on  account  of  his  doc- 
trine. They  add,  that  after  the  death  of  Hor- 
mizdas,  Varanes  I.,  his  successor,  first  protected 
Manes,  but  afterwards  gave  him  up  tc  the  fury  of 
the  Magi,  whose  resentment  against  him  was  due 
to  his  having  adopted  the  Sadducean  principles, 
as  some  say ;  while  others  attribute  it  to  his  hav- 
ing mingled  the  tenets  of  the  Magi  with  the  doc- 
trines ot  Christianity.  However,  it  is  certain 
that  the  Manicheans  celebrated  the  day  of  their 
master's  death.  It  has  been  a  subject  of  much 
controversy  whether  Manes  was  an  impostor. 
The  learned  Dr.  Lardner  has  examined  the  argu- 
ments on  both  sides ;  and  though  he  does  not 
choose  to  deny  that  he  was  an  impostor,  he  does 
not  discern  evident  proofs  of  it.  He  acknow- 
ledges that  he  was  an  arrogant  philosopher,  and 
a  great  schemist ;  luit  whether  he  was  an  impos- 
tor he  cannot  certainly  say.  He  was  much  too 
fond  of  philosophical  notions,  which  he  endea- 
voured to  bring  into  religion,  tor  which  he  is  to 
be  blamed ;  nevertheless,  he  observes  that  every 
bold  dogmatizer  is  not  an  impostor. 

The  doctrine  of  Manes  was  a  motley  mixture 
of  the  tenets  of  Christianity  with  the  ancient 
philosophy  of  the  Persians,  in  which  he  had  been 
instructed  during  his  youth.  He  combined  these 
two  systems,  and  applied  and  accommodated  to 
Jesus  Christ  the  characters  and  actions  which  the 
Persians  attributed  to  the  god  Mithras. 

He  established  two  principles,  viz.  a  good  and 
an  evil  one;  the  first,  a  most  pure  and  subtle 
matter,  which  he  called  tight,  did  nothing  but 
good ;  and  the  second,  a  gross  and  corrupt  sub- 
stance, which  he  called  darkness,  nothing  but  evil. 
This  philosophy  is  very  ancient;  and  Plutarch 
treats  of  it  at  large  in  his  Isis  and  Osiris. 

Our  souls,  according  to  Manes,  were  made  by 
the  good  principle,  and  our  bodies  by  the  evil  one  ; 
these  two  principles  bei.ig,  according  to  him,  co- 
eternal  and  independent  of  each  other.  Each  of 
these  is  subject  to  the  dominion  of  a  superintendent 
Being,  whose  existence  is  from  all  eternity.  The 
Being  who  presides  over  the  light  is  called  God ; 
he  that  rules  the  land  of  darkness  bears  the  title 
af  hyle  or  demon.  The  ruler  of  the  light  is 
supremely  happy,  and  in  consequence  thereof  be- 
nevolent and  good  :  the  prince  of  darkness  is  un- 
aappy  in  himself,  and  desirous  of  rendering  others 
258 


MANICHEES 

partakers  of  his  misery ;  and  is  evil  and  malignant 
These  two  beings  have,  produced  an  immense 
multitude  of  creatures  resembling  themselves,  and 
distributed  them  through  their  respective  pro- 
vinces. After  a  contest  between  the  ruler  of  light 
and  the  prince  of  darkness,  in  which  the  latter 
was  defeated,  this  prince  of  darkness  produced 
the  first  parents  of  the  human  race.  The  beings 
engendered  from  this  original  stock  consist  of 
a  body  formed  out  of  the  corrupt  matter  of  the 
kingdom  of  darkness,  and  of  two  souls, — one  of 
which  is  sensitive  and  lustful,  and  owes  its  exist- 
ence to  the  evil  principle  ;  the  other  rational  and 
immortal,  a  particle  of  that  divine  light  which  had 
been  carried  away  in  the  contest  by  the  army  of 
darkness,  and  immersed  into  the  mass  of  malig- 
nant matter.  The  earth  was  created  by  God  out 
of  this  corrupt  mass  of  matter,  in  order  to  be  a 
dwelling  for  the  human  race,  that  their  captive 
souls  might  by  degrees  be  delivered  from  their  cor- 
poreal prisons,  and  the  celestial  elements  extri- 
cated from  the  gross  substance  in  which  they  were 
involved.  With  this  view  God  produced  two 
beings  from  his  own  substance,  viz.  Christ  and 
the  Holy  Ghost ;  for  the  Manicheans  held  a  con- 
substantial  trinity.  Christ,  or  the  glorious  intel- 
ligence, called  by  the  Persians  Mithras,  subsisting 
in  and  by  himself,  and  residing  in  the  sun,  ap- 
peared in  due  time  among  the  Jews,  clothed  with 
the  shadowy  form  of  a  human  body,  to  disengage 
the  rational  soul  from  the  corrupt  body,  and  to 
conquer  the  violence  of  malignant  matter.  The 
Jews,  incited  by  the  prince  of  darkness,  put  him 
to  an  ignominious  death,  which  he  suffered,  not 
in  reality,  but  only  in  appearance,  and  according 
to  the  opinion  of  men.  When  the  purposes  ot 
Christ  were  accomplished,  he  returned  to  his 
throne  in  the  sun,  appointing  apostles  to  propa- 
gate his  religion,  and  leaving  his  followers  the 
promise  of  the  Paraclete  or  Comforter,  who  is 
Manes  the  Persian.  Those  souls  who  believe 
Jesus  Christ  to  be  the  Son  of  God,  renounce  the 
worship  of  the  god  of  the  Jews,  who  is  the  prince 
of  darkness,  and  obey  the  laws  delivered  by  Christ, 
and  illustrated  by  Manes  the  Comforter,  are  gra- 
dually purified  from  the  contagion  of  matter ;  and 
their  purification  being  completed,  after  having 
passed  through  two  states  of  trial,  by  water  and 
fire,  first  in  the  moon  and  then  in  trie  sun,  their 
bodies  return  to  the  original  mass  (for  the  Mani- 
cheans deride  the  resurrection  of  bodies),  and 
their  souls  ascend  to  the  regions  of  light.  But 
the  souls  of  those  who  have  neglected  the  salu- 
tary work  of  purification,  pass  afier  death  into  the 
bodies  of  other  animals  and  natures,  where  they 
remain  till  they  have  accomplished  their  proba- 
tion. Some,  however,  more  perverse  and  obsti- 
nate, are  consigned  to  a  severer  course  of  trial, 
being  delivered  over  for  a  time  to  the  power  of 
malignant  aerial  spirits,  who  torment  them  in  va- 
rious ways.  After  this,  a  fire  shall  break  forth 
and  consume  the  frame  of  the  world ;  and  the 
prince  and  powers  of  darkness  shall  return  to 
their  primitive  seats  of  anguish  and  misery,  in 
which  they  shall  dwell  for  ever.  These  mansions 
shall  be  surrounded  by  an  invincible  guard  to  pre- 
vent their  ever  renewing  a  war  in  the  regions  of 
light. 

Manes  borrowed  many  things  from  the  an- 
cient Gnostics,  on  which  account  many  authors 
consider  the  Manicheans  as  a  branch  of  tho 
Gnostics. 


MAMCHEES 

In  truth,  the  Manichean  doctrine  was  a  system 
of  philosophy  rather  than  of  religion.  They 
Diatle  use  of  amulets,  in  imitation  of  the  Basili- 
diiins;  and  are  said  to  have  made  profession  of 
astronomy  and  astrology.  They  denied  that  Je- 
sus Christ,  who  was  only  God,  assumed  a  true 
human  body,  and  maintained  it  was  only  imagi- 
nary ;  and  therefore  they  denied  his  incarnation, 
death,  &c.  They  pretended  that  the  law  of 
Moses  did  not  come  from  God,  or  the  good  prin- 
ciple, hut  from  the  evil  one ;  and  that  for  this 
reason  it  was  abrogated.  They  rejected  almost 
all  the  sacred  books  in  which  Christians  look  for 
the  sublime  truths  of  their  holy  religion.  They 
allinned  that  the  Old  Testament  was  not  the 
work  of  God,  but  of  the  prince  of  darkness,  who 
was  substituted  by  the  Jews  in  the  place  of  the 
true  God.  They  abstained  entirely  from  eating 
the  flesh  of  any  animal,  following  herein  the  doc- 
trine of  the  ancient  Pythagoreans :  they  also 
condemned  marriage.  The  rest  of  their  errors 
may  be  seen  in  St.  Epiphanius  and  St.  Augus- 
tine ;  which  last,  having  been  of  their  sect,  may 
be  presumed  to  have  been  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  them. 

Though  the  Manichees  professed  to  receive 
the  books  of  the  New  Testament,  yet  in  effect 
they  only  took  so  much  of  them  as  suited  with 
their  own  opinions.  They  first  formed  tothemselves 
a  certain  idea  or  schemeof  Christianity ;  and  to  this 
adjusted  the  writings  of  the  apostles,  pretending 
that  whatever  was  inconsistent  with  this  had 
been  foisted  into  the  New  Testament  by  the  later 
writers,  who  were  half  Jews.  On  the  other  hand, 
they  made  fables  and  apocryphal  books  pass  for 
apostolical  writings ;  and  even  are  suspected  to 
have  forged  several  others,  the  better  to  maintain 
their  errors.  St.  Epiphanius  gives  a  catalogue 
of  several  pieces  published  by  Manes,  and  adds 
extracts  out  of  some  of  them.  These  are  the  Mys- 
teries, Chapters,  Gospel,  and  Treasury. 

The  rule  of  life  and  manners  which  Manes 
prescribed  to  his  followers  was  most  extrava- 
gantly rigorous  and  severe.  However,  he  di- 
vided his  disciples  into  two  classes  ;  one  of  which 
comprehended  the  perfect  Christians,  under  the 
name  of  the  elect;  and  the  other  the  imperfect 
and  feeble,  under  the  title  of  auditors  or  hearers. 
The  elect  were  obliged  to  rigorous  and  entire 
abstinence  from  flesh,  eggs,  milk,  fish,  wine,  all 
intoxicating  drink,  wedlock,  and  all  amorous  gra- 
tifications ;  and  to  live  in  a  state  of  the  severest 
penury,  nourishing  their  emaciated  bodies  with 
bread,  herbs,  pulse,  and  melons,  and  depriving 
themselves  of  all  the  comforts  that  arise  from  the 
moderate  indulgence  of  natural  passions,  and  also 
from  a  variety  of  innocent  and  agreeable  pur- 
suits. The  auditors  were  allowed  to  possess 
houses,  lands,  and  wealth  ;  to  feed  on  flesh,  to 
enter  into  the  bonds  of  conjugal  tenderness ;  but 
this  liberty  was  granted  them  with  many  limita- 
tions, and  under  the  strictest  conditions  of  mo- 
deration and  temperance.  The  general  assembly 
of  Manicheans  was  headed  by  a  president,  who 
represented  Jesus  Christ.  There  were  joined  to 
him  twelve  riders  or  masters,  who  were  designed 
to  represent  the  twelve  apostles  ;  and  these  were 
followed  by  seventy-two  bishops,  the  images  of 
the,  seventy-two  disciples  of  our  Lord.  These 
bishops  had  presbyters  or  deacons  under  them, 
and  all  the  members  of  these  religious  orders 
were  chosen  out  of  the  class  of  the  elect.  Their 
259 


MARCELL1ANS 

worship  was  simple  and  plain,  and  consisted  of 
prayers,  reading  the  Scriptures,  and  hearing  pub- 
lic discourses,  at  which  both  the  auditors  and  the 
elect  were  allowed  to  be  present.  They  also  olf- 
served  the  Christian  appointment  of  baptism  and 
the  eucharist.  They  kept  the  Lord's  day,  ob- 
serving it  as  a  fast;  and  they  likewise  kept 
Easter  and  the  Pentecost. 

Towards  the  fourth  century  the  Manicheans 
concealed  themselves  under  various  names,  which 
they  successively  adopted,  and  changed  in  pro- 
portion as  they  were  discovered  by  them.  Thus 
they  assumed  the  names  of  Eucratites,  Aposta- 
tics,  Saccophori,  Hydroparastatcs,  Solitaries,  and 
several  others,  under  which  they  lay  concealed  for 
a  certain  time,  but  could  not,  however,  long  escape 
the  vigilance  of  their  enemies.  About  the  ciose 
of  the  sixth  century,  this  sect  gained  a  very  consi- 
derable influence,  particularly  among  the  Persians. 

Towards  the  middle  of  the  twelfth  century,  the 
sect  of  Manichees  took  a  new  face,  on  account 
of  one  Constantine,  an  Armenian,  and  an  ad- 
herer to  it ;  who  took  upon  him  to  suppress  the 
reading  of  all  other  books  besides  the  evangelists 
and  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  which  he  explained 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  them  contain  a  new 
system  of  Manicheism.  He  entirely  discarded 
all  the  writings  of  his  predecessors ;  rejecting  the 
chimeras  of  the  Valentinians  and  their  thirty 
seons;  the  fable  of  Manes,  with  regard  to  the 
origin  of  rain,  arid  other  dreams ;  but  still  retain- 
ed the  impurities  of  Basilides.  In  this  iflanner 
he  reformed  Manicheism,  insomuch  that  his 
followers  made  no  scruple  of  anathematizing 
Scythian  Buddas,  called  also  Addas  and  Tere- 
hintlt,  the  contemporaries  and  disciples,  as  some 
say,  and,  according  to  others,  the  predecessors 
and  masters  of  Manes,  and  even  Manes  himself; 
Constantine  being  now  their  great  apostle.  After 
he  had  seduced  an  infinite  number  of  people,  he 
was  at  last  stoned  by  order  of  the  emperor. 

This  sect  prevailed  in  Bosnia  and  the  adjacent 
provinces  about  the  close  of  the  fifteenth  century ; 
propagated  their  doctrine  with  confidence,  and 
held  their  religious  assemblies  with  impunity. 

MANNERS :  the  plural  noun  has  various 
significations ;  as  the  general  way  of  life,  the 
morals  or  the  habits  of  any  person ;  also  ceremo- 
nial behaviour  or  studied  civility.  Good-manners, 
according  to  Swift,  is  the  art  of  making  those 
people  easy  with  whom  we  converse.  Pride,  ill- 
nature,  and  want  of  sense,  are  the  three  great 
sources  of  ill-manners.  Without  some  one  of 
these  defects  no  man  will  behave  himself  ill  for 
want  cf  experience ;  or  of  what,  in  the  language 
of  some,  is  calied  knowing  the  world.  For  the 
effect  that  Christianity  has  on  the  manners  of 
men,  see  article  Christianity. 

MARCELLIANS,  a  sect  of  ancient  heretics, 
towards  the  close  of  the  second  century  ;  so  called 
from  Marcelh.s  of  Ancyra,  their  leader,  who  was 
accused  of  reviving  the  errors  of  Sabcllius.  Some, 
however,  are  of  opinion  that  Marcellus  was  or- 
thodox, and  that  they  were  his  enemies,  the 
Arians,  who  fathered  their  errors  upon  him.  St. 
Epiphanius  observes,  that  there  was  a  great  deal 
of  dispute  with  regard  to  the  real  tenets  of  Mar- 
cellus; but  as  to  his  followers,  it  is  evident  thai 
they  did  not  own  the  three  hypostases ;  for  Mar- 
cellus considered  the.  Son  and  Holy  Ghost  as  two 
emanations  from  the  divine  nature,  whicn,  alter 
performing  their  respective  offices,  were  to  rctuxa 


MARCOSIANS 
sgain  into  the  substance  of  the  Father ;  and  this 
opinion  is  altogether  incompatible  with  the  belief 
of  three  distinct  persons  in  the  Godhead. 

MARCIONITES,  or  Marcionists,  Mar- 
cionista:,  a  very  ancient  and  popular  sect  of  here- 
tics, who,  in  the  time  of  Epiphanius,  were  spread 
over  Italy,  Egypt,  Palestine,  Syria,  Arabia,  Per- 
sia, and  other  countries;  they  were  thus  denomi- 
nated from  their  author  Marcion.  Marcion  was 
of  Pc  ntus,  the  son  of  a  bishop,  and  at  first  made 
profession  of  the  monastic  life ;  but  he  was  ex- 
communicated by  his  own  father,  who  would 
never  admit  him  again  into  communion  with  the 
church,  not  even  on  his  repentance.  On  this  he 
abandoned  his  own  country,  and  retired  to  Rome, 
where  he  began  to  broach  his  doctrines. 

He  laid  down  two  principles,  the  one  good,  the 
other  evil ;  between  these  he  imagined  an  inter- 
mediate kind  of  Deity,  of  a  mixed  nature,  who 
was  the  creator  of  this  inferior  world,  and  the 
god  and  legislator  of  the  Jewish  nation  ;  the  other 
nations,  who  worshipped  a  variety  of  gods,  were 
supjwsed  to  be  under  the  empire  of  the  evil  prin- 
ciple. These  two  conflicting  powers  exercised 
oppressions  upon  rational  and  immortal  souls; 
and  therefore  the  supreme  God.  to  deliver  them 
from  bondage,  sent  to  the  Jews  a  Being  more 
like  unto  himself,  even  his  Son  Jesus  Christ, 
clothed  with  a  certain  shadowy  resemblance  of  a 
body :  this  celestial  messenger  was  attacked  by  the 
prince  of  darkness,  and  by  the  god  of  the  Jews, 
but  without  effect.  Those  who  follow  the  direc- 
tions of  this  celestial  conductor,  mortify  the  body 
by  fastings  and  austerities,  and  renounce  the  pre- 
cepts of  the  god  of  the  Jews  and  of  the  prince  of 
darkness,  shall  after  death  ascend  to  the  mansions 
of  felicity  and  perfection.  The  rule  of  manners 
which  Marcion  prescribed  to  his  followers  was 
excessively  austere,  containing  an  express  prohi- 
bition of  wedlock,  wine,  flesh,  and  all  the  exter- 
nal comforts  of  life. 

Marcion  denied  the  real  birth,  incarnation,  and 
passion  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  held  them  to  be  ap- 
parent only.  He  denied  the  resurrection  of  the 
brjdy,  and  allowed  none  to  be  baptized  but  those 
who  preserved  their  continence ;  but  these  he 
granted  might  bebaptizcd  three  times.  In  many 
things  he  followed  the  sentiments  of  the  heretic 
Cerdon  and  rejected  the  law  and  the  prophets. 
He  pretended  the  Gospel  had  been  corrupted  by 
false  prophets,  and  allowed  none  of  the  evange- 
lists but  St.  Luke,  whom  ?.!so  he  altered  in  many 
places,  as  well  as  the  epistles  of  St.  Paul,  a  great 
many  things  in  which  he  threw  out.  In  his  own 
copy  of  St.  Luke  he  threw  out  the  first  two  chap- 
ters entire. 

MARCITES,  Marcitje,  a  sect  of  heretics 
in  the  second  century,  who  also  called  themselves 
the  perjecti,  and  made  profession  of  doing  every 
thing  with  a  great  deal  of  liberty,  and  without 
fear.  This  doctrine  they  borrowed  from  Simon 
Magus,  who  however  was  not  their  chief;  for 
they  were  called  MarcUcs  from  one  Marcus,  who 
conferred  the  priesthood,  and  the  administration 
of  the  sacraments,  on  women. 

MARCOSIANS,  or  Coi.obarsians,  an  an- 
cient sect  in  the  church,  making  a  branch  of  the 
Valentinians. 

St.  Irenreus  speaks  at  large  of  the  leader  of  this 

sect,  Marcus,  who,  it  seems,  was  reputed  a  great 

magician.     The  Marcosians  had  a  great  number 

uf  aaocrvphal  books  which  they  held  for  canonical, 

'  260 


MARONITES 
and  of  the  same  authority  with  ours.  Out  of 
these  they  flicked  several  idle  fables  touching  th« 
infancy  of  Jesus  Christ,  which  they  put  off  for 
true  histories.  Many  of  these  fables  are  still  in 
use  and  credit  among  the  Greek  monks. 

MARONITES,  in  ecclesiastical  history,  a 
sect  of  eastern  Christians  who  follow  the  Syrian 
rite,  and  are  subject  to  the  pope  :  their  principal 
habitation  is  on  Mount  Libanus. 

Mosheim  informs  us,  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
Monothelites,  condemned  and  exploded  by  the 
council  of  Constantinople,  found  a  place  of  refuge 
among  the  Mardaites,  a  people  who  inhabited 
the  Mounts  Libanus  and  Antilibanus,  and  who, 
about  the  conclusion  of  the  seventh  century, 
were  called  Maronites,  after  Maro,  their  first 
bishop ;  a  name  which  they  still  retain.  None  (he 
says)  of  the  ancient  writers  give  any  account  of 
the  first  person  who  instructed  these  mountaineers 
in  the  doctrine  of  the  Monothelites ;  it  is  proba- 
ble, however,  from  several  circumstances,  that  it 
was  John  Maro,  whose  name  they  adopted ;  and 
that  this  ecclesiastic  received  the  name  of  Maro 
from  his  having  lived  in  the  character  of  a  monk 
in  the  famous  convent  of  St.  Maro,  upon  the 
borders  of  the  Orontes,  before  his  settlement 
among  the  Mardaites  of  Mount  Libanus.  One 
thing  is  certain,  from  the  testimony  of  Tyrius 
and  other  unexceptionable  witnesses,  as  also  from 
the  most  authentic  records,  viz.  that  the  Maron- 
ites retained  the  opinions  of  the  Monothelites 
until  the  twelfth  century,  when,  abandoning  and 
renouncing  the  doctrine  of  one  will  in  Christ, 
they  were  re-admitted  in  the  year  1182  to  the 
communion  of  the  Roman  church.  The  most 
learned  of  the  modern  Maronites  have  left  no 
method  unemployed  to  defend  their  church  against 
this  accusation ;  they  have  laboured  to  prove,  by 
a  variety  of  testimonies,  that  their  ancestors  al> 
ways  persevered  in  the  Catholic  faith,  in  their 
attachment  to  the  Roman  pontiff,  without  eve* 
adopting  the  doctrine  of  the  Monophysites,  or 
Monothelites.  But  all  their  efforts  are  insufnV 
cient  to  prove  the  truth  of  these  assertions  to  such 
as  have  an  acquaintance  with  the  history  of  true 
church,  and  the  records  of  ancient  times ;  for,  to 
all  such,  the  testimonies  they  allege  will  appear 
absolutely  fictitious,  and  destitute  of  authority. 

Faustus  Nairon,  a  Maronite  settled  at  Rome, 
has  published  an  apology  for  Maro  and  the'  rest 
of  his  nation.  His  tenet  is,  that  they  really  took 
their  name  from  the  Maro  who  lived  about  the 
year  409,  and  of  whom  mention  is  made  in  Chry- 
sostom,  Theodoret,  and  the  Menologium  of  the 
Greeks.  He  adds,  that  the  disciples  of  this  Marc 
spread  themselves  throughout  all  Syria;,  that 
they  built  several  monasteries,  and,  among  other?, 
one  that  bore  the  name  of  their  leader;  that  all 
the  Syrians  who  were  not  tainted  with  heresy 
took  refuge  among  them ;  and  that  for  this  reason 
the  heretics  of  those  times  called  them  Maronites. 

Mosheim  observes,  that  the  subjection  of  the 
Maronites  to  the  spiritual  jurisdiction  of  the  Ro- 
man pontiff  was  agreed  to  with  this  express  con- 
dition, that  neither  the  popes  nor  their  emissaries 
should  pretend  to  change  or  abolish  any  thing  that 
related  to  the  ancient  rites,  moral  precepts,  or  re- 
ligious opinions  of  this  people;  so  that  in  reality 
there  is  nothing  to  be  found  among  the  Maronites 
that  savours  of  popery,  if  we  except  their  attach- 
ment to  the  Roman  pontiff,  who  is  obliged  to  pay 
very  dear  for  their  friendship.    For  as  the  Ma 


MARRIAGE 
ronites  live  in  the  utmost  distress  of  poverty,  un- 
der the  tyrannical  yoke  of  the  Mahometans,  the 
bishop  of  Rome,  is  under  the  necessity  of  furnish- 
ing them  with  such  subsidies  as  may  appease 
their  oppressors,  procure  a  subsistence  for  their 
bishop  and  clergy,  provide  all  things  requisite  for 
the  support  of  their  churches,  and  the  uninter- 
rupted exercise  of  public  worship,  and  contribute 
in  general  to  lessen  their  miseries.  It  is  certain 
that  there  are  Maronites  in  Syria  who  still  be- 
hold the  church  of  Rome  with  the  greatest  aver- 
sion and  abhorrence;  nay,  whatjs  still  more  re- 
markable, great  numbers  of  that  nation  residing 
in  Italv,  even  under  the  eye  of  the  pontiff,  op- 

fiosed  his  authority  during  the  last  century,  and 
hrew  the  court  of  Rome  into  great  perplexity. 
One  body  of  these  non-conforming  Maronites 
retired  into  the  valleys  of  Piedmont,  where  they 
joined  the  Waldenses;  another,  above  six  hun- 
dred in  number,  with  a  bishop  and  several  eccle- 
siastics at  their  head,  fled  into  Corsica,  and  im- 
plored the  protection  of  the  Republic  of  Genoa 
against  the  violence  of  the  inquisitors. 

The  Maronites  have  a  patriarch  who  resides  in 
the  monastery  of  Cannubin,  on  Mount  Libanus, 
and  assumes  the  title  of  patriarch  of  Antioch,  and 
the  name  of  Peter,  as  if  he  seemed  desirous  of 
being  considered  as  the  successor  of  that  apostle. 
He  is  elected  by  the  clergy  and  the  people,  ac- 
cording to  the  ancient  custom;  but,  since  their 
reunion  with  the  church  of  Rome,  he  is  obliged  to 
have  a  bull  of  confirmation  from  the  pope.  He 
keeps  a  perpetual  celibacy,  as  well  as  the  rest  of 
the  bishops,  his  suffragans  :  as  to  the  rest  of  the 
ecclesiastics,  they  are  allowed  to  marry  before  or- 
dination ;  and  yet  the  monastic  life  is  in  great 
esteem  among  them.  Their  monks  are  of  the 
order  of  St.  Anthony,  and  live  in  the  most  ob- 
scure places  in  the  mountains,  far  from  the  com- 
merce of  the  world. 

As  to  their  faith,  they  agree  in  the  rmin  with 
the  rest  of  Lie  Eastern  church.  Their  priests  do 
not  say  mass  singly,  but  all  say  it  together,  stand- 
ing round  the  altar.  They  communicate  in  un- 
leavened bread ;  and  the  laity  have  hitherto  par- 
taken in  both  kinds,  though  the  practice  of  com- 
municating in  one  has  of  late  been  getting  footing, 
having  been  introduced  by  little  and  little.  In 
Lent  they  eat  nothing,  unless  it  be  two  or  three 
hours  before  sun-rising :  their  other  fastings  are 
very  numerous. 

MARRIAGE,  a  covenant  between  a  man  and 
a  woman,  in  which  they  mutually  promise  co- 
habitation, and  a  continual  care  to  promote  the 
comfort  and  happiness  of  each  other.  By  Grove 
thus :  "  A  society  formed  between  two  persons 
of  different  sexes,  chiefly  for  the  procreation  and 
education  of  children."  This  union  is  very  near 
and  strict,  and  indeed  indissoluble  but  by  death, 
excepting  in  one  case ;  unfaithfulness  in  the  one 
to  the  other  by  adultery  or  fornication,  Rom.  vii. 
2  ;  Matt.  v.  32.  It  is  to  be  entered  into  with  de- 
liberation, at  a  proper  age,  and  with  mutual  con- 
sent, as  well  as  with  the  consent  of  parents  and 
guardians  under  whose  care  single  persons  may 
be.  It  is  a  very  honourable  state,  Heb.  xiii.  4 ; 
being  an  institution  of  God,  and  that  in  Paradise, 
Gen.  ii.  Christ  honoured  marriage,  by  his  pre- 
sence, and  at  such  a  solemnity  wrought  his  first 
miracle,  John  ii.  Moreover,  it  is  honourable,  as 
families  are  formed  and  built  up,  the  world  peopled 
with  inhabitants ;  it  prevents  incontinence  and 
2G1 


MARTYR 
fornication,  and,  where  the  various  duties  of  it  arc 
attended  to,  renders  life  a  blessing. 

The  laws  of  revelation,  as  well  as  most  civilized 
countries,  have  made  several  exceptions  of  persons 
marrying  who  are  nearly  related  by  blood.  The 
marriage  of  parents  and  children  appears,  at  first 
view,  contrary  to  nature,  not  merely  on  account 
of  the  disparity  of  age,  but  of  the  confusion 
which  it  introduces  into  natural  relations,  and  its 
obliging  to  inconsistent  duties  ;  such  as  reverence 
to  a  son,  and  the  daughter  to  be  equal  with  the 
father.  Nor  can  the  son  or  daughter  acquit  them- 
selves of  such  inconsistent  duties  as  would  arise 
from  this  unnatural  union.  The  marriage  of 
brothers  and  sisters,  and  of  some  other  near  re- 
lations, is  likewise  disapproved  by  reason  on 
various  accounts.  It  frustrates  one  design  of 
marriage,  which  is  to  enlarge  benevolence  and 
friendship,  by  cementing  various  families  in  a 
close  alliance.  And,  further,  were  it  allowed, 
young  persons,  instead  of  entering  into  marriage 
upon  mature  consideration,  with  a  settled  esteem 
and  friendship,  and  a  proper  concern  and  pro- 
vision for  the  support  and  education  of  children, 
would  be  in  danger  (through  the  intimacy  and 
affection  produced  by  their  near  relation,  and  be- 
ing bred  together)  of  sliding,  in  their  inconsiderate 
years,  into  those  criminal  familiarities  which  are 
most  destructive  of  the  great  ends  of  marriage. 
Most  nations  have  agreed  to  brand  such  marriages 
as  highly  criminal,  who  cannot  be  supposed  to 
have  derived  their  judgment  from  Moses  and  the 
Israelites.  It  is  probable  God  expressly  prohibited 
these  marriages  in  the  beginning  of  mankind,  and 
from  the  first  heads  of  families  the  prohibition 
might  be  transmitted  as  a  most  sacred  law  to  their 
descendants.     See  Incest. 

Some  have  supposed  from  those  passages, 
1  Tim.  iii.  2 ;  Tit.  i.  6,  that  bishops  or  pastors 
ought  never  to  marry  a  second  wife.  But  such  a 
prohibition  would  be  contrary  to  natural  right  and 
the  design  of  the  law  itseif;  neither  of  which 
was  ever  intended  to  be  set  aside  by  the  Gospel 
dispensation.  It  is  more  probably  designed  to 
guard  against  polygamy,  and  against  divorce  on 
frivolous  occasions^  both  of  which  were  frequent 
among  the  Jews,  but  condemned  by  our  Lord, 
Matt.  xix.  3—9. 

The  duties  of  this  state  are,  on  the  part  of  the 
husband,  love,  superior  to  any  shown  to  any 
other  person  :  a  love  of  complacency  and  delight, 
Prov.  v.  18,  19.  Chaste  and  single.  Provision 
for  the  temporal  good  of  the  wife  and  family, 
1  Tim.  v.  3.  Protection  from  abuse  and  injuries, 
Ruth  iii.  9;  1  Sam.  xxx.  5,  18.  Doing  every 
thing  that  mav  contribute  to  the  pleasure,  peace, 
and  comfort  of  the  wife,  1  Cor.  vii.  33.  Seeking 
her  spiritual  welfare,  and  every  thing  that  shall 
promote  her  edification  and  felicity.  The  duties 
on  the  part  of  the  wife  are,  reverence,  subjection, 
obedience,  assistance,  sympathy,  assuming  no 
authority,  and  continuance  with  him,  Eph.  v.  32, 
33;  Tit.  ii.  5;  1  Tim.  v.  11,  12;  Ruth  i.  lb'.  Sec 
articles  Divorce,  Parent.  Grove's  Mot.  Phil. 
vol.  ii.  p.  470;  Paley's  Mor.  Phil.  ch.  viii.  vol.  i. 
p.  339;  Bean's  Christian  Minister's  Advice  to 
a  New-married  Couple ;  Guide  to  Domestic 
Happiness ;  Advantages  and  Disadvantages  of 
the  Marriage  Slate ;  Stennctt  on  Domestic  Du- 
ties ;  Jay's  Essay  on  Marriage  ;  Doddridge's 
Led.  225,  234,  2G5,  vol.  i.  oct.  ed. 

MARTYR,  is  one  who  lays  down  his  life  or 


MARTYR 

suffers  death  for  the  sake  of  his  religion.  The 
word  is  (jireek,  pap-run,  and  properly  signifies  a 
''  witness."  It  is  applied  by  way  of  eminence  to 
those  who  suffer  in  witness  of  the  truth  of  the 
Gospel. 

The  Christian  church  has  abounded  with  mar- 
tyrs, and  history  is  filled  with  surprising  accounts 
of  their  singular  constancy  and  fortitude  under 
the  cruellest  torments  human  nature  was  capable 
of  Buffering.  The  primitive  Christians  were  ac- 
cused by  their  enemies  of  paying  a  sort  of  divine 
worship  to  martyrs.  Of  this  we  have  an  instance 
in  the  answer  of  the  church  of  Smyrna  to  the 
suggestion  of  the  Jews,  who,  at  the  martyrdom 
of  Polycarp,  desired  the  heathen  judge  not  to 
suffer  the  Christians  to  carry  off  his  body,  lest 
they  should  leave  their  crucified  master,  and  wor- 
ship him  in  his  stead.  To  which  they  answered, 
,:  We  can  neither  forsake  Christ  nor  worship  any 
other ;  for  we  worship  him  as  the  Son  of  God ; 
but  love  the  martyrs  as  the  disciples  and  followers 
of  the  Lord,  for  the  great  affection  they  have 
shown  to  their  King  and  Master."  A  like  an- 
swer was  given  at  the  martyrdom  of  Fructuosus 
in  Spain;  for  when  the  judge  asked  Eulogius, 
his  deacon,  whether  he  would  not  worship  Fruc- 
tuosus, as  thinking,  that,  though  he  refused  to 
worship  the  heathen  idols,  he  might  yet  be  in- 
clined to  worship  a  Christian  martyr,  Eulogius 
replied,  "  I  do  not  worship  Fructuosus,  but  him 
whom  Fructuosus  worships."  The  primitive 
Christians  believed  that  the  martyrs  enjoyed  very 
singular  privileges ;  that  upon  their  death  they 
were  immediately  admitted  to  the  beatific  vision, 
while  other  souls  waited  for  the  completion  of 
their  happiness  till  the  day  of  judgment;  and 
that  God  would  grant  to  their  prayers  the  hasten- 
ing of  his  kingdom,  and  shortening  the  times  of 
persecution.  Perhaps  this  consideration  might 
excite  many  to  court  martyrdom,  as  we  believe 
many  did.  It  must  be  recollected,  however, 
that 'martyrdom  in  itself  is  no  proof  of  the 
goodness  of  our  cause,  only  that  we  ourselves 
are  persuaded  that  it  is  so.  "It  is  not  the  blood, 
but  the  cause  that  makes  the  "martyr."  (Mead.) 
Yet  we  may  consider  the  number  and  fortitude 
of  those  who  have  suffered  for  Christianity  as  a 
collateral  proof  at  least  of  its  excellency  ;  for  the 
thing  for  which  they  suffered  was  not  a  point  of 
speculation,  but  a  plain  matter  of  fact,  in  which 
(had  it  been  false,)  they  could  not  have  been 
mistaken.  The  martyrdom,  therefore,  of  so  many 
wise  and  good  men,  taken  with  a  view  of  the 
whole  system  of  Christianity,  will  certainly  afford 
something  considerable  in  its  favour. 

The  churches  built  over  the  graves  of  the  mar- 
tyrs, and  called  by  their  names,  in  order  to  pre- 
serve .he  memory  of  their  sufferings,  were  distin- 
guished by  the  title  martyrum.  cor/cssio,  or 
memoria. 

The  festivals  of  the  martyrs  are  of  very  ancient 
date  in  tin-  Christian  church,  and  may  be  carried 
back  at  least  from  the  time  of  Polycarp,  who  suf- 
fered martyrdom  about  the  year  of  Christ  1GS. 
On  these  days  the  Christians  met  at  the  graves 
of  the  martyrs,  and  offered  prayers  and  thanks- 
givings to  God  for  the  example  they  had  afforded 
them;  they  celebrated  the  eucharist,  and  gave 
alms  to  the  poor ;  which,  together  with  a  pane- 
gyrical oration  or  sermon,  and  reading  the  acts  of 
the  martyrs,  were  the  spiritual  exercises  of  these 
anniversaries. 
2G2 


MARTYROLOGY 

Of  the  sayings,  sufferings,  and  deaths  of  the 
martyrs,  though  preserved  .-iith  great  care  for  the 
above  purpose,  and  to  serve  as  models  to  future 
ages,  we  have  but  very  little  left,  the  greatest  part 
of  them  having  been  destroyed  during  that  dread- 
ful persecution  which  Dioelesian  carried  on  for 
ten  years  with  fresh  fury  against  the  Christians  : 
for  a  most  diligent  search  was  then  made  after  all 
their  books  and  papers;  and  all  of  them  that 
were  found  were  committed  to  the  flames.  Euse- 
bius,  indeed,  composed  a  martyrology,  but  it 
never  reached  flown  to  us ;  and  those  since  com- 
piled are  extremely  suspected.  From  the  eighth 
century  downwards,  several  Greek. and  Latin 
authors  endeavoured  to  make  up  the  loss,  by 
compiling,  with  vast  labour,  accounts  of  the  lives 
and  actions  of  the  ancient  martyrs,  but  which 
consist  of  little  else  than  a  series  of  fables :  nor 
are  those  records  that  pass  under  the  name  of 
martyrology  worthy  of  superior  credit,  since  they 
bear  the  most  evident  marks  both  of  ignorance 
and  falsehood. 

MARTYROLOGY,  a  catalogue  or  list  of 
martyrs,  including  the  history  of  their  lives  and 
sufferings  for  the  sake  of  religion.  The  term 
comes  from  ^npi-up,  "  witness,"  and  Ktyw,  dico,  or 

\l-yx,  ColUgO. 

The  martyrologies  draw  their  materials  from 
the  calendars  of  particular  churches,  in  which  the 
several  festivals  dedicated  to  them  are  marked; 
and  which  seem  to  be  derived  from  the  practice 
of  the  ancient  Romans,  who  inserted  the  names 
of  heroes  and  great  men  in  their  fasti,  or  public 
registers. 

The  martyrologies  are  very  numerous,  and 
contain  many  ridiculous  and  even  contradictory 
narratives ;  which  is  easily  accounted  for,  if  we 
consider  how  many  forged  and  spurious  accounts 
of  the  lives  of  saints  and  martyrs  appeared  in  the 
first  ages  of  the  church,  which  the  legendary 
writers  afterwards  adopted  without  examining 
into  the  truth  of  them.  However,  some  good 
critics,  of  late  years,  have  gone  a  great  way  to- 
wards clearing  the  lives  of  the  saints  and  martyrs 
from  the  monstrous  heap  of  fiction  they  laboured 
under.     See  article  Legend. 

The  martyrology  of  Eusebius  of  Caesarea  was 
the  most  celebrated  in  the  ancient  church.  It  was 
translated  into  Latin  by  St.  Jerome;  but  the 
learned  agree  that  it  is  not  now  extant.  That 
attributed  to  Beda,  in  the  eighth  century,  is  of 
very  doubtful  authority ;  the  names  of  several 
saints  being  there  found  who  did  not  live  till  after 
the  time  of  Beda.  The  ninth  century  was  very 
fertile  in  martyrologies;  then  appeared,  that  of 
Florus,  subdeacon  of  the  church  at  Lyons,  who, 
however,  only  filled  up  the  chasms  in  Beda.  This 
was  published  about  the  year  830,  and  was  fol- 
lowed by  that  of  Waldenburtus,  monk  of  the  dio- 
cese of  Treves,  written  in  verse  about  the  year  848 ; 
and  this  by  that  of  Usard,  a  French  monk,  and 
written  by  the  command  of  Charles  the.  Bald,  in 
875,  which  last  is  the  martyrology  now  ordinarily 
used  in  the  Romish  church.  That  of  Rabanus 
Mauius  is  an  improvement  on  Beda  and  Florus, 
written  about  the  year  845 ;  that  of  Noker,  monk 
of  St.  Gal,  was  written  about  the  year  SIM.  The 
martyrology  of  Ado,  monk  of  Ferricrs,  in  the 
diocese  of  Treves,  afterwards  archbishop  of 
Vienne,  is  a  descendant  of  the  Roman,  if  we  may 
so  call  it;  for  Du  Sollier  gives  its  genealogy  thus 
The  martyrology  of  St.  Jerome  is  the  great  Ro- 


MASORA 
man  martyrology ;  from  this  was  made  the  little 
Roman  one  printed  by  Roswcyd ;  of  this  little 
Roman  martyrology  was  formed  that  of  Bed  a, 
augmented  by  Florus.  Ado  compiled  his  in  the 
year  858.  The  martyrology  of  Nevelon,  monk 
of  Corbie,  written  about  the  year  1089,  is  little 
more  than  an  abridgement  of  that  of  Ado :  father 
Kircher  also  makes  mention  of  a  Coptic  martyr- 
ology, preserved  by  the  Maronites  at  Rome. 

We  have  also  several  Protestant  martyrologies, 
Containing  the  sufferings  of  the  reformed  under 
the  Papists,  viz.  an  English  martyrology,  by  J. 
Fox ;  with  others  by  Clark,  Bray,  &c.  See  Per- 
secution'. 

Martyrology  is  also  used  in  the  Romish  church 
for  a  roll  or  register  kept  in  the  vestry  of  each 
church,  containing  the  names  of  all  the  saints  and 
martyrs,  both  of  the  universal  church  and  of  the 
particular  ones  of  that  city  or  monastery. 

Martyrology  is  also  applied  to  tho  painted  or 
written  catalogues  in  the  Roman  churches,  con- 
taining the  foundations,  obits,  prayers,  and  masses, 
to  be  said  each  day. 

MASORA,  a  term,  in  the  Jewish  theology, 
signifying  a  work  on  the  Bible,  performed  by 
several  learned  rabbins,  to  secure  it  from  any  al- 
terations which  might  otherwise  happen. 

Their  work  regards  merely  the  letter  of  the 
Hebrew  text,  in  which  they  have  first  fixed  the 
true  reading  by  vowels  and  accents :  they  have, 
secondly,  numbered  not  only  the  chapters  and 
sections,  but  the  verses,  words,  and  letters  of  the 
text;  and  they  find  in  the  Pentateuch  5245 
verses,  and  in  the  whole  Bible  23,20(5.  The 
masora  is  called  by  the  Jews,  the  hedge  or  fence 
of  the  law,  because  this  enumeration  of  the  verses, 
&c,  is  a  means  of  preserving  it  from  being  cor- 
rupted and  altered.  They  have,  thirdly,  marked 
whatever  irregularities  occur  in  any  of  the  letters 
of  the  Hebrew  text ;  such  as  the  different  size 
of  the  letters,  their  various  positions  and  inver- 
sions, &c. ;  and  they  have  been  fruitful  in  find- 
ing out  reasons  for  these  mysteries  and  irregu- 
larities in  them.  They  are,  fourthly,  supposed  to 
be  the  authors  of  the  Keri  and  Chetibh,  or  the  mar- 
ginal corrections  of  the  text  in  our  Hebrew  Bibles. 

The  text  of  the  sacred  books,  it  is  to  be  ob- 
served, was  originally  written  without  any  breaks 
or  divisions  into  chapters  or  verses,  or  even  into 
words :  so  that  a  whole  book,  in  the  ancient 
manner,  was  but  one  continued  word:  of  this 
kind  we  have  still  several  arTcient  manuscripts, 
both  Greek  and  Latin.  In  this  regard,  there- 
fore, the  sacred  writings  had  undergone  an  in- 
finite number  of  alterations;  whence  various 
readings  had  arisen,  and  the  original  was  become 
much  mangled  and  disguised.  The  Jews  had 
recourse  to  a  canon,  which  they  judged  infallible, 
to  fix  and  ascertain  the  reading  of  the  Hebrew 
text;  and  this  rule  they  call  masora,  "tradition;" 
from  "DO,  tradit,  as  if  this  critique  were  nothing 
but  a  tradition  which  they  had  received  from  their 
forefathers.  Accordingly  they  say,  that,  when 
God  gave  the  law  to  Moses  at  Mount  Sinai,  he 
'aught  him  first  the  true  reading  of  it:  and, 
secondly,  its  true  interpretation ;  and  that  both 
these  were  handed  down  by  oral  tradition  from 
generation  to  generation,  till  at  length  they  were 
committed  to  writing.  The  former  of  these,  viz. 
the  true  reading,  is  the  subject  of  the  ruasora; 
the  latter,  or  true  interorctation,  that  of  the  mish- 
na  and  gemara. 
2(13 


MASS 

According  to  Ehas  Levita,  they  were  the  Jews 
of  a  famous  school  at  Tiberias,  about  five  hun- 
dred years  after  Christ,  who  composed,  or  at  least 
began  the  masora ;  whence  they  are  called  maso- 
ritcs  and  masoretic  doctors.  Aben  Ezra  makes 
them  the  authors  of  the  points  and  accents  in  the 
Hebrew  text,  as  we  now  find  it,  and  which  serve 
for  vowels. 

The  age  of  the  masorites  has  been  much  dis- 
puted. Archbishop  Usher  places  them  before 
Jerome ;  Capel,  at  the  end  of  the  fifth  century  ; 
father  Morin,  in  the  tenth  century.  Basnage 
says,  that  they  were  not  a  society,  but  a  succes- 
sion of  men  ;  and  that  the  masora  was  the  work 
of  many  grammarians,  who,  without  associating 
and  communicating  their  notions,  composed  this 
collection  of  criticisms  on  the  Hebrew  text,  It  is 
urged,  that  there  were  masorites  from  the  time 
of  Ezra  and  the  men  of  the  great  synagogue,  to 
about  the  year  of  Christ  1030;  and  that  Ben 
Asher  and  Ben  Naphtali,  who  were  the  best  of 
the  profession,  and  who,  according  to  Basnage, 
were  the  inventors  of  the  masora,  flourished  at 
this  time.  Each  of  these  published  a  copy  of  the 
whole  Hebrew  text,  as  correct,  says  Dr.  Prideaux, 
as  they  could  make  it.  The  eastern  Jews  have 
followed  that  of  Ben  Naphtali,  and  the  western 
that  of  Ben  Asher  ;  and  all  that  has  been  done 
since  is  to  copy  after  them,  without  making  any 
more  corrections,  or  masoretical  criticisms. 

The  Arabs  have  done  the  same  thing  by  their 
Koran  that  the  masorites  have  done  by  the  Bible ; 
nor  do  the  Jews  deny  having  borrowed  this  ex- 
pedient from  the  Arabs,  who  first  put  it  in  prae- 
tice  in  the  seventh  century. 

There  is  a  great  and  little  masora  printed  at 
Venice  and  at  Basil,  with  the  Hebrew  text  in  a 
different  character.  Buxtorf  has  written  a  ma- 
soretic commentary,  which  he  calls  Tiberias. 

MASS,  Missa,  in  the  church  of  Rome,  the 
office  or  prayers  used  at  the  celebration  of  the 
eucharist;  or,  in  other  words,  consecruting  the 
bread  and  wine  into  the  body  and  blood  of  Christ, 
and  offering  them,  so  transubstantiated,  as  an 
expiatory  sacrifice  for  the  quick  and  the  dead. 

As  the  mass  is  in  general  believed  to  be  a  re- 
presentation of  the  passion  of  our  blessed  Saviour, 
so  every  action  of  the  priest,  and  every  particular 
part  of  the  service,  is  supposed  to  allude  to  the 
particular  circumstances  of  his  passion  and  death. 

Nicod,  after  Baronius,  observes,  that  the  word 
comes  from  the  Hebrew  missach  (oblatum;)  or 
from  the  Latin  missa,  missorum;  because  in  the 
former  times  the  catechumens  and  excommuni 
cated  were  sent  out  of  the  church,  when  the  dea- 
cons said,  lte,  missa  est,  after  sermon  and  reading 
of  the  epistle  and  Gospel ;  they  not  being  allowed 
to  assist  at  the  consecration.  Menage  derives  the 
word  from  missio,  "dismissing;"  others  from 
7nissa,  "mission,  sending  ;"  because  in  the  mass 
the  prayers  of  men  on  earth  are  sent  up  to 
heaven. 

The  general  division  of  masses  consists  in  high 
and  low.  The  first  is  that  sung  by  the  choris- 
ters, and  celebrated  with  the  assistance  of  a  dea- 
con and  sub-deacon :  low  masses  are  thjse  in 
which  the  prayers  are  barely  rehearsed  wilaout 
singing. 

There  are  a  great  number  of  different  or  occa- 
sional masses  in  the  Romish  church,  many  of 
which  have  nothing  peculiar  but  the  name :  such 
are  the  masses  of  the  saints;  that  of  St.  Mary  of 


MASTER 
the  Snow,  celebrated  on  the  fifth  of  August ;  that 
of  St.  Margaret,  patroness  of  lying-in  women ; 
that  at  the  feast  of  St.  John  the  Baptist,  at  which 
are  said  three  masses ;  that  of  the  Innocents,  at 
which  the  gloria  in  excelsLs  anJ  hallelujah  are 
omitted,  and,  it  being  a  day  of  mourning,  the 
altar  is  of  a  violet  colour.  As  to  ordinary  masses, 
some  are  said  for  the  dead,  and,  as  is  supposed, 
contribute  to  fetch  the  soul  out  of  purgatory.  At 
these  masses  the  altar  is  put  in  mourning,  and 
the  only  decorations  are  a  cross  in  the  middle  of 
six  yellow  wax  lights;  the  dress  of  the  celebrant, 
and  the  very  mass-book  are  black;  many  parts  of 
the  office  are  omitted,  and  the  people  are  dismiss- 
ed without  the  benediction.  If  the  mass  be  said 
for  a  person  distinguished  by  his  rank  or  virtues, 
it  is  followed  with  a  funeral  oration :  they  erect  a 
chapelle  ardente,  that  is,  a  representation  of  the 
deceased,  with  branches  and  tapers  of  yellow 
wax,  either  in  the  middle  of  the  church,  or  near 
the  deceased's  tomb,  where  the  priest  pronounces 
a  solemn  absolution  of  the  deceased.  There  are 
likewise  private  masses  said  for  stolen  or  strayed 
goods  or  cattle,  for  health,  for  travellers,  &c, 
which  go  under  the  name  of  votive  masses. — 
There  is  still  a  further  distinction  of  masses,  de- 
nominated from  the  countries  in  which  they 
were  used :  thus  the  Gothic  mass,  or  missa  mosa- 
rabum,  is  that  used  among  the  Goths  when  they 
were  masters  of  Spain,  and  which  is  still  kept  up 
at  Toledo  and  Salamanca  ;  the  Ambrosian  mass 
is  that  composed  by  St.  Ambrose,  and  used  only 
at  Milan,  of  which  city  he  was  bishop  ;  the  Gal- 
lic mass,  used  by  the  ancient  Gauls;  and  the 
Roman  mass,  used  by  almost  all  the  churches  in 
the  Romish  communion. 

Mass  of  the  presanctified  (missa  pra;sanctifi- 
catorum,)  is  a  mass  peculiar  to  the  Greek  church, 
in  which  there  is  no  consecration  of  the  elements ; 
but,  after  singing  some  hymns,  they  receive  the 
bread  and  wine  which  were  before  consecrated. 
This  mass  is  performed  all  Lent,  except  on 
Saturdays,  Sundays,  and  the  Annunciation.  The 
priest  counts,  upon  his  fingers,  the  days  of  the 
ensuing  week  on  which  it  is  to  be  celebrated,  and 
cuts  oft'  as  many  pieces  of  bread  at  the  altar  as 
he  is  to  say  masses;  and  after  having  consecrated 
them,  steeps  them  in  wine,  and  puts  them  in  a 
box ;  out  of  which,  upon  every  occasion,  he  takes 
some  of  it  with  a  spoon,  and,  putting  it  on  a  dish, 
sets  it  on  the  altar. 

MASSACRE,  aterm  used  to  signify  the  sud- 
den and  promiscuous  butchery  of  a  multitude. — 
See  Persecution. 

MASSALIANS,  or  Messalians,  a  sect 
which  sprung  up  about  the  year  3G1,  in  the 
reign  of  the  emperor  Constantius,  who  main- 
tained that  men  have  two  souls,  a  celestial  and 
a  diabolical ;  and  that  the  latter  is  driven  out  by 
prayer.  From  those  words  of  our  Lord,  "  La- 
bour not  for  the  meat  that  perisheth,"  it  is  said, 
that  they  concluded  they  ought  not  to  do  any 
work  to  get  their  bread.  We  may  suppose,  says 
Dr.  Jortin,  that  this  sect  did  not  last  long :  that 
these  sluggards  were  soon  starved  out  of  the 
world;  or,  rather,  that  cold  and  hunger  sharpen- 
td  their  wits,  and  taught  them  to  be  better  inter- 
preters of  Scripture. 

MASTER,  a  person  who  has  servants  under 
him;  a  ruler,  or  instructor.     The  duties  of  mas- 
ters relate  to  the  civi   ~o:iccrns  of  the  family. 
To  arrant  the  several  businesses  required  of 
261 


MATERIALISTS 
servants  ;  to  give  particular  instructions  for  what 
is  to  be  done,  and  how  it  is  to  be  done  ;  to  tako 
care  that  no  more  is  required  of  servants  than 
they  are  equal  to ;  to  be  gentle  in  our  deportment 
towards  them ;  to  reprove  them  when  they  do 
wrong,  to  commend  them  when  they  do  right ;  to 
make  them  an  adequate  recompense  for  their 
services,  as  to  protection,  maintenance,  wages, 
and  character. — 2.  As  to  the  morals  of  servants. 
Masters  must  look  well  to  their  servants'  charac- 
ters before  they  hire  them ;  instruct  them  in  the 
principles  and  confirm  them  in  the  habits  of  vir- 
tue ;  watch  over  their  morals,  and  set  them  good 
examples. — 3.  As  to  their  religious  interests. — 
They  should  instruct,  them  in  the  knowledge  of 
divine  things,  Gen.  xiv.  II ;  xviii.  19.  Pray 
with  them  and  for  them,  Joshua  xxiv.  15.  Al- 
low them  time  and  leisure  for  religious  services, 
&c.  Eph.  vi.  9.  See  Stennctt  on  Domestic 
Duties,  ser.  8;  Daley's  Mor.  Phil.  vol.  i.  233, 
235;  Beattie's  Elements  of  Moral  Science,  vol. 
i.  150,  153 ;  Doddridge's  Lee.  vol.  ii.  2GG. 

MATERIALISTS,  a  sect  in  the  ancient 
church,  composed  of  persons,  who,  being  prepos- 
sessed with  that  maxim  in  philosophy,  l:ex  ni- 
hilo  nihil  fit,"  out  of  nothing  nothing  can  arise, 
had  recourse  to  an  eternal  matter,  on  which  thev 
supposed  God  wrought  in  the  creation,  instead 
of  admitting  Him  alone  as  the  sole  cause  of  the 
existence  of  all  things.  Tertullian  vigorously 
opposed  them  in  his  treatise  against  Hermo- 
genes,  who  was  one  of  their  number. 

Materialists  are  also  those  who  maintain  that 
the  soul  of  man  is  material,  or  that  the  principle 
of  perception  and  thought  is  not  a  substance  dis- 
tinct from  the  body,  but  the  result  of  corporeal 
organization.  There  are  others  called  by  this 
name,  who  have  maintained  that  there  is  notliing 
but  matter  in  the  universe. 

The  followers  of  the  late  Dr.  Priestley  are  con- 
sidered as  Materialists,  or  Philosophical  Neces- 
sarians. According  to  the  doctor's  writing,  he 
believed, — 

1.  That  man  is  no  more  than  what  we  now 
see  of  him  :  his  being  commences  at  the  time  of 
his  conception,  or  perhaps  at  an  earlier  period. 
The  corporeal  and  mental  faculties,  inhering  in 
the  same  substance,  grow,  ripen,  and  decay  to- 
gether ;  and  whenever  the  system  is  dissolved,  it 
continues  in  a  state  of  dissolution,  till  it  shall 
please  that  Almighty  Being,  who  called  it  into 
existence,  to  restoiip  it  to  life  again.  For  if  the 
mental  principle  were,  in  its  own  nature,  imma- 
terial and  immortal,  all  its  peculiar  faculties 
would  be  so  too;  whereas  we  see  that  every 
faculty  of  the  mind,  without  exception,  is  liable 
to  be  impaired,  and  even  to  become  wholly  ex- 
tinct, before  death.  Since,  therefore,  all  the 
faculties  of  the  mind,  separately  taken,  appear  to 
be  mortal,  the  substance,  or  principle,  in  which 
they  exist,  must  be  pronounced  mortal  too.  Thus 
we  might  conclude  that  the  body  was  mortal, 
from  observing  that  all  the  separate  senses  and 
limbs  were  liable  to  decay  and  perish. 

Tliis  system  gives  a  real  value  to  the  doctrine 
of  the  resurrection  from  tne  dead,  which  is  pecu- 
liar to  revelation ;  on  which  alone  the  sacred 
writers  build  all  our  hope  of  future  life  :  and  it 
explains  the  uniform  language  of  the  Scriptures, 
which  speak  of  one  day  of  judgment  for  all  man- 
kind; and  represent  all  the  rewards  of  virtue,  and 
all  the  punishments  of  vice,  aa  taking  piece  at 


MATERIALISTS 

that  awful  day,  and  not  before.  In  the  Scrip- 
tures, the  heathens  are  represented  as  without 
hope,  and  all  mankind  as  perishing  at  death,  if 
there  be  no  resurrection  of  the  dead. 

The  apostle  Paul  asserts,  in  1  Cor.  xv.  1G,  that 
£f  the  dead  rise  not,  then  is  not  Christ  risen; 
and  if  Christ  be  not  raised,  your  faith  is  vain, 
ve  are  yet  in  your  sins :  then  they  also  who  are 
fallen  asleep  in  Christ  are  perished.  And  again, 
ver.  32,  If  the  dead  rise  not,  let  us  eat  and 
drink,  for  to-morrow  we  die.  In  the  whole  dis- 
course, he  does  not  even  mention  the  doctrine  of 
happiness  or  misery  without  the  body. 

If  we  search  the  Scriptures  for  pasages  expres- 
sive of  the  state  of  man  at  death,  we  find  such  de- 
clarations as  expressly  exclude  any  trace  of  sense, 
thought,  or  enjoyment.  See  Ps.  vi.  5  ;  Job.  xiv. 
7,  &c. 

2*.  That  there  is  some  fixed  law  of  nature  in- 
specting the  will,  as  well  as  the  other  powers  of 
the  mind,  and  every  tiling  else  in  the  constitution 
of  nature ;  and  consequently  that  it  is  never  de- 
termined without  some  real  or  apparent  cause 
foreign  to  itself;  i.  e.  without  some  motive  of 
choice ;  or  that  motives  influence  us  in  some 
definite  and  invariable  manner,  so  that  every  vo- 
lition, or  choice,  is  constantly  regulated  and  de- 
termined by  what  precedes  it;  and  this  constant 
determination  of  mind,  according  to  the  motives 
presented  to  it,  is  what  is  meant  by  its  necessary 
determination.  This  being  admitted  to  be  the 
fact,  there  will  be  a  necessary  connexion  between 
all  things  past,  present,  and  to  come,  in  the  way 
of  proper  cause  and  effect,  as  much  in  the  intel- 
lectual as  in  the  natural  world  ;  so  that  according 
to  the  established  laws  of  nature,  no  event  could 
have  been  otherwise  than  it  has  been  or  is  to  be, 
and  therefore  all  things  past,  present,  and  to 
come,  are  precisely  what  the  Author  of  Nature 
really  intended  them  to  be,  and  has  made  pro- 
vision for. 

To  establish  this  conclusion,  nothing  is  neces- 
sary but  that,  throughout  all  nature,  the  same 
consequences  should  invariably  result  from  the 
same  circumstances.  For  if  this  be  admitted, 
it  will  necessarily  follow,  that  at  the  commence- 
ment of  any  system,  since  the  several  parts  of  it 
nail  their  respective  situations  were  appointed 
by  the  Deity,  the  first  change  would  take  place 
according  to  a  certain  rule  established  by  himself, 
the  result  of  which  would  be  a  new  situation ; 
after  which  the  same  laws  continuing,  another 
change  would  succeed,  according  to  the  same 
rules,  and  so  on  for  ever  ;  every  new  situation  in- 
variably leading  to  another,  and  every  event,  from 
the  commencement  to  the  termination  of  the  sys- 
tem, being  strictly  connected  ;  so  that  unless  the 
fundamental  laws  of  the  system  were  changed,  it 
would  be  impossible  that  any  event  should  ha^e 
been  otherwise  than  it  was.  In  all  these  cases, 
the  circumstances  preceding  any  change  are  called 
the  causes  of  that  change :  and  since  a  determinate 
event  or  effect,  constantly  follows  certain  circum- 
stances, or  causes,  the  connexion  between  cause 
and  effect  is  concluded  to  be  invariable,  and  there- 
fore necessary. 

It  is  universally  acknowledged,  that  there  can 
be  no  effect  without  an  adequate  cause.  This  is 
even  the  foundation  on  which  the  only  proper 
argument  for  the  being  of  a  God  rests.  And  the 
Necessarian  asserts,  that  if,  in  any  given  state  of 
mind,  with  respect  both  to  dispositions  and  mo- 
265  2  / 


MATERIALISTS 
tives,  two  different  determinations,  or  volitions,  be 
possible,  it  can  be  qn  no  other  principle,  than  that 
one  of  them  should  come  under  the  description  of 
an  effect  without  a  cause ;  just  as  if  the  beam  of 
balance  might  incline  either  way,  though  loaded 
with  equal  weights.  And  if  any  thing  whatever, 
even  a  thought  in  the  mind  of  man,  could  arise 
without  an  adequate  cause,  any  thing  else,  the 
mind  itself,  or  the  whole  universe,  might  likewise 
exist  without  an  adequate  cause. 

This  scheme  of  philosophical  necessity  implies 
a  chain  of  causes  and  effects  established  by  in- 
finite wisdom,  and  terminating  in  the  greatest 
good  of  the  whole  universe ;  evils  of  all  kinds, 
natural  and  moral,  being  admitted,  as  far  as  they 
contribute  to  that  end,  or  are  in  the  nature  of 
things  inseparable  from  it.  Vice  is  productive 
not  of  good,  but  of  evil  to  us,  both  here  and  here- 
after, though  good  may  result  from  it  to  the  whole 
system;  and  according  to  the  fixed  laws  of  nature, 
our  present  and  future  happiness  necessarily  de- 
pend on  our  cultivating  good  dispositions. 

This  scheme  of  philosophical  necessity  is  dis- 
tinguished from  the  Calvinistic  doctrine  of  pre- 
destination in  the  following  particulars : 

1.  No  Necessarian  supposes  that  any  of  the 
human  race  will  suffer  eternally  ;  but  that  future 
punishments  will  answer  the  same  purpose  as 
temporal  ones  are  found  to  do  ;  all  of  which  tend- 
to  good,  and  are  evidently  admitted  for  that  pu» 
pose.  Upon  the  doctrine  of  necessity,  also,  the 
most  indifferent  actions  of  men  are  equally  ne- 
cessary with  the  most  important;  since  every 
volition,  like  any  other  effect,  must  have  an  ade- 
quate cause  depending  upon  the  previous  state 
of  the  mind,  and  the  influence  to  which  it  is 
exposed. 

2.  The  Necessarian  believes  that  his  own  dis- 
positions and  actirfhs  are  the  necessary  and  sole 
means  of  his  present,  and  future  happiness ;  so 
that,  in  the  most  proper  sense  of  the  words,  _  it 
depends  entirely  on  himself  whether  he  be  vir- 
tuous or  vicious,  happy  or  miserable. 

3.  The  Calvinistic  system  entirely  excludes 
the  popular  notion  of  free-will,  viz.  the  liberty  or 
power  of  doing  what  we  please,  virtuous  or 
vicious,  as  belonging  to  every  person,  in  every 
situation;  which  is  perfectly  consistent  with  the 
doctrine  of  philosophical  necessity,  and  indeed 
results  from  it. 

4.  The  Necessarian  believes  nothing  of  the 
posterity  of  Adam's  sinning  in  him,  and  of  their 
being  liable  to  the  wrath  of  God  on  that  account; 
or  the  necessity  of  an  infinite  Being  making 
atonement  for  them  by  suffering  in  their  stead, 
and  thus  making  the  Deity  propitious  to  them. 
He  believes  nothing  of  all  the  actions  of  any  man 
being  necessarily  sinful ;  but,  on  the  contrary, 
thinks  that  the  very  worst  of  men  are  capable  of 
benevolent  intentions  in  many  things  that  they 
do;  and  likewise  that  very  good  men  are  capable 
of  falling  from  virtue,  and  consequently  of  sink- 
ing into  final  perdition.  Upon  the  principles  of 
the  Necessarian,  also,  all  late  repentance,  and 
especially  after  long  and  confirmed  habits  of  vice, 
is  altogether  and  necessarily  ineffectual ;  there 
not  being  sufficient  time  left  to  produce  a  change 
of  disposition  and  character,  which  can  only  be 
done  by  a  change  of  conduct  of  proportionably 
long  continuance. 

In  short,  the  three  doctrines  of  Materialism, 
Philosophical  Necessity,  and  Socinianism,  are 


MEDIATOR 
considered  as  equally  parts  of  one  system.  The 
scheme  of  Necessity  is  the  immediate  result  of 
the  materiality  of  man  ;  for  mechanism  is  the  un- 
doubted consequence  of  materialism,  and  that  man 
is  wholly  material,  is  eminently  subservient  to  the 
proper  or  mere  humanity  of  Christ.  For  if  no 
mfin  have  a  soul  distinct  from  his  body,  Christ, 
who  in  all  other  respects  appeared  as  a  man, 
could  not  have  a  soul  which  had  existed  before 
his  body ;  and  the  whole  doctrine  of  the  pre-ex- 
istence  of  souls,  of  wliich  the  opinion  of  the  pre- 
existence  of  Christ,  is  a  branch,  will  be  effectually 
overturned.  Sec  Necessity,  Pre-existence, 
Spinosism,  Soul,  Unitarian,  and  books  under 
those  articles. 

MEANS  OF  GRACE  denote  those  duties 
we  perform  for  the  purpose  of  improving  our 
minds,  affecting  our  hearts,  and  of  obtaining  spi- 
ritual blessings;  such  as  hearing  the  Gospel, 
reading  the  Scriptures,  seif-examination,  medita- 
tion, prayer,  praise,  Christian  conversation,  &c. 
The  means  are  to  he  used  without  any  reference 
to  merit,  but  solely  with  a  dependence  on  the 
Divine  Being;  nor  can  we  ever  expect  happi- 
ness in  ourselves,  nor  be  good  exemplars  to  others, 
while  we  live  in  the  neglect  of  them.  It  is  in 
vain  to  argue  that  the  divine  decree  supersedes 
the  necessity  of  them,  since  God  has  as  certainly 
appointed  the  means  as  the  end.  Besides,  he 
himself  generally  works  by  them ;  and  the  more 
means  lie  thinks  proper  to  use,  the  more  he  dis- 
plays his  glorious  perfections.  Jesus  Christ, 
when  on  earth,  used  means ;  he  prayed,  he  ex- 
horted, and  did  good,  by  going  from  place  to  place. 
Indeed,  the  systems  of  nature,  providence,  and 
grace,  are  all  carried  on  by  means.  The  Scrip- 
tures abound  with  exhortations  to>them,  Matt.  v. ; 
Rom.  xii. ;  and  none  but  enthusiasts  or  immoral 
characters  ever  refuse  to  use  them. 

MEDIATOR,  a  person  that  intervenes  be- 
tween two  parties  at  variance,  in  order  to  recon- 
cile them.  Thus  Jesus  Christ  is  the  Mediator 
between  an  offended  God  and  sinful  man,  1  Tim. 
ii.  5.  Both  Jews  arid  Gentiles  have  a  notion  of  a 
Mediator:  the  Jews  call  the  Messiah  NJWDN, 
the  Mediator  or  Middle  One.  The  Persians 
Call  their  God  Mithras,  ^tnrm,  a  Mediator;  and 
the  daemons,  with  the  heathens,  seem  to  be,  ac- 
cording to  them,  mediators  between  the  superior 
fods  and  men.  Indeed,  the  whole  religion  of 
'aganism  was  a  system  of  mediation  and  inter- 
cession. The  idea,  therefore,  of  salvation  by  a 
Mediator,  is  not  so  novel  or  restricted  as  some 
imagine ;  and  the  Scriptures  of  truth  inform  us, 
that  it  is  only  by  this  way  human  beings  can 
arrive  to  eternal  felicity,  Actsiv.  12;  Johnxiv.  6. 
Man,  in  his  state  of  innocence,  was  in  friendship 
with  God ;  but,  by  sinning  against  him,  he  ex- 
posed himself  to  his  just  displeasure;  his  powers 
l>ecame  enfeebled,  and  his  heart  filled  with  en- 
mity against  him,  Rom.  viii.  6;  he  was  driven 
out  of  hi*  paradisaical  Eden,  and  totally  incapable 
of  returning  to  God,  and  making  satisfaction  to 
his  justice.  Jesus  Christ,  therefore,  was  the  ap- 
pointed Mediator  to  bring  about  reconciliation, 
(Jen.  iii.  12;  Col.  i.  21 ;  and  in  the  fulness  of 
time,  he  came  into  this  world,  obeyed  the  law, 
satisfied  justice,  and  brought  his  people  into  a 
state  of  grace  and  favour;  yea,  into  a  more  ex- 
alted state  of  friendship  with  God  than  was  lost 
by  the  fall,  Eph.  ii.  18.  Now,  in  order  to  the 
accomplishing  of  tliis  work,  it  was  necessary  that 
2GG 


MEDITATION 
the  Mediator  should  be  God  and  man  in  one 
person.  It  was  necessary  that  he  should  be  man, 
1.  That  he  might  be  related  to  those  he  was  a 
Mediator  and  Redeemer  of. — 2.  That  sin  might 
be  satisfied  for,  and  reconciliation  be  made  for  it, 
in  the  same  nature  which  sinned. — 3.  It  was 
proper  that  the  Mediator  should  be  capable  of 
obeying  the  law  broken  by  the  sin  of  man,  as  a 
divine  person  could  not  be  subject  to  the  law,  and 
yield  obedience  to  it,  Gal.  iv.  4 ;  Rom.  v.  19. — 
4.  It  was  meet  that  the  Mediator  should  be  man, 
that  he  might  be  capable  of  suffering  death ;  for, 
as  God,  he  could  not  die,  and  without  shedding 
of  blood  there  was  no  remission,  Heb.  ii.  10,  15, 
viii.  3. — 5.  It  was  fit  he  should  be  man,  that  lie 
might  be  a  faithful  high  priest,  to  sympathise 
with  his  people  under  all  their  trials,  tempta- 
tions, &c,  Heb.  ii.  17,  18;  iv.  15.— 6.  It  was  fit 
that  he  should  be  a  holy  and  righteous  man,  free 
from  all  sin,  original  and  actual,  that  he  might 
offer  himself  without  spot  to  God,  take  away  tire 
sins  of  men,  and  be  an  advocate  for  them,  Heb. 
vii.  20,  ix.  14 ;  1  John  iii.  5.  But  it  was  not 
enough  to  be  truly  man,  and  an  innocent  person; 
he  must  be  more  than  man :  it  was  requisite  that 
he  should  be  God  also,  for,  1.  No  mere  man  could 
have  entered  into  a  covenant  with  God  to  mediate 
between  him  and  sinful  men. — 2.  He  must  be 
God  to  give  virtue  and  value  to  his  obedience  and 
sufferings ;  for  the  sufferings  of  men  or  angels 
would  not  have  been  sufficient. — 3.  Being  thus 
God-man,  we  are  encouraged  to  hope  in  liim.  Ie 
the  person  of  Jesus  Christ  the  object  of  trust  is 
brought  nearer  to  ourselves;  and  those  wellr 
known  tender  affections  which  are  only  figura*- 
tively  ascribed  to  the  Deity,  are,  in  our  great 
Mediator,  thoroughly  realized.  Further,  were 
he  God,  and  not  man,  we  should  approach  him 
with  fear  and  dread ;  were  he  man  and  not  God. 
we  should  be  guilty  of  idolatry  to  worship  and 
trust  in  him  at  all,  Jer.  xvii.  5.  The  plan  of  sal- 
vation, therefore,  by  such  a  Mediator,  is  the  most 
suitable  to  human  beings  that  possibly  could  be; 
for  here  ';  Mercy  and  truth  meet  together,  righ- 
teousness and  peace  kiss  each  other."  Ps.  lxxxvt 
10.  The  properties  of  Christ  as  Mediator  are 
these :  1.  He  is  the  only  Mediator,  1  Tim.  iL  4. 
Praying,  therefore,  to  saints  and  angels  is  an  error 
of  the  church  of  Rome,  and  has  no  countenance 
from  the  Scripture. — 2.  Christ  is  a  Mediator  of 
men  only,  not  of  angels ;  good  angels  need  not 
any ;  and  as  for  evil  angels,  none  is  provided  nor 
admitted. — 3.  He  is  the  Mediator  both  for  Jews 
and  Gentiles,  Eph.  ii.  18;  1  John  ii.  2. — 4.  He 
is  Mediator  both  for  Old  and  New  Testament 
saints. — 5.  He  is  a  suitable,  constant,  willing,  and 
prevailing  Mediator;  his  mediation  always  suc- 
ceeds, and  is  infallible.  Gill's  Body  of  Div.  voL 
i.  oct.  ed.  p.  336 ;  Witsii  CEcon.  Fad.  lib.  ii.  ch. 
4 ;  Fuller's  Gospel  its  own  Witness,  ch.  4,  p.  2 ; 
Hurrion's  Christ  Crucified,  p.  103,  &c. ;  Dr. 
Owen  on  the  Person  of  Christ;  Dr.  Goodwin's 
Works,  b.  iii. 

MEDITATION  is  an  act  by  which  we  con 
sider  any  thing  closely,  or  wherein  the  soul  is 
employed  in  the  search  or  consideration  of  any 
truth.  In  religion  it  is  used  to  signify  the  se- 
rious exercise  of  the  understanding,  whereby  oui 
thoughts  are  fixed  on  the  observation  of  spiritual 
tilings,  in  order  to  practice.  Mystic  divines  make 
a  great  difference  between  meditation  and  con- 
templation :  the  former  consists  in  discursive  acts 


MEEKNESS 
of  the  soul,  considering  methodically  and  with 
attention  the  mysteries  of  faith  and  the  precepts 
of  morality ;  and  is  performed  by  reflections  and 
reasonings  which  leave  behind  them  manifest  im- 
pressions on  the  brain.  The  pure  contemplative, 
they  say,  have  no  need  of  meditation,  as  seeing 
all  things  in  God  at  a  glance,  and  without  any 
reflection.     See  Beguines  and  Q-uietists. 

1.  Meditation  is  a  duty  which  ought  to  be  at- 
tended to  by  all  who  wish  well  to  their  spiritual 
interests.  It  ought  to  be  deliberate,  close,  and 
perpetual,  Psal.  cxix.  97;  i.  2. — 2.  The  sub- 
jects which  ought  more  especially  to  engage  the 
Christian  mind  are  the  works  of  creation,  Psal. 
xix. :  the  perfections  of  God,  Deut.  xxxii.  4;  the 
excellencies,  offices,  characters,  and  works  of 
Christ,  Heb.  xii.  2,  3 ;  the  offices  and  operations 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  John  xv.  and  xvi. ;  the  va- 
rious dispensations  of  Providence,  Ps.  xcvii.  1,2; 
the  precepts,  declarations,  promises,  &c.,  of  God's 
word,  Ps.  cxix. ;  the  value,  powers,  and  immor- 
tality of  the  soul,  Mark  viii.  36 ;  the  noble,  beau- 
tiful, and  benevolent  plan  of  the  Gospel,  1  Tim. 
i.  11 ;  the  necessity  of  our  personal  interest  in  and 
experience  of  its  power,  John  iii.  3 ;  the  depravity 
of  our  nature,  and  the  freedom  of  divine  grace  in 
choosing,  adopting,  justifying,  and  sanctifying  us, 
1  Cor.  vi.  11 ;  the  shortness,  worth,  and  swift- 
ness of  time,  James  iv.  14 ;  the  certainty  of  death, 
Heb.  ix.  27 ;  the  resurrection  and  judgment  to 
come,  1  Cor.  xv.  50,  &c. ;  and  the  future  state 
of  eternal  rewards  and  punishments,  Matt.  xxv. 
These  are  some  of  the  most  important  sub- 
jects on  which  we  should  meditate. — 3.  To  -per- 
form this  duty  aright,  we  should  be  much  in 
Srayer,  Luke  xviii.  1 ;  avoid  a  worldly  spirit,  1 
ohn  ii.  15;  beware  of  sloth,  Heb.  vi.  11;  take 
heed  of  sensual  pleasures,  James  iv.  4 ;  watch 
against  the  devices  of  Satan,  1  Pet.  v.  8 ;  be  often 
in  retirement,  Ps.  iv.  4 ;  embrace  the  most  favour- 
able opportunities,  the  calmness  of  the  morning, 
Ps.  v.  1,  3;  the  solemnity  of  the  evening,  Gen. 
xxiv.  63;  sabbath  days,  Psal.  cxviii.  21;  sacra- 
mental occasions,  &c.  1  Cor.  xi.  28. — 4.  The 
advantages  resulting  from  this  are,  improvement 
of  the  faculties  of  the  soul,  Prov.  xvi.  22;  the 
affections  are  raised  to  God,  Ps.  xxxix.  1,4;  an 
enjoyment  of  divine  peace  and  felicity,  Phil.  iv. 
6,  7 ;  holiness  of  life  is  promoted,  Psal.  cxix.  59. 
60;  and  we  thereby  experience  a  foretaste  of 
eternal  glory,  Ps.  lxxiii.  25,  26 ;  2  Cor.  v.  1,  &c. 
MEEKNESS,  a  temper  of  mind  not  easily 
provoked  to  resentment.  In  the  Greek  language 
it  is  7rpxc$,  quasi  pxof,  facilis,  easiness  of  spirit, 
and  thus  it  may  be  justly  called;  for  it  accommo- 
dates the  soul  to  every  occurrence,  and  so  makes 
a  man  easy  to  himself,  and  to  all  about  him.  The 
Latins  call  a  meek  man  mansuetus,  qu.  mana 
assuetus,  used  to  the  hand ;  which  alludes  to  the 
taming  and  reclaiming  of  creatures  wild  by  na- 
ture, and  bringing  them  to  be  tractable  and  fa- 
miliar, James  iii.  7,  8 :  so,  where  the  grace  of 
meekness  reigns,  it  subdues  the  impetuous  dispo- 
sition, and  learns  it  submission  and  forgiveness. 
It  teaches  us  to  govern  our  own  anger  whenever 
we  are  at  any  time  provoked,  and  patiently  to 
bear  the  anger  of  others,  that  it  may  not  be  a 
provocation  to  us.  The  former  is  its  office,  espe- 
cially in  superiors ;  the  latter  in  inferiors,  and 
both  in  equals,  James  iii.  13.  The  excellency  of 
such  a  spirit  appears,  if  we  consider  that  it  en- 
ables us  to  gain  a  victory  over  corrupt  nature, 
26" 


MELCHiTES 
Prov.  xvi.  32 ;  that  it  is  a  beauty  and  an  orna- 
ment to  human  beings,  1  Pet.  iii.  4 ;  that  it,  is 
obedience-  to  God's  word,  and  conformity  to  the 
best  patterns,  Eph.  v.  1,  2;  Phil.  iv.  8.  It  is  pro- 
ductive of  the  highest  peace  to  the  possessor, 
Luke  xxi.  19;  Matt.  xi.  28,  29.  It  fits  us. for 
any  duly,  instruction,  relation,  condition,  or  per- 
secution, Phil.  iv.  11,  12.  To  obtain  this  spirit, 
consider  that  it  is  a  divine  injunction,  Zeph.  ii. 
3;  Col.  iii.  12:  1  Tim.  vi.  11.  Observe  the 
many  examples  of  it.  Jesus  Christ,  Matt.  xi.  28 ; 
Abraham,  Gen.  xiii.  xvi.  5,  6;  Moses,  Numb, 
xii.  3  ;  David,  Zech.  xii.  8 ;  2  Sam.  xvi.  10,  12  ; 
Psalm  exxxi.  2 ;  Paul,  \f  Cor.  ix.  19.  How 
lovely  a  spirit  it  is  in  itself,  and  how  it  secures  us 
from  a  variety  of  evils.  That  peculiar  promises 
are  made  to  such,  Matt.  v.  5  ;  Isa.  Ixvi.  2.  That 
such  give  evidence  of  their  being  under  the  in- 
fluence of  divine  grace,  and  shall  enjoy  the  divine 
blessing,  Isaiah  lvii.  15.  See  Henry  on  Meek- 
ness;  Dunlop's  Scrm.  vol.  ii.  p.  434;  Evans's 
Sermons  on  the  Chris.  Temper,  ser.  29 ;  Tillot- 
son  on  1  Pet.  ii.  21 ;  and  on  Matt.  v.  44 ;  Lo- 
gan's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  ser.  10 ;  and  Jortin's  Ser- 
mons, ser.  11.  vol.  iii. 

MEETING-HOUSE,  a  place  appropriated 
by  Dissenters  to  the  purpose  of  public  worship. 
Since  the  Act  of  Uniformity,  passed  1662,  by 
which  so  many  hundreds  of  ministers  were  eject- 
ed from  their  livings,  meeting-houses  have  become 
very  numerous.  For  a  considerable  time,  indeed, 
they  were  prohibited  by  the  Conventicle  Act ;  but, 
at  last,  toleration  being  granted  to  Dissenters, 
they  enjoyed  the  privilege  of  meeting  and  wor- 
sliipping  God  according  to  the  dictates  of  theii 
own  consciences,  and  which  they  still  possess  to 
this  day.  The  number  of  meeting-houses  in 
London  may,  perhaps,  amount  to  about  150, 
though  some  reckon  upwards  of  200.  In  all  the 
respectable  towns,  and  even  in  many  villages  of 
England,  there  are  meeting-houses  ;  and,  within 
a  few  years,  they  have  greatly  increased. 

MELANCHOLY,  sadness,  or  gloom ;  arising 
either  from  the  habit  of  body,  or  the  state  of  the 
mind.  To  remove  it,  the  following  remedies  may 
be  applied.  1.  Early  rising.  2.  Plain,  nourish- 
ing food.  3.  Exercise  in  the  open  air.  Or  if  it 
arises  particularly  from  the  mind,  1.  Associate 
with  the   cheerful.      2.    Study  the   Scriptures. 

3.  Consider    the    amiable    character    of   God. 

4.  Avoid  sin.     5.  Be  much  in  prayer.    See  Bur- 
ton,  Baxter,  and  Rogers  on  Melancholy.. 

MELATONI,  so  called  from  one  Mileto, 
who  taught,  that  not  the  soul,  but  the  body  of 
man,  was  made  after  God's  own  image. 

MELCHIZEDIANS,  a  denomination  which 
arose  about  the  beginning  of  the  third  century. 
They  affirmed  that  Melchizedek  was  not  a  man> 
but  a  heavenly  power  superior  to  Jesus  Christ ; 
for  Melchizedek,  they  said,  was  the  intercessor 
and  mediator  of  the  angels ;  and  Jesus  Christ 
was  only  so  for  man,  and  his  priesthood  only  a 
copy  of  that  of  Melchizedek. 

MELCHITES,  the  name  given  to  the  Sy- 
riac,  Egyptian,  and  other  Christians  of  the  Le- 
vant. The  Melchites,  excepting  some  few  points 
of  little  or  no  importance,  which  relate  only  to 
ceremonies,  and  ecclesiastical  discipline,  are,  in 
every  respect,  professed  Greeks ;  but  they  are  go- 
verned by  a  particular  patriarch,  who  assumes 
the  title  of  Patriarch  of  Antioch.  They  celebrate 
mass  in  the  Arabian  language.     The  religious 


MENANDRIANS 
among  the  Melchites  follow  the  rule  of  St.  Basil, 
the  common  rule  of  all  fhe  Greek  monk?. 

MELETIANS,  the  name  of  a  considerable 
party  who  adhered  to  the  cause  of  Mclctius,  bishop 
of  Lycopolis,  in  Upper  Egypt,  after  he  was  de- 
posed, about  the  year  300,  by  Peter,  bishop  of 
Alexandria,  under  the  charge  of  his  having  sacri- 
ficed to  the  gods,  and  having  been  guilty  of  other 
heinous  crimes ;  though  Epiphanius  makes  his 
only  failing  to  have  been  an  excessive  severity 
against  the  lapsed.  This  dispute,  which  was  at 
first  a  personal  difference  between  Meletius  and 
Peter,  became  a  religious  controversy ;  and  the 
Meletian  party  subsisted  in  the  fifth  century,  but 
was  condemned  by  the  first  council  of  Nice. 

MEMORY,  a  faculty  of  the  mind,  which 
presents  to  us  ideas  or  notions  of  things  that  are 
past,  accompanied  with  a  persuasion  that  the 
things  themselves  were  formerly  real  and  present. 
When  we  remember  with  little  or  no  effect,  it  is 
called  remembrance  simply,  or  memory,  and  some- 
times passive  memory.  When  we  endeavour  to 
remember  what  does  not  immediately  and  of 
itself  occur,  it  is  called  active  memory,  or  recol- 
lection. A  good  memory  has  these  several  quali- 
fications :  1.  It  is  ready  to  receive  and  admit  with 
great  ease  the  various  ideas,  both  of  words  and 
tilings,  which  are  learned  or  taught. — '3.  It  is 
large  and  copious  to  treasure  up  these  ideas  in 
great  number  and  variety. — 3.  It  is  strong  and 
durable  to  retain,  for  a  considerable  time,  those 
words  or  thoughts  which  are  committed  to  it. — 
£.  It  is  faithful  and  active  to  suggest  and  recol- 
lect, upon  every  proper  occasion,  all  those  words 
or  thoughts  which  it  hath  treasured  up.  As  this 
faculty  may  be  injured  by  neglect  and  slothiul- 
ness,  we  will  here  subjoin  a  few  of  the  best  rules 
which  have  been  given  for  the  improvement  of  it. 
1.  We  should  form  a  clear  and  distinct  appre- 
hension of  the  things  which  we  commit  to  me- 
mory.— 2.  Beware  of  every  sort  of  intemperance, 
for  that  greatly  impairs  the  faculties. — 3.  If  it  be 
weak,  we  must  not  overload  it,  but  charge  it  only 
with  the  most  useful  and  solid  notions. — 4.  We 
should  take  every  opportunity  of  uttering  our  best 
thoughts  in  conversation,  as  this  will  deeply  im- 
print them. — 5.  We  should  join  to  the  idea  we 
wish  to  remember,  some  other  idea  that  is  more 
familiar  to  us,  which  bears  some  similitude  to  it, 
cither  in  its  nature,  or  in  the  sound  of  the  word. — 
6.  We  should  think  of  it  before  we  go  to  sleep  at 
night,  and  the  first  thing  in  the  morning,  when 
the  faculties  are  fresh. — 7.  Method  and  regu- 
larity in  the  things  we  commit  to  the  memory  are 
necessary. — 8.  Often  thinking,  writing,  or  talk- 
ing, on  the  subjects  we  wish  to  remember. — 
'J.  Fervent  and  frequent  prayer.  Sec  Watts  on 
the  Mind,  ch.  17;  Grey's  Mcmoria  Technica; 
Rogers's  Pleasures  of  Memory  ;  Rcid's  Intcll. 
Powers  of  Man,  303,  310,  338,  350. 

MEN AjN  BRIANS,  the  most  ancient  branch 
of  Gnostics;  thus  called  from  Menander  their 
chief,  said  by  some,  without  sufficient  foundation, 
to  have  been  a  disciple  of  Simon  Magus,  and 
himself  a  reputed  magician. 

He  taught,  that  no  person  could  be  saved  un- 
less he  were  baptized  in  his  name ;  and  he  con- 
ferred a  peculiar  sort  of  baptism,  which  would 
render  those  who  received  it  iiamort.il  in  the  next 
world  ;  exhibiting  himself  to  the  world  with  the 
frenzy  of  a  lunatic,  more  than  the  founder  of  a 
sect  as  a  promised  saviour ;  for  it  appears  by  the 
'203 


MENDICANTS 
]  testimonies  of  Irenams,  Justin,  and  Tertullian, 
that  he  pretended  to  be  one  of  the  aeons  sent  from 
the  pleroma,  or  ecclesiastical  regions,  to  succour 
the  souls  that  lay  groaning  under  bodily  oppress 
sion  and  servitude;  and  to  maintain  them  against 
the  violence  and  stratagems  of  the  daemons  that 
hold  the  reins  of  empire  in  this  sublunary  world. 
As  this  doctrine  was  built  upon  the  same  founda- 
tion with  that  of  Simon  Magus,  the  ancient 
writers  looked  upon  him  as  the  instructor  of  Me> 
nander.     See  Simonians. 

MENDICANTS,  or  Begging  Friars,  seve- 
ral orders  of  religious  in  popish  countries,  who, 
having  no  settled  revenues,  are  supported  by  the 
charitable  contributions  they  receive  from  others. 

This  sort  of  society  began  in  the  thirteenth 
century,  and  the  members  of  it,  by  the  tenour  of 
their  institution,  were  to  remain  entirely  destitute 
of  all  fixed  revenues  and  possessions;  though  fn 
process  of  time  their  number  became  a  heavy  tax 
upon  the  people.  -Innocent  III.  was  the  first  of 
the  popes  who  perceived  the  necessity  of  institut- 
ing such  an  order ;  and  accordingly  he  gave  such 
monastic  societies  as  made  a  profession  of  poverty, 
the  most  distinguishing  marks  of  his  protection 
and  favour.  They  were  also  encouraged  and 
patronized  by  the  succeeding  pontiffs  ;  when  ex> 
perience  had  demonstrated  their  public  and  exten- 
sive usefulness.  But  when  it  became  generally 
known  that  they  had  such  a  peculiar  place  in  the 
esteem  and  protection  of  the  rulers  of  the  church, 
their  number  grew  to  such  an  enormous  and  un- 
wieldy multitude,  and  s wanned  so  prodigiously 
in  all  the  European  provinces,  that  they  became 
a  burden,  not  only  to  the  people,  but  to  the  church 
itself.  The  great  inconvenience  that  arose  from 
the  excessive  multiplication  of  the  Mendicant 
orders  was  remedied  by  Gregory  X.,  in  a  general 
council,  which  he  assembled  at  Lyons  in  1272; 
for  here  all  the  religious  orders  that  had  sprung 
up  after  the  council  held  at  Rome  in  1215,  under 
the  pontificate  of  Innocent  III.  were  suppressed ; 
end  the  extravagant  multitude  of  Mendicants,  as 
Gregory  called  them,  were  reduced  to  a  smaller 
number,  and  confined  to  the  four  following  socie- 
ties or  denominations,  viz.  Dominicans,  the  Fran- 
ciscans,  the  Carmelites,  and  the  Augustins,  or 
hermits  $f  St.  Augustin. 

As  the  pontiffs  allowed  these  four  Mendicant 
orders  the  liberty  of  travelling  wherever  they 
thought  proper,  of  conversing  with  persons  of 
every  rank,  of  instructing  the  youth  and  multi- 
tude wherever  they  went ;  and  as  those  monks 
exhibited,  in  their  outward  appearance  and  man- 
ner of  life,  more  striking  marks  of  gravity  and 
holiness  than  were  observable  in  the  other  mo- 
nastic societies,  they  arose  all  at  once  to  the  very 
summit  of  fame,  and  were  regarded  with  the  ut- 
most esteem  and  veneration  through  all  the  coun- 
tries of  Europe.  The  enthusiastic  attachment 
to  these  sanctimonious  beggars  went  so  far,  that, 
as  we  learn  from  the  most  authentic  records,  se- 
veral cities  were  divided  or  cantoned  out  into  lour 
parts,  with  a  view  to  these  four  orders  :  the  first) 
part  being  assigned  to  the  Dominicans,  the  second 
to  the  Franciscans,  the  third  to  the  Carmelites, 
and  the  fourth  to  the  Augustins.  The  people 
were  unwilling  to  receive  the  sacraments  from 
any  other  hands  than  those  of  the  Mendicants, 
to  whose  churches  they  crowded  to  perform  their 
devotions  while  living,  and  were  extremely  de- 
sirous to  deposit  there  their  remains  after  death. 


MENDICANTS 

Nor  did  the  influence  and  credit  of  the  Mendi- 
cants end  here ;  for  we  find  in  the  history  of  this 
and  of  the  succeeding  ages,  that  they  were  em- 
ployed not  only  in  spiritual  matters,  but  also  in 
temporal  and  political  affairs  of  the  greatest  con- 
sequence, in  composing  the  differences  of  princes, 
concluding  treaties  of  peace,  concerting  alliances, 
presiding  in  cabinet  councils,  governing  courts, 
levying  taxes,  and  other  occupations,  not  only  re- 
mote from,  but  absolutely  inconsistent  with  the 
monastic  character  and  profession.  However, 
the  power  of  the  Dominicans  and  Franciscans 
greatly  surpassed  that  of  the  other  two  orders,  in- 
somuch that  these  two  orders  were,  before  the 
reformation,  what  the  Jesuits  have  been  since 
that  happy  and  glorious  period  ;  the  very  soul  of 
the  hierarchy,  the  engines  of  the  state,  the  secret 
springs  of  all  the  motions  of  the  one  and  the 
Other,  and  the  authors  and  directors  of  every  great 
and  important  event,  both  in  the  religious  and 
political  world.  By  very  quick  progression  their 
pride  and  confidence  arrived  at  such  a  pitch,  that 
they  had  the  presumption  to  declare  publicly,  that 
they  had  a  divine  impulse  and  commission  to 
illustrate  and  maintain  the  religion  of  Jesus. 
They  treated  with  the  utmost  insolence  and  con- 
tempt all  the  different  orders  of  the  priesthood ;  they 
affirmed,  without  a  blush,  that  the  true  method 
of  obtaining  salvation  was  revealed  to  them  alone; 
proclaimed  with  ostentation  the  superior  efficacy 
and  virtue  of  their  indulgences ;  and  vaunted  be- 
yond measure  their  interest  at  the  court  of  heaven, 
and  their  familiar  connexions  with  the  Supreme 
Being;,  the  Virgin  Mary,  and  the  saints  in  glory. 
By  these  impious  wiles  they  so  deluded  and  cap- 
tivated the  miserable,  and  blinded  the  multitude, 
that  they  would  not  intrust  any  other  but  the 
Mendicants  with  the  care  of  their  souls.  They 
retained  their  credit  and  influence  to  such  a  de- 
gree towards  the  close  of  the  fourteenth  century, 
that  great  numbers  of  both  sexes,  some  in  health, 
Others  in  a  state  of  infirmity,  others  at  the  point 
of  death,  earnestly  desired  to  be  admitted  into  the 
Mendicant  order,  which  they  looked  upon  as  a 
sure  and  infallible  method  of  rendering  heaven 
propitious. — Many  made  it  an  essential  part  of 
their  last  wills,  that  their  bodies  after  death  should 
be  wrapped  in  old  ragged  Dominican  or  Francis- 
cam  habits,  and  interred  among  the  Mendicants. 
For  such  was  the  barbarous  superstition  and 
wretched  ignorance  of  this  age,  that  people  uni- 
versally believed  they  should  readily  obtain  mercy 
from  Christ  at  the  day  of  judgment,  if  they  ap- 
peared before  his  tribunal  associated  with  the 
Mendicant  friars. 

About  this  time,  however,  they  fell  under  an 
universal  odium  ;  but,  being  resolutely  protected 
against  all  opposition,  whether  open  or  secret,  by 
the  popes,  who  regarded  them  as  their  best  friends 
and  most  effectual  supports,  they  suffered  little 
or  nothing  from  the  efforts  of  their  numerous  ad- 
versaries. In  the  fifteenth  century,  besides  their 
arrogance,  which  was  excessive,  a  quarrelsome 
and  litigious  spirit  prevailed  among  them,  and 
drew  upon  them  justly  the  displeasure  and  indig- 
nation of  many.  By  affording  refuge  at  this 
time  to  the  Beguins  in  their  order,  they  became 
offensive  to  the  bishops,  and  were  hereby  in- 
Tolved  in  difficulties  and  perplexities  of  various 
kinds.  They  lost  their  credit  in  the  sixteenth 
century  by  their  rustic  impudence,  their  ridicu- 
lous superstitions,  their  ignorance,  cruelty,  and 
269 


MENNONITES 
brutish  manners.  They  discovered  the  most  baT- 
barous  aversion  to  the  arts  arxi  sciences,  and  ex- 
pressed a  like  abhorrence  of  certain  eminent  and 
learned  men,  who  endeavoured  to  open  the  paths 
of  science  to  the  pursuits  of  the  studious  youth, 
recommended  the  culture  of  the  mind,  and  attack- 
ed the  barbarism  of  the  age  in  their  writings  and 
discourses.  Their  general  character,  together 
with  other  circumstances,  concurred  to  render 
a  reformation  desirable,  and  to  accomplish  this 
happy  event. 

Among  the  number  of  Mendicants  are  also 
ranked  the  Capuchins,  Recollets,  Minims,  and 
others,  who  are  branches  or  derivations  from  tine 
former. 

Buchanan  tells  us,  the  Mendicants  in  Scotland, 
under  an  appearance  of  beggary,  lived  a  very 
luxurious  life ;  whence  one  wittily  called  them 
not  Mendicant,  but  Manducant  friars. 

MENNONITES,  a  sect  in  the  United  Pro- 
vinces, in  most  respects  the  same  with  those  in 
other  places  called  Anabaptists.  They  had  their 
rise  in  1536,  when  Menno  Simon,  a  native  of 
Friesland,  who  had  been  a  Romish  priest,  and  a 
notorious  profligate,  resigned  his  rank  and  office 
in  the  Romish  church,  and  publicly  embraced  the 
communion  of  the  Anabaptists. 

Menno  was  born  at  Witmarsum,  a  village  in 
the  neighbourhood  of  Bolswert  in  Friesland,  ir 
the  year  1505,  and  died  in  1561,  in  the  duchy 
of  Holstein,  at  the  country-seat  of  a  certain  no- 
bleman not  far  from  the  city  of  Oldesloe,  who, 
moved  with  compassion  by  the  view  of  the  perils 
to  which  Menno  was  exposed,  and  the  snares 
that  were  daily  laid  for  his  ruin,  took  him,  with 
certain  of  his  associates,  into  his  protection,  and 
gave  him  an  asylum.  The  writings  of  Menno 
which  are  almost  all  composed  in  the  Dutch  lan- 
guage, were  published  in  folio  at  Amsterdam,  in 
the  year  1651.  About  the  year  1537,  Menno 
was  earnestly  solicited  by  many  of  the  sect  with 
which  he  connected  himself,  to  assume  among 
them  the  rank  and  functions  of  a  public  teacher ; 
and,  as  he  looked  upon  the  persons  who  mfde 
this  proposal  to  be  exempt  from  the  fanatical 
phrenzy  of  their  brethren  at  Munster  (though 
according  to  other  accounts  they  were  originally 
of  the  same  stamp,  only  rendered  somewhat  wiser 
by  their  sufferings)  he  yielded  to  their  entreaties. 
From  this  period  to  the  end  of  his  life,  he  traveK 
led  from  one  country  to  another  with  his  wife  and 
children,  exercising  his  ministry,  under  pressures 
and  calamities  of  various  kinds,  that  succeeded 
each  other  without  interruption,  and  constantly 
exposed  to  the  danger  of  falling  a  victim  to  the 
severity  of  the  laws.  East  and  "West  Friesland, 
together  with  the  province  of  Groningen,  were 
first  visited  by  this  zealous  apostle  of  the  Ana- 
baptists; from  whence  he  directed  his  course 
into  Holland,  Guelderland,  Brabant,  and  West- 
phalia ;  continued  it  through  the  German  pro- 
vinces that  lie  on  the  coast  of  the  Baltic  sea,  and 
penetrated  as  far  as  Livonia.  In  all  these  places 
his  ministerial  labours  were  attended  with  re- 
markable success,  and  added  to  his  sect  a  prodi- 
gious number  of  followers.  Hence  he  is  deserv- 
edly considered  as  the  common  chief  of  almost 
all  the  Anabaptists,  and  the  parent  of  the  sect 
that  still  subsists  under  that  denomination.  Men- 
no  was  a  man  of  genius,  though  not  of  a  very 
sound  judgment :  he  possessed  a  natural  and  per- 
suasive eloquence,  and  such  e  degree  of  learning 
x2 


MENNONITES 

as  made  him  pass  for  an  oracle  in  the  estimation 
of  the  multitude.  He  appears,  moreover,  to  have 
been  a  man  of  probity,  of  a  meek  and  tractable  spi- 
rit, gentle  in  his  manners,  pliable  and  obsequious 
in  his  commerce  with  persons  of  all  ranks  and  cha- 
racters, and  extremely  zealous  in  promoting  prac- 
tical religion  and  virtue,  which  he  recommended 
by  his  example  as  well  as  by  las  precepts.  The 
plan  of  doctrine  and  discipline  drawn  up  by 
Menno  was  of  a  much  more  mild  and  moderate 
nature  than  that  of  the  furious  and  fanatical 
Anabaptists  (whose  tumultuous  proceedings  have 
been  recited  under  that  article,)  but  somewhat 
more  severe,  though  more  clear  and  consistent 
than  the  doctrine  of  the  wiser  branches  of  that 
sect,  who  aimed  at  nothing  more  than  the  re- 
storation of  the  Christian  church  to  its  primitive 
purity.  Accordingly,  hS  condemned  the  plan  of 
ecclesiastical  discipline  that  was  founded  on  the 
prospect  of  a  new  kingdom,  to  be  miraculously 
established  by  Jesus  Christ  on  the  ruins  of  civil 
government,  and  the  destruction  of  human  rulers, 
and  which  had  been  the  fetal  and  pestilential 
source  of  such  dreadful  commotions,  such  exe- 
crable rebellions,  and  such  enormous  crimes.  He 
declared  publicly  his  dislike  of  that  doctrine  which 
pointed  out  the  approach  of  a  marvellous  reform- 
ation in  the  church  by  the  means  of  a  new  and 
extraordinary  effusion  of  the  Holy  Spirit.  He 
expressed  his  abhorrence  of  the  licentious  tenets 
which  several  of  the  Anabaptists  had  maintained 
with  respect  to  the  lawfulness  of  polygamy  and 
divorce  ;  and,  finally,  considered  as  unworthy  of 
toleration  those  fanatics  who  were  of  opinion, 
that  the  Holy  Ghost  continued  to  descend  into 
\he  minds  of  many  chosen  believers,  in  as  extra- 
ordinary a  manner  as  he  did  at  the  first  establish- 
ment of  the  Cnristian  church,  and  that  he  testi- 
fied his  peculiar  presence  to  several  of  the  faith- 
ful by  miracles,  predictions,  dreams,  and  visions 
of  various  kinds.  He  retained,  indeed,  the  doc- 
trines commonly  received  among  the  Anabap- 
tists, in  relation  to  the  baptism  of  infants;  the 
millennium,  or  one  thousand  years'  reign  of 
Christ  upon  earth  :  the  exclusion  of  magistrates 
from  the  Christian  church;  the  abolition  of  war; 
and  the  prohibition  of  oaths  enjoined  by  our 
Saviour ;  and  the  vanity,  as  well  as  the  perni- 
cious effects  of  human  science.  But  while  Men- 
no  retained  these  doctrines  in  a  general  sense,  he 
explained  and  modified  them  in  such  a  manner 
as  made  them  resemble  the  religious  tenets  that 
were  universally  received  in  the  Protestant 
churches;  and  this  rendered  them  agreeable  to 
many,  and  made  them  appear  inoffensive  even  to 
numbers  who  had  no  inclination  to  embrace  them. 
It,  however,  so  happened,  that  the  nature  of  the 
doctrines  considered  in  themselves,  the  eloquence 
of  Menno,  which  set  them  off  to  such  advantage, 
and  the  circumstances  of  the  times,  gave  a  high 
degree  of  credit  to  the  religious  system  of  this 
famous  teacher  among  the  Anabaptists,  so  that  it 
made  a  rapid  progress  in  that  sect.  And  thus  it 
was  in'  consequence  of  the  ministry  of  Menno, 
that  the  different  sorts  of  Anabaptists  agreed 
together  in  excluding  from  their  communion  the 
fanatics  that  dishonoured  it,  and  in  renouncing 
all  tenets  that  were  detrimental  to  the  authority 
of  civil  government,  and  by  an  unexpected  coali- 
tion formed  themselves  into  one  community. 

Though   the   Mennonites  usually  pass  for  a 
«ect  of  Anabaptists,  vet  Mr.  Herman  Schyn,  a 
270 


MENNONITES 
Mcnnonite  minister,  who  has  published  their  his- 
tory and  apology,  maintains,  that  they  are  not 
Anabaptists  either  by  principle  or  by  origin. 
However,  nothing  can  be  more  certain  than  this 
fact,  viz.  that  the  first  Mennonite  congregations 
were  composed  of  the  different  sorts  of  Anabap- 
tists; of  those  who  had  been  always  inoffensive 
and  upright,  and  of  those  who  before  their  conv 
version  by  the  ministry  of  Menno,  had  been  se» 
ditious  fanatics :  besides,  it  is  alleged,  that  the 
Mennonites  do  actually  retain  at  this  day  some 
of  those  opinions  and  doctrines  which  led  the  se- 
ditious and  turbulent  Anabaptists  of  old  to  the 
commission  of  so  many  and  such  enormous  crimes,; 
such  particularly  is  the  doctrine  concerning  the 
nature  of  Christ's  kingdom,  or  of  the  church  of 
the  New  Testament,  though  modified  in  such  a 
manner  as  to  have  lost  its  noxious  qualities,  and  to 
be  no  longer  pernicious  in  its  influence. 

The  Mennonites  are  subdivided  into  several 
sects,  whereof  the  two  principal  are  the  Flandrians, 
or  Flamingians,  and  the  Watcrlandians.  The 
opinions,  says  Mosheim,  that  are  held  in  common 
by  the  Mennonites,  seem  to  be  all  derived  from 
this  fundamental  principle, — that  the  kingdom 
which  Christ  established  upon  earth  is  a  visible 
church,  or  community,  isto  which  the  holy  and 
just  alone  are  to  be  admitted  ;  and  which  is  con- 
sequently exempt  from  all  those  institutions  and 
rules  of  discipline  that  have  been  invented  by  hu- 
man wisdom  for  the  correction  and  reformation 
of  the  wicked.  This  principle,  indeed,  was  avowed 
by  the  ancient  Mennonites,  but  it  is  now  almost 
wholly  renounced  :  nevertheless,  from  this  ancient 
doctrine  many  of  the  religious  opinions  that  dis- 
tinguish the  Mennonites  from  all  other  Christian 
communities  seem  to  be  derived.  In  consequence 
of  this  doctrine,  they  admit  none  to  the  sacrament 
of  baptism  but  persons  that  are  come  to  the  full 
use  of  their  reason;  they  neither  admit  civil 
rulers  into  their  communion,  nor  allow  any  of 
their  members  to  perform  the  functions  of  magisv 
tracy  ;  they  deny  the  lawfulness  of  repelling  force 
by  force  ;  and  consider  war,  in  all  its  shapes,  as 
unchristian  and  unjust :  they  entertain  the  ut- 
most  aversion  to  the  execution  of  justice,  anil 
more  especially  to  capital  punishments  ;  and  they 
also  refuse  to  confirm  their  testimony  by  an  oatli 
The  particular  sentiments  that  divided  the  mora 
considerable  societies  of  the  Mennonites  are  tha 
following :  The  rigid  Mennonites,  called  the 
Flamingians,  maintain  with  various  degrees  of 
rigour  the  opinions  of  their  founder  Menno,  as  to 
the  human  nature  of  Christ,  alleging  that  it  was 
produced  in  the  womb  of  the  Virgin  by  the 
creating  power  of  the  Holy  Ghost;  the  obliga> 
tion  that  binds  us  to  wash  the  feet  of  strangers, 
in  consequence  of  our  Saviour's  command  ;  the 
necessity  of  excommunicating  and  avoiding,  as 
one  would  do  the  plague,  not  only  avowed  sinners, 
but  also  all  those  who  depart,  even  in  some  light 
instances  pertaining  to  dress,  &c.  from  the  sin> 
plicity  of  their  ancestors;  the  contempt  due  to 
human  learning ;  and  other  matters  of  less  mo- 
ment. However,  this  austere  system  declines,  and 
the  rigid  Mennonites  are  gradually  approaching 
towards  the  opinions  and  discipline  of  the  moro 
moderate,  or  Waterlandians. 

The  first  settlement  of  the  Mennonites  in  the 
United  Provinces  was  granted  them  by  William, 
prince  of  Orange,  towards  the  close  of  the  sixteenth 
century  ;  but  it  was  not  before  the  following  ccn- 


MERCY 
tury  that  their  liberty  and  tranquillity  were  fixed 
upon  solid  foundations,  when,  by  a  confession  of 
faith  published  in  the  year  1626,  they  cleared 
themselves  from  the  imputations  of  those  per- 
nicious and  detestable  errors  that  had  been  laid  to 
their  charge.  In  order  to  appease  their  intestine 
discords,  a  considerable  part  cf  the  Anabaptists  of 
Flanders,  Germany,  and  Fricsland,  concluded 
their  debates  in  a  conference  held  at  Amsterdam 
in  the  year  1630,  and  entered  into  the  bonds  of 
fraternal  communion,  each  reserving  to  them- 
selves a  liberty  of  retaining  certain  opinions.  This 
association  was  renewed  and  confirmed  by  new 
resolutions  in  the  year  1649  ;  in  consequence  of 
which  the  rigorous  laws  of  Menno  and  his  suc- 
cessors were  in  various  respects  mitigated  and 
corrected.  According  to  Benedict,  there  were, 
in  1824,  200  Mennonite  churches  in  America. 
They  are  a  simple,  harmless  people,  and  make  it 
ffn  article  of  their  faith  never  to  bear  arms.  See 
Anabaptists. 

MEN  OF  UNDERSTANDING.  This 
title  distinguished  a  denomination  which  appear- 
ed in  Flanders  and  Brussels  in  the  year  1511. 
They  owed  their  origin  to  an  illiterate  man,  whose 
name  was  Egidius  Cantor,  and  to  William  of 
Hildenison,  a  Carmelite  monk.  They  pretended 
to  be  honoured  with  celestial  visions,  denied  that 
any  could  arrive  at  perfect  knowledge  of  the 
Holy  Scriptures  without  the  extraordinary  suc- 
cours of  a  divine  illumination,  and  declared  the 
approach  of  a  new  revelation  from  heaven,  more 
perfect  than  the  Gospel  of  Christ.  They  said 
that  the  resurrection  was  accomplished  in  the 
person  of  Jesus,  and  no  other  was  to  be  expected ; 
that  the  inward  man  was  not  defiled  by  the  out- 
ward actions,  whatever  they  were ;  that  the  pains 
of  hell  were  to  have  an  end ;  and  not  only  all 
mankind,  but  even  the  devils  themselves,  were 
to  return  to  God,  and  be  made  partakers  of  eter- 
nal felicity.  They  also  taught,  among  other 
things,  that  Christ  alone  had  merited  eternal  life 
and  felicity  for  the  human  race ;  and  that  there- 
fore men  could  not  acquire  this  inestimable  privi- 
lege by  their  own  actions  alone — that  the  priests, 
to  whom  the  people  confessed  their  transgressions, 
had  not  the  power  of  absolving  them,  but  this 
authority  was  vested  in  Christ  alone — that  volun- 
tary penance  and  mortification  was  not  necessary 
*o  salvation. 

This  denomination  appears  to  have  been  a 
branch  of  the  Brethren  and  Sisters  of  the  Free 
Spirit. 

MERCY  is  that  disposition  of  mind  which 
excites  us  to  pity  and  relieve  those  who  are  in 
trouble,  or  to  pass  by  their  crimes  without  punish- 
ing them.  It  is  distinguished  from  love,  thus: 
The  object  of  love  is  the  creature  simply;  the 
object  of  mercy  is  the  creature  fallen  into  misery. 
Parents  love  their  children  simply  as  they  are 
their  children  :  but  if  they  fall  into  misery,  love 
works  in  a  way  of  pity  and  compassion ;  love  is 
turned  into  mercy. 

"As  we  all  are  the  objects  of  mercy  in  one  degree 
or  another,  the  mutual  exercise  of  it  towards  each 
Other  is  necessary  to  preserve  the  harmony  and 
happiness  of  society.  But  there  arc  those  who 
may  be  more  particularly  considered  as  the  ob- 
jects of  it ;  such  as  the  guilty,  the  indigent,  and 
the  miserable.  As  it  respects  ihe  guilty,  the 
greatest  mercy  we  can  show  to  them  is  to  endea- 
vour to  reclaim  them,  and  prevent  the  bad  conse- 
♦    271 


MERCY 
quences  of  their  misconduct,  James  v.  20.  Mercy 
may  also  be  shown  to  them  by  a  proper  mitiga- 
tion of  justice,  and  not  extending  the  punish- 
ment beyond  the  nature  o'r  desert  of  the  crime 
With  regard  to  those  who  are  in  necessity  and 
■want,  mercy  calls  upon  us  to  afford  the  most  suit- 
able and  seasonable  supplies  ;  and  here  our  bene- 
factions must  be  dispensed  in  proportion  to  our 
circumstances,  and  the  real  distress  of  the  object, 
1  John  iii.  17.  As  to  those  who  are  in  misery 
and  distress,  mercy  prompts  us  to  relieve  and 
comfort  them  by  doing  what  we  can  to  remove 
or  alleviate  their  burdens.  Our  Lord  strongly 
recommended  this  act  of  mercy  in  the  parable  of 
the  man  who  fell  among  thieves,  and  was  re- 
lieved by  the  poor  Samaritan ;  and  in  the  con- 
clusion he  adds,  '  Go  and  do  thou  likewise,'  Luke 
x.  30—37. 

"This  merciful  temper  will  show  and  exert 
itself  not  only  towards  those  of  our  own  party 
and  acquaintance,  but  to  the  whole  human  spe- 
cies ;  and  not  only  to  the  whole  human  specie* 
but  to  the  animal  creation.  It  is  a  degree  of  in- 
humanity to  take  pleasure  in  giving  any  thing 
pain,  and  more  in  putting  useful  animals  to  ex- 
treme torture  for  our  own  sport.  This  is  not  that 
dominion  which  God  originally  gave  to  man  over 
the  beasts  of  the  field.  It  is,  therefore,  an  usurp- 
ed authority,  which  man  has  no  right  to  exercise 
over  brute  creatures,  which  were  made  for  his 
service,  convenience,  support,  and  ease ;  but  not 
for  the  gratification  of  unlawful  passions,  or  cfuel 
dispositions. 

"  Mercy  must  be  distinguished  from  .those 
weaknesses  of  a  natural  temper  which  often  put 
on  the  appearance  of  it.  With  regard  to  crimi- 
nals or  delinquents,  it  is  false  compassion  to  sup- 
press the  salutary  admonition,  and  refuse  to  set 
their  guilt  before  them,  merely  because  the  sight 
of  it  will  give  their  conscience  pain ;  such  unsear 
sonable  tenderness  in  a  surgeon  may  prove  the 
death  of  his  patient :  this,  however,  it  may  appear, 
is  not  mercy,  but  cruelty.  So  is  that  fondness  of 
a  parent  that  withholds  the  hand  of  discipline 
from  a  beloved  child,  when  its  frowardness  and 
faults  render  seasonable  and  prudent  correction 
necessary  to  save  it  from  ruin.  In  like  manner, 
when  a  magistrate,  through  excessive  clemency, 
suffers  a  criminal  who  is  a  pest  to  society  to 
escape  unpunished,  or  so  mitigates  the  sentence 
of  the  law  as  to  put  it  into  his  power  to  do  still 
greater  hurt  to  others,  he  violates  not  only  the 
laws  of  justice,  but  of  mercy  too. 

"Mercy  to  the  indigent  and  necessitous  has 
been  no  less  abused  and  perverted  by  acts  of  mis- 
taken beneficence,  when  impudence  and  clamour 
are  permitted  to  extort  from  the  hand  of  charity 
that  relief  which  is  due  to  silent  distress  and  mo- 
dest merit;  or  when  one  object  is  lavishly  re- 
lieved to  the  detriment  of  another  who  is  more 
deserving.  As  it  respects  those  who  are  in  trir- 
bulation  or  misery,  to  be  sure,  every  such  person 
is  an  object  of  our  compassion ;  but  that  conv 
passion  may  be,  and  often  is,  exercised  in  a  wrong 
manner.  Some  are  of  so  tender  a  make,  that 
they  cannot  bear  the  sight  of  distress,  and  stand 
aloof  from  a  friend  in  pain  and  affliction,  because 
it  affects  them  too  sensibly,  when  their  presence 
would  at  least  give  them  some  little  comfort,  and 
might  possibly  administer  lasting  relief.  This 
weakness  should  be  opposed,  because  it  not  only 
looks  like  unkindness  to  our  friends,  but  is  really 


MERIT 

showing  more  tenderness  to  ourselves  than  to 
them  ;  nor  is  it  doing  as  we  would  be  done  by. 
Again;  it  is  false  pity,  when,  out  of  mere  ten- 
derness of  nature,  we  either  advise  or  permit  our 
afflicted  friend  to  tike  or  do  any  thing  which 
will  give  him  a  little  transient  ease,  but  which  we 
know  at  the  same  time  will  increase  his  future 
pain,  and  aggravate  the  symptoms  of  his  disease." 
Seeing,  therefore,  the  extremes  to  which  we  are 
liable,  let  us  learn  to  cultivate  that  wisdom  and 
prudence  which  are  necessary  to  regulate  this 
virtue.  To  be  just  without  being  cruel,  and 
merciful  without  being  weak,  should  be  our  con- 
stant aim,  under  all  the  circumstances  of  guilt,  in- 
digence, and  misery,  which  present  themselves  to 
our  view.     See  Beneficence,  Charity,  Love. 

MERCY  OF  GOD  is  his  readiness  to  relieve 
the  miserable,  and  to  pardon  the  guilty.  1.  It  is 
essential  to  his  nature,  Exod.  xxxiv.  6,  7;  not, 
indeed,  as  a  passion  or  affection,  as  it  is  in  men, 
but  the  result  of  his  sovereign  will,  and  guided  by 
his  infinite  wisdom. — 2.  It  is  free,  as  nothing  out 
of  himself  can  be  the  cause  of  it;  for  then  there 
would  be  a  cause  prior  to  him,  the  cause  of  him- 
self. The  misery  of  the  creature  is  not  the  cause 
of  mercy,  for  lie  is  not  wrought  upon  as  creatures 
are ;  nor  are  the  merits  of  the  creature  the  cause, 
Tit.  iii.  5 :  nor  are  even  the  sufferings  of  Christ 
the  cause,  but  the  effects  of  it;  but  it  arises  from 
tlie  goodness  of  his  nature,  and  from  his  sovereign 
wil|pmd  pleasure,  Exod.xxxiii.  19;  Rom.ix.  18. — 
3.  His  mercy  is  infinite ;  it  pardons  offences 
committed  against  an  infinitely  holy  Being,  and 
bestows  an  infinite  good  on  all  who  believe,  even 
Jesus  Christ,  Luke  i.  78. — 4.  It  is  immutable; 
nothing  can  change  it ;  it  is  invariably  the  same, 
Mai.  iii.  6  ;  Luke  i.  50. — 5.  Shall  be  forever  cele- 
brated in  a  future  state,  Psal.  lxxxix.  2;  eiii.  17. — 
6.  It  is  only  displayed  in  and  through  Christ, 
Eph.  ii.  It  has  been  further  distinguished  into, 
1.  Preventing  mercy,  Psal.  lix.  10. — 2.  Forbear- 
ing mercy,  Rom.  ii.  4. — 3.  Comforting  mercy, 
2  Cor.  i.  4. — 4.  Relieving  mercy,  Psal.  cxlv.  8, 
9. — 5.  Pardoning  mercy,  Isa.  lv.  6. — 6.  Univer- 
sal or  extensive  mercy.  It  extends  to  all  kinds 
of  beings  and  fallen  creatures.  The  brute  crea- 
tion share  in  it,  Psal.  cxlv.  9;  xxxvi.  5,  6.  The 
ungodly  are  the  objects  of  it  in  a  general  wav, 
Matt.  v.  45  j  1  Tim.  iv.  10.  The  saints  on  earih 
are  continual  monuments  of  it,  Rom.  ix.  23;  and 
the  spirits  of  just  men  made  perfect  in  glory  are 
always  praising  God  for  it.  Finally,  it  is  enjoyed 
in  an  especial  manner  by  all  who  are  true  be- 
lievers, of  every  nation,  in  every  age,  in  every 
circumstance,  in  all  places,  and  at  all  times.  See 
Grace,  Pardon  :  GUI's  Body  of  Div.  vol.  i.  p. 
124,  oct.  ed.;  Saurin's  Ser.  vol.  i.  ser.  8;  Dr. 
Goodwin's  Works,  vol.  v.  part  2;  Tillotson's 
&r.  ser.  147 ;  Hill's  Ser.  ser.  10. 

MERIT  signifies  desert,  or  to  earn:  origi- 
nally the  word  was  applied  to  soldiers  and  other 
military  persons,  who,  by  their  labours  in  the 
field,  and  by  the  various  hardships  they  under- 
went during  the  course  of  a  campaign,  as  also  by 
other  services  they  might  occasionally  render  to 
thecommonwealth,  were  said,  mercre  stipendia,  to 
merit  or  earn  their  pay  ;  which  they  might  pro- 
perly be  said  to  do,  because  they  yielded  in  real 
service  an  equivalent  to  the  state  for  the  stipend 
they  received,  which  was  therefore  due  to  them 
in  justice.  Here,  then,  we  come  at  the  true 
meaning  of  the  word  merit ;  from  wliich  it  is 
272 


MESSIAH 
very  clearly  to  be  seen  that  there  can  be  no  surf, 
thing  as  merit  in  our  best  obedience.  One  man 
may  merit  of  another,  but  all  mankind  together 
cannot  merit  from  the  hand  of  God.  This  c\> 
dently  appears,  if  we  consider  the  imperfections 
of  all  our  services,  and  the  express  declaration  of 
the  divine  word,  Eph.  ii.  8,  9;  Rom.  xi.  5,  6; 
Tit.  iii.  5;  Rom.  x.  1,  4.  The  Doctrine  oj* 
Merit  stated,  ser.  i.  vol.  iii.;  SoutJi's  Serm.;  Top- 
lady's  Works,  p.  471,  vol.  iii.;  Hcrvey's  Eleven. 
Letters  to  Wesley ;  Robinson's  Claude,  vol.  ii. 
p.  218. 

MERITS  OF  CHRIST,  a  term  used  to 
denote  the  active  and  passive  obedience  of  Christ  ; 
all  that  he  wrought  and  all  that  he  suffered  for 
the  salvation  of  mankind.  See  articles  Atone- 
ment, Imputation,  Righteodsness  of  Christ. 

MESSIAH  signifies  anointed,  the  title  given 
by  way  of  eminence  to  our  Saviour;  meaning 
the  same  in  Hebrew  as  Christ  in  Greek,  and 
alludes  to  the  authority  he  had  to  assume  the 
characters  of  prophet,  priest,  and  king,  and  that 
of  Saviour  of  the  world.  The  ancient  Jews  had 
just  notions  of  the  Messiah,  which  came  gra- 
dually to  be  corrupted,  by  expecting  a  temporal 
monarch  and  conqueror ;  and  finding  Jesus  Christ 
to  be  poor,  humble,  and  of  an  unpromising  ap- 
pearance, they  rejected  him.  Most  of  the  modern 
rabbins,  according  to  Buxtorf,  believe  that  the 
Messiah  is  come,  but  that  he  lies  concealed  be- 
cause of  the  sins  of  the  Jews.  Others  believe  he 
is  not  yet  come,  fixing  different  times  for  his  ap- 
pearance, many  of  which  are  elapsed  ;  and,  being 
thus  baffled,  have  pronounced  an  anathema 
against  those  who  shall  pretend  to  calculate  the 
time  of  his  coming.  To  reconcile  the  prophecies 
concerning  the  Messiah  that  seemed  to  be  con- 
tradictory, some  have  had  recourse  to  a  twofold 
Messiah  ;  one  in  a  state  of  poverty  and  suffering, 
the  other  of  splendour  and  glory.  The  first, 
they  say,  is  to  proceed  from  the  tribe  of  Ephraim, 
who  is  to  fight  against  Gog,  and  to  be  slain  by 
Annillus,  Zech.  xii.  10 ;  the  second  is  to  be  of 
the  tribe  of  Judah  and  lineage  of  David,  who  is 
to  conquer  and  kill  Annillus ;  to  bring  the  first 
Messiah  to  life  again,  to  assemble  all  Israel,  and 
rule  over  the  whole  world. 

That  Jesus  Christ  is  the  true  Messiah,  and 
actually  come  in  the  flesh,  is  evident,  if  we  con- 
sider (as  Mr.  Fuller  observes)  that  it  is  intimated 
that  whenever  he  should  come,  the  sacrifices  and 
ceremonies  of  the  Mosaic  law  were  to  be  super- 
seded by  him,  Ps.  xl.  6 — 8 :  1  Sam.  xv.  22 ;  Dan. 
ix.  27;"Jer.  xxxi.  31,  34;  Heb.  viii.  13.  Now 
sacrifice  and  oblation  have  ceased.  They  vir- 
tually ceased  when  Jesus  offered  himself  a  sacri- 
fice, and  in  a  few  years  after,  they  actually  ceased 
A  few  of  the  ancient  ceremonies  are  indeed 
adhered  to,  but  as  one  of  the  Jewish  writers 
acknowledges,  "  The  sacrifices  of  the  Holy  Tem- 
ple have  ceased."  Let  every  Jew  therefore  ask 
himself  this  question  :  Should  Messiah  the  Prince 
come  at  some  future  period,  how  are  the  sacrifice 
and  oblation  to  cease  on  his  appearance,  when 
they  have  already  ceased  near  1800  years  1 

Again,  it  is  suggested  in  the  Scripture,  that 
the  '  great  body  of  sacred  prophecy  should  be 
accomplished  in  him;  Gen.  iii.  16;  xxii.  18;  Ik. 
xlix.  10;  liii.  1.  The  time  when  he  was  to 
come  is  clearly  marked  out  in  prophecy ;  Is.  xlir. 
10;  Hag.  ii.  "(J — 9;  Dan.  ix.  24.  He  actually 
cume   according  to   that  time. — 2     Th#  place 


MESSIAH 
whore  Messiah  should  be  born,  ar.d  where  he 
should  principally  impart  his  doctrine,  is  deter- 
mined; Mic.  v.  2;  Isa.  ix.  2;  and  was  literally 
fulfilled  in  Jesus.— 3.  The  house  or  family  from 
whom  he  should  descend,  is  clearly  ascertained. 
So  much  is  said  of  his  descending  from  David, 
that  we  need  not  refer  to  particular  proofs ;  and 
the  rather  as  no  Jew  will  deny  it.  The  genealo- 
gies of  Matthew  and  Luke,  whatever  varieties 
there  are  between  them,  agree  in  tracing  his  pedi- 
gree to  David.  And  though,  in  both,  it  is  traced 
in  the  name  of  Joseph,  yet  this  appears  to  be  only 
in  conformity  to  the  Jewish  custom  of  tracing  no 
pedigree  in  the  name  of  a  female.  The  father  of 
Joseph,  as  mentioned  by  Luke,  seems  to  have 
been  his  father  by  marriage  only ;  so  that  it  was, 
in  reality,  Mary's  pedigree  that  is  traced  by  Luke, 
though  under  her  husband's  name;  and  this 
being  the  natural  line  of  descent,  and  that  of 
Matthew  the  legal  one,  by  which,  as  a  king,  he 
would  have  inherited  the  crown,  there  is  no 
inconsistency  between  them. — 41  The  kind  of 
miracles  that  Messiah  should  perform  is  specified ; 
Is.  xxxv.  5,  6.  He  actually  performed  the  mira- 
cles there  predicted,  his  enemies  themselves  being 
judges. — 5.  It  was  prophesied  that  he  should,  as 
a  King,  be  distinguished  by  his  lowliness;  enter- 
ing into  Jerusalem,  not  in  a  chariot  of  state,  but 
in  a  much  humbler  style;  Zech.  ix.  9;  this  was 
really  the  case,  Matt.  xxi. — 6.  It  was  predicted 
that  he  should  suffer  and  die  by  the  hands  of 
wicked  men;  Isa.  xlix.  7;  liii.  9;  Dan.  ix.  26. 
Nothing  could  be  a  more  striking  fulfilment  of 
prophecy  than  the  treatment  the  Messiah  met 
with  in  almost  every  particular  circumstance. — 

7.  It  was  foretold  that  he  should  rise  from  the 
dead;  Isa.  liii.  11;  Psal.  Ixviii.  18;  xvi.  10;  his 
resurrection  is  proved  by  indubitable  evidence. — 

8.  It  was  foretold  that  the  great  body  of  the  Jew- 
ish nation  would  not  believe  in  him,  and  that  he 
would  set  up  his  kingdom  among  the  Gentiles ; 
Is.  liii.  I;  xlix.  '1 — G;  vi  9 — 12.  Never  was  a 
prophecy  more  completely  fulfilled  than  this,  as 
facts  evidently  prove. 

Lastly,  It  is  declared  that  when  the  Messiah 
should  come,  the  will  of  God  would  be  perfectly 
fulfilled  by  him,  Is.  xlii.  I ;  xlix.  3 — 5.  And  what 
was  his  whole  life  but  perfect  conformity  to  him? 
He  finished  the  work  the  Father  gave  him  to  do ; 
never  was  there  such  a  character  seen  among 
men.  Well  therefore  may  we  say,  Truly  this 
was  the  Son  of  God.  See  article  Christianity, 
Jesus  Christ. 

There  have  been  numerous  false  Messiahs 
which  have  arisen  at  different  times.  Of  these 
the  Saviour  predicted,  Matt,  x\iv.  14.  Some 
have  reckoned  as  many  as  twenty  four,  of  whom 
we  shall  here  give  an  account. 

1.  Caziba  was  the  first  of  any  note  who  made 
a  noise  in  the  world.  Being  dissatisfied  with  the 
state  of  things  under  Adrian,  he  set  himself  up 
at  the  head  of  the  Jewish  nation,  and  proclaimed 
himself  their  long-expected  Messiah.  He  was 
one  of  those  banditti  that  infested  Judea,  and 
committed  all  kinds  of  violence  against  the  Ro- 
mans; and  had  become  so  powerful,  that  he  was 
chosen  king  of  the  Jews,  and  by  them  acknow- 
ledged their  Messiah.  However,  to  facilitate  the 
success  of  thii  bold  enterprise,  he  changed  his 
name  from  Caziba,  which  it  was  at  first,  to  that 
of  Barehoeheba,  alluding  to  the  star  foretold  by 
Balaam;  for  he  pretended  to  be  the  star  sent 
273  2  K 


MESSIAH 
from  heaven  to  restore  his  nation  to  its  ancient 
liberty  and  glory.  He  chose  a  forerunner,  raised 
an  army,  was  anointed  king,  coined  money  in- 
scribed with  his  own  name,  and  proclaimed  him- 
self Messiah  and  prince  of  the  Jewish  nation. 
Adrian  raised  an  army,  and  sent  it  against  him. 
He  retired  into  a  town  called  Bither,  where  he 
was  besieged.  Barehoeheba  was  killed  in  the 
siege,  the  city  was  taken,  and  a  dreadful  havock 
succeeded.  The  Jews  themselves  allow,  that, 
during  this  short  war  against  the  Romans  in  de- 
fence of  this  false  Messiah,  they  lost  five  or  six 
hundred  thousand  souls.  This  was  in  the  for- 
mer part  of  the  second  century. 

2.  In  the  reign  of  Thcodosius  the  younger,  in 
the  year  of  our  Lord  434,  another  impostor  arose, 
called  Moses  Cretensis.  He  pretended  to  be 
a  second  Moses,  sent  to  deliver  the  Jews  who 
dwelt  in  Crete,  and  promised  to  divide  the  sea, 
and  give  them  a  safe  passage  through'  it.  Theii 
delusion  proved  so  strong  and  universal,  that  they 
neglected  their  lands,  houses,  and  all  other  con- 
cerns, and  took  only  so  much  with  them  as  they 
could  conveniently  carry.  And  on  the  day  ap- 
pointed, this  false  Moses,  having  led  them  to  the 
top  of  a  rock,  men,  women,  and  children,  threw 
themselves  headlong  down  into  the  sea,  without 
the  least  hesitation  or  reluctance,  till  so  great  a 
number  of  them  were  drowned,  as  opened  the 
eyes  of  the  rest,  and  made  them  sensible  of  the 
cheat.  They  then  began  to  look  out  for  their 
pretended  leader,  but  he  disappeared,  and  escaped 
out  of  their  hands. 

3.  In  the  reign  of  Justin,  about  520,  another 
impostor  appeared,  who  called  himself  the  son  of 
Moses.  His  name  was  Dunaan.  He  entered 
into  a  city  of  Arabia  Felix,  and  there  he  greatly 
oppressed  the  Christians ;  but  he  was  taken  pri- 
soner, and  put  to  death  by  Elesban,  an  iEthio- 
pian  general. 

4.  in  the  year  529  the  Jews  and  Samaritans 
rebelled  against  the  emperor  Justinian,  and  set 
up  one  Julian  for  their  king ;  and  accounted  him 
the  Messiah.  The  emperor  sent  an  army  against 
them,  killed  great  numbers  of  them,  took  their 
pretended  Messiah  prisoner,  and  immediately  put 
him  to  death. 

5.  In  the  year  571  was  born  Mahomet,  in  Ara- 
bia. At  first  he  professed  himself  the  Messiah, 
who  was  promised  to  the  Jews.  By  this  means 
he  drew  many  of  that  unhappy  people  after  him. 
In  some  sense,  therefore,  he  may  be  considered 
in  the  number  of  false  Messiahs.  See  Maho- 
met anism. 

6.  About  the  year  721,  in  the  time  of  Leo 
Isaurus,  arose  another  false  Messiah  in  Spain; 
his  name  was  Serenus.  He  drew  great  numbers 
after  him,  to  their  no  small  loss  and  disappoint- 
ment, but  all  his  pretensions  came  to  nothing. 

7.  The  twelt'th  century  was  fruitful  in  false 
Messiahs ;  for  about  the  year  1137,  there  appear- 
ed one  in  France,  who  was  put  to  death,  and 
many  of  those  who  followed  him. 

8.  In  the  year  1138  the  Persians  were  dis- 
turbed with  a  Jew,  who  called  himself  the  Mes- 
siah. He  collected  together  a  vast  army.  But 
he,  too,  was  put  to  deatii,  and  his  followers  treated 
with  great  inhumanity. 

9.  In  the  year  1157,  a  false  Messiah  stirred  up 
the  Jews  at  Corduba,  in  Spain.  The  wiser  and 
better  sort,  looked  upon  him  as  a  madman,  but 
the  great  body  of  the  Jews  in  that  nation  believed 


MESSIAH 
in  him.     On  this  occasion  almost  all  the  Jews  in 
Spain  were  destroyed 

10.  In  the  year  1107,  another  false  Messiah 
arose  in  the  kingdom  of  Fez,  which  brought 
great  troubles  and  persecution  upon  the  Jews 
that  were  scattered  through  that  country. 

11.  In  the  same  year  an  Arabian  set  up  there 
for  the  Messiah,  and  pretended  to  work  miracles. 
When  searcn  was  made  tor  him,  his  followers 
fled,  and  he  was  brought  before  the  Arabian 
king.  Being  questioned  by  him,  he  replied  that 
he  was  a  prophet  sent  from  God.  The  king  then 
asked  him  what  sign  he  could  show  to  confirm 
his  mission.  Cut  off  my  head,  said  he,  and  I 
will  return  to  life  again.  The  king  took  him  at 
his  word,  promising  to  believe  him  if  his  predic- 
tion came  to  pass.  The  poor  wretch,  however, 
never  returned  to  life  again,  and  the  cheat  was 
sufficiently  discovered.  Those  who  had  heen 
deluded  by  him  were  grievously  punished,  and 
the  nation  condemned  to  a  very  heavy  fine. 

12.  Not  long  after  this,  a  Jew  who  dwelt  be- 
yond Euphrates,  called  himself  the  Messiah,  and 
drew  vast  multitudes  of  people  after  him.  He 
gave  this  for  a  sign  of  it,  that  he  had  been  leprous, 
and  was  cured  in  the  course  of  one  night.  He, 
like  the  rest,  perished  in  the  attempt,  and  brought 
great  persecution  on  his  countrymen. 

13.  In  the  year  1174,  a  magician  and  false 
Christ  arose  in  Persia,  who  was  called  David 
Almusser.  He  pretended  that  he  could  make 
himself  invisible;  but  he  was  soon  taken  and  put 
to  death,  and  a  heavy  fine  laid  upon  his  brethren 
the  Jews. 

14.  In  the  year  1170,  another  of  these  impos- 
tors arose  in  Moravia.  But  the  reign  of  delu- 
sion is  short,  and  his  fate  appears  to  have  been 
similar  to  that  of  his  predecessor. 

15.  In  the  year  1199,  a  famous  cheat  and  rebel 
exerted  himself  in  Persia,  called  David  el  David. 
He  was  a  man  of  learning,  a  great  magician,  and 
pretended  to  be  the  Messiah.  He  raised  an  army 
against  the  king,  hut  was  taken  and  imprisoned; 
and,  having  made  his  escape,  was  afterwards 
seized  again,  and  beheaded.  Vast  numbers  of 
the  Jews  were  butchered  for  taking  part  with  this 
impostor. 

16.  We  are  told  of  another  false  Christ  in  this 
same  century  by  Maimonides  and  Solomon ;  but 
they  take  no  notice  either  of  his  name,  country, 
or  good  or  ill  success. 

Here  we  may  observe,  that  no  less  than 
Urn  false  Christs  arose  in  the  twelfth  century, 
and  brought  prodigious  calamities  and  destruc- 
tion upon  the  Jews  in  various  quarters  of  the 
wcrld. 

17.  In  the  year  1497,  we  find  another  false 
Christ,  whose  name  was  Ismael  Sophus,  who 
deluded  the  Jews  in  Spain.  He  also  perished, 
and  as  many  as  believed  in  him  were  dispersed. 

IS.  In  the  year  1500,  Rabbi  Lemlem,  a  Ger- 
man Jew  of  Austria,  declared  himself  a  fore- 
runner of  the  Messiah,  and  pulled  down  his  own 
oven,  promising  his  brethren  that  they  should 
bake  their  bread  in  the  Holy  Land  next  year. 

lit.  In  the  year  1501),  one  whose  name  was 
Plefierkorn,  a  Jew  of  Cologne,  pretended  to  be 
the  Messiah.  He  afterwards  aifected,  however, 
to  turn  Christian. 

'JO.  in  the  year  1531,  Rabbi  Salomo  Malcho, 
giving  out  that  he  was  the  Messiah,  was  burnt  to 
death  by  Charles  the  Filth  of  Spain. 
274 


MESSIAH 

21.  In  the  year  1615,  a  false  Christ  arose  in 
the  East  Indies,  and  was  greatly  followed  by  the 
Portuguese  Jews,  who  were  scattered  over  that 
country. 

29.  In  the  year  1624,  another  in  the  Low 
Countries  pretended  to  be  the  Messiah  of  the 
family  of  David,  and  of  the  line  of  Nathan.  He 
promised  to  destroy  Rome,  and  to  overthrow  the 
kingdom  of  Antichrist,  and  the  Turkish  empire. 
_  23.  In  the  year  1666  appeared  the  false  Mes- 
siah Sabatai  Sevi,  who  made  so  great  a  noise,  and 
gained  such  a  number  of  proselytes.  He  was 
born  at  Aleppo,  imposed  on  the  Jews  for  a  con- 
siderable time;  but  afterwards,  with  a  view  of 
saving  his  life,  turned  Mahometan,  and  was  at 
last  beheaded.  As  the  history  of  this  impostor 
is  more  entertaining  than  that  of  those  we  have 
already  mentioned,  1  will  give  it  at  some  length. 

The  year  1666  was  a  year  of  great  expecta- 
tion, and  some  wonderful  thing  was  looked  for 
by  many.  This  was  a  lit  time  for  an  impostor 
to  set  up;  and,  accordingly,  lying  reports  were 
carried  about.  It  was  said,  that  great  multitudes 
marched  from  unknown  parts  to  the  remote  de- 
serts of  Arabia,  and  they  were  supposed  to  lie 
the  ten  tribes  of  Israel,  who  had  been  dispersed 
for  many  ages;  that  a  ship  was  arrived  in  the 
north  part  of  Scotland  with  sails  and  cordage  of 
silk ;  that  the  mariners  spake  nothing  but  He- 
brew; that  on  the  sails  was  this  motto,  The 
Twelve  Tribes  of  Israel.  Thus  were  credulous 
men  possessed  at  that  time. 

Then  it  was  that  Sabatai  Sevi  appeared  at 
Smyrna,  and  professed  himself  to  be  the  Messias. 
He  promised  the  Jews  deliverance  and  a  pros- 
perous kingdom.  This  which  he  promised  they 
iirmly  believed.  The  Jews  now  attended  to  no 
business,  discoursed  of  nothing  but  their  return, 
and  believed  Sabatai  to  be  the  Messias  as  iirmly 
as  we  Christians  believe  any  article  of  faith.  A 
right  reverend  person,  then  in  Turkey,  meeting 
with  a  Jew  of  his  acquaintance  at  Aleppo,  he 
asked  him  what  he  thought  of  Sabatai.  The 
Jew  replied,  that  he  believed  him  to  be  the  Mes- 
sias ;  and  that  he  was  so  far  of  that  belief,  that  if 
he  should  prove  an  impostor,  he  would  then  turn 
Christian.  It  is  lit  we  should  be  particular  in 
this  relation,  because  the  history  is  so  very  sur- 
prising and  remarkable ;  and  we  have  the  account 
of  it  from  those  who  were  in  Turkey. 

Sabatai  Sevi  was  the  son  of  Mordecai  Sevi,  a 
mean  Jew  of  Smyrna.  Sabatai  was  very  bookisli, 
and  arrived  to  great  skill  in  the  Hebrew  learning 
Fie  was  the  author  of  a  new  doctrine,  and  for  it 
was  expelled  the  city.  He  went  thence  to  Sa- 
lonichi,  of  old  called  Thessalonica,  where  he  mar- 
ried a  very  handsome  woman,  and  was  divorced 
from  her."  Then  he  travelled  into  the  Morea, 
then  to  Tripoli,  Gaza,  and  Jerusalem.  By  the 
way  he  picked  up  a  third  wife.  At  Jerusalem  he 
began  to  reform  the  Jews'  constitutions,  and 
abolish  one  of  their  solemn  fasts,  and  communi- 
cated his  designs  of  professing  himself  to  be  the 
Messias  to  one  Nathan.  He  was  pleased  with  it, 
and  set  up  for  his  Elias,  or  forerunner,  and  took 
upon  him  to  abolish  all  the  Jewish  fasts,  as  not 
beseeming  when  the  bridegroom  was  now  come. 
Nathan  prophesied  that  the  Messias  should  ap- 
pear before  the  Grand  Seignior  in  less  than  two 
years,  and  take  from  him  his  crown,  and  lead  him 
in  chains. 

At  Gaza,   Sabatai  preached  repentance,   to- 


MESSIAH 
pether  with  a  faith  in  himself,  so  effectually,  that 
the  people  gave  themselves  up  to  their  devciions 
and  alms.  The  noise  of  this  Messias  began  to 
till  all  places.  Sabatai  now  resolves  for  Smyrna, 
anil  then  for  Constantinople.  Nathan  writes  to 
him  from  Damascus,  and  thus  he  begins  his  let- 
ter :  "To  the  king,  our  kin?,  lonl  of  lords,  who 
gathers  the  dispersed  of  Israel,  who  redeems  our 
captivity,  the  man  elevated  to  the  height  of  all  su- 
blimity, the  Messias  of  the  God  of  Jacob,  the 
true  Messias,  the  celestial  Lion,  Sabatai  Sevi." 

And  now,  throughout  Turkey,  the  Jews  were 
in  great  expectation  of  glorious  times.  They 
now  were  devout  and  penitent,  that  they  might 
not  obstruct  the  good  which  they  hoped  for. 

Some  fasted  so  long,  that  they  Wre  famished 
to  death;  others  buried  themselves  in  the  earth 
till  their  limbs  grew  stiff;  some  would  endure 
melting  wax  dropped  on  their  flesh ;  some  rolled 
in  snow ;  others,  in  a  cold  season,  would  put 
themselves  into  cold  water;  and  many  buried 
themselves.  Business  was  laid  aside ;  superflui- 
ties of  household  utensils  were  sold ;  the  poor 
wore  provided  for  by  immense  contributions. 
Sabatai  comes  to  Smyrna,  where  he  was  adored 
by  the  people,  though  the  Chacham  contradicted 
him,  for  which  he  was  removed  from  his  office. 
There  he  in  writing  styles  himself  the  only  and 
first-born  Son  of  God,  the  Messias,  the  Saviour 
of  Israel.  And  though  he  met  with  some  oppo- 
sition, yet  he  prevailed  there  at  last  to  that  de- 
gree, that  some  of  his  followers  prophesied,  and 
fell  into  strange  ecstacies:  four  hundred  men  and 
women  prophesied  of  his  growing  kingdom ;  and 
young  infants,  who  could  hardly  speak,  would 
plainly  pronounce  Sabatai,  Messias,  and  Son  of 
God.  The  people  were  for  a  long  time  possessed, 
and  voices  heard  from  their  bowels  :  some  fell  into 
trances,  foamed  at  the  mouth,  recounted  their  fu- 
ture prosperity,  their  visions  of  the  Lion  of  Judah, 
and  the  triumphs  of  Sabatai.  All  which,  says  the 
relater,  were  certainly  true,  being  effects  of  dia- 
bolical delusions,  as  the  Jews  themselves  have 
since  confessed. 

Now  the  impostor  swells  and  assumes. 
Whereas  the  Jews,  in  their  synagogues,  were 
wont  to  pray  for  the  Grand  Seignior,  he  orders 
those  prayers  to  be  forborne  for  the  future,  think- 
ing it  an  indecent  thing  to  pray  for  him  who  was 
shortly  to  be  his  captive  ;  and  instead  of  praying 
for  the  Turkish  emperor,  he  appoints  prayers  for 
•  himself.  He  also  elected  princes  to  govern  the 
Jews  in  their  march  towards  the  Holy  Land,  and 
to  mi:iister  justice  to  them  when  they  should  be 
possessed  of  it.  These  princes  were  men  well 
known  in  the  city  of  Smyrna  at  that  time.  The 
people  were  now  pressing  to  see  some  miracle 
to  confirm  their  faith,  and  to  convince  the  Gen- 
tiles. Here  the  impostor  was  puzzled,  though 
any  juggling  trick  would  have  served  their  turn. 
But  the  credulous  people  supplied  this  defect. 
When  Sabatai  was  before  the  Cadi  (or  justice  of 
peace,)  some  affirmed  they  saw  a  pillar  of  fire 
between  him  and  the  Cadi ;  and  after  some  had 
affirmed  it,  others  were  ready  to  swear  to  it  and 
did  swear  it  also ;  and  this  was  presently  believed 
by  the  Jews  of  that  city.  He  that  did  not  now 
believe  him  to  be  the  Messias  was  to  bo  shunned 
ns  an  excommunicated  person.  The  impostor 
now  declares  that  he  was  called  of  God  to  see 
Constantinople,  where  he  had  much  to  do.  He 
ehips  liimself  to  that  end,  in  a  Turkish  saick.  in 
275 


MESSIAH 
January,  lf>(>f>.  He  had  a  long  and  troublesome 
voyage ;  he  had  not  power  over  the  sea  and 
winds.  The  Vizier,  upon  the  news,  sends  for 
him,  and  confines  him  in  a  loathsome  prison. 
The  Jews  pay  him  their  visits;  and  they  of  this 
city  are  as  infatuated  ^s  those  in  Smyrna.  They 
forbid  traffic,  and  refuse  to  pay  their  debts.  Some 
of  our  English  merchants,  not  knowing  how  to 
recover  their  debts  from  the  Jews,  took  this  oc- 
casion to  visit  Sabatai,  and  make  their  complaints 
to  him  against  his  subjects  ;  whereupon  he  wrote 
the  following  letter  to  the  Jews. 

"  To  you'of  the  nation  of  the  Jews,  who  ex- 
pect the  appearance  of  the  Messias,  and  the  sal- 
vation of  Israel,  peace  without  end.  Whereas 
we  are  informed  that  you  are  indebted  to  several 
of  the  English  nation,  it  seemeth  right  unto  us 
to  order  you  to  make  satisfaction  to  these  your 
just  debts,  which,  if  you  refuse  to  do,  and  not 
obey  us  herein,  know  you  that  then  you  arc  not 
to  enter  with  us  into  our  joys  and  dominions." 

Sabatai  remained  a  prisoner  in  Constantinople, 
for  the  space  of  two  months.  The  Grand  Vi- 
zier, designing  for  Candia,  thought  it  not  safe  to 
leave  him  in  the  city  during  the  Grand  Seignior's 
absence  and  his  own.  He,  therefore,  removed 
him  to  the  Dardanelli,  a  better  air,  indeed,  but  yet 
out  of  the  way,  and  consequently  importing  less 
danger  to  the  city;  which  occasioned  the  Jews  to 
conclude  that  the  Turks  could  not,  or  durst  not, 
take  away  his  life ;  which  had,  they  concluded, 
been  the  surest  way  to  have  removed  all  jealousy. 
The  Jews  flocked  in  great  numbers  to  the  castle 
where  he  was  a  prisoner;  not  only  those  that 
were  near,  but  from  Poland,  Germany,  Leghorn, 
Venice,  and  other  places;  they  received  Sabatai's 
blessing,  and  promises  of  advancement.  The 
Turks  made  use  of  this  confluence;  they  raised 
the  price  of  their  lodgings  and  provisions,  and  put 
'heir  price  upon  those  who  desired  to  see  Sabatai, 
for  their  admittance.  This  profit  stopped  their 
mouths,  and  no  complaints  were  for  this  cause 
sent  to  Adrianople. 

Sabatai,  in  his  confinement,  appoints  the  man- 
ner of  his  own  nativity.  He  commands  the  Jews 
to  keep  it  on  the  ninth  day  of  the  month  Ab,  and 
to  make  it  a  day  of  great  joy,  to  celebrate  it  with 
pleasing  meats  and  drinks,  with  illuminations 
and  music.  He  obligeth  them  to  acknowledge 
the  love  of  God,  in  giving  them  that  day  of  con- 
solation for  the  birth  of  their  king  Messias,  Sa- 
batai Sevi,  his  servant  and  first-born  Son  in  love. 

We  may  observe,  by  the  way,  the  insolence  of 
this  impostor.  This  day  was  a  solemn  day  of 
fasting  among  the  Jews  formerly,  in  memory 
of  the  burning  of  the  temple  by  the  Chaldeos  : 
several  other  sad  things  happened  in  this  month, 
as  the  Jews  observe ;  that  then,  and  upon  the 
same  day,  the  second  temple  was  destroyed  ;  and 
that  in  this  month  it  was  decreed  in  the  wilder- 
ness that  the  Israelites  should  not  enter  into  Ca- 
naan, &c.  Sabatai  was  born  on  this  day;  and, 
therefore,  the  fast  must  be  turned  to  a  feast; 
whereas,  in  truth,  it  had  been  well  lor  the  Jews 
had  he  not  been  born  at  all ;  and  much  better  for 
himself,  as  will  appear  from  what  follows. 

The  Jews  of  that  city  paid  Sabatai  Sevi  great 
res|>ect  They  decked  their  synagogues  with  S. 
S.  in  letters  of  gold,  and  made  for  him  in  the 
wall  a  crown  :  they  attributed  the  same  titles  and. 
prophecies  to  him  which  we  apply  to  our  Saviour. 
He  was  also,  during  this  imprisonment,  visited  by. 


MESSIAH 
pilgrims  from  all  parts,  that  had  heard  his  story. 
Among  whom  Nchemiah  Cohen,  from  Poland, 
was  one, — a  man  of  great  learning  in  the  Cabala 
and  eastern  tongues,  who  desired  a  conference 
with  Sahatai,  and  at  the  conference  maintained 
that,  according  to  the  Scripture,  there  ought  to 
De  a  twofold  Messias;  one  the  son  of  Ephraim,  a 
poor  and  despised  teacher  of  the  law  ;  the  other 
the  son  of  David,  to  be  a  conqueror.  Nehemiah 
was  content  to  be  the  former,  the  son  of  Ephraim, 
and  to  leave  the  glory  and  dignity  of  the  latter  to 
Sabatai.  Sabaf.ai,  from  what  appears,  did  not  dis- 
like this.  But  here  lav  the  ground  of  the  quarrel : 
Nehemiah  taught  that  the  son  of  Ephraim  ought 
to  be  the  forerunner  of  the  son  of  David,  and  to 
usher  him  in ;  and  Nehemiah  accused  Sabatai  of 
too  great  forwardness  in  appearing  as  the  son  of 
David,  before  the  son  of  Ephraim  had  led  him  the 
way.  Sabatai  could  not  brook  this  doctrine;  for 
he  might  fear  that  the  son  of  Ephraim,  who  was 
to  lead  the  way,  might  pretend  to  be  the  son  of 
David,  and  so  leave  him  in  the  lurch ;  and,  there- 
fore, he  excluded  him  from  any  part  or  share  in 
this  matter,  which  was  the  occasion  of  the  ruin 
of  Sabatai,  and  all  his  glorious  designs.  Nehe- 
miah, being  disappointed,  goes  to  Adrianople, 
and  informs  the  great  ministers  of  state  against 
Sabatai,  as  a  lewd  and  dangerous  person  to  the 
government,  and  that  it  was  necessary  to  take 
him  out  of  the  way.  The  Grand  Seignior,  being 
informed  of  this,  sends  for  Sabatai,  who,  much 
dejected,  appears  before  him.  The  Grand  Seig- 
nior requires  a  miracle,  and  chooses  one  him- 
self; and  it  was  this  :  that  Sabatai  should  be 
stripped  naked,  and  set  as  a  mark  for  his  archers 
to  shoot  at ;  and  if  the  arrows  did  not  pierce  his 
flesh,  he  would  own  him  to  be  the  Messias.  Sa- 
batai had  not  faith  enough  to  bear  up  under  so 
great  a  trial.  The  Grand  Seignior  let  him  know 
that  he  would  forthwith  impale  him,  and  that  the 
stake  was  prepared  for  him,  unless  he  would  turn 
Turk.  Upon  which  he  consented  to  turn  Ma- 
hometan, to  the  great  confusion  of  the  Jews. 
And  yet  some  of  the  Jews  were  so  vain  as  to 
affirm  that  it  was  not  Sabatai  himself,  but  his 
shadow,  that  professed  the  religion,  and  was  seen 
in  the  habit  of  a  Turk;  so  great  was  their  obsti- 
nacy and  infidelity,  as  if  it  were  a  thing  impossi- 
ble to  convince  these  deluded  and  infatuated 
wretches. 

After  all  this,  several  of  the  Jews  continued  to 
use  the  forms  in  their  public  worship,  prescribed 
by  this  Mahometan  Messias,  which  obliged  the 
principal  Jews  of  Constantinople  to  send  to  the 
synagogue  of  Smyrna  to  forbid  this  practice. 
During  these  things,  the  Jews,  instead  of  mind- 
ing their  trade  and  traffic,  filled  their  letters  with 
news  of  Sabatai  their  Messias,  and  his  won- 
derful works.  They  reported,  that,  when  the 
Grand  Seignior  sent  to  take  him,  he  caused  all 
the  messengers  that  were  sent  to  die;  and  when 
other  Janizaries  were  sent,  they  fell  dead  by  a 
word  from  his  mouth ;  and  being  requested  to  do 
it,  he  caused  them  to  revive  again.  They  added, 
that,  though  the  prison  where  Sabatai  lay  was 
barred  and  fastened  with  strong  iron  locks,  yet 
he  was  seen  to  walk  through  the  streets  with  a 
numerous  train  ;  that  the  shackles  which  were 
Upon  his  neck  and  feet  did  not  fall  off,  but  wore 
turned  into  gold,  with  which  Sabatai  gratified 
his  followers.  Upon  the  fame  of  these  things, 
the  Jews  of  Italy  sent  iegates  to  Smyrna,  to  in- 

•27<; 


METHODIST 
quire  into  the  truth  of  these  matters.  When  the 
legates  arrived  at  Smyrna,  they  heard  of  the 
news  that  Sabatai  was  turned  Turk,  to  their  very 
great  confusion ;  but  going  to  visit  the  brother 
of  Sabatai,  he  endeavoured  to  persuade  them  that 
Sabatai  was  still  the  true  Messias ;  that  it  was 
not  Sabatai  that  went  about  in  the  habit  of  a 
Turk,  but  his  angel  or  spirit ;  thai  his  body  was 
taken  into  heaven,  and  should  be  sent  down 
again  when  God  should  think  it  a  fit  season. 
He  added,  that  Nathan,  his  forerunner,  who 
had  wrought  many  miracles,  would  soon  be  at 
Smyrna ;  that  he  would  reveal  hidden  things  to 
them,  and  confirm  them.  But  this  Elias  was 
not  suffered  to  come  into  Smyrna  ;  and  though 
the  legates  saHv  him  elsewhere,  they  received  no 
satisfaction  at  all. 

24.  The  last  false  Christ  that  had  made  any 
considerable  number  of  converts  was  one  Rabbi 
Mordccai,  a  Jew  of  Germany ;  he  appeared  in 
the  year  1G32.  It  was  not  long  before  he  was 
found  out  to  be  an  impostor,  and  was  obliged  to 
fly  from  Italy  to  Poland,  to  save  his  life.  What 
became  of  him  afterwards,  does  not  seem  to  be 
recorded. 

This  may  be  considered  as  true  and  exact  an 
account  of  the  false  Christs  that  have  arisen 
since  the  crucifixion  of  our  blessed  Saviour,  as 
can  well  be  given.  See  Johannes  d  Lent's  Hist. 
of  False  Messiahs ;  Jortin's  Rem.  on  Eccl. 
Hist.  vol.  iii.  p.  330;  Kidder's  Demonstration 
of  the  Messias ;  Harris's  Sermon  on  the  Mes- 
siah; The  Eleventh  Volume  of  the  Modern 
Part  of  the  Universal  History  ;  Simpson's  Key 
to  the  Prophecies,  sec.  9 ;  Maclaurin  on  the 
Prophecies  relating  to  the  Messiah;  Puller's 
Jesus  the  true  Messiah. 

METHODIST,  a  name  applied  to  different 
sects,  both  Papists  and  Protestants. — 1.  The 
Popish  Methodists  were  those  polemical  doctors 
who  arose  in  France  about  the  middle  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  in  opposition  to  the  Hugue- 
nots, or  Protestants.  These  Methodists,  Irorn 
their  different  manner  of  treating  the  controversy 
with  their  opponents,  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes.  The  one  comprehends  those  doctors 
whose  method  of  disputing  with  the  Protestants 
was  disingenuous  and  unreasonable;  and  who 
followed  the  example  of  those  military  chiefs, 
who  shut  up  their  troops  in  entrenchments  and 
strong-holds,  in  order  to  cover  them  from  the 
attacks  of  the  enemy.  Of  this  number  were  the 
Jesuit  Veron,  who  required  the  Protestants  to 
prove  the  tenets  of  their  church  by  plain  passages 
of  Scripture,  without  being  allowed  the  liberty 
of  illustrating  those  passages,  reasoning  upon 
them,  or  drawing  any  conclusions  from  them; 
Nihusius,  an  apostate  from  the  Protestant  reli 
gion ;  the  two  Wallenburgs,  and  others,  who 
confined  themselves  to  the  business  of  answering 
objections ;  and  cardinal  Richelieu,  who  confined 
the  whole  controversy  to  the  single  article  of  the 
divine  institution  and  authority  of  the  church. — 
■2.  The  Methodists  of  the  second  class  were  of 
opinion,  that  the  most  expedient  manner  of  re- 
ducing the  Protestants  to  silence,  was  not  to 
attack°  them  by  piecemeal,  but  to  overwhelm 
them  at  once  by  the  weight  of  some  general  prin- 
ciple, or  presumption,  or  some  universal  argu- 
ment, which  comprehended  or  might  be  applied 
to  all  the  points  contested  between  the  two 
churches;  thus  imitating  the  conduct  of  those 


METHODISTS 

military  leaders,  who,  instead  of  spending  their 
time  and  strength  in  sieges  and  skirmishes,  en- 
deavoured to  put  an  end  to  the  war  by  a  general 
and  decisive  action.  Some  of  these  polemics 
rested  the  defence  of  popery  upon  prescription ; 
others  upon  the  wicked  lives  of  Protestant  princes 
who  had  left  the  church  of  Rome ;  others,  the 
crime  of  religious  schism ;  the  variety  of  opinions 
among  Protestants  with  regard  to  doctrine  and 
dicipline,  and  the  uniformity  of  the  tenets  and 
worship  of  the  church  of  Rome;  and  thus,  by 
urging  their  respective  arguments,  they  thought 
they  should  stop  the  mouths  of  their  adversaries 
at  once. 

METHODISTS,  PROTESTANT,  origin 
of. — It  is  not  generally  known  that  the  name  of 
Methodist  had  been  given  long  before  to  a  reli- 
gious sect  in  England,  or,  at  least,  to  a  party  in 
religion  which  was  distinguished  by  some  of  the 
same  marks  as  are  now  supposed  to  apply  to  the 
Methodists.  John  Spence,  who  was  librarian  of 
Sion  College  in  1657,  in  a  book  which  he  pub- 
lished, says,  "  Where  are  now  cur  Anabaptists 
and  plain  pikestaff  Methodists,  who  esteem  all 
flowers  of  rhetoric  in  sermons  no  better  than 
stinking  weeds?" — But  the  denomination  to 
which  we  here  refer,  was  founded  in  the  year 
1729,  by  one  Mr.  Morgan  and  Mr.  John  Wes- 
ley. In  the  month  of  November  that  year,  the 
latter,  being  then  fellow  of  Lincoln  College,  be- 
gan to  spend  some  evenings  in  reading  the  Greek 
Testament,  with  Charles  Wesley,  student,  Mr. 
Morgan,  commoner  of  Christ  Church,  and  Mr. 
Kirkham,  of  Merton  College.  Not  long  after- 
wards, two  or  three  of  the  pupils  of  Mr.  John 
Wesley  obtained  leave  to  attend  these  meetings. 
They  then  began  to  visit  the  sick  in  different 
parts  of  the  town,  and  the  prisoners  also,  who 
were  confined  in  the  castle.  Two  years  after 
they  were  joined  by  Mr.  Ingham,  of  Glueen's 
College,  Mr.  Broughton,  and  Mr.  Hervey ;  and 
in  1735,  by  the  celebrated  Mr.  Whitfield,  then  in 
his  eighteenth  year.  At  this  time  their  number 
in  Oxford  amounted  to  about  fourteen.  They 
obtained  their  name  from  the  exact  regularity  of 
their  lives,  which  gave  occasion  to  a  young  gen- 
tleman of  Christ  Church  to  say,  "Here  is  a  new 
sect  of  Methodists  sprung  up!"  alluding  to  a  sect 
of  ancient  physicians  who  were  called  Metho- 
dists, because  they  reduced  the  whole  healing  art 
to  a  few  common  principles,  and  brought  it  into 
some  method  and  order. 

At  the  time  that  this  society  was  formed,  it  is 
said  that  the  whole  kingdom  of  England  was 
tending  fast  to  infidelity.  "It  is  come,"  says 
bishop  Butler,  "  I  know  not  how,  to  be  taken  for 
granted  by  many  persons,  that  Christianity  is  not 
so  much  as  a  subject  of  inquiry ;  but  that  it  is 
now  at  length  discovered  to  be  fictitious ;  and 
accordingly  they  treat  it  as  if,  in  the  present  age, 
this  were  an  agreement  among  all  people  of  dis- 
cernment, and  nothing  remained  but  to  set  it  up 
as  a  principal  subject  of  mirth  and  ridicule,  as  it 
were,  by  way  of  reprisals  for  its  having  so  long 
interrupted  the  pleasures  of  the  world."  There 
is  every  reason  to  believe  that  the  Methodists 
were  the  instruments  of  stemming  this  torrent. 
The  sick  and  the  poor  also  tasted  the  fruits  of 
their  labours  and  benevolence :  Mr.  Wesley 
abridged  himself  of  all  his  superfluities,  and  pro- 
posed a  fund  for  the  relief  oi  the  indigent ;  and 
so  prosperous  was  the  scheme,  that  they  quickly 
277 


METHODISTS 
increased  their  fund  to  eighty  pounds  per  annum. 
This,  which  one  should  have  thought  would  have 
been  attended  with  praise  instead  of  censure, 
quickly  drew  upon  them  a  kind  of  persecution  ; 
some  of  the  seniors  of  the  university  began  to  in- 
terfere, and  it  was  reported  "  that  the  college  cen- 
sors were  going  to  blow  up  the  godly  club.'' 
They  found  themselves,  however,  patronized  and 
encouraged  by  some  men  eminent  for  their  learn- 
ing and  virtue ;  so  that  the  society  still  continued, 
though  they  had  suffered  a  severe  loss,  in  1730, 
by  the  death  of  Mr.  Morgan,  who,  it  is  said,  was 
the  founder  of  it.  In  October,  1735,  John  and 
Charles  Wesley,  Mr.  Ingham,  and  Mr.  Dela- 
motte,  son  of  a  merchant  in  London,  embarked 
for  Georgia,  in  order  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  the 
Indians.  After  their  arrival  they  were  at  first  fa- 
vourably received,  but  in  a  short  time  lost  the 
affection  of  the  people ;  and,  on  account  of  some 
differences  with  the  storekeeper,  Mr.  Wesley 
was  obliged  to  return  to  England.  Mr.  Wesley, 
however,  was  soon  succeeded  by  Mr.  Whitfield, 
whose  repeated  labours  in  that  part  of  the  world 
are  well  known. 

II.  Methodists,  tenets  of.— After  Mr.  Whit- 
field returned  from  America  in  1741,  he  declared 
his  full  assent  to  the  doctrines  of  Calvin.  Mr 
Wesley,  on  the  contrary,  professed  the  Arminian 
doctrine,  and  had  printed  in  favour  of  perfection 
and  universal  redemption,  and  very  strongly 
against  election ;  a  doctrine  which  Mr.  Whitfield 
believed  to  be  scriptural.  The  difference,  there- 
fore, of  sentiments  between  these  two  great  men 
caused  a  separation.  Mr.  Wesley  preached  in  a 
place  called  the  Foundry,  where  Mr.  Whitfield 
preached  but  once,  and  no  more.  Mr.  Whitfield 
then  preached  to  very  large  congregations  out  of 
doors,  and  soon  after,  in  connexion  with  Mr. 
Cennick,  and  one  or  two  mere,  began  a  new 
house  in  Kingswood,  Gloucestershire,  and  esta- 
blished a  school  that  favoured  Calvinistic  preachers. 
The  Methodists,  therefore,  were  now  divided; 
one  part  following  Mr.  Wesley,  and  the  other 
Mr.  Whitfield. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodists, 
according  to  their  own  account,  are  the  same  as 
the  church  of  England,  as  set  forth  in  her  liturgy, 
articles,  and  homilies.  This,  however,  has  been  dis- 
puted. Mr.  Wesley,  in  his  appeal  to  men  of  reason 
and  religion,  thus  declares  his  sentiments:  "All 
I  teach,"  he  observes,  "  respects  either  the  nature 
and  condition  of  justification,  the  nature  and  con- 
dition of  salvation,  the  nature  of  justifying  and 
saving  faith,  or  the  Author  of  faith  and  salvation. 
That  justification  whereof  our  articles  and  ho- 
milies speak  signifies  present  forgiveness,  and  con- 
sequently acceptance  with  God  :  I  believe  the 
condition  of  this  is  faith  :  I  mean  not  only  that 
without  faith  we  cannot  be  justified,  but  also  that, 
as  soon  as  any  one  lias  true  faith,  in  that  mo- 
ment he  is  justified.  Good  works  follow  this 
faith,  but  cannot  go  before  it;  much  less  can 
sanctification,  which  implies  a  continued  course 
of  good  works,  springing  from  holiness  of  heart. 
But  it  is  allowed  that  sanctification  goes  before 
our  justification  at  the  last  day,  Heb.  xii.  14.  Re- 
pentance, and  fruits  meet  for  repentance,  go  be- 
fore faith.  Repentance  absolutely  must  go  before 
faith  ;  fruits  meet  for  it,  if  there  be  opportunity. 
By  repentance  I  mean  conviction  of  sin,  pro- 
ducing real  desires  and  sincere  resolutions  of 
amendment ;  by  salvation,  I  mean  not  barely  da- 


METHODISTS 
liveranec  from  hell,  but  a  present  deliverance 
from  sin.  Faith,  in  general,  is  a  divine  superna- 
tural evidence,  or  conviction  of  things  not  seen, 
not  discoverable  by  our  bodily  senses  :  justifying 
faith  implies  not  only  a  divine  evidence  or  con- 
viction that  God  was  in  Christ  reconciling  the 
world  unto  himself,  but  a  sure  trust  and  confi- 
dence that  Christ  died  for  my  sins,  that  he  loved 
me,  and  gave  himself  for  me.  A  nd  the  moment 
a  penitent  sinner  believes  this,  God  pardons  and 
absolves  him  :  and  as  soon  as  his  pardon  or  justi- 
fication is  witnessed  to  him  by  the  Holy  Ghost, 
he  is  saved.  From  that  time  (unless  he  make 
shipwreck  of  the  faith)  salvation  gradually  in- 
creases in  his  soul. 

"  The  Author  of  faitli  and  salvation  is  God 
alone.  There  is  no  more  of  power  than  of  merit 
in  man  ;  but  as  all  merit  is  in  the  Son  of  God:  in 
what  lie  has  done  and  suffered  for  us,  so  all  power 
is  in  the  Spirit  of  God.  And,  therefore,  every 
man,  in  order  to  believe  unto  salvation,  must  re- 
ceive the  Holy  Ghost."  So  far  Mr.  Wesley. 
Respecting  original  sin,  free  will,  the  justification 
of  men,  good  works,  and  works  done  before  jus- 
tification, he  refers  us  to  what  is  said  on  these 
subjects  in  the  former  part  of  the  ninth,  the 
tenth,  the  eleventh,  the  twelfth,  and  thirteenth 
articles  of  the  church  of  England.  One  of  Mr. 
Wesley's  preachers  bears  this  testimony  of  him 
and  his  sentiments :  "  The  Gospel,  considered  as 
a  general  plan  of  salvation,  he  viewed  as  a  dis- 
play of  the  divine  perfections,  in  a  way  agreeable 
to  the  nature  of  God;  in  which  all  the  divine 
attributes  harmonize,  and  shine  forth  with  pecu- 
liar lustre. — The  Gospel,  considered  as  a  means 
to  attain  an  end,  appeared  to  him  to  discover  as 
great  fitness  in  the  means  to  the  end  as  can  pos- 
sibly be  discovered  in  the  structure  of  natural 
bodies,  or  in  the  various  operations  of  nature,  from 
a  view  of  which  we  draw  qur  arguments  for  the 
existence  of  God. — Man  he  viewed  as  blind,  ig- 
norant, wandering  out  of  the  way,  with  his  mind 
estranged  from  God. — He  considered  the  Gospel 
as  a  dispensation  of  mercy  to  men,  holding  forth 
pardon,  a  free  pardon  of  sin  to  all  who  repent  and 
believe  in  Christ  Jesus.  The  Gospel,  he  believed, 
inculcates  universal  holiness  both  in  heart  and 
in  the  conduct  of  life. — He  showed  a  mind  well 
instructed  in  the  oracles  of  God,  and  well  ac- 
quainted with  human  nature.  He  contended, 
that  the  first  step  to  be  a  Christian  is  to  repent; 
and  that,  till  a  man  is  convinced  of  the  evil  of  sin, 
and  is  determined  to  depart~Trom  it ;  till  he  is 
convinced  that  there  is  a  beauty  in  holiness,  and 
something  truly  desirable  in  being  reconciled  to 
God,  he  is  not  prepared  to  receive  Christ.  The 
second  important  and  necessary  step,  he.  believed 
to  be  faith,  agreeable  to  the  order  of  the  apostle, 
'Repentance  toward  God,  and  faith  toward  our 
Lord  Jesus  Christ,'  Acts  xx.  '20,  '21.  In  explain- 
ing sanctification,  he  accurately  distinguished  it 
from  j'l  '  ification,  or  the  pardon  of  sin.  Justifica- 
tion admits  us  into  a  state  of  grace  and  favour 
with  God,  and  lays  the  foundation  of  sanctifi- 
cation, or  <  Christian  holiness,  in  all  its  extent. 
There  has  been  a  great  clamour  raised  against 
him  because  lie  called  his  view  of  sanctification 
by  the  word  perfection  ;  but  he  often  explained 
what  he  meant  by  this  term.  He  meant  by  the 
word  perfi  eti  >n,  such  a  degree  of  the  love  of  God, 
ind  the  love  of  man ;  such  a  degree  of  the  love  of 
;usiiec,  truth,  holiness,  and  purity,  as,  will  remove 
i;78 


METHODISTS 

from  the  heart  everv  contrary  disposition  towards 
God  or  man  ;  and  that  this  should  be  our  state  of 
mind  in  every  situation  and  in  every  circum- 
stance of  life. — He  maintained  that  God  is  a  God 
of  love,  not  to  a  part  of  bis  creatures  only,  but  to 
all ;  that  He  who  is  the  Father  of  all,  who  made 
ail,  who  stands  in  the  same  relation  to  all  his 
creatures,  loves  them  all ;  that  he  loved  the  world, 
and  cave  his  Son  a  ransom  for  all  without  dis- 
tinction of  persons.  It  appeared  to  him,  that  to 
represent  God  as  partial,  as  confining  his  love  to 
a  few,  was  unworthy  our  notions  of  the  Deity.  He 
maintained  that  Christ  died  for  all  men  ;  that  he 
is  to  be  offered  to  all ;  that  all  are  to  be  invited  to 
come  to  him;  and  that  whosoever  comes  in  the 
way  which  God  has  appointed,  may  partake  of 
i  his  blessings.  He  supposed  that  sufficient  grace 
is  given  to  all,  in  that  way  and  manner  which  is 
best  adapted  to  influence  the  mind.  He  did  not 
believe  salvation  was  by  works.  So  far  was  ho 
from  putting  works  in  the  place  of  the  blood  of 
Christ,  that  he  only  gave  them  their  just  value: 
he  considered  them  as  the  fruits  of  a  living,  ope- 
rative faith,  and  as  the  measure  of  our  future 
reward ;  for  every  man  will  be  rewarded  not  for 
bis  works,  but  according  to  the  measure  of  them. 
He  gave  the  whole  glory  of  salvation  to  God- 
from  first  to  last.  He  believed  that  man  would 
never  turn  to  God,  if  God  did  not  begin  the  work : 
he  often  said  that  the  first  approaches  of  grace  to 
the  mind  are  irresistible ;  that  is,  that  a  man  can- 
not avoid  being  convinced  that  he  is  a  sinner; 
that  God,  by  various  means,  awakens  his  eon- 
science  ;  and,  whether  the  man  will  or  no,  these 
convictions  approach  him."  In  order  that  we 
may  form  still  clearer  ideas  respecting  Mr.  Wes- 
ley's opinions,  we  shall  here  quote  a  few  ques- 
tions and  answers  as  laid  down  in  the  Minutes 
of  Conference.  GL  "In  what  sense  is  Adam's 
sin  imputed  to  all  mankind?"  A.  "In  Adam 
all  die,  i.  e.  1.  Our  bodies  then  became  mortal. — 
2.  Our  souls  died,  i.  e.  were  disunited  from  God. 
And  hence, — 3.  We  are  all  born  with  a  sinful, 
devilish  nature ;  by  reason  whereof, — 4.  We  are 
children  of  wrath,  liable  to  death  eternal,"  Rom. 
v.  18;  Eph.  ii.  3.  GL.  "In  what  sense  is  the 
righteousness  of  Christ  imputed  to  all  mankind, 
or  to  believers?"  A.  "We  do  not  find  it  ex- 
pressly affirmed  in  Scripture  that  God  impute* 
the  righteousness  of  Christ  to  any,  although  we 
do  find  that  faith  is  imputed  for  righteousness. 
That  text,  'As  by  one  man's  disobedience  ail 
men  were  made  sinners,  so  by  the  obedience  oi 
one  all  were  made  righteous,'  we  conceive,  means 
by  the  merits  of  Christ  all  men  are  cleared  from 
the  guilt  of  Adam's  actual  sin."  GL.  "Can  faith 
be  lost  but  through  disobedience'?"  A.  "  It  can- 
not. A  believer  first  inwardly  disobeys ;  inclines 
to  sin  with  his  heart ;  then  his  intercourse  with 
God  is  cut  off,  i.  c.  his  faith  is  lost ;  and  alter  this 
he  may  fall  into  outward  sin,  being  now  weak, 
and  like  another  man."  GL  "What  is  implied 
in  being  a  perfect  Christian  ?"  A.  "  The  loving 
the  Lord  our  God  with  all  our  heart,  and  villi  all 
our  mind,  and  soul,  and  strength."  U.  Does 
this  imply  *hat  all  inward  sin  is  taken  awaj  7 
A.  "Witv.out  doubt;  or  how  could  we  be  said 
to  be  Baved  from  all  our  undeannessT*  Eoek. 
xxxvi.  29.  U.  "How  much  is  allowed  by  our 
brethren  who  differ  from  us  with  regard  to  entire 
sanctification?"  A.  "They  grant,  1.  That  every 
one  must  be  entirely  sanctified  in  the  article  of 


METHODISTS 

death. — 2.  That  till  then  a  believer  daily  grows 
in  grace,  comes  nearer  and  nearer  to  perfection. — 
3.  That  we  ought  to  be  continually  pressing  after 
this,  and  to  exhort  all  others  to  do  so."  d. 
"What  do  we  allow  them?"  A.  "We  grant, 
1.  That  many  of  those  who  have  died  in  the 
faith,  yea,  the  greater  part  of  those  we  have 
known,  were  not  sanctified  throughout,  not  made 
perfect  in  love,  till  a  little  before  death.— 2.  That 
the  term  sanctified  is  continually  applied  by  St. 
Paul  to  all  that  were  justified,  that  were  true  be- 
lievers.— 3.  That  by  this  term  alone  he  rarely  (if 
ever)  means  saved  from  all  sin. — i.  That  conse- 
quently it  is  not  proper  to  use  it  in  this  sense, 
without  adding  the  word  'wholly,  entirely,'  or 
the  like. — 5.  That  the  inspired  writers  almost 
continually  speak  of  or  to  those  who  were  justified, 
lrt.it  very  rarely  either  of  or  to  those  who  were  sanc- 
tifiel. — G.  That  it  consequently  behoves  us  to 
speik  in  public  almost  continually  of  the  state  of 
justification;  but  more  rarely  in  full  and  explicit 
terns  concerning  entire  sanctification."  Q.. 
"What,  then,  is  the  point  wherein  we  divide?" 
A.  "It  is  this  :  Whether  we  should  expect  to  be 
saved  from  all  sin  before  the  article  of  death."  GL. 
"  Is  there  any  clear  Scripture  promise  of  this, 
that  God  will  save  us  from  all  sin ']"  A.  "  There 
is.  Ps.  exxx.  8 :  '  He  shall  redeem  Israel  from 
all  his  iniquities.'  This  is  more  largely  expressed 
in  E^ek.  xxxvi.  25,  29;  2  Cor.  vii.  1 ;  Dcut.  xxx. 
6 ;  1  John  iii.  8 ;  Eph.  v.  25,  27 ;  John  xvii.  20, 
23 ;  1  John  iv.  17." 

Thus  I  have  endeavoured  to  give  a  view  of  the 
tenets  of  the  Wesleyan  Methodists ;  and  this  1 
have  chosen  to  do  in  their  own  words,  in  order 
to  prevent  misrepresentation. 

As  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Calvinistic  Metho- 
dists, they  need  not  be  inserted  here,  as  the  reader 
will  find  the  substance  of  them  under  the  article 
Calvimsts. 

III.  Methodists,  government  and  discipline 
of. — A  considerable  number  both  of  the  Calvin- 
ist  and  Arminian  Methodists  approve  of  the  dis- 
cipline of  the  church  of  England,  while  many,  it 
is  said,  are  dissenters  in  principle.  Mr.  Wesley 
and  Mr.  Whitfield  were  both  brought  up  in,  and 
paid  peculiar  respect  to  that  church.  They  did 
not,  however,  as  it  is  well  known,  confine  them- 
selves to  her  laws  in  all  respects  as  it  related  to 
discipline. 

Mr.  Wesley  having  formed  numerous  socie- 
ties in  different  parts,  he,  with  his  brother  Charles, 
drew  up  certain  rules,  by  which  they  were,  and 
it  seems  in  many  respects  still  are  governed. 
They  state  the  nature  and  design  of  a  Methodist 
society  in  the  following  words  : 

"  Such  a  society  is  no  other  than  a  company 
of  men  having  the  form  and  seeking  the  power 
of  godliness ;  united,  in  order  to  pray  together,  to 
receive  the  word  of  exhortation,  and  to  watch 
over  one  another  in  love,  that  they  may  help  each 
other  to  work  out  their  salvation." 

"  That  it  may  the  more  easily  be  discerned 
whether  they  are  indeed  working  out  their  own 
salvation,  each  society  is  divided  into  smaller 
companies,  called  classes,  according  to  their  re- 
spective places  of  abode.  There  are  a'  "nit  twelve 
persons  (sometimes  fifteen,  twenty,  or  even  more) 
in  each  class;  one  of  whom  is  styled  their  'leader. 
It  is  his  business.  1.  To  see  each  person  in  his 
class  once  a  week,  at  least,  in  order  to  inquire 
how  their  souls  prosper ;  to  advise,  reprove,  com- 
279 


METHODISTS 
fort,  or  exhort,  as  occasion  may  require;  to  re- 
ceive what  they  are  willing  to  give  to  the  poor, 
or  toward  the  Gospel. — 2.  To  meet  the  minister 
and  the  stewards  of  the  society  once  a  week,  in 
order  to  inform  the  minister  of  any  that  are  sick, 
or  of  any  that  walk  disorderly,  and  will  not  be 
reproved :  to  pay  to  the  stewards  what  they  have 
received  of  their  several  classes  in  the  week  pre- 
ceding ;  and  to  show  their  account  of  what  each 
person  has  contributed. 

"There  is  only  one  condition  previously  re- 
quired of  those  who  desire  admission  into  these 
societies,  namely,  A  desire  to fice  from  the  wrath 
to  come ;  to  be  saved  from  their  sins:  but  wher- 
ever this  is  really  fixed  in  the  soul,  it  will  be 
shown  by  its  fruits.  It  is,  therefore,  expected  of 
all  who  continue  therein,  that  they  should  con- 
tinue to  evidence  their  desire  of  salvation, 

"First,  By  doing  no  harm;  by  avoiding  evil 
in  every  kind ;  especially  that  which  is  most 
generally  practised,  such  as  the  taking  the  name 
of  God  in  vain;  the  profaning  the  day  of  the 
Lord,  either  by  doing  ordinary  work  thereon,  or 
by  buying  or  selling ;  drunkenness ;  buying  or 
selling  spirituous  liquors,  or  drinking  them,  un- 
less in  cases  of  extreme  necessity ;  fighting, 
quarrelling,  brawling ;  brother  going  to  laic  with 
brother ;  returning  evil  for  evil,  or  railing  for  rail- 
ing ;  the  using  many  words  in  buying  or  selling; 
the  buying  or  selling  uncustomed  goods;  the 
giving  or  taking  things  on  usury,  i.  e.  unlawful 
interest. 

"  Uncharitable  or  unprofitable  conversation  / 
particularly,  speaking  evil  of  magistrates,  or  of 
ministers. 

"  Doing  to  others  as  we  would  not  they  should 
do  unto  us. 

"Doing  what  we  know  is  not  for  the  glory  of 
God  ;  as  the  putting  on  gold  or  costly  apparel ; 
the  taking  such  diversions  as  cannot  be  used  in 
the  name  of  the  Lord  Jesus. 

"  The  singing  those  songs,  or  reading  those 
books,  which  do  not  tend  to  the  knowledge  or  love 
of  God  ;  softness,  and  needless  self-indulgence  ; 
laying  up  treasure  upon  earth ;  borrowing  with- 
out a  probability  of  paying ;  or  taking  up  goods 
without  a  probability  of  paying  for  them. 

"  It  is  expected  of  all  who  continue  in  these 
societies  that  they  should  continue  to  evidence 
their  desire  of  salvation, 

"  Secondly,  By  doing  good  ;  by  being  in  every 
kind  merciful  after  their  power,  as  they  have  op- 
portunity;  doing  good  of  every  possible  sort,  and 
as  far  as  possible  to  all  men :  to  their  bodies,  of 
the  ability  which  God  giveth  ;  by  giving  food  to 
the  hungry,  by  clothing  the  naked,  by  visiting  or 
helping  them  that  are  sick,  or  in  prison  :  to  their 
souls,  by  instructing,  reproving,  or  exhorting  all 
we  have  any  intercourse  with;  trampling  under 
foot  that  enthusiastic  doctrine  of  devils,  that  '  We 
are  not  to  do  good,  unless  our  hearts  be  free  to  it.' 

"  By  doing  good,  especially  to  them  that  are  of 
the  household  of  faith,  or  groaning  so  to  be ;  em- 
ploying them  preferably  to  others  ;  buying  one  of 
another;  helping  each  other  in  business  ;  and  so 
much  the  more,  because  the  world  will  love  its 
own,  and  them  only ;  by  all  possible  diligence 
and  frugality  that  the  Gospe,1  be  not  blamed  ;  by 
running  with  patience  the  race  set  before  them, 
denying  themselves,  and  taking  up  their  cross 
daily ;  submitting  to  bear  the  reproach  of  Christ ; 
U>  be  as  the  filth  and  ofTscouring  of  the  world, 


METHODISTS 

and  looking  that  men  should  say  au  manner  of 
evil  of tliem  falsely  for  the  Lord's  sake. 

"  It  is  expected  of  all  who  desire  to  continue  in 
these  societies,  that  they  should  continue  to  evi- 
dence their  desire  of  salvation, 

"  Thirdly,  By  attending  on  all  the  ordinances 
of  God  :  such  are, — The  public  worship  of  God  ; 
the  ministry  of  the  word,  either  read  or  expound- 
ed; the  supper  of  the  Lord;  family  and  private 
prayer;  searching  the  Scriptures;  and  fasting  and 
abstinence. 

"  These  are  the  general  rules  of  our  societies, 
all  which  we  are  taught  of  God  to  observe,  even 
in  his  written  word  :  the  only  true  rule,  and  the 
sufficient  rule,  both  of  our  faith  and  practice ; 
and  all  these  we  know  his  Spirit  writes  on  every 
truly  awakened  heart.  If  there  be  any  among  us 
who  observe  them  not,  who  habitually  break  any 
of  them,  let  it  be  made  known  unto  them  who 
watch  over  that  soul,  aS  they  who  must  give  an 
account,  We  will  admonish  him  of  the  error  of 
his  ways :  we  will  bear  with  him  for  a  season ; 
but  then,  if  he  repent  not,  he  hath  no  more  place 
among  us :  we  have  delivered  our  own  souls. 

"May  1,  1743.  John  Wesley. 

Charles  Wesley." 

In  Mr.  "Wesley's  connexion,  they  have  cir- 
cuits and  conferences,  which  we  find  were  thus 
formed : — When  the  preachers  at  first  went  out 
to  exhort  and  preach,  it  was  by  Air.  Wesley's 
permission  and  direction ;  some  from  one  part 
of  the  kingdom,  and  some  from  another;  and 
though  frequently  strangers  to  each  other,  and 
those  to  whom  they  were  sent,  yet  on  his  credit 
and  sanction  alone  they  were  received  and  pro- 
vided for  as  friends  by  the  societies  wherever  they 
came.  But  having  little  or  no  communication  or 
intercourse  with  one  another,  nor  any  subordina- 
tion among  themselves,  they  must  have  been 
under  the  necessity  of  recurring  to  Mr.  Wesley 
for  directions  how  and  where  they  were  to  labour. 
To  remedy  this  inconvenience,  he  conceived  the 
design  of  calling  them  together  to  an  annual  con- 
ference; by  this  means  he  brought  them  into 
closer  union  with  each  other,  and  made  them 
sensible  of  the  utility  of  acting  in  concert  and 
harmony.  He  soon  found  it  necessary,  also,  to 
bring  their  itinerancy  under  certain  regulations, 
and  reduce  it  to  some  fixed  order,  both  to  prevent 
confusion,  and  for  his  own  ease ;  he  therefore 
took  fifteen  or  twenty  societies,  more  or  less, 
which  lay  round  some  principal  society  in  those 
parts,  anil  which  were  so  situated,  that  the  great- 
est distance  from  one  to  another  was  not  much 
more  than  twenty  miles,  and  united  them  into 
what  was  called  a  circuit.  At  the  yearly  confer- 
ence he  appointed  two,  three,  or  four  preachers 
to  one  of  these  circuits,  according  to  its  extent, 
which  at  first  was  very  often  considerable,  some- 
times taking  in  a  part  of  three  or  four  counties. 
Here,  anil  here  only,  were  they  to  labour  for  one 
year,  that  is,  until  the  next  conference.  One  of 
the  preachers  on  every  circuit  was  called  the  as- 
sistant, l>ccausc  he  assisted  Mr.  Wesley  in  super- 
intending the  societies  and  other  preachers ;  he 
took  charge  of  the  societies  within  the  limits 
assigned  him ;  lie  enforced  the  rules  every  where, 
anil  directed  the  labours  ol  the  preachers  asso- 
ciated with  him.  Bavins  received  a  list  of  the 
societies  forming  his  circuit,  he  took  his  own  sta- 
tion in  it,  givf  to  the  other  preachers  a  plan  of 
it,  and  pointed  out  the  day  when  each  should  be 
2S0 


METHODISTS 

at  the  place  fixed  for  him,  to  begin  a  profrressive 
motion  round  it,  in  such  order  as  the  plan  directed. 
They  now  followed  one  another  through  all  the 
societies  belonging  to  that  circuit,  at  stated  dis- 
tances of  time,  all  being  governed  by  the  same 
rules,  and  undergoing  the  same  labour.  By  this 
plan,  every  preacher's  daily  work  was  appointed 
beforehand ;  each  knew,  every  day,  where  the 
others  were,  and  each  society  when  to  expect  the 
preacher,  and  how  long  he  would  stay  with 
them. — It  may  be  observed,  however,  that  Mr. 
Weslev's  design  in  calling  the  preachers  together 
annually,  was  not  merely  for  the  regulation  of 
the  circuits,  but  also  for  the  review  of  their  doc- 
trines and  discipline,  and  for  the  examination  of 
their  unral  conduct ;  that  those  who  were  to 
administer  with  him  in  holy  things  might  be 
thoroughly  furnished  for  every  good  work. 

The  first  conference  was  held  in  June,  1744, 
at  which  Mr.  Wesley  met  his  brother,  two  or 
three  other  clergymen,  and  a  few  of  the  preach- 
ers whom  he  had  appointed  to  come  from  various 
parts,  to  confer  with  them  on  the  affairs  of  the 
societies. 

"  Monday,  June  25,"  observes  Mr.  Wesley, 
"and  the  five  following  days,  we  spent  in  confer- 
ence with  our  preachers,  seriously  considering  by 
what  means  we  might  the  most  effectually  save 
our  own  souls,  and  them  that  heard  us ;  and  the 
result  ol  our  consu'»ations  we  set  down  to  be  the 
rule  of  our  future  practice." 

Since  that  time  a  conference  has  been  held 
annually,  Mr.  Wesley  himself  having  presided 
at  forty-seven.  The  subjects  of  their  delibera- 
tions were  proposed  in  the  form  of  questions, 
which  were  amply  discussed,  and  the  questions 
with  the  answers,  agreed  upon,  were  afterwards 
printed,  under  the  title  of  "  Minutes  of  several 
Conversations  between  the  Rev.  Mr.  Wesley  and 
others,"  commonly  called  Minutes  of  Conference. 
As  to  their  preachers,  the  following  extract 
from  the  above-mentioned  Minutes  of  Confer- 
ence will  show  us  in  what  manner  they  are 
chosen  and  designated :  Q..  "  How  shall  we  try 
those  who  think  they  are  moved  by  the  Holy 
Ghost  to  preach?"  A.  "Inquire,  1.  Do  they 
know  God  as  a  pardoning  God  ?  Have  they  the 
love  of  God  abiding  in  them?  Do  they  desire 
and  seek  nothing  but  God  ?  And  are  they  holy 
in  all  manner  of  conversation?  '2.  Have  they 
gifts  as  well  as  grace  for  the  work  ?  Have  they, 
in  some  tolerable  degree,  a  clear,  sound  under- 
standing? Have  they  a  fight  judgment  in  the 
things  of  God  ?  Have  they  a  just  conception  of 
salvation  by  faith?  And  has  God  given  them 
any  degree  of  utterance  ?  Do  they  speak  justly, 
readily,  clearly  ? — 3.  Have  they  fruit?  Are  any 
triilv  convinced  of  sin,  and  converted  to  God,  by 
their  preaching? 

"As  long  as  these  three  marks  concur  in  any 
one,  we  believe  he  is  called  of  God  to  preach. 
These  we  receive  as  sufficient  proof  that  he  is 
moved  thereto  by  the  Holy  Ghost. 

GL  "  What  method  may  we  use  in  receiving  a 
new  helper?"  A.  "  A  proper  time  for  doing  this 
is  at  a  conference,  after  solemn  fasting  and  pray- 
er ;  every  person  proposed  is  then  to  be  present, 
and  each  of  them  may  be  asked, — 

"  Have  you  faith  '.n  Christ?  Are  yon  going 
on  to  perfection  .'  Do  ywu  expect  to  he  perfected 
in  lave  in  this  life?  Are  you  groaning  alter  it  ! 
Arc  you   resolved  to  devote  yourself  wholly  to 


METHODISTS 

God  and  to  his  work  ?  Have  you  considered  the 
rules  of  a  helper  ?  Will  you  keep  them  for  con- 
science' sake  ?  Are  you  determined  to  employ 
all  your  time  in  the  work  of  God  ?  Will  you 
preach  every  morning  and  evening ?  Will  you 
diligently  instruct  the  children  in  every  place? 
Will  you  visit  from  house  to  house  ?  Will  you 
recommend  fasting  both  by  precept  and  example? 

"  We  then  may  receive  him  as  a  probationer, 
by  giving  him  the  Minutes  of  the  Conference,  in- 
scribed thus: — 'To  A.  B.  You  think  it  your 
duty  to  call  sinners  to  repentance.  Make  full 
proof  hereof,  and  we  shall  rejoice  to  receive  you 
as  a  fellow-labourer.'  Let  him  then  read  and 
carefully  weigh  what  is  contained  therein,  that 
if  he  has  any  doubt  it  may  be  removed." 

"  To  the  above  it  may  be  useful  to  add,"  says 
Mr.  Benson,  "a  few  remarks  on  the  method  pur- 
sued in  the  choice  of  the  itinerant  -preachers,  as 
many  have  formed  the  most  erroneous  ideas  on 
the  subject,  imagining  they  are  employed  with 
hardly  any  prior  preparation. — 1.  They  are  re- 
ceived as  private  members  of  the  society  on  trial. 

2.  After  a  quarter  of  a  year,  if  they  are  found 
deserving,  they  are  admitted  as  proper  members. 

3.  When  their  grace  and  abilities  are  sufficiently 
manifest,  they  are  appointed  leaders  of  classes 

4.  If  they  then  discover  talents  for  more  impor- 
tant services,  they  are  employed  to  exhort  ocea 
sionally  in  the  smaller  congregations,  when  the 
preachers  cannot  attend. — 5.  If  approved  in  this 
line  of  duty,  they  are  allowed  to  preach. —  6.  Out 
of  these  men  who  are  called  local  preachers,  are 
selected  the  itinerant  preachers,  who  are  first 
proposed  at  a  quarterly  meeting  of  the  stewards 
and  local  preachers  of  the  circuit;  then  at  a 
meeting  of  the  travelling  preachers  of  the  district ; 
and  lastly,  in  the  conference;  and  if  accepted,  are 
nominated  for  a  circuit. — 7.  Their  characters  and 
conduct  are  examined  annually  in  the  confer- 
ence ;  and,  if  they  continue  faithful  for  four  years 
of  trial,  they  are  received  into  full  connexion.  At 
these  conferences,  also,  strict  inquiry  is  made  into 
the  conduct  and  success  of  every  preacher,  and 
those  who  are  found  deficient  in  abilities  are  no 
longer  employed  as  itinerants  ;  while  those  whose 
conduct  has  not  been  agreeable  to  the  Gospel,  are 
expelled,  and  thereby  deprived  of  all  the  privi- 
leges even  of  private  members  of  the  society." 

IV.  Methodists,  new  connexion  of. — Since 
Mr.  Wesley's  death,  his  people  have  been  di- 
vided ;  but  this  division,  it  seems,  respects  dis- 
cipline more  than  sentiment.  Mr.  Wesley  pro- 
fessed a  strong  attachment  to  the  established 
church  of  England,  and  exhorted  the  societies 
under  his  care  to  attend  her  service,  and  receive 
the  Lord's  Supper  from  the  regular  clergy.  But 
in  the  lacter  part  of  his  time  he  thought  proper  to 
ordain  some  bishops  and  priests  for  America  and 
Scotland  ;  but  as  one  or  two  of  the  bishops  have 
never  been  out  of  England  since  their  appoint- 
ment to  the  office,  it  is  probable  that  he  intended 
a  regular  ordination  should  take  place  when  the 
state  of  the  connexion  might  render  it  necessary. 
During  his  life,  some  of  the  societies  petitioned 
to  have  preaching  'n  their  own  chapels  in  church 
hours,  and  the  Lord's  Supper  administered  by  the 
travelling  preachers.  This  request  he  generally 
refused,  and  where  it  could  be  conveniently  done, 
sent  some  of  the  clergymen  who  officiated  at  the 
Wl.v  Chapel  in  London,  to  perforin  these  solemn 
services.  At  the  iirot  conference  after  lus  death, 
281  2  L 


METHODISTS 
which  was  held  at  Manchester,  the  preachers 
published  a  declaration,  in  which  they  said  that 
they  would  "  take  up  the  Plan  as  Mr.  Wesley 
had  left  it."  This  was  by  no  means  satisfactory 
to  manv  of  the  preachers  and  people,  who  thought 
that  religious  liberty  ought  to  be  extended  to  all 
the  societies  which  desired  it.  In  order  to  favour 
this  cause,  so  agreeable  to  the  spirit  of  Chris- 
tianity, and  the  rights  of  Englishmen,  several  re- 
spectable preachers  came  forward;  and  by  the 
writings  which  they  circulated  through  the  con- 
nexion, paved  the  way  for  a  plan  of  pacification  ; 
by  which  it  was  stipulated,  that  in  every  society 
where  a  three-fold  majority  of  class-leaders,  stew- 
ards, and  trustees  desired  it,  the  people  should 
have  preaching  in  church  hours,  and  the  sacra- 
ments of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  admin- 
istered to  them.  The  spirit  of  inquiry  being 
roused  did  not  stop  here ;  for  it  appeared  agree- 
able both  to  reason  and  the  customs  of  the  primi- 
tive church,  that  the  people  should  have  a  voice  in 
the  temporal  concerns  of  the  societies,  vote  in  the 
election  of  church-officers,  and  give  their  suffrages 
in  spiritual  concerns.  This  subject  produced  a 
variety  of  arguments  on  both  sides  of  the  question  : 
many  of  the  preachers  and  people  thought  that  an 
annual  delegation  of  the  general  stewards  of  the 
circuits,  to  sit  either  in  the  conference  or  the  dis- 
trict meetings,  in  order  to  assist  in  the  disburse- 
ment of  the  yearly  collection,  the  Kingswood 
School  collection,  and  the  preachers'  fund,  and  in 
making  new  or  revising  old  laws,  would  be  a 
bond  of  union  between  the  conference  and  con- 
nexion at  large,  and  do  away  the  very  idea  of  ar- 
bitrary power  among  the  travelling  preachers.  In 
order  to  facilitate  this  good  work,  many  societies 
in  various  parts  of  the  kingdom  sent  delegates  to 
the  conference  held  at  Leeds  in  1797 ;  they  were 
instructed  to  request,  that  the  people  might 
have  a  voice  in  the  formation  of  their  own  laws, 
the  choice  of  their  own  officers,  and  the  distribu- 
tion of  their  own  properly.  The  preachers  pro- 
ceeded to  discuss  two  motions :  Shall  delegates 
from  the  societies  be  admitted  into  the  confer- 
ence? Shall  circuit  stewards  be  admitted  into  the 
district  meetings  ?  Both  motions  were  negatived, 
and  consequently  all  hopes  of  accommodation 
between  the  parties  were  given  up.  Several 
friends  of  religious  liberty  proposed  a  plan  for  a 
new  itinerancy.  In  order  that  it  might  be  carried 
into  immediate  effect,  they  formed  ♦hemselves 
into  a  regular  meeting,  in  Ebenezer  Chapel. 
Mr.  William  Thom  being  chosen  president,  and 
Mr.  Alexander  Kilham,  secretary.  The  meeting 
proceeded  to  arrange  the  plan  for  supplying  the 
circuits  of  the  new  connexion  with  preachers; 
and  desired  the  president  and  secretary  to  draw 
up  the  rules  of  the  church  government,  in  order 
that  they  might  be  circulated  through  the  societies 
for  their  approbation.  Accordingly,  a  lorm  of 
church  government,  suited  to  an  itinerant  minis- 
try, was  printed  by  these  two  brethren,  under 
the  title  of  "  Outlines  of  a  Constitution  proposed 
for  the  Examination,  Amendment,  and  Accept- 
ance of  the  Members  of  the  Methodist  New 
Itinerancy."  The  plan  was  examined  by  select 
committees  in  the  diflerent  circuits  of  the  con- 
nexion, and,  with  a  few  alterations,  was  accepted 
by  the  conference  of  preachers  and  delegates. 
The  preachers  and  people  are  incorporated  in  ail 
meetings  for  business,  not  by  temporary  concus- 
sion, but  by  the  essential  principles  of  their  coa- 


METHODISTS 
etitution  ;  for  tho  private  members  choose  (he 
class-leaders ;  the  leaders'  meeting  nominates  the 
stewards;  and  the  society  confirms  or  rejects 
the  nomination.  The  quarterly  meetings  arc 
composed  of  the  general  stewards  and  representa- 
tives chosen  by  the  different  societies  of  the  cir- 
cuits, and  the  fourth  quarterly  meeting  of  the  year 
appoints  the  preacher  and  delegate  of  every  circuit 
that  shall  attend  the  general  conference.  For  a 
further  account  of  their  principles  and  discipline, 
we  must  refer  the  reader  to  a  pamphlet,  entitled 
General  Utiles  of  the  United  Societies  of  Me- 
thodists in  the  New  Connexion. 

The  Calvinistic  Methodists  are  not  incor- 
porated into  a  body  as  the  Arminians  are,  but 
are  chiefly  under  the  direction  or  influence  of 
their  ministers  or  patrons. 

It  is  necessary  to  observe  here  that  there  are 
many  congregations  in  London,  and  elsewhere, 
who,  although  they  are  called  Methodists,  yet  are 
neither  in  Mr.  Wesley's,  Mr.  Whitfield's,  nor 
the  new  connexion.  Some  of  these  are  supplied 
by  a  variety  of  ministers ;  and  others,  bordering 
more  upon  the  congregational  plan,  have  a  re- 
sident minister.  The  clergy  of  the  church  of 
England  who  strenuously  preach  up  her  doctrines 
and  articles,  are  called  Methodists.  A  distinct 
connexion  upon  Mr.  Whitfield's  plan,  was  formed 
and  patronised  by  the  late  Lady  Huntingdon, 
and  which  still  subsists.  The  term  Methodist, 
also,  is  applied  by  way  of  reproach  to  almost  every 
one  who  manifests  more  than  common  concern 
for  the  interests  of  religion,  and  the  spiritual 
good  of  mankind. 

V.  Methodists,  numbers,  and  success  of. — Not- 
withstanding the  general  contempt  once  thrown 
upon  them,  and  the  opposition  they  met  with, 
their  numbers  are  now  very  considerable. 

From  the  minutes  of  the  Eighty-eighth  Con- 
ference of  the,  Wesleyan  Methodists,  held  in 
Liverpool,  July  26,  1826,  it  appears  that  the 
number  of  persons  in  their  societies,  arc  as  fol- 
lows. In  Great  Britain,  231,045 ;  Ireland,  22,514; 
in  loreign  stations,  32,960;  and  the  supposed 
grand  total  throughout  the  world,  630,081;  of 
whom  2,418  are  preachers  in  the  connexion. 
The  Methodists  in  America  are  not  in  immediate 
connexion  with  the  Wesleyans  here.  Their 
church  is  Episcopal.  Among  the  Calvinistic 
Methodists,  there  are  also  a  considerable  number 
of  preachers,  whose  congregations  and  societies 
are  very  extensive  :  some  of  their  chapels  in  Lon- 
don are  the  largest  and  best  attended  in  the 
world  :  it  is  almost  incredible  to  see  the  numbers 
of  people  who  flock  to  these  places.  As  to  their 
success  in  doing  good,  it  is  evident,  that  though 
many  ignorant  enthusiasts  have  been  found 
among  them,  yet  no  people  have  done  more  to 
moralize  mankind  than  they  :  nor  have  they  rested 
there;  they  have  not  only  contributed  to  render 
thousands  better  members  of  society,  but  been 
the  instruments  of  promoting  their  spiritual  and 
eternal  interests.  Their  simplicity  of  language, 
fervour  of  address,  patience  in  opposition,  unwea- 
riednessin  labour,  piety  ol  conduct,  and  dependence 
on  Almighty  Cod,  are  certainly  worthy  of  the 
greatest  praise,  and  call  for  the  imitation  of  many 
who  unjustly  condemn  them.  See  History  of  Me- 
thodism ;  (iillies's  Life  of  \\ldtjicld,and  Works; 
Coke's  Life  of  Wesley}  Macgovan's  Shaver; 
Wesley's  Works;  Benson's  Vindication  and 
Apology  for  the  Methodists;  Fletcher's  Works; 
282  -- 


MILLENNIUM 

Bogue  and  Bennett' s  History  of  the  Dissenters- 
vol.  iii. ;   Walker's  Address  to  the  Methodists. 

METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH 
IN  THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  first 
Methodist  Society  in  the  United  States  was 
formed  in  the  city  of  New  York,  in  1766,  by 
some  emigrants  from  Ireland.  In  1768,  a  meet* 
ing-house  was  erected  in  John-street.  During 
the  war  of  the  Revolution  all  the  preachers,  ex- 
cept Mr.  Asbury,  returned  to  their  native  land. 
In  1784,  Dr.  Thomas  Coke  came  to  America  with 
powers  to  constitute  the  Methodist  Societies  into 
an  independent  church.  Before,  the  preachers 
were  considered  only  as  laymen,  and  did  not 
administer  the  ordinances.  Mr.  Asbury  was 
ordained  bishop  by  Dr.  Coke  in  1784.  The 
number  of  members  at  this  time  was  14,988,  and 
of  preachers  83.  The  clergy  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  consists  of  bishops,  presiding 
elders,  elders,  deacons,  and  an  unordained  order 
of  licensed  preachers.  The  ministry  is  divided 
into  itinerant  and  local.  The  former  are  con- 
stantly engaged  in  preaching  and  pastoral  labour, 
under  the  direction  of  the  bishops  and  conferences; 
the  latter  perform  these  offices  only  as  opportu- 
nity offers.  The  highest  authority  of  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church  is  the  general  conference, 
which  meets  once  in  four  years,  and  consists  of 
delegates  from  the  annual  conferences,  in  the 
ratio  of  one  delegate  for  every  seven  itinerant 
preachers.  The  annual  conferences  are  22  in 
number,  dividing  the  whole  territory  of  the  United 
States.  These  conferences  consist  of  all  the  tra- 
velling preachers  in  the  connexion.  The  body 
has  increased  with  unexampled  rapidity  in  our 
country,  since  from  their  last  reports  (1844)  it  ap- 
pears, that  the  sum  total  of  members  in  connexion 
with  the  40  conferences,  amounts  to  1,056,912, 
and  of  travelling  preachers  39S3 ;  making  them 
by  many  thousands  the  most  numerous  religious 
denomination  in  the  United  States.* — B. 

METROPOLITAN,  a  bishop  of  a  mother 
church,  or  of  the  chief  church  in  the  chief  city. 
An  archbishop.  See  articles  Bishop  Episcopacy. 
MILITANT,  from  viilitans,  fighting;  a  term 
applied  to  the  church  on  earth,  as  engaged  in  a 
warfare  with  the  world,  sin,  and  the  devil ;  in  dis- 
tinction from  the  church  triumphant  in  heaven. 

MILLENARIANS,  orCHiLiAMSTs,  a  name 
given  to  those  who  believe  the  saints  willreigr.  on 
earth  with  Christ  1,000  years.    See  next  article. 

MILLENNIUM,  "  a  thousand  years ;"  gene- 
rally employed  to  denote  the  thousand  years,  du- 
ring which,  according  to  an  ancient  tradition  in 
the  church,  grounded  on  some  doubtful  texts  in 
the  Apocalypse  and  other  Scriptures,  our  blessed 
Saviour  shall  reign  with  the  faithful  upon  earth 
after  the  first  resurrection,  before  the  final  com- 
pletion of  beatitude. — Though  there  has  been  no 
age  of  the  church  in  which  the  millennium  was 
not  admitted  by  individual  divines  of  the  first 
eminence,  it  is  yet  evident  from  the  writings  of 
Eusebius,  Irenaeus,  Origen,  and  others  among 
the  ancients,  as  well  as  from  the  histories  of  Du- 
pin,  Mosheim,  and  all  the  moderns,  that  it  was 
never  adopted  by  the  whole  church,  or  made  an 
article  of  the  established  creed  in  any  nation. 

About  the  middle  of  the  fourth  century  the 
Millenarians  held  the  following  tenets: 


*  For  an  account  of  the  Methodist  Protestant  Church 
and  a  more  detailed  account  of  lite  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church,  see  JlppaiJii.  Nos,  1  and  2 


MILLENNIUM 

1st,  That  the  city  of  Jerusalem  should  be  re- 
built, and  that  the  land  of  Judea  should  be  the 
habitation  of  those  who  were  to  reign  on  the  earth 
a  thousand  years. 

2ndly,  That  the  first  resurrection  was  not  to 
be  confined  to  the  martyrs,  but  that,  after  the  fall 
of  Antichrist,  all  the  just  were  to  rise,  and  all 
that  were  on  the  earth  were  to  continue  for  that 
space  of  time. 

3rdly,  That  Christ  shall  then  come  down  from 
heaven,  and  be  seen  on  earth,  and  reign  there 
with  his  servants. 

4thly,  That  the  saints,  during  this  period,  shall 
enjoy  all  the  delights  of  a  terrestrial  paradise. 

These  opinions  were  founded  upon  several 
passages  in  Scripture,  which  the  Millenarians, 
among  the  fathers,  understood  in  no  other  than  a 
literal  sense ;  but  which  the  moderns,  who  hold 
that  opinion,  consider  as  partly  literal  and  partly 
metaphorical.  Of  these  passages,  that  upon 
which  the  greatest  stress  has  been  laid  we  believe 
to  be  the  following  : — "  And  I  saw  an  angel  come 
down  from  heaven,  having  the  key  of  the  bottom- 
less pit,  and  a  great  chain  in  his  hand.  And  he 
aid  hold  on  the  dragon,  that  old  serpent,  which 
<s  the  devi!  and  Satan,  and  bound  him  a  thousand 
years,  and  cast  him  into  the  bottomless  pit,  and 
shut  him  up,  and  set  a  seal  upon  him,  that  he 
should  deceive  the  nations  no  more,  till  the  thou- 
sand years  should  be  fulfilled  ;  and,  after  that,  he 
must  be  loosed  a  little  season.  And  I  saw  thrones, 
and  they  sat  upon  them,  and  judgment  was  given 
unto  them  ;  and  I  saw  the  souls  of  them  that  were 
beheaded  for  the  witness  of  Jesus  and  for  the 
word  of  God,  and  which  had  not  worshipped  the 
beast,  neither  his  image,  neither  had  received  his 
mark  upon  their  foreheads,  nor  in  their  hands ; 
and  they  lived  and  reigned  with  Christ  a  thou- 
sand years.  But  the  rest  of  the  dead  lived  not 
again  till  the  thousand-  years  were  finished.  This 
is  the  first  resurrection,"  Rev.  xx.  1 — 6.  This 
passage  all  the  ancient  Millenarians  took  in  a 
sense  grossly  literal,  and  taught,  that,  during  the 
Millennium,  the  saints  on  earth  were  to  enjoy 
every  bodily  delight.  The  moderns,  on  the  other 
hand,  consider  the  powers  and  pleasures  of  this 
kingdom  as  wholly  spiritual ;  and  they  represent 
them  as  not  to  commence  till  after  the  conflagra- 
tion of  the  present  earth.  But  that  this  last  sup- 
position is  a  mistake,  the  very  next  verse  but  one 
assures  us;  for  we  are  there  told,  that,  "when 
the  thousand  years  are  expired,  Satan  shall  be 
loosed  out  of  his  prison,  and  shall  go  out  to  de- 
ceive the  nations  which  are  in  the  four  quarters 
of  the  earth;"  and  we  have  no  reason  to  believe 
that  he  will  have  such  power  or  such  liberty  in 
"the  new  heavens  and  the  new  earth,  wherein 
dwellrth  righteousness."  We  may  observe,  how- 
ever, the  following  things  respecting  it:  1.  That 
the  Scriptures  afford  us  ground  to  believe  that 
the  church  will  arrive  to  a  state  of  prosperity 
winch  it  never  has  vet  enjoyed,  Rev.  xx.  4,  7; 
F-s.  Ixxii.  11;  Is.  u.  2j  4;  xi.  1);  xlix.  23;  lx.; 
Dan.  vit.  27. — 2.  That  this  will  continue  at  least 
a  thousand  years,  or  a  considerable  space  of  time, 
in  which  the  work  of  salvation  may  be  fully  ac- 
complished in  the  utmost  extent  and  glory  of  it. 
In  this  time,  in  which  the  world  will  soon  be  filled 
with  real  Christians,  and  continue,  full  by  con- 
stant propagation,  to  supply  the  place  of  those 
who  leave  the  world,  there  will  be  many  thousands 
born  and  live  on  the  earth,  to  each  one  that  has 
283 


MILLENNIUM 

been  born  and  lived  in  the  preceding  six  thousand 
years ;  so  that,  if  they  who  shall  be  born  in  that 
thousand  years  shall  be  all,  or  most  of  them 
saved  (as  they  will  be,)  there  will,  on  the  whole, 
be  many  thousands  of  mankind  saved  to  one  that 
shall  be  lost. — 3.  This  will  be  a  state  of  great 
happiness  and  glory.  Some  think  that  Christ 
will  reign  personally  on  earth,  and  that  there  will 
be  a  literal  resurrection  of  the  saints,  Rev.  xx.  4, 
7;  but  I  rather  suppose  that  the  reign  of  Christ 
and  resurrection  of  saints  alluded  to  in  that  pas- 
sage, is  only  figurative ;  and  that  nothing  more 
is  meant,  than  that,  before  the  general  judgment, 
the  Jews  shall  be  converted,  genuine  Christianity 
be  diffused  through  all  nations,  and  that  Christ 
shall  reign,  by  his  spiritual  presence,  in  a  glorious 
manner.  It  will,  however,  be  a  time  of  eminent 
holiness,  clear  light  and  knowledge,  love,  peace, 
and  friendship,  agreement  in  doctrine  and  wor- 
ship. Human  life,  perhaps,  will  rarely  be  en- 
dangered by  the  poisons  of  the  mineral,  vegetable, 
and  animal  kingdoms.  Beasts  of  prey,  perhaps, 
will  be  extirpated,  or  tamed  by  the  power  of  mftn. 
The  inhabitants  of  every  place  will  rest  secure 
from  fear  of  robbery  and  murder.  War  shall  be 
entirely  ended.  Capital  crimes  and  punishments 
be  heard  of  no  more.  Governments  placed  on 
fair,  just,  and  humane  foundations.  The  torch 
of  civil  discord  will  be  extinguished.  Perhaps 
Pagans.  Turks,  Deists,  and  Jews,  will  be  as  few 
in  number  as  Christians  are  now.  Kings,  nobles, 
magistrates,  and  rulers  in  churches,  shall  act  with 
principle,  and  be  forward  to  promote  the  best  in- 
terests of  men :  tyranny,  oppression,  persecution, 
bigotry,  and  cruelty,  shall  cease.  Business  will 
be  attended  to  without  contention,  dishonesty, 
and  covctousness.  Trades  and  manufactures  will 
be  carried  on  with  a  design  to  promote  the  gene- 
ral good  of  mankind,  and  not  with  selfish  interests, 
as  now.  Merchandise  between  distant  countries 
will  be  conducted  without  fear  of  an  enemy  ;  and 
works  of  ornament  and  beauty,  perhaps,  shall 
not  be  wanting  in  those  days.  Learning,  which 
has  always  flourished  in  proportion  as  rel'gion 
has  spread,  shall  then  greatly  increase,  and  bo 
employed  for  the  best  of  purposes.  Astronomy 
geography,  natural  history,  metaphysics,  and  all 
the  useful  sciences,  will  be  better  understood,  and 
consecrated  to  the  service  of  God;  and  I  caunot 
help  thinking  that  by  the  improvements  which 
have  been  made,  and  are  making,  in  ship-building, 
navigation,  electricity,  medicine,  &e.,  that  "the 
tempest  will  lose  half  its  force,  the  lightning  lose 
half  its  terrors,"  and  the  human  frame  not  be  near 
so  much  exposed  to  danger.  Above  all,  the  Bible 
will  be  more  highly  appreciated,  its  harmony 
perceived,  its  superiority  owned,  and  its  energy 
felt  by  millions  of  human  beings.  In  fact,  the 
earth  shall  be  filled  with  the  knowledge  of  the 
Lord  as  the  waters  cover  the  sea. — 4.  The  time 
when  the  Millennium  will  commence  cannot  be 
fully  ascertained ;  but  the  common  idea  is,  that 
it  will  be  in  the  seven  thousandth  year  of  the 
world.  It  will,  most  probably,  come  on  by  de- 
grees, and  be  in  a  manner  introduced  years  before 
that  time.  And  who  knows  but  the  present  con- 
vulsions among  different  nations ;  the  overthrow 
which  popery  has  had  in  places  where  it  has  been 
so  dominant  for  hundreds  of  years ;  the  fulfilment 
of  prophecy  respecting  infidels,  and  the  falling 
away  of  many  in  the  last  times ;  and  yet,  in  the 
midst  of  all,  the  number  of  Missionaries  sent  into 


MINISTER 
different  parts  of  the  world,  together  with  the 
increase  0/  Gospel  ministers  ;  the  thousands  of 
ignorant  children  that  have  been  taught  to  read 
tne  Bible,  and  the  vast  number  of  different  socie- 
ties that  have  been  lately  instituted  for  the  be- 
nevolent purpose  of  informing  the  minds  and 
impressing  the  heartsof  the  ignorant;  who  knows, 
I  say,  but  what  these  things  are  the  forerunners 
of  events  of  the  most  delightful  nature,  and  which 
may  usher  in  the  happy  morn  of  that  bright  and 
glorious  day  when  the  whole  world  shall  be  filled 
with  his  glory,  and  all  the  ends  of  the  earth  see 
the  salvation  of  our  God?  See  Hopkins  on  the 
MUlenn. ;  Whitby's  Treatise  on  it,  at  the  end  of 
his  2nd  vol.  of  his  Annotations  on  the  New  Test.; 
Robert  Gray's  Discourses,  dis.  10;  Bishop  New- 
ton's Twenty-fifth  Diss,  on  the  Proph. ;  Bella- 
mys Treat,  on  the  Millennium.  There  are  four 
admirable  papers  of  Mr.  Shrubsole's  on  the  sub- 
ject, in  the  6th  vol.  of  the  Theol.  Misc. ;  Lard- 
ner's  Cred.  4th,  5th,  7th,  and  9th  vols.;  Mo- 
sheim's  Eccl  Hist.  cent.  3,  p.  11,  ch.  19;  Tay- 
lor's Sermons  on  the  Millennium  ;  Illustrations 
of  Prophecy,  ch.  31. 

MILLENNIAL  CHURCH.  See  Shakers. 

MIND,  a  thinking,  intelligent  being;  other- 
wise called  spirit,  or  soul.  See  Sort,.  Dr. 
Watts  has  given  us  some  admirable  thoughts  as 
to  the  improvement  of  the  mind.  "  There  are 
five  eminent  means  or  methods,"  he  observes, 
"  whereby  the  mind  is  improved  in  the  knowledge 
of  things;  and  these  are,  observation,  reading, 
instruction  by  lectures,  conversation,  and  medi- 
tation ;  which  last,  in  a  most  peculiar  manner,  is 
called  study."  See  Watts  on  the  Mind,  a  book 
which  no  student  should  be  without. 

MINIMS  a  religious  order  in  the  church  of 
Rome,  founded  by  St.  Francis  de  Paula,  towards 
the  end  of  the  fifteenth  century.  Their  habit  is 
a  coarse  black  woollen  stuff,  with  a  woollen 
girdle  of  the  same  colour,  tied  in  five  knots. 
f  hey  arc  not  permitted  to  quit  their  habit  and 
girdle  night  or  day.  Formerly  they  went  bare- 
footed, but  are  now  allowed  the  use  of  shoes. 

MINISTER,  a  name  applied  to  those  who 
arc  pastors  of  a  congregation,  or  preachers  of 
God's  word.  They  are  also  called  divines,  and 
may  be  distinguished  into  polemic,  or  those  who 
possess  controversial  talents ;  casuistic,  or  those 
who  resoive  cases  of  conscience ;  experimental, 
those  who  address  themselves  to  the  feelings, 
cases,  and  circumstances  of  their  hearers;  and, 
lastly,  practical,  those  who  insist  upon  the  per- 
formance of  all  those  duties  which  the  word  of 
God  enjoins.  An  able  minister  will  have  some- 
thing of  all  these  united  in  him,  though  he  may 
not  excel  in  all;  and  it  becomes  every  one  who 
is  a  candidate  for  the  ministry  to  get  a  clear  idea 
of  each,  that  he  may  not  be  deficient  in  the  dis- 
charge of  that  work  which  is  the  most  important 
that  can  be  sustained  by  mortal  beings.  Many 
volumes  have  been  written  on  this  subject,  but 
we  must  be  content  in  this  place  to  offer  only  a  few 
remarks  relative  to  it.  In  the  first  place,  then,  it 
must  be  observed,  that  ministers  of  the  Gospel 
ought  to  be  sound  as  to  their  principles.  They 
must  be  men  whose  hearts  are  renovated  by  di- 
vine grace,  and  whose  sentiments  are  derived 
from  the  sacred  oracles  of  divine  truth.  A  mi- 
nister without  principles  will  never  do  any  good  ; 
and  he  who  professes  to  believe  in  a  system, 
should  see  to  it  that  it  accords  with  the  word  of 
231 


MINISTER 
God.  His  mind  should  clearly  perceive  the 
beauty,  harmony,  and  utility  of  the  doctrines, 
while  his  heart  should  be  deeply  impressed  with 
a  sense  of  their  value  and  importance. — 2.  They 
should  he  mild  and  affable  as  to  their  dispositions 
and  deportment.  A  haughty  imperious  spirit  is 
a  disgrace  to  the  ministerial  character,  and  gene- 
rally brings  contempt.  They  should  learn  to 
bear  injuries  with  patience,  and  be  ready  to  do 
good  to  every  one ;  be  courteous  to  all,  without 
cringing  to  any ;  be  affable  without  levity,  and 
humble  without  pusillanimity ;  conciliating  tho 
affections  without  violating  the  truth ;  connecting 
a  suavity  of  manners  with  a  dignity  of  character ; 
obliging  without  flattery;  and  throwing  off  all 
reserve  without  running  into  the  opposite  extreme 
of  volubility  and  trifling. — 3.  They  should  be  su- 
perior as  to  their  knowledge  and  talents.  Though 
many  have  been  useful  without  what  is  called 
learning,  yet  none  have  been  so  without  some 
portion  of  knowledge  and  wisdom.  Nor  has  God 
Almighty  ever  sanctified  ignorance,  or  conse- 
crated it  to  his  service ;  since  it  is  the  effect  of 
the  fall,  and  the  consequence  of  our  departure 
from  the  Fountain  of  intelligence.  Ministers, 
therefore,  especially,  should  endeavour  to  break 
these  shackles,  get  their  minds  enlarged,  and 
stored  with  all  useful  knowledge.  Tne  Bible 
should  be  well  studied,  and  that,  if  possible,  in 
the  original  language.  The  scheme  of  salvation 
by  Jesus  Christ  should  be  well  understood,  with 
all  the  various  topics  connected  with  it.  Nor  will 
some  knowledge  of  history,  natural  philosophy, 
logic,  mathematics,  and  rhetoric,  be  useless.  A 
clear  judgment,  also,  with  a  retentive  memory, 
inventive  faculty,  and  a  facility  of  communica- 
tion, should  be  obtained. — 4.  They  should  be  dili- 
gent as  to  their  studies.  Their  time  especially 
should  be  improved,  and  not  lost  by  too  much 
sleep,  formal  visits,  indolence,  reading  useless 
books,  studying  useless  subjects.  Every  day 
should  have  its  work,  and  every  subject  its  due 
attention.  Some  advise  a  chapter  in  the  Hebrew 
Bible,  and  another  in  the  Greek  Testaments,  to 
be  read  every  day.  A  well-chosen  system  of  di- 
vinity should  be  accurately  studied.  The  best 
definitions  should  be  obtained,  and  a  constant  re- 
gard paid  to  all  those  studies  which  savour  of 
religion,  and  have  some  tendency  to  public  good. 
— 5.  Ministers  should  be  extensive  as  to  their  be- 
nevolence and  candour.  A  contracted  bigoted 
spirit  ill  becomes  those  who  preach  a  Gospel  which 
breathes  the  purest  benevolence  to  mankind.  This 
spirit  has  done  more  harm  among  all  parties  than 
many  imagine;  and  is,  in  my  opinion,  one  of  the 
most  powerful  engines  the  devil  makes  use  of  to 
oppose  the  best  interests  of  mankind ;  and  it  is 
really  shocking  to  observe  how  sects  and  parties 
have  all,  in  their  turns,  anathematized  each 
other.  Now,  while  ministers  ought  to  contend 
earnestly  for  the  faith  once  delivered  to  the  saints, 
they  must  remember  that  men  always  will  think 
different  from  each  other ;  that  prejudice  of  edu- 
cation has  great  influence;  that  difference  of 
opinion  as  to  non-essential  things  is  not  of  such 
importance  as  to  be  a  ground  of  dislike.  Let  the 
ministers  of  Christ,  then,  pity  the  weak,  forgive 
the  ignorant,  bear  with  the  sincere  though  mis- 
taken zealot,  and  love  all  who  love  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ. — 6.  Ministers  should  be  zealous  and 
faithful  in  their  public  work.  The  sick  must  be 
visited ;  children  must  be  catechised ;  the  crdik 


MINISTERIAL 

nances  administered ;  and  the  word  of  God 
preached.  These  things  must  be  taken  up, 
not  as  a  matter  of  duty  only,  but  of  pleasure,  and 
executed  with  faithfulness ;  and,  as  they  are  of 
the  utmost  importance,  ministers  should  attend  to 
them  with  all  that  sincerity,  earnestness,  and 
zeal  which  that  importance  demands.  An  idle, 
frigid,  indifferent  minister  is  a  pest  to  society,  a 
disgrace  to  his  profession,  an  injury  to  the  church, 
and  offensive  to  God  himself. — 7.  Lastly,  minis- 
ters should  be  uniform  as  to  their  conduct.  No 
brightness  of  talent,  no  superiority  of  intellect,  no 
extent  of  knowledge,  will  ever  be  a  substitute  for 
this.  They  should  not  only  possess  a  luminous 
mind,  but  set  a  good  example.  This  will  pro- 
cure dignity  to  themselves,  give  energy  to  what 
they  say,  and  prove  a  blessing  to  the  circle  in 
which  they  move.  In  fine,  they  should  be  men 
of  prudence  and  prayer,  light  and  love,  zeal  and 
knowledge,  courage  and  humility,  humanity 
and  religion.  See  Declamation,  Elociuence, 
Preaching  and  Sermons,  in  this  work;  Dr. 
Smith's  Led.  on  the  Sacred  Office ;  Gerard's 
Pastoral  Care ;  Mar  gill' 8  Address  to  Young 
Clergymen  ;  Chrysostom  on  the  Priesthood  ; 
Baxter's  Reformed  Pastor ;  Burnet's  Pastoral 
Care;  Watts's  Humble  Attempt;  Dr.  Edwards's 
Preacher  ;  Mason's  Student  and  Pastor  ;  Gib- 
bon's Christian  Minister ;  Mather's  Student 
and  Preacher  ;  Ostervald's  Lectures  on  the  Sa- 
yred  Ministry;  Robinson's  Claude;  Doddridge's 
Lectures  on  Preaching  and  the  Ministerial 
Office. 

MINISTRY,  GOSPEL,  an  ordinance  ap- 
pointed for  the  purpose  of  instructing  men  in  the 
principles  and  knowledge"  of  the  Gospel,  Eph.  iv. 
8,  11 ;  Rom.  x.  15;  Heb.  v.  4.  That  the  Gos- 
pel ministry  is  of  divine  origin,  and  intended  to 
be  kept  up  in  the  church,  will  evidently  appear, 
if  we  consider  the  promises,  that  in  the  last  and 
best  times  of  the  New  Testament  dispensation 
there  would  be  an  instituted  and  regular  ministry 
in  her,  Eph  iv.  8,  11 ;  Tit.  i.  5 ;  1  Pet.  v.;  I  Tini. 
i.;  also  from  the  names  of  office  peculiar  to  some 
members  in  the  church,  and  not  common  to  all, 
Eph.  iv.  8,  11 ;  from  the  duties  which  are  repre- 
sented as  reciprocally  binding  on  ministers  and 
people,  Heb.  xiii.  7,  17.  1  Pet.  v.  2,  3,  4;  from 
the  promises  of  assistance  which  were  given  to 
the  first  ministers  of  the.  new  dispensation,  Matt, 
xxviii.  20 ;  and  from  the  importance  of  a  Gospel 
ministry,  which  is  represented  in  the  Scripture  as 
a  very  great  blessing  to  them  who  enjoy  it,  and 
the.  removal  of  it  as  one  of  the  greatest  calamities 
which  can  befal  any  people,  Rev.  ii.  and  iii.  See 
books  under  last  article. 

MINISTERIAL  CALL,  a  term  used  to  de- 
note that  right  or  authority  which  a  person  re- 
ceives to  preach  the  Gospel.  This  call  is  consi- 
dered as  twofold,  divine  and  ecclesiastical.  The 
following  things  seem  essential  to  a  divine  call : 
1.  A  holy,  blameless  life. — 2.  An  ardent  and 
constant  inclination  and  aeal  to  do  good. — 
3.  Abilities  suited  to  the  work  ;  such  as  know- 
ledge, aptness  to  teach,  courage,  &c. — 4.  An 
opportunity  afforded  in  Providence  to  be  useful. 
An  ecclesiastical  call  consists  in  the  election  which 
is  made  of  any  person  to  be  a  pastor.  But  here 
the  Episcopalian  and  Dissenter  differ  ;  the  former 
believing  that  the  choice  and  call  of  a  minister 
rest  with  the  superior  clergy,  or  those  who  have 
the  gift  of  an  ecclesiastical  benefice ;  the  latter 
255 


MIRA  2LE 
supposes  that  it  should  rest  on  the  suffrage  of 
the  people  to  whom  he  is  to  minister.  The 
Churchman  reasons  thus:  "  Though  the  people 
may  be  competent  judges  of  the  abilities  of  their 
tradesmen,  they  cannot  be  allowed  to  have  an 
equal  discernment  in  matters  of  science  and  eru- 
dition. Daily  experience  may  convince  us  how 
injudiciously  preferment  would  be  distributed  by 
popular  elections.  The  modesty  of  genius  would 
stand  little  chance  of  being  distinguished  by  an 
ignorant  multitude.  The  most  illiterate,  the  most 
impudent,  those  who  could  most  dexterously  play 
the  hypocrite,  who  could  best  adapt  their  preach- 
ing to  the  fanaticism  of  the  vulgar,  would  be  the 
only  successful  candidates  for  public,  favour. 
Thus  moderation  and  literature  would  soon  be 
banished,  and  a  scene  of  corruption,  confusion, 
and  madness  would  prevail."  But  specious  as 
these  arguments  seem,  they  have  but  little  force 
on  the  mind  of  the  Congregationalist,  who  thus 
reasons :  "  The  church  being  a  voluntary  society, 
none  imposed  upon  her  members  by  men  can  be 
related  to  them  as  their  pastor  without  their  own 
consent.  None  can  so  well  judge  what  gifts  are 
best  suited  to  their  spiritual  edification  as  Chris- 
tians themselves.  The  Scriptures  allow  the 
election  of  pastors  in  ordinary  cases  to  adult 
Christians,  and  to  none  else,  Acts  i.  15,  26 ;  vL 
1,  6 ;  xiv.  23.  Christ  requires  his  people  to  try 
the  spirits,  which  supposeth  their  ability  to  do  so. 
and  their  power  to  choose  such  only  as  they  find 
most  proper  to  edify  their  souls,  and  to  refuse 
others,  1  John  iv.  1.  The  introduction  of  minis- 
ters into  their  office  by  patronage,  of  whatever 
form,  hath  its  origin  from  popery,  tends  to  esta- 
blish a  tyranny  over  men's  conscience,  which 
and  whom  Christ  hath  made  free,  and  to  fill  pul- 
pits with  wicked  and  indolent  clergymen.  Who- 
ever will  attentively  examine  the  history  of  the 
primitive  times,  will  find  that  all  ecclesiastical 
officers  for  the  first  three  hundred  years  were 
elected  by  the  people."  We  must  refer  the  reader 
for  more  on  this  subject  to  the  articles  Church, 
Episcopacy,  and  Independents. 

MIRACLE,  in  its  original  sense,  is  a  word  of 
the  same  import  with  wonder ;  but,  in  its  usual 
and  more  appropriate  signification,  it  denotes  "an 
effect  contrary  to  the  established  constitution  and 
course  of  things,  or  a  sensible  deviation  from  the 
known  laws  of  nature." 

"  That  the  visible  world,"  says  Dr.  Gleig,  "is 
governed  by  stated  general  rules,  or  that  there  is  an 
order  of  causes  and  effects  established  in  every 
part  of  the  system  of  nature,  which  falls  under 
our  observation,  is  a  fact  which  cannct.  be  contro- 
verted. If  the  Supreme  Being,  as  some  have 
supposed,  be  the  only  real  agent  in  the  universe, 
we  have  the  evidence  of  experience,  that  in  the 
particular  system  to  which  we  belong  he  act3  by 
stated  rules.  If  he  employs  inferior  agents  to 
conduct  the  various  motions  from  which  the  phe- 
nomena result,  we  have  the  same  evidence  that 
he  has  subjected  those  agents  to  certain  fixed 
laws,  commonly  called  the  laws  of  nature.  On 
either  hypothesis,  effects  which  are  produced  by 
the  regular  operation  of  these  laws,  or  which  arc 
conformable  to  the  established  course  of  events, 
are  properly  called  natural;  and  every  contra- 
diction to  this  constitution  of  the  natural  system, 
and  the  correspondent  course  of  events  in  it,  is 
called  a  miracle. 

'■'  If  this  definition  of  a  miracle   be  iust,  no 


MIRACLE 
event  can  be  deemed  miraculous  merely  because 
it  is  strange,  or  even  to  us  unaccountable ;  since 
it  may  be  nothing  more  than  a  regular  effect  of 
some  unknown  law  of  nature.  In  this  country 
earthquakes  ore  rare;  anil  tor  monstrous  births, 
perhaps,  no  particular  and  satisfactory  account 
can  be  given ;  yet  an  earthquake  is  as  regular  an 
effect  of  the  established  laws  of  nature  as  any  of 
those  with  which  we  are  most  intimately  acquaint- 
ed; and,  under  circumstances  in  which  there 
would  always  be  the  same  kind  of  production, 
the  monster  is  nature's  genuine  issue.  It  is 
therefore  necessary,  before  we  can  pronounce 
any  effect  to  be  a  true  miracle,  that  the  circum- 
stances under  which  it  is  produced  be  known, 
and  that  the  common  course  of  nature  be  in  some 
degree  understood  :  fin  in  all  those  cases  in  which 
v»V  are  totally  ignorant  of  nature,  it  is  impossible 
to  determine  what  is,  or  what  is  not,  a  deviation 
from  its  course.  Miracles,  therefore,  are  not,  as 
some  have  represented  them,  appeals  to  our  igno- 
rance. They  suppose  some  antecedent  know- 
ledge of  the  course  of  nature,  without  which  no 
proper  judgment  can  be  formed  concerning 
them ;  though  with  it  their  reality  may  be  so 
apparent  as  to  prevent  all  possibility  of  a  dispute. 

"Thus,  were  a  physician  to  cure  a  blind  man 
of  a  cataract,  by  anointing  his  eyes  with  a  che- 
mical preparation  which  we  had  never  before 
seen,  and  to  the  nature  and  effects  of  which  wc 
are  absolute  strangers,  the  cure  would  undoubted- 
ly be  wonderful ;  but  we  could  not  pronounce,  it 
miraculous;  because,  for  any  thing  known  to  us, 
)t  might  be  the  natural  effect  of  the  operation  of 
the  unguent  on  the  eye.  But  were  he  to  recover 
his  patient  merely  by  commanding  him  to  see, 
or  by  anointing  his  eves  with  spittle,  we  should 
with  the  utmost  confidence  pronounce  the  cure 
to  be  a  miracle;  because  we  know  perfectly  that 
neither  the  human  voice  nor  human  spittle  have, 
by  the  established  constitution  of  things,  any 
such  power  over  the  diseases  of  the  eye. 

"if  miracles  be  effects  contrary  to  the  esta- 
blished constitution  of  things,  we  are  certain  that 
they  will  never  be  performed  on  trivial  occasions. 
The  constitution  of  things  was  established  by  the 
Creator  and  Governor  of  the  universe,  and  is  un- 
doubtedly the  offspring  of  infinite  wisdom,  pur- 
suing a  plan  for  the  best  of  purposes.  From 
this  plan  no  deviation  can  be  made  but.  by  God 
himself,  or  by  some  powerful  being  acting  with 
his  permission.  Tke  plans  de\ised  by  wisdom 
are  steady  in  proportion  to  their  perfection,  and 
the  plans  of  infinite  wisdom  must  be  absolutely 
perfect.  From  this  consideration,  some  men  have 
ventured  to  conclude  that  no  miracle  was  ever 
wrought,  or  can  rationally  be  expected ;  but  ma- 
turer  reflection  must  soon  satisfy  us  that  all  such 
concljsions  are  hasty. 

"  Man  is  unquestionably  the  principal  creature 
in  this  world,  and  apparently  the  only  one  in  it 
who  is  capable  of  being  made  acquainted  with  the 
relation  in  which  he  stands  to  his  Creator.  "VVe 
cannot,  therefore,  doubt,  but  that  such  of  the  laws 
of  nature  as  extend  not  their  operation  beyond  the 
limits  of  this  earth,  were  established  chiefly,  if  not 
solelv,  for  the  good  of  mankind  ;  ami  if,  in  any 
particular  circumstances,  that  good  can  lie  more 
effectually  promoted  ly  an  occasional  deviation 
from  those  laws,  such  a  deviation  may  be  reason- 
ably exj>ccted. 

"  Wc  know  from  history,  that  almost  all  man- 
280 


MIRACLE 
kind  were  once  sunk  into  the  grossest  ignorance 
of  the  most  important  truths ;  that  they  knew  not 
the  Being  by  whom  they  were  created  and  sup- 
ported ;  that  they  paid  divine  adoration  to  stocks, 
stones,  and  the  vilest  reptiles;  and  that  they  were 
slaves  to  the  most  impious,  cruel,  and  degrading 
superstitions. 

"From  this  depraved  state  it  was  surely  not 
unworthy  of  the  Divine  Being  to  rescue  his  help- 
less creatures,  to  enlighten  their  understandings 
that  they  might  perceive  what  is  right,  and  to 
present  to  them  motives  of  sufficient  force  to  en- 
gage them  in  the  practice  of  it.  But  the  under- 
standings of  ignorant  barbarians  cannot  be  en- 
lightened by  arguments ;  because  of  the  force  of 
such  arguments  as  regard  moral  science  they  are 
not  qualified  to  judge.  The  philosophers  of 
Athens  and  Rome  inculcated,  indeed,  many  ex- 
cellent moral  precepts,  and  they  sometimes  ven- 
tured to  expose  the  absurdities  of  the  reigning 
superstition  ;  but  their  lectures  had  no  influence 
upon  the  multitude;  and  they  had  themselves  im- 
bibed such  erroneous  notions  respecting  the  attri- 
butes of  the  Supreme  Being,  and  the  nature  of 
the  human  soul,  and  converted  those  notions  into 
first  principles,  of  which  they  would  not  permit 
an  examination,  that  even  among  them  a  tho- 
rough reformation  was  not  to  be  expected  from 
the  powers  of  reasoning.  It  is  likewise  to  be  ob- 
served, that  there  are  many  truths  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  mankind,  which  unassisted  reason 
could  never  have  discovered.  Amongst  these, 
we  may  confidently  reckon  the  immortality  of  the 
soul,  the  terms  upon  which  God  will  save  sinners, 
and  the  manner  in  which  that  all-perfect  Being 
may  be  acceptably  worshipped  :  about  all  of  which 
philosophers  were  in  such  uncertainty,  that,  ac- 
cording to  Plato,  '  Whatever  is  set  right,  and  as 
it  should  be,  in  the  present  e\il  state  of  the  world, 
can  be  so  only  by  the  particular  interposition  of 
God.' 

"  An  immediate  revelation  from  heaven,  there- 
fore, was  the  only  method  by  which  infinite  wisdom 
and  perfect  goodness  could  reform  a  bewildered 
and  vicious  race.  But  this  revelation,  at  whatever 
time  we  suppose  it  given,  must  have  been  made 
directly  either  to  some  chosen  individuals  com- 
missioned to  instruct  others,  or  to  every  man  and 
woman  for  whose  benefit  it  was  ultimately  in- 
tended. Were  every  person  instructed  in  the 
knowledge  of  his  duty  By  immediate  inspiration, 
and  were  the  motives  to  practise  it  brought  home 
to  his  mind  by  God  himself,  human  nature  would 
be  wholly  changed ;  men  would  not  be  moral 
agents,  nor  by  consequence  be  capable  either  of 
reward  or  of  punishment.  It  remains,  therefore, 
that,  if  God  has  been  graciously  pleased  to  en- 
lighten and  reform  mankind,  without  destroying 
that  moral  nature  which  man  possesses,  he  can 
have  done  it  only  by  revealing  his  truth  to  cer- 
tain chosen  instruments,  who  were  the  imme- 
diate instructors  of  their  contemporaries,  and 
through  them  have  been  the  instructors  of  suc- 
ceeding ages. 

"  Let  us  suppose  this  to  have  been  actually  the 
case,  and  consider  how  those  inspired  teachers 
could  communicate  to  others  every  truth  which 
had  lieen  revealed  to  themselves.  They  might 
easily,  if  it  were  part  of  their  duty,  deliver  a 
sublime  system  of  natural  and  moral  science,  and 
establish  it  upon  the  common  basis  of  experiment 
and  demonstration ;  but  what  foundation  could 


MIRACLE 
tlicy  lay  for  those  truths  which  unassisted  reason 
cannot  discover,  and  which,  when  they  are  re- 
vealed, appear  to  have  no  necessary  relation  to 
any  thing  previously  known  ?  To  a  hare  affirma- 
tion  that  they  hud  been  immediately  received 
from  God,  no  rational  being  could  be  expected  to 
assent.  The  teachers  might  be  men  of  known 
veracity,  whose  simple  assertion  would  be  ad- 
mitted as  sufficient  evidence  for  any  fact,  in  con- 
formity with  the  laws  of  nature ;  but  as  every 
man  has  the  evidence  of  his  own  consciousness 
and  experience  that  revelations  from  heaven  are 
deviations  from  these  laws,  an  assertion  so  ap- 
parently extravagant  would  be  rejected  as  false, 
unless  supported  by  some  better  proof  than  the 
mere  affirmation  of  the  teacher.  In  this  state  of 
things  we  can  conceive  no  evidence  sufficient  to 
make  such  doctrines  be  received  as  the  truths  of 
God,  but  the  power  of  working  miracles  com- 
mitted to  him  who  taught  them.  This  would,  in- 
deed, be  fully  adequate  to  the  purpose;  for,  if 
there  were  nothing  in  the  doctrines  themselves 
impious,  immoral,  or  contrary  to  truths  already 
known,  the  only  thing  which  could  render  the 
teacher's  assertion  incredible  would  be  its  im- 
plying such  an  intimate  communion  with  God  as 
is  contrary  to  the  established  course  of  things,  by 
which  men  are  left  to  acquire  all  their  knowledge 
by  the  exercise  of  their  own  faculties.  Let  us 
now  suppose  one  of  those  inspired  teachers  to  tell 
his  countrymen,  that  he  did  not  desire  them,  on 
his  ipse  dixit,  to  believe  that  he  had  any  preter- 
natural communion  with  the  Deity,  but  that,  for 
the  truth  of  his  assertion,  he  would  give  them  the 
evidence  of  their  own  senses ;  and  after  this  de- 
claration, let  us  suppose  him  immediately  to  raise 
a  person  from  the  dead  in  their  presence,  merely 
by  calling  upon  him  to  come  out  of  his  grave. 
Would  not  the  only  possible  objection  to  the 
man's  veracity  be  removed  by  this  miracle  ?  and 
his  assertion  that  he  had  received  such  and  such 
doctrines  from  God  be  as  fully  credited  as  if  it  re- 
lated to  the  most  common  occurrence  ?  Undoubt- 
edly it  would ;  for  when  so  much  preternatural 
power  was  visibly  communicated  to  this  person, 
no  one  could  have  reason  to  question  his  having 
received  an  equal  portion  of  preternatural  know- 
ledge. A  palpable  deviation  from  the  known 
laws  of  nature  in  one  instance  is  a  sensible  proof 
that  such  a  deviation  is  possible  in  another ;  and 
in  such  a  case  as  this,  it  is  the  witness  of  God 
to  the  truth  of  a  man. 

"  Miracles,  then,  under  which  we  include  pro- 
phecy, are  the  only  direct  evidence  which  can  be 
given  of  divine  inspiration.  When  a  religion,  or 
any  religious  truth,  is  to  be  revealed  from  heaven, 
they  appear  to  be  absolutely  necessary  to  enforce 
its  reception  among  men ;  and  this  is  the  only 
case  in  which  we  can  suppose  them  necessary, 
or  believe  for  a  moment  that  they  ever  have  been 
or  will  be  performed. 

"  The  history  of  almost  every  religion  abounds 
with  relations  of  prodigies  and  wonders,  and  of 
the  intercourse  of  men  with  the  gods :  but  we  know 
of  no  religious  system,  those  cf  the  Jews  and 
Christians  excepted,  which  appealed  to  miracles 
as  the  sole  evidence  of  its  truth  and  divinity. 
The  pretended  miracles  mentioned  by  Pagan 
historians  and  poets,  are  not  said  to  have  been 
publicly  wrought  to  enforce  the  truth  of  a  new 
religion,  contrary  to  the  reigning  idolatry.  Many 
ol  them  may  be  clearly  shown  to  have  been  mere 
•287 


MIRACLE 
natural  events  ;  others  of  them  are  represented  as 
having  been  performed  in  secret,  on  the  most 
trivial  occasions,  and  in  obscure  and  fabulous 
ages  long  prior  to  the  sera  of  the  writers  by  whom 
they  are  recorded ;  and  such  of  them  as  at  first 
view  appear  to  be  best  attested,  are  evidently 
tricks  contrived  for  interested  purposes,  to  flatter 
power,  or  to  promote  the  prevailing  superstitions. 
For  these  reasons,  as  well  as  on  account  of  the 
immoral  character  of  the  divinities  by  whom  they 
are  said  to  have  been  wrought,  they  are  altogether 
unworthy  of  examination,  and  carry  in  the  very 
nature  of  them  the  completest  proofs  of  false 
hood  and  imposture. 

"  But  the  miracles  recorded  of  Moses  and  of 
Christ  bear  a  very  different  character.  None  of 
them  are  represented  as  wrought  on  trivial  oc- 
casions. The  writers  who  mention  them  were 
eye-witnesses  of  the  facts ;  which  they  affirm  to 
have  been  performed  publicly,  in  attestation  of 
the  truth  of  their  respective  systems.  They  are, 
indeed,  so  incorporated  with  these  systems,  that 
the  miracles  cannot  be  separated  from  the  doc- 
trines; and  if  the  miracles  be  not  really  per- 
formed, the  doctrines  cannot  possibly  be  true. 
Besides  all  this,  they  were  wrought  in  support  of 
revelations  which  opposed  all  trie  religious  sys- 
tems, superstitions,  and  prejudices,  of  the  age  in 
which  they  were  given ;  a  circumstance  which  of 
itself  sets  them,  in  point  of  authority,  infinitely 
above  the  Pagan  prodigies,  as  well  as  the  lying 
wonders  of  the  Romish  church. 

"  It  is  indeed,  we  believe,  universally  admitted, 
that  the  miracles  mentioned  in  the  book  of  Exo- 
dus, and  in  the  four  Gospels,  might,  to  those 
who  saw  them  performed,  be  sufficient  evidence 
of  the  divine  inspiration  of  Moses  and  ot  Christ : 
but  to  us  it  may  be  thought  that  they  are  no 
evidence  whatever,  as  we  must  believe  in  the  mi- 
racles themselves,  if  we  believe  in  them  at  all, 
upon  the  bare  authority  of  human  testimony. 
Why,  it  has  been  sometimes  asked,  are  not  mi- 
racles wrought  in  all  ages  and  countries?  If  the 
religion  of  Christ  was  to  be  of  perpetual  duration, 
every  generation  of  men  ought  to  have  complete 
evidence  of  its  truth  and  divinity. 

"To  the  performance  of  miracles  in  every  age 
and  in  every  country,  perhaps  the  same  objections 
lie,  as  to  the  immediate  inspiration  of  every  in- 
dividual. Were  those  miracles  universally  re- 
ceived as  such,  men  would  be  so  overwhelmed 
with  the  number  rather  than  with  the  force  of  their 
authority,  as  hardly  to  remain  masters  of  their 
own  conduct ;  and  in  that  case  the  very  end  of 
all  miracles  would  be  defeated  by  their  frequency. 
The  truth,  however,  seems  to  be,  that  miracles 
so  frequently  repeated  would  not  be  received  as 
such,  and  of  course  would  have  no  authority; 
because  it  would  be  difficult,  and  in  many  cases 
impossible,  to  distinguish  them  from  natural 
events.  If  they  recurred  regularly  at  certain  in- 
tervals, we  could  not  prove  them  to  be  deviations 
from  the  known  laws  of  nature,  because  we 
should  have  the  same  experience  for  one  series  of 
events  as  for  the  other;  for  the  regular  succession 
of  preternatural  effects,  as  for  the  established 
constitution  and  course  of  things. 

"  Be  this,  however,  as  it  may,  we  shall  take  the 
liberty  to  affirm,  that  for  the  reality  of  the  Gos- 
pel miracles  we  have  evidence  as  convincing  to 
the  reflecting  mind,  though  not  so  striking  to 
vulgar  apprehension,  as  those  had  who  were  con- 


MIRACLE 

temporary  with  Christ  and  his  apostles,  and  ac- 
tually saw  the  mighty  works  which  he  performed. 
Mr.  Hume,  indeed,  endeavoured  to  prove,  that 
'no  testimony  is  sufficient  to  establish  a  miracle,' 
and  the  reasoning  employed  for  this  purpose  is, 
that  '  a  miracle  being  a  violation  of  the  laws  of 
nature,  which  a  firm  and  unalterable  experience 
has  established,  the  proof  against  a  miracle,  from 
the  very  nature  of  the  fact,  is  as  entire  as  any 
argument  from  experience  can  be  :  whereas  our 
experience  of  human  veracity,  which  (according 
to  him)  is  the  sole  foundation  of  the  evidence  of 
testimony,  is  far  from  being  uniform,  and  can 
therefore  never  preponderate  against  that  expe- 
rience which  admits  of  no  exception."  This 
boasted  and  plausible  argument  has,  with  equal 
candour  and  acuteness,  been  examined  by  Dr. 
Campbell,  in  his  Dissertation  on  Miracles,  who 
justly  observes,  that  so  far  is  experience  from 
being  the  sole  foundation  of  the  evidence  of  testi- 
mony, that,  on  the  contrary,  testimony  is  the  sole 
foundation  of  by  far  the  greater  part  of  what  Mr. 
Hume  calls  firm  and  unalterable  experience ; 
and  that  if,  in  certain  circumstances,  we  did  not 
give  an  implicit  faith  to  testimony,  our  know- 
ledge of  events  would  be  confined  to  those  which 
had  fallen  under  the  immediate  observation  of 
our  own  senses. 

"  We  need  not  waste  time  here  in  proving  that 
the  miracles,  as  they  are  presented  in  the  wri- 
tings of  the  New  Testament,  were  of  such  a 
nature,  and  performed  before  so  many  witnesses, 
that  no  imposition  could  possibly  be  practised  on 
the  senses  of  those  who  affirm  that  they  were 
present.  From  every  page  of  the  Gospels  this 
is  so  evident,  that  the  philosophical  adversaries  of 
the  Christian  faith  never  suppose  the  apostles  to 
have  been  themselves  deceived,  but  boldly  accuse 
them  of  bearing  false  witness.  But  if  this  accu- 
sation be  well  founded,  their  testimony  itself  is 
as  great  a  miracle  as  any  which  they  record  of 
themselves,  or  of  their  Master.  For  if  they  sat 
down  to  fabricate  their  pretended  revelation,  and 
to  contrive  a  series  of  miracles  to  which  they 
were  unanimously  to  appeal  for  its  truth,  it  is 
plain,  since  they  proved  successful  in  their  daring 
enterprise,  that  they  must  have  clearly  foreseen 
every  possible  circumstance  in  which  they  could 
be.  placed,  and  have  prepared  consistent  answers  to 
every  question  that  could  be  put  to  them  by  their 
most  inveterate  and  most  enlightened  enemies ; 
by  the  statesman,  the  lawyer,  the  philosopher, 
and  the  priest.  That  such  foreknowledge  as  this 
would  have  been  miraculous,  will  not  surely  be 
denied ;  since  it  forms  the  very  attribute  which 
we  find  it  most  difficult  to  allow  even  to  God 
himself.  It  is  not,  however,  the  only  miracle 
which  this  supposition  would  compel  us  to  swal- 
low. The  very  resolution  of  the  apostles  to  pro- 
pagate the  belief  of  false  miracles  in  support  of 
such  a  religion  as  that  which  is  taught  in  the 
New  Testament,  is  as  great  a  miracle  as  human 
imagination  can  easily  conceive. 

"  When  they  formed  this  design,  either  they 
must  have  hoped  to  succeed,  or  they  must  have 
foreseen  that  they  should  fail  in  their  undertak- 
ing ;  and,  in  either  case,  they  chose  evil  for  its 
(nori  sake.  They  could  not,  if  they  foresaw  that 
they  should  fail,  look  for  any  thing  but  that  con- 
tempt, disgrace,  and  persecution,  which  were 
then  the  inevitable  consequences  of  an  unsuc- 
cessful endeavour  to  overthrow  the  established 


MIRACLE 

religion.  Nor  could  their  prospects  be  brighter 
upon  the  supposition  of  their  success.  As  they 
knew  themselves  to  be  false  witnesses,  and  im- 
pious deceivers,  they  could  have  no  hopes  beyond 
the  grave ;  and  by  determining  to  oppose  all  the 
religious  systems,  superstitions,  and  prejudices 
of  the  age  in  which  they  lived,  they  wilfully  ex- 
posed themselves  to  inevitable  misery  in  the  pre- 
sent life,  to  insult  and  imprisonment,  to  stripes 
and  death.  Nor  can  it  be  said  that  they  might 
look  forward  to  power  and  affluence,  when  they 
should,  through  sufferings,  have  converted  their 
countrymen  •  for  so  desirous  were  they  of  obtain* 
ing  Doming  but  misery,  as  the  end  of  their  mis- 
sion, that  they  made  their  own  persecution  a  test 
of  the  truth  of  their  doctrines.  They  introduced 
the  Master  from  whom  they  pretended  to  have 
received  these  doctrines  as  telling  them,  that 
'  they  were  sent  forth  as  sheep  in  the  midst  of 
wolves ;  that  they  should  be  delivered  up  to 
councils  and  scourged  in  synagogues ;  that  they 
should  be  hated  of  all  men  for  his  name's  sake ; 
that  the  brother  should  deliver  up  the  brother  to 
death,  and  the  father  the  child ;  and  that  he  who 
took  not  up  his  cross,  and  followed  after  him,  was 
not  worthy  of  him.'  The  very  system  of  reli- 
gion, therefore,  which  they  invented  and  resolved 
to  impose  upon  mankind,  was  so  contrived,  that 
the  worldly  prosperity  of  its  preachers,  and  even 
their  exemption  from  persecution,  was  incom- 
patible with  its  success.  Had  these  clear  predic- 
tions of  the  Author  of  that  religion,  under  whom 
the  apostles  acted  only  as  ministers,  not  been 
verified,  all  mankind  must  have  instantly  per- 
ceived that  their  pretence  to  inspiration  was 
false,  and  that  Christianity  was  a  scandalous  and 
impudent  imposture.  All  this  the  apostles  could 
not  but  foresee  when  they  formed  their  plan  for 
deluding  the  world.  Whence  it  follows,  that 
when  they  resolved  to  support  their  pretended 
revelation  by  an  appeal  to  forged  miracles,  they 
wilfully,  and  with  their  eyes  open,  exposed  them- 
selves to  inevitable  misery,  whether  they  should 
succeed  or  fail  in  their  enterprise  ;  and  that  they 
concerted  their  measures  so  as  not  to  admit  of  a 
possibility  of  recompence  to  themselves,  either  in 
this  life  or  in  that  which  is  to  come.  But  if  there 
be  a  law  of  nature,  for  the  reality  of  which  we 
have  better  evidence  than  we  have  for  others,  it 
is,  that  '  no  man  can  choose  misery  for  its  awn 
sake,'  or  make  the  acquisition  of  it  the  ultimate 
end  of  his  pursuit.  The  existence  of  other  laws 
of  nature  we  know  by  testimony,  and  our  own 
observation  of  the  regularity  of  their  effects.  The 
existence  of  this  law  is  made  known  to  us  not 
only  by  these  means,  but  also  by  the  still  cleaver 
and  more  conclusive  evidence  of  our  own  con- 
sciousness. 

"  Thus,  then,  do  miracles  force  themselves 
upon  our  assent  in  every  possible  view  which  we 
can  take  of  this  interesting  subject.  If  the  testi- 
mony of  the  first  preachers  of  Christianity  were 
true,  the  miracles  recorded  in  the  Gospel  were 
certainly  performed,  and  the  doctrines  of  our  reli- 
gion are  derived  from  heaven.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  that  testimony  were  false,  either  God 
must  have  miraculously  efiaced  from  the  minds 
of  those  by  whom  it  was  given  all  the  associa- 
tions formed  between  their  sensible  ideas  and  the 
words  of  language!  or  he  must  have  endowed 
tliose  men  with  the  gifts  of  prescience,  and  have 
impelled  them  to  fabricate  9  pretended  revelation 


MIRACLE 
for  the  purpose  of  deceiving  the  world,  and  in- 
volving themselves  in  certain   and  foreseen  de- 
struction. 

The  power  necessary  to  perform  the  one  series 
of  those  miracles  may,  for  any  thing  known  to 
us,  be  as  great  as  that  which  would  be  requisite 
for  the  performance  of  the  other ;  and,  considered 
merely  as  exertions  of  preternatural  power,  they 
may  seem  to  balance  each  other,  and  to  hold  the 
mind  in  a  state  of  suspense  ;  but  when  we  take 
into  consideration  the  different  purposes  for  which 
these  opposite  and  contending  miracles  were 
wrought,  the  balance  is  instantly  destroyed.  The 
miracles  recorded  in  the  Gospels,  if  real,  were 
wrought  in  support  of  a  revelation  which,  in  the 
opinion  of  all  by  whom  it  is  received,  has  brought 
to  light  many  important  truths,  which  could  not 
otherwise  have  been  made  known  to  men ;  and 
which,  by  the  confession  of  its  adversaries,  con- 
tains the  purest  moral  precepts  by  which  the  con- 
duct of  mankind  was  ever  directed.  The  op- 
posite series  of  miracles,  if  real,  was  performed  to 
enable,  and  even  to  compel,  a  company  of  Jews, 
of  the  lowest  rank  and  of  the  narrowest  education, 
to  fabricate,  with  the  view  of  inevitable  destruc- 
tion to  themselves,  a  consistent  scheme  of  false- 
hood, and  by  an  appeal  to  forged  miracles  to 
impose  it  upon  the  world  as  a  revelation  from 
heaven.  The  object  of  the  former  miracles  is 
worthy  of  a  God  of  infinite  wisdom,  goodness, 
and  power ;  the  object  of  the  latter  is  absolutely 
inconsistent  with  wisdom  and  goodness,  which 
are  demonstrably  attributes  of  that  Being  by 
wham  alone  miracles  can  be  performed.  Whence 
it  follows,  that  the  supposition  of  the  apostles 
bearing  false  testimony  to  the  miracles  of  their 
Master,  implies  a  series  of  deviations  from  the 
Jaws  of  nature  infinitely  less  probable  in  them- 
selves than  those  miracles :  and  therefore,  by 
Mr.  Hume's  maxim,  we  must  necessarily  reject 
the  supposition  of  falsehood  in  the  testimony,  and 
admit  the  reality  of  the  miracles.  So  true  it  is, 
that  for  the  reality  of  the  Gospel  miracles  we 
have  evidence  as  convincing  to  the  reflecting 
mind  as  those  had  who  were  contemporary  with 
Christ  and  his  apostles,  and  were  actual  witnesses 
to  their  mighty  works." 

The  power  of  working  miracles  is  supposed  by 
some  to  have  been  continued  no  longer  than  the 
apostles'  days.  Others  think  that  it  was  con- 
tinued long  after.  It  seems  pretty  clear,  how- 
ever, that  miracles  universally  ceased  before 
Chrysostom's  time.  As  for  what  Augustine  says 
of  those  wrought  at  the  tombs  of  the  martyrs,  and 
some  other  places,  in  his  time,  the  evidence  is  not 
always  so  convincing  as  might  be  desired  in  facts 
of  importance.  The  controversy  concerning  the 
time  when  miraculous  power  ceased  was  car- 
ried on  by  Dr.  Middleton,  in  his  Free  Enquiry 
into  the  Miraculous  Powers,  &c. ;  by  Mr.  Yate, 
Mr.  Toll,  and  others,  who  suppose  that  miracles 
ceased  with  the  apostles.  On  the  contrary 
side  appeared  Dr.  Stebbing,  Dr.  Chapman,  Mr. 
Parker,  Mr.  Brooke,  and  others. 

As  to  the  miracles  of  the  Romish  church,  it  is 
evident,  as  Doddridge  observes,  that  many  of 
them  were  ridiculous  tales,  according  to  their  own 
historians ;  others  were  performed  without  any 
credible  witnesses,  or  in  circumstances  where  the 
performer  had  the  greatest  opportunity  fot  jug- 
gling :  and  it  is  particularly  remarkable,  that  they 
were  hardly  ever  wrought  where  thev  wem  most 
269  2  M 


MISER 

necessary,  i.  e.  in  countries  where  those  doctrinen 
are  renounced  which  that  church  esteems  of  thfi 
highest  importance.  See  Fleetwood,  Clarapede, 
Conybeare,  Campbell,  Lardncr,  Farmer,  Adams, 
and  Weston,  on  Miracles  ;  article  Miracle,  En- 
cyclop.  Brit. ;  Doddridge's  Lett.  lee.  101,  and 
135  ;  Lcland's  View  of  Deistical  Writers,  letter 
3,  4,  7 ;  Hurrion  on  the  Spirit,  p.  299,  &c. 

MIRTH,  joy,  gaiety,  merriment.  It  is  dis- 
tinguished from  cheerfulness  thus :  Mirth,  is 
considered  as  an  act;  cheerfulness  an  habit  of  the 
mind.  Mirth  is  short  and  transient ;  cheerfulness 
fixed  and  permanent.  "  Those  are  often  raised 
into  the  greatest  transports  of  mirth  who  are  sub- 
ject to  the  greatest  depressions  of  melancholy : 
on  the  contrary,  cheerfulness,  though  it  does  not 
give  such  an  exquisite  gladness,  prevents  us  from 
falling  into  any  depths  of  sorrow.  Mirth  is  like 
a  flash  of  lightning,  that  breaks  through  a  gloom 
of  clouds,  and  glitters  for  a  moment :  cheerfulness 
keeps  up  a  kind  of  day-light  in  the  mind,  and 
fills  it  with  a  steady  and  perpetual  serenity." 
Mirth  is  sinful,  1.  When  men  rejoice  in  that 
which  is  evil.  2  When  unreasonable.  3.  When 
tending  to  commit  sin.  4.  When  a  hindrance  to 
dutv.    5.  When  it  is  blasphemous  and  profane. 

MISANTHROPIST,  ^.m;,  a  hater  of 
mankind ;  one  that  abandons  society  from  a  prin- 
ciple of  discontent.  The  consideration  of  the 
depravity  of  human  nature  is  certainly  enough 
to  raise  emotions  of  sorrow  in  the  breast  of  every 
man  of  the  least  sensibility :  yet  it  is  our  duty  to 
bear  with  the  follies  of  mankind ;  to  exercise  a 
degree  of  candour  consistent  with  truth ;  to  lessen, 
if  possible,  by  our  exertions,  the  sum  of  moral 
and  natural  evil;  and  by  connecting  ourselves 
with  society,  to  add  at  least  something  to  the 
general  interests  of  mankind.  The  misanthro- 
pist, therefore,  is  an  ungenerous  and  dishonour- 
able character.  Disgusted  with  life,  he  seeks  a 
retreat  from  it:  like  a  coward,  he  flees  from  the 
scene  of  action,  while  he  increases  his  own  misery 
by  his  natural  discontent,  and  leaves  others  to 
do  what  they  can  for  themselves. 

The  following  is  his  character  more  at  large. 

"  He  is  a  man,"  says  Saurin,  "  who  avoids  so- 
ciety only  to  free  himself  from  the  trouble  of 
being  useful  to  it.  He  is  a  man,  who  considers 
his  neighbours  only  on  the  side  of  their  defects, 
not  knowing  the  art  of  combining  their  virtues 
with  their  vices,  and  of  rendering  the  imperfec- 
tions of  other  people  tolerable  by  reflecting  on  his 
own.  He  is  a  man  more  employed  in  finding 
out  and  inflicting  punishments  on  the  guilty, 
than  in  devising  means  to  reform  them.  He  is  a 
man  who  talks  of  nothing  but  banishing  and 
executing,  and  who,  because  he  thinks  his  talents 
are  not  sufficiently  valued  and  employed  by  his 
fellow-citizens,  or  rather  because  they  know  his 
foibles,  and  do  not  choose  to  be  subject  to  his 
caprice,  talks  of  quitting  cities,  towns  and  socie- 
ties, and  of  living  in  dens  or  deserts." 

MISER,  a  term  formerly  used  in  reference  to 
a  person  in  wretchedness  or  calamity  ;  but  it  now 
denotes  a  parsimonious  person,  or  one  who  is  co- 
vetous to  extremity  ;  who  denies  himself  even  the 
comforts  of  life  to  accumulate  wealth.  Avarice, 
says  Saurin,  may  be  considered  in  two  different 
points  of  light.  It  may  be  considered  in  thos* 
men,  or  rather  those  public  blood-suckers,  or,  as 
the  officers  of  the  Roman  emperor  Vespasian 
were  called,    those  sponges  of  society,  who,  in- 


MISCHNA 
(h  tun  tod  with  this  passion,  seek  after  riches  as  the 
supreme  good,  determine  to  acquire  it  by  any 

methods,  and  consider  the  ways  that  lead  to 
wealth,  legal  or  illegal,  as  the  only  road  for  them 
to  travel. 

Avarice,  however,  must  be  considered  in  a 
second  point  of  light.  It  not  only  consists  in 
committing  hold  crimes,  but  in  entertaining  mean 
ideas  and  practising  low  methods,  incompatible 
with  such  magnanimity  as  our  condition  ought  to 
inspire.  It  consists  not  only  in  omitting  to  serve 
God,  but  in  trying  to  associate  the  service  of  God 
with  that  of  mammon. 

How  many  forms  doth  avarice  take  to  disguise 
itself  from  the  man  who  is  guilty  of  it,  and  who 
will  be  drenched  in  the  guilt  of  it  till  the  day  he 
dies !  Sometimes  it  is  -prudence  which  requires 
him  to  provide  not  only  for  his  present  wants,  but 
for  such  as  he  may  have  iri  future.  Sometimes 
it  is  charity,  which  requires  him  not  to  give  so- 
ciety examples  of  prodigality  and  parade.  Some- 
times it  is  ■parental  love,  obliging  him  to  save 
something  for  his  children.  Sometimes  it  is  cir- 
cumspection, which  requires  him  not  to  supply 
people  who  make  an  ill  use  of  what  they  get. 
Sometimes  it  is  necessity,  which  obliges  him  to 
repel  artifice  by  artifice.  Sometimes  it  is  con- 
sciew  e,  which  convinces  him,  good  man,  that  he 
hatn  already  exceeded  in  compassion  and  alms- 
giving, and  done  too  much.  Sometimes  it  is 
equity,  for  justice  requires  that  every  one  should 
enjoy  the  fruit  of  his  own  labours,  and  those  of 
his  ancestors. — Such,  alas !  are  the  awful  pre- 
texts and  subterfuges  of  the  miser.  Saurin's 
Ser.  vol.  v.  ser.  12.  See  Avarice,  Covetous- 
ness. 

MISERY,  such  a  state  of  wretchedness,  un- 
nappiness,  or  calamity,  as  renders  a  person  an 
•bject  of  compassion. 

MISCHNA,  or  Miska,  (from  mj?,  iteravit,) 
a  part  of  the  Jewish  Talmud. 

The  Mischna  contains  the  text ;  and  the  Ge- 
mara, which  is  tiie  second  part  of  the  Talmud, 
contains  the  commentaries  :  so  that  the  Gemara 
is,  as  it  were,  a  glossary  on  the  Mischna. 

The  Mischna  consists  of  various  traditions  of 
the  Jews,  and  of  explanations  of  several  passages 
of  Scripture  :  these  traditions  serving  as  an  ex- 
plication of  the  written  law,  and  supplement  to  it, 
are  said  to  have  been  delivered  to  Moses  during 
the  time  of  his  abode  on  the  Mount ;  which  he 
afterwards  communicated  to  Aaron,  Eleazar,  and 
his  servant  Joshua.  By  these  they  were  trans- 
mitted to  the  seventy  elders;  by  them  to  the 
prophets,  who  communicated  them  to  the  men  of 
the  great  sanhedrim,  from  whom  the  wise  men 
of  Jerusalem  and  Babylon  received  them.  Ac- 
cording to  Prideaux's  account,  they  passed  from 
Jeremiah  to  Baruch,  from  him  to  Ezra,  and  from 
Ezra  to  the  men  of  the  great  synagogue,  the  last 
of  whom  was  Simon  the  Just,  who  delivered  them 
to  Antigonus  of  Socho ;  and  from  him  they  came 
down  in  regular  succession  to  Simeon,  who  took 
our  Saviour  in  his  arms ;  to  Gamaliel,  at  whose 
feet  Paul  was  educated;  and  last  of  all,  to  Rabbi 
Judah  the  Holy,  who  committed  them  to  writing 
in  the  Mischna.  But  Dr.  Prideaux,  rejecting  the 
Jewish  fiction,  observes,  that  after  the  death  of 
Simon  the  Just,  about  299  years  before  Christ, 
the  Mischnical  doctors  arose,  who  by  their  com- 
ments and  conclusions  added  to  the  number  of 
those  traditions  which  had  been  received  and  al- 
290 


MISREPRESENTATION 
lowed  by  Ezra  and  the  men  of  the  great  svra- 
gogue :  so  that  towards  the  middle  of  the  secrnd 
century  after  Christ,  under  the  empire  of  Anto- 
ninus Pius,  it  was  found  necessary  to  commit 
these  traditions  to  writing ;  more  especially  as 
their  country  had  considerably  suffered  under 
Adrian,  and  many  of  their  schools  had  been  dis- 
solved, and  their  learned  men  cut  off;  and  there- 
fore the  usual  method  of  preserving  their  traditions 
had  failed.  Rabbi  Judah  on  this  occasion  being 
rector  of  the  school  at  Tiberias,  and  president  ot 
the  sanhedrim  in  that  place,  undertook  the  work, 
and  compiled  it  in  six  books,  each  consisting  of 
several  tracts,  which  altogether  make  up  the 
number  of  sixty-three.  Prid.  Connex.  vol.  ii.  p. 
468,  &c.  ed.  9.  This  learned  author  computes, 
that  the  Mischna  was  composed  about  the  150th 
year  of  our  Lord ;  but  Dr.  Lightfoot  says,  that 
Rabbi  Judah  compiled  the  Mischna  about  the 
year  of  Christ  190,  in  the  latter  end  of  the  reign 
of  Commodus ;  or,  as  some  compute,  in  the  year 
of  Christ  220.  Dr.  Lardner  is  of  opinion  that 
this  work  could  not  have  been  finished  before  the 
year  190,  or  later.  Collection  of  Jewish  and 
Heathen  Testimonies,  vol.  i.  p.  178.  Thus  the 
book  called  the  Mischna  was  formed ;  a  book 
which  the  Jews  have  generally  received  with  the 
greatest  veneration.  The  original  has  been  pub- 
lished with  a  Latin  translation  by  Surenhusius, 
with  notes  of  his  own  and  others  from  the  learned 
Maimonides,  &c.  in  six  vols.  fol.  Amster.  A.  D- 
1698 — 1703.  See  Talmud.  It  is  written  in  a 
much  purer  style,  and  is  not  near  so  full  of  dreams 
and  visions  as  the  Gemara. 

MISREPRESENTATION,  the  act  of  wil- 
fully representing  a  thing  otherwise  than  it  is. 
"This,"  as  an  elegant  writer  observes,  "is  one 
of  the  greatest  mischiefs  of  conversation.  Self- 
love  is  continually  at  work  to  give  to  all  we  say 
a  bias  in  our  own  favour.  How  often  in  society, 
otherwise  respectable,  are  we  pained  with  narra- 
tions in  which  prejudice  warps,  and  self-love 
blinds !  How  often  do  we  see  that  withholding 
part  of  a  truth  answers  the  worst  ends  of  a  false- 
hood "  How  often  regret  the  unfair  turn  given  to 
a  cause  by  placing  a  sentiment  in  one  point  of 
view,  which  the  speaker  had  used  in  another! 
the  letter  of  truth  preserved,  where  its  spirit  is 
violated :  a  superstitious  exactness  scrupulously 
maintained  in  the  underparts  of  a  detail,  in  order 
to  impress  such  an  idea  of  integrity  as  shall  gain 
credit  for  the  misrepresenter,  while  he  is  design- 
edly mistaking  the  leading  principle !  How  may 
we  observe  a  new  character  given  to  a  fact  by  a 
different  look,  tone,  or  emphasis,  which  alters  it 
as  much  as  words  could  have  done !  the  false  im- 
pression of  a  sermon  conveyed,  when  we  do  not 
like  the  preacher,  or  when  through  him  we 
wish  to  make  religion  itself  ridiculous ;  the  care 
to  avoid  literal  untruths,  while  the  mischief  is 
better  effected  by  the  unfair  quotation  of  a  pas- 
sage divested  of  its  context :  the  bringing  together 
detached  portions  of  a  subject,  and  making  those 
parts  ludicrous,  when  connected,  which  were 
serious  in  their  distinct  position !  the  insidious 
use  made  of  a  sentiment,  by  representing  it  as  the 
opinion  of  him  who  had  only  brought  it  forward 
in  order  to  expose  it !  the  relating  opinions  which 
had  merely  been  put  hypothetically,  as  if  they 
were  the  avowed  principles  of  him  we  would  dis- 
credit !  that  subtle  falsehood  which  is  so  made  to 
incorporate  with  a  certain  quantity  of  truth,  that 


MISSION 
the  most  skilful  moral  chemist  cannot  analyze  or 
separate  them  !  for  a  good  misreprcscnter  knows 
that  a  successful  lie  must  have  a  certain  infusion 
of  truth,  or  it  will  not  go  down.  And  this 
amalgamation  is  the  test  of  his  skill ;  as  too  much 
truth  would  defeat  the  end  of  his  mischief,  and 
too  little  would  destroy  the  belief  of  the  hearer. 
All  that  indefinable  ambiguity  and  equivocation ; 
all  that  prudent  deceit,  which  is  rather  implied 
than  expressed ;  those  more  delicate  artifices  of 
the  school  of  Loyola  and  of  Chesterfield,  which 
allow  us,  when  we  dare  not  deny  a  truth,  yet  so 
to  disguise  and  discolour  it,  that  the  truth  we  re- 
nte shall  not  resemble  the  truth  we  heard :  these, 
and  all  the  thousand  shades  of  simulation  and 
dissimulation,  will  be  carefully  guarded  against  in 
the  conversation  of  vigilant  Christians." — Miss 
Hannah  More  on  Education,  vol.  ii.  p.  91. 

MISSAL,  the  Romish  mass-book,  containing 
the  several  masses  to  be  said  on  particular  days. 
It  is  derived  from  the  Latin  word  missa,  which  in 
the  ancient  Christian  Church  signified  every  part 
of  divine  service. 

MISSION,  a  power  or  commission  to  preach 
the  Gospel.  Thus  Jesus  Christ  gave  his  disciples 
their  mission,  when  he  said,  "  Go  ye  into  all  the 
world,  and  preach  the  Gospel  to  every  creature," 
See  next  article. 

MISSION,  an  establishment  of  people  zealous 
for  the  glory  of  God  and  tr  e  salvation  of  souls, 
who  go  and  preach  the  Gospel  in  remote  coun- 
tries, and  among  infidels.  No  man  possessed  of 
the  least  degree  of  feeling  or  compassion  for  the 
human  race  can  deny  the  necessity  and  utility  of 
Christian  missions.  Whoever  considers  that  the 
major  part  of  the  world  is  enveloped  in  the  gross- 
est darkness,  bound  with  the  chains  of  savage 
barbarity,  and  immersed  in  the  awful  chaos  of 
brutal  ignorance,  must,  if  he  be  not  destitute  of 
every  principle  of  religion  and  humanity,  concur 
with  the  design  and  applaud  the  principles  of 
those  who  engage  in  so  benevolent  a  work.  We 
shall  not,  however,  in  this  place,  enter  into  a  de- 
fence of  missions,  but  shall  present  the  reader 
with  a  short  view  of  those  that  have  been  esta- 
blished. 

In  the  sixteenth  century,  the  Romish  church 
particularly  exerted  herself  for  the  propagation 
of  their  religion.  The  Portuguese  and  Spaniards 
pretend  to  have  done  mighty  exploits  in  the  spread 
of  the  Christian  faith  in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Ame- 
rica :  but  when  we  consider  the  superstitions  they 
imposed  on  some,  and  the  dreadful  cruelties  they 
inflicted  on  others,  it  more  than  counterbalances 
any  good  that  was  done.  For  a  time,  the  Domi- 
nicans, Franciscans,  and  other  religious  orders, 
were  very  zealous  in  the  conversion  of  the  hea- 
then ;  but  the  Jesuits  outdid  them  in  all  their  at- 
tempts in  the  conversion  of  African,  Asian,  and 
American  infidels.  Xavier  spread  some  hints  of 
the  Romish  religion  through  the  Portuguese  set- 
tlements in  the  East  Indies,  through  most  of  the 
Indian  continent,  and  of  Ceylon.  In  1519  he 
sailed  to  Japan,  and  laid  the  foundation  of  a 
church  there,  which  at  one  time  was  said  to  have 
consisted  of  about  600,000.  After  him,  others 
penetrated  into  China,  and  founded  a  church, 
which  continued  about  170  years.  About  15S0, 
"rthers  penetrated  into  Chili  and  Peru,  in  South 
America,  and  converted  the  natives.  Others  be- 
stirred themselves  to  convert  the  Greeks,  Nesto- 
rians,  Mo- iophy  sites,  Abyssinians,  the  Egyptian 
291 


MISSION 
Copts.  "It  is,  however,"  as  one  observes,  "a 
matter  of  doubt  whether  the  disciples  of  a  Xavier, 
or  the  converts  of  a  Loyola  and  Dominic,  with 
their  partisans  of  the  Romish  church,  should  be 
admitted  among  the  number  of  Christians,  or 
their  labours  be  thought  to  have  contributed  to 
the  promotion  or  to  the  hindrance  of  the  religion 
of  Christ.  Certain  it  is,  that  the  methods  these 
men  pursued  tended  much  more  to  make  disciples 
to  themselves  and  the  pontiffs  of  Rome,  than  to 
form  the  mind  to  the  reception  of  evangelical 
truth.  With  ardent  zeal,  however,  and  unwearied 
industry,  these  apostles  laboured  in  this  work. 
In  1662  we  find  the  pope  established  a  congrega- 
tion of  cardinals,  de  propaganda  fide,  and  en- 
dowed it  with  ample  revenues,  and  every  thing 
which  could  forward  the  missions  was  liberally 
supplied.  In  1627,  also,  Urban  added  the  college 
for  the  propagation  of  the  faith;  in  which 
missionaries  were  taught  the  languages  of  the 
countries  to  which  they  were  to  be  sent.  France 
copied  the  example  of  Rome,  and  formed  an  esta- 
blishment for  the  same  purposes.  The  Jesuits 
claimed  the  first  rank,  as  due  to  their  zeal,  learn- 
ing, and  devotedness  to  the  holy  see.  The  Do- 
minicans, Franciscans,  and  others,  disputed  the 
palm  with  them.  The  new  world  and  the  Asiatic 
regions  were  the  chief  field  of  their  labours. 
They  penetrated  into  the  uncultivated  recesses 
of  America.  They  visited  the  untried  regions  of 
Siam,  Tonquin,  and  Cochin-China.  They  en- 
tered the  vast  empire  of  China  itself,  and  num- 
bered millions  among  their  converts.  They  dared 
affront  the  dangers  of  the  tyrannical  government 
of  Japan.  In  India  they  assumed  the  garb  and 
austerities  of  the  Brahmins,  and  boasted  on  the 
coasts  of  Malabar  of  a  thousand  converts  bap- 
tized in  one  year  by  a  single  missionary.  Their 
sufferings,  however,  were  very  great,  and  in 
China  and  Japan  they  were  exposed  to  the  most 
dreadful  persecutions,  and  many  thousands  were 
cut  off,  with,  at  last,  a  final  expulsion  from  the 
empires.  In  Africa  the  Capuchins  were  chiefly 
employed,  though  it  does  not  appear  that  they 
had  any  considerable  success.  And  in  America 
their  laborious  exertions  have  had  but  little  influ- 
ence, we  fear,  to  promote  the  real  conversion  of 
the  natives  to  the  truth. 

In  the  year  16*21,  the  Dutch  opened  a  church 
in  the  city  of  Batavia,  and  from  hence  ministers 
were  sent  to  Amboyna.  At  Leyden,  ministers 
and  assistants  were  educated  for  the  purpose  of 
missions  under  the  famous  Walams,  and  sent 
into  the  East,  where  thousands  embraced  the 
Christian  religion  at  Formosa,  Columba,  Java, 
Malabar,  &c;  and  though  the  work  declined  in 
some  places,  yet  there  are  still  churches  in  Cey- 
lon, Sumatra,  Ambiyna,  &c. 

About  1705,  Frederic  IV.,  of  Denmark,  ap- 
plied to  the  university  of  Halle,  in  Germany,  for 
missionaries  to  preach  the  Gospel  on  the  coast  of 
Malabar,  in  the  East  Indies;  and  Messrs.  Zie 
genbalg  and  Plutsche  were  the  first  employed  on 
this  important  mission ;  to  them  others  were  si  on 
added,  who  laboured  with  considerable  success. 
It  is  said  that  upwards  of  18,000  Gentoos  havo 
been  brought  to  the  profession  of  Christianity. 

A  yeat  work  has  been  carried  on  among  *.he 
Indian  nations  in  North  America.  One  of  the 
first  and  most  eminent  instruments  in  this  work 
was  the  excellent  Mr.  Elliott,  commonly  called 
the  Indian  apostle,  v/hof  from  the  time  of  hi* 


MISSION 

fmng  to  New  England,  in  1631,  to  his  death,  In 
690,  devoted  himself  to  this  great  work  by  his 
lips  and  pen ;  translating  the  Bible  and  other 
books  into  the  nalic  dialect.  Some  years  after  this, 
Thomas  Mahew,  Esq.,  governor  and  patentee  of 
the  islands  of  Martha's  Vineyard,  and  some 
neighbouring  islands,  greatly  exerted  himself  in 
the  attempt  to  convert  the  Indians  in  that  part  of 
America.  His  son  John  gathered  and  founded 
an  Indian  church,  which,  after  his  death,  not 
being  able  to  pay  a  minister,  the  old  gentleman 
himself,  at  seventy  years  of  age,  became  their  in- 
structor for  more  than  twenty  years,  and  his 
grandson,  and  great-grandson,  both  succeeded 
him  in  the  same  work.  Mr.  D.  Brainerd  was 
also  a  truly  pious  and  successful  missionary 
among  the  Susquehanna  and  Delaware  Indians. 
HLs  journal  contains  instances  of  very  extra- 
ordinary conversions. 

But  the  Moravians  have  exceeded  all  in  their 
missionary  exertions.  They  have  various  mis- 
sions: and,  by  their  persevering  zeal,  it  is  said 
upwards  of  23,000,  of  the  most  destitute  of  man- 
kind, in  different  regions  of  the  earth,  have  been 
brought  to  the  knowledge  of  the  truth.  Vast 
numbers  in  the  Danish  islands  of  St.  Thomas, 
St.  Jau  and  St.  Croix,  and  the  English  islands 
of  Jamaica,  Antigua,  Nevis,  Barbadoes,  St. 
Kitts,  and  Tobago,  have,  by  their  ministry,  been 
called  to  worship  God  in  spirit  and  in  truth.  In 
the  inhospitable  climes,  of  Greenland  and  Labra- 
dore  they  have  met  with  wonderful  success,  after 
undergoing  the  most  astonishing  dangers  and 
difficulties.  The  Arrowack  Indians,  and  the 
negroes  of  Surinam  and  Berhice,  have  been  col- 
lected into  bodies  of  faithful  people  by  them. 
Canada  and  the  United  States  of  North  America, 
have,  by  their  instrumentality,  afforded  happy 
evidences  of  the  power  of  the  Gospel.  Even 
those  esteemed  the  last  of  human  beings,  for 
brutishness  and  ignorance,  the  Hottentots,  have 
been  formed  into  their  societies ;  and  upwards  of 
seven  hundred  are  said  to  be  worshipping  God 
at  Bavians  Cloof,  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 
We  might,  also  mention  their  efforts  to  illumine 
the  distant  East,  the  coast  of  Coromandel,  and 
the  Nieobar  islands;  their  attempts  to  penetrate 
into  Abyssinia,  to  carry  the  Gospel  to  Persia  and 
Egypt,  -ind  to  ascend  the  mountains  of  Caucasus. 
In  fact,  where  shall  we  find  the  men  who  have 
laboured  as  these  have?  Their  invincible  pa- 
tience, their  well-regulated  zeal,  their  self-denial, 
their  constant  prudence,  deserve  the  meed  of 
highest  approbation.  Nor  are  they  wearied  in 
so  honourable  a  service ;  for  they  have  numerous 
missionaries  still  employed  in  different  parts  of 
the  world.     See  Moravians. 

Good  has  been  also  done  by  the  Wesleyan 
Methodists,  who  are  certainly  not  the  least  in 
missionary  work.  They  have  several  missiona- 
ries in  the  British  dominions  in  America  and 
in  the  West  Indies.  They  have  some  thousands 
of  members  in  their  societies  in  those  parts.    See 

MKTIinniSTS. 

In  1791,  a  society  was  instituted  among  the 
Baptists,  called,  'The  Particular  Baptisr  So- 
ciety for  propagating  the  Gospel  among  the 
Heathen  ;"  under  the  auspices  of  which  mission- 
aries were  sent  to  India,  and  favourable  accounts 
of  their  success  have  been  received.  We  learn, 
with  pleasure,  that  through  their  indefatigable 
industry,  the  New  Testament,  and  part  of  the 
292 


MODERATION 
Bible,  have  been  translated  and  printed  in  the 
Bengalee;  and  that  parts  of  the  Scriptures  have 
been  translated  into  ten  of  the  languages  spoken 
in  the  East.  See  Periodical  Accounts  of  this 
society. 

In  the  year  1795,  The  London  Missionary 
Society  was  formed.  This  is  not  confined  to 
one  body  of  people,  but  consists  of  Episcopalians, 
Presbyterians.  Seceders,  Methodists,  and  Inde- 
pendents, who  hold  an  annual  meeting  in  Lon- 
don in  May.  As  the  state  of  this  society  is 
before  the  public,  it  would  be  unnecessary  here 
to  enlarge ;  suffice  it  to  say,  that  it  is  now  on  the 
most  permanent  and  respectable  footing.  "  It  has 
assumed  consistency  and  order ;  it  combines  in- 
tegrity of  character,  fortitude  of  mind,  and  fixed- 
ness of  resolution,  with  a  continued  progression 
of  effort  for  the  exalted  purpose  of  presenting  the 
doctrines  of  the  blessed  Gospel  to  the  accept- 
ance of  the  perishing  heathen,  and  of  exhibiting 
an  uncorrupt  example  of  their  tendencies  and 
effects  in  their  own  characters  and  conduct." 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  societies,  others 
have  been  formed  of  less  note.  In  1699,  a  so- 
ciety was  instituted  in  England  for  ■promoting 
Christian  Knmcledge.  In  1701,  another  was 
formed  for  the  propagation  of  the  Gospel  in 
foreign  parts.  In  Scotland,  about  the  year  1700, 
a  society  was  instituted  for  the  Propagation  of 
Christian  Knowledge.  Recently,  some  clergy- 
men of  the  established  church  have  formed  one 
among  themselves.  Societies  for  spreading  the 
Gospel  also  have  been  instituted  in  various  other 
places.  From  the  whole,  it  seems  evident  that 
the  light  and  knowledge  of  the  glorious  Gospel 
will  be  more  diffused  than  ever  throughout  the 
earth.  And  who  is  there  that  has  any  concern 
for  the  souls  of  men,  any  love  for  truth  and  reli- 
gion, but  what  must  rejoice  at  the  formation, 
number,  and  success  of  those  institutions,  which 
have  not  the  mere  temporal  concerns  of  men,  but 
their  everlasting  welfare,  as  their  object?  My 
heart  overflows  with  joy,  and  mine  eyes  with 
tears,  when  I  consider  the  h-appy  and  extensive 
effects  which  are  likely  to  take  place.  The  un- 
tutored mind  will  receive  the  peaceful  principles 
of  religion  and  virtue  ;  the  savage  barbarian  will 
rejoice  in  the  copious  blessings,  and  feel  the  be- 
nign effects  of  civilization ;  the  ignorant  idolator 
will  be  directed  to  offer  up  his  prayers  and  praises 
to  the  true  God,  and  learn  the  way  of  salvation 
through  Jesus  Christ.  The  habitations  of  cru- 
elty will  become  the  abodes  of  peace  and  security, 
while  ignorance  and  superstition  shall  give  wat 
to  the  celestial  blessings  of  intelligence,  purity, 
and  joy.  Happy  men,  who  are  employed  as  in- 
struments in  this  cause!  who  forego  your  per- 
sonal comforts,  relinquish  your  native  country, 
and  voluntarily  devote  yourstives  to  the  most 
noble  and  honourable  of  services !  Peace  and 
prosperity  be  with  you  !  Miller's  History  of  the 
Propagation  of  Christ.;  Kennett's  ditto  ;  Gil- 
lies's  Historical  Collection ;  Carey's  Enquiry 
respecting  Missions;  Loskicll's  History  of  the 
Moravian  Missions;  Crantz's  History  of  Green' 
land  ;  Home's  Letters  on  Mitsioiis  ;  Sermons 
and  Reports  of  the  London  MLtsionary  Society. 

MISSIONARY  SOCIETIES.  Sec  So- 
cieties. 

MODERATION,  the  state  of  keeping  a  due 
mean  between  extremes  :  calmness,  temperance 
or  equaninu'y.     It  is  sometimes  used  with  refer- 


MONASTERY 
ence  to  our  opinions,  Rom.  xii.  3;  but  in  general 
it  respects  our  conduct  in  that  state  which  comes 
under  the  description  of  ease  or  prosperity  ;  and 
ought  to  take  place  in  our  wishes,  pursuits,  ex- 
pectations, pleasures,  and  passions. 

See  Bishop  Hall  on  Moderation,  ser.  16 ; 
Blair's  Sermons,  vol.  iii.  ser.  12 ;  Toplady's 
Works,  vol.  iii.  ser.  10. 

MODESTY  is  sometimes  used  to  denote 
humility,  and  sometimes  to  express  chastity. — 
The  Greek  word  xoo>ios,  modestus,  signifies 
neat  or  clean.  Modesty,  therefore,  consists  in 
purity  of  sentiment  and  manners,  inclining  us  to 
abhor  the  least  appearance  of  vice  and  indecency, 
and  to  fear  doing  any  thing  which  will  incur 
censure.  An  excess  of  modesty  may  be  called 
bashfulness,  and  the  want  of  it  impertinence. 
There  is  a  false  or  vicious  modesty,  which  influ- 
ences a  man  to  do  any  thing  that  is  ill  or  indis- 
creet; such  as,  through  fear  of  offending  his 
companions  he  runs  into  their  follies  or  excesses ; 
or  it  is  a  false  modesty  which  restrains  a  man 
from  doing  what  is  good  or  laudable;  such  as 
being  ashamed  to  speak  of  religion,  and  to  be 
seen  in  the  exercises  of  piety  and  devotion. 

MOLINISTS,  a  sect  in  the  Romish  chuTch 
who  follow  the  doctrine  and  sentiments  of  the 
Jesuit  Molina,  relating  to  sufficient  and  efficacious 
grace.  He  taught  that  the  operations  of  divine 
grace  were  entirely  consistent  with  the  freedom 
of  the  human  will ;  and  introduced  a  new  kind 
of  hypothesis  to  remove  the  difficulties  attending 
the  doctrines  of  predestination  and  liberty,  and 
to  reconcile  the  jarring  opinions  of  Augustines, 
Thomists,  Semi-Pelagians,  and  other  conten- 
tious divines.  He  affirmed  that  the  decree  of 
predestination  to  eternal  glory  was  founded  upon 
a  previous  knowledge  and  consideration  of  the 
merits  of  the  elect ;  that  the  grace,  from  whose 
operation  these  merits  are  derived,  is  not  effica- 
cious by  its  own  intrinsic  power  only,  but  also 
by  the  consent  of  our  own  will,  and  because  it  is 
administered  in  those  circumstances  in  which  the 
Deity,  by  that  branch  of  his  knowledge  which  is 
called  scientia  media,  foresees  that  it  will  be  effi- 
cacious. The  kind  of  prescience,  denominated 
in  the  schools  scientia  media,  is  that  foreknow- 
ledge of  future  contingents  that  arises  from  an 
acquaintance  with  the  nature  and  faculties  of  ra- 
tional beings,  of  the  circumstances  in  which  they 
shall  be  placed,  of  the  objects  that  shall  be  pre- 
sented to  them,  and  of  the  influence  which  their 
circumstances  and  objects  must  have  on  their 
actions. 

MONACHISM,  the  state  of  a  monk,  the 
monastic  life.     See  Monk. 

MONARCHIANS,  the  same  as  the  Patri- 
passians :  which  see. 

MONASTERY,  a  convent  or  house  built  for 
the  reception  of  religious ;  whether  it  be  abbey, 
priory,  nunnery,  or  the  like. 

Monastery  is  only  properly  applied  to  the 
houses  of  monks,  mendicant  friars,  and  nuns : 
the  rest  are  more  properly  called  religious  houses. 
For  the  origin  of  monasteries,  see  Monastic  and 
Monk. 

The  houses  belonging  to  the  several  religious 
orders  which  obtained  in  England  and  Wales, 
were  cathedrals,  colleges,  abbeys,  priories,  precep- 
tories,  commandries,  hospitals,  friaries,  hermit- 
ages, chantries,  and  free  chapels.  These  were 
under  the  direction  and  management  of  various 
293 


MONASTERY 
officers.    The  dissolution  of  houses  of  this  kind 
began  so  early  as  the  year  1312,  when  the  Tem- 
plars were  suppressed  ;  and  in  1323,  their  lands, 
churches,  advowsons,  and  liberties,  here  in  Eng- 
land, were  given,  by  17  Edw.  II.,  stat.  3,  to  the 
prior  and  brethren  of  the  hospital  of  St.  John  of 
Jerusalem.     In  the  yeaTs  1390,  1437,  1441, 1459, 
1497,  1505,  1508,  and  1515,  several  other  houses 
were  dissolved,  and  their  revenues  settled  on  dif- 
ferent colleges  in  Oxford  and  Cambridge.     Soon 
after  the  last  period,  cardinal  Wolsey,  by  licence 
of  the  king  and  pope,  obtained  a  dissolution  of 
above  thirty  religious  houses  for  the  founding 
and  endowing  his  colleges  at  Oxford  and  Ipswich. 
About  the  same  time  a  bull  was  granted  by  the 
same  pope  to  cardinal  Wolsey  to  suppress  monas- 
teries, where  there  were  not  above  six  monks,  to 
the  value  of  eight  thousand  ducats  a  year,  for  en- 
dowing Windsor  and  King's  College  in  Cam- 
bridge; and  two  other  bulls  were  granted  to 
cardinals  Wolsey  and   Campeius,  where  there 
were  less  than  twelve  monks,  and  to  annex  them 
to  the  greater  monasteries ;  and  another  bull  to 
the  same  cardinals  to  inquire  about  abbeys  to  be 
suppressed  in  order  to  be  made  cathedrals.     Al- 
though nothing  appears  to  have  been  done  in 
consequence  of  these  bulls,  the  motive  which  in- 
duced Wolsey  and  many  others  to  suppress  these 
houses,  was   the  desire  of  promoting  learning; 
and  archbishop  Cranmer  engaged  in  it  with  a 
new  of  carrying  on   the  Reformation.     There 
were  other  causes  that  concurred  to  bring  on 
their  ruin  :  many  of  the  religious  were  loose  and 
vicious ;  the  monks  were  generally  thought  to  be 
in  their  hearts  attached  to"the  pope's  supremacy  : 
their  revenues  were  not  employed  according  to 
the  intent  of  the  donors ;  many  cheats  in  images, 
feigned  miracles,  and  counterfeit  relics,  had  been 
discovered,  which  brought  the  monks  into  dis- 
grace ;  the  observant  friars  had  opposed  the  king's 
divorce  from  queen  Catharine ;  and  these  circum- 
stances operated,  in  concurrence  with  the  king's 
want  of  a  supply,  and  the  people's  desire  to  save 
their  money,  to  forward  a  motion  in  parliament, 
that,  in  order  to  support  the  king's  state,  and 
supply  his  wants,  all  the  religious  houses  might 
be  conferred  upon  the  crown,  which  were  not 
able  to  spend  above  200/.  a  year;  and  an  act  was 
passed  for  that  purpose,  27  Hen.  VIII.  c.   28. 
By   this  act   about   three   hundred   and   eighty 
houses  were  dissolved,  and  a  revenue  of  30,000/. 
or  32,000/.  a  year  came  to  the  crown ;  besides 
about  100,000/.  in  plate  and  jewels.     The  sup- 
pression of  these   houses  occasioned  discontent, 
and  at  length  an  open  rebellion ;  when  this  was 
appeased,  the  king  resolved  to  suppress  the  rest 
of  the  monasteries,  and  appointed  a  new  visita- 
tion, which  caused  the  greater  abbeys  to  be  sur- 
rendered apace :  and  it  was  enacted  by  31  Henry 
VIII.  c.  13,  that  all  monasteries  which  have  been 
surrendered  since  the  4th  of  February,  in  the 
27th  year  of  his  majesty's  rpign,  and  which  here 
after  shall  be  surrendered,  shall  be  vested  m  *he 
king.     The  knights  of  St.  John  of  Jerusalem 
were  also  suppressed  by  the  32  Hen.  VIII.  c.  24. 
The  suppression  of  these  greater  houses  by  these 
two  acts  produced  a  revenue  to  the  king  of  above 
100,000/.  a  year,  besides  a  large  sum  in  plate  and 
jewels.     The  last  act  of  dissolution  in  this  king's 
reign  was  the  act  of  37  Hen.  VIII.  c.  4,  for  dis- 
solving colleges,  free  chapels,  chantries,  &c.  which 
act  was  further  enforced  by  1  Edw.  VI.  c.  14> 
z  2 


MONASTERY 
By  this  act  were  suppressed  00  colleges,  1 10  hos- 
pitals, and  3,374  chantries  and  tree  chapels.  The 
number  of  houses  and  places  suppressed  from 
first",  to  last,  so  far  as  any  calculations  appear  to 
have  been  made,  seems  to  be  as  follows : 

Of  lesser  monasteries,  of  which  we  have  the 

valuation  .....         374 

Of  greater  monasteries  ....  186 
Belonging  to  the  hospitallers         -  48 

Colleges 90 

Hospitals 110 

Chantries  and  Free  Chapels    -        •  2374 

Total,  3182 

Besides  the  friars'  houses,  and  those  suppressed 
by  Wolsey,  and  many  small  houses  of  which  we 
have  no  particular  account. 

The  sum  total  of  the  clear  yearly  revenue  of 
the  several  houses  at  the  time  of  their  dissolution, 
of  which  we  have  any  account,  seems  to  be  as 
follows : 

Of  the  greater  monasteries,      .£104,919  13    3i 

Of  all  those  of  the  lesser  monas- 
teries of  which  we  have  the 
valuation        -        -        -  29,702     1  lOi 

Knights  hospitallers,  head  house 
in  London        -        -        -         2,385  12    8 

We  have  the  valuation  of  only 
28  of  their  houses  in  the 
country        ....     3,026    9    5 

Friars'  houses  of  which  we  have 
the  valuation        .        -        -        751    2    01 


Total,  £140,784  19    31 

I  f  proper  allowances  are  made  for  the  lesser  mo- 
nasteries and  houses  not  included  in  this  estimate, 
and  for  the  plate,  &c.  which  came  into  the  hands 
of  the  king  by  the  dissolution,  and  for  the  value 
of  money  at  that  time,  which  was  at  least  six 
times  as  much  as  at  present,  and  also  consider 
that  the  estimate  of  the  lands  was  generally  sup- 
posed to  be  much  under  the  real  worth,  we  must 
conclude  their  whole  revenues  to  have  been  im- 
mense. 

It  does  not  appear  that  any  computation  hath 
been  made  of  the  number  of  persons  contained  in 
the  religious  houses. 

Those  of  the  lesser  monasteries  dissolved 
by  27  Hen.  VIII.  were  reckoned  at 
about 10,000 

If  we  suppose  the  colleges  and  hospitals 
to  have  contained  a  proportionable 
number,  these  will  make  about         -        5,347 

If  we  reckon  the  number  in  the  greater 
monasteries  according  to  the  propor- 
tion of  their  revenues,  they  will  be 
about  35,000;  but  as  probably  they 
had  larger  allowances  in  proportion 
to  their  number  than  those  of  the 
Josser  monasteries,  if  we  abate  upon 
that  account  5,000,  they  will  then  be      30.000 

On  j  for  each  chantry  and  free  chapel  2,374 


Total  47,721 

But  as  the  e  were  probably  more  than  one  person 
a>  officiate  in  several  of  the  free  chapels,  and  there 
294 


MONASTERY 
were  other  houses  which  are  not  included  within 
this  calculation,  perhaps  they  may  be  computed 
in  one  general  estimate  at  about  50,000.  As 
there  were  pensions  paid  to  almost  all  those  of 
the  greater  monasteries,  the  king  did  not.  imme- 
diately come  into  the  full  enjoyment  of  their 
whole  revenues ;  however,  by  means  of  what  he 
did  receive,  he  founded  six  new  bishoprics,  viz. 
those  of  Westminster,  (which  was  changed  by 
queen  Elizabeth  into  a  deanery,  with  twelve  pre- 
bends and  a  school,)  Peterborough,  Chester, 
Gloucester,  Bristol,  and  Oxford.  And  in  eight 
other  sees  he  founded  deaneries  and  chapters,  by 
converting  the  priors  and  monks  into  deans  and 
prebendaries,  viz.  Canterbury,  Winchester,  Dur- 
ham, Worcester,  Rochester,  Norwich,  Ely,  and 
Carlisle.  He  founded  also  the  colleges  of  Christ 
Church  in  Oxford,  and  Trinity  in  Cambridge, 
and  finished  King's  College  there.  He  likewise 
founded  professorships  of  divinity,  law,  physic, 
and  of  the  Hebrew  and  Greek  tongues,  in  both 
the  said  Universities.  He  gave  the  house  of 
Grey  Friars  and  St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  to 
the  city  of  London,  and  a  perpetual  pension  to 
the  poor  knights  of  Windsor,  and  laid  out  great 
sums  in  building  and  fortifying  many  ports  in  the 
channel.  It  is  observable,  upon  the  whole,  that 
the  dissolution  of  these  houses  was  an  act,  not  of 
the  church,  but  of  the  state,  in  the  period  preced- 
ing the  Reformation,  by  a  king  and  parliament 
of  the  Roman  Catholic  communion  in  all  points, 
except  the  king's  supremacy ;  to  which  the  pope 
himself,  by  his  bulls  and  licences,  had  led  the  way. 

As  to  the  merits  of  these  institutions,  authors 
are  much  divided.  While  some  have  considered 
them  as  beneficial  to  learning,  piety,  and  benevo- 
lence, others  have  thought  them  very  injurious. 
We  may  form  some  idea  of  them  from  the  fol- 
lowing remarks  of  Mr.  Gilpin. 

He  is  speaking  of  Glastonbury  Abbey,  which 
possessed  the  amplest  revenues  of  any  religious 
house  in  England.  "Its  fraternity,"  says  he, 
"is  said  to  have  consisted  of  five  hundred  estab- 
lished monks,  besides  nearly  as  many  retainers  on 
the  abbey.  Above  four  hundred  children  weTe 
not  only  educated  in  it,  but  entirely  maintained. 
— Strangers  from  all  parts  of  Europe  were  libe- 
rally received,  classed  according  to  their  sex  and 
nation,  and  might  consider  the  hospitable  roof 
under  which  they  lodged  as  their  own.  Five 
hundred  travellers,  with  their  horses,  have  been 
lodged  at  once  within  its  walls ;  while  the  poor 
from  every  side  of  the  country,  waited  the  ringing 
of  the  alms-bell ;  when  they  flocked  in  crowds, 
young  and  old,  to  the  gate  of  the  monastery, 
where  they  received,  every  morning,  a  plentiful 
provision  for  themselves  and  their  families  : — all 
this  appears  great  and  noble. 

"  On  the  other  hand,  when  we  consider  five 
hundred  persons  bred  up  in  indolence  and  lost  to 
the  commonwealth ;  when  we  consider  that  these 
houses  were  the  great  nurseries  of  superstition, 
bigotry,  and  ignorance;  the  stews  of  sloth,  stu- 
pidity, and  perhaps  intemperance ;  when  we  con- 
sider that  the  education  received  in  them  had  not 
the  least  tincture  of  useful  learning,  good  man- 
ners, or  true  religion,  but  tended  rather  to  vilify 
and  disgrace  the  human  mind  ;  when  we  consider 
that  the  pilgrims  and  strangers  who  resorted 
thither  were  idle  vagabonds,  who  got  nothing 
abroad  that  was  equivalent  to  the  occupations  they 
left  at  home ;  and  when  we  consider,  lastly,  that 


MONK 

indiscriminate  alrns-giving  is  not  real  charity,  but 
en  avocation  from  labour  and  industry,  checking 
rvery  idea  of  exertion,  and  filling  the  mind  with 
abject  notions,  we  are  led  to  acquiesce  in  (he  fate 
of  these  foundations,  and  view  their  ruins,  not 
only  with  a  picturesque  eye,  but  with  moral  and 
religious  satisfaction."  Gilpin's  Observations  on 
the  Western  Parts  of  England,  p.  138,  139; 
Bigland's  Letters  on  Hist.  p.  313. 

MONASTIC,  something  belonging  to  monks, 
or  the  monkish  life. — The  monastic  profession  i« 
a  kind  of  civil  death,  which  in  all  worldly  mat- 
ters has  the  same  effect  with  the  natural  death. 
The  council  of  Trent,  &c.  fix  sixteen  years  as 
the  age  at  which  a  person  may  be  admitted  into 
the  monastical  state. 

St,  Anthony  is  the  person  who,  in  the  fourth 
century,  first  instituted  the  monastic  life ;  as  St. 
Pachomius,  in  the  same  century,  is  said  to  have 
first  set  on  foot  the  coenobitic  life,  i.  e.  regular 
communities  of  religious.  In  a  short  time  the 
deserts  of  Egypt  became  inhabited  by  a  set  of 
solitaries,  who  took  upon  them  the  monastic  pro- 
fession. St.  Basil  carried  the  monkish  humour 
into  the  east,  where  he  composed  a  rule  which 
afterwards  obtained  through  a  great  part  of  the 
west. 

In  the  eleventh  century,  the  monastic  discipline 
was  grown  very  remiss.  St.  Oddo  first  began  to 
retrieve  it  in  the  monastery  of  Cluny  :  that  mo- 
nastery, by  the  conditions  of  its  erection,  was  put 
under  the  immediate  protection  of  the  holy  see ; 
with  a  prohibition  to  all  powers,  both  secular  and 
ecclesiastical,  to  disturb  the  monks  in  the  pos- 
session of  their  effects  or  the  election  of  their 
abbot.  In  virtue  hereof  they  pleaded  an  exemp- 
tion from  the  jurisdiction  of  the  bishop,  and  ex- 
tended this  privilege  to  all  the  houses  dependent 
on  Cluny.  This  made  the  first  congregation  of 
several  houses  under  one  chief  immediately  sub- 
ject to  the  pope,  so  as  to  constitute  one  body,  or 
as  they  now  call  it,  one  religious  order.  Till 
then,  each  monastery  was  independent,  and  sub- 
ject to  the  bishop.     See  Monk. 

MONK,  anciently  denoted  "a  person  who 
retired  from  the  world  to  give  himself  wholly  to 
God,  and  to  live  in  solitude  at.  J  abstinence."  The 
word  is  derived  from  the  Latin  monachus,  and 
that  from  the  Greek  /.in^ot,  "solitary;"  of  pcvoS, 
solus,  "alone." 

The  original  of  monks  seems  to  have  been  this : 
— The  persecutions  which  attended  the  first  ages 
of  the  Gospel,  forced  some  Christians  to  retire 
from  the  world,  and  live  in  deserts  and  places 
most  private  and  unfrequented,  in  hopes  of  find- 
ing that  peace  and  comfort  among  beasts,  which 
were  denied  them  among  men ;  and  this  being 
the  case  of  some  very  extraordinary  persons,  their 
example  gave  such  reputation  to  retirement,  that 
the  practice  continued  when  the  reason  of  its 
commencement  ceased.  After  the  empire  became 
Christian,  instances  of  this  kind  were  numerous ; 
and  those  whose  security  had  obliged  them  to  live 
separately  and  apart,  became  afterwards  united 
into  societies.  We  may  also  add,  that  the  mystic 
theology,  which  gained  ground  towards  the  close 
of  the  third  century,  contributed  to  produce  the 
same  effect,  and  to  drive  men  into  solitude  for  the 
purposes  of  devotion. 

The  monks,  at  least  the  ancient  ones,  were 
distinguished  into  solitaries,  cwnobites,  and  sura- 
bites. 

295 


MONK 

The  solitaries  are  those  who  live  alone,  in 
places  remote  from  all  towns  and  habitations  of 
men,  as  do  still  some  of  the  hermits.  The  coeno- 
bites are  those  who  live  in  community  with 
several  others  in  the  same  house,  and  under  the 
same  superiors.  The  sarabites  were  strolling 
monks,  having  no  fixed  rule  or  residence. 

The  houses  of  monks,  again,  were  of  two 
kinds,  viz.,  monasteries  and  lauree. 

Those  who  are  now  called  monks  are  coeno- 
bites, who  live  together  in  a  convent  or  monastery, 
who  make  vows  of  living  according  to  a  certain 
rule  established  by  the  founder,  and  wear  a  habit 
which  distinguishes  their  order. 

Those  that  are  endowed,  or  have  a  fixed  re- 
venue, are  most  properly  called  monks,  monachi ; 
as  the  Chartreux,  Benedictines,  Bernardines,  &a 
The  Mendicants,  or  those  that  beg,  as  the  Capu- 
chins and  Franciscans,  are  more  properly  called 
religious  and  friars,  though  the  names  are  fre- 
quently confounded. 

The  first  monks  were  those  of  St.  Anthony, 
who,  towards  the  close  of  the  fourth  century, 
formed  them  into  a  regular  body,  engaged  them 
to  live  in  society  with  each  other,  and  prescribed 
to  them  fixed  rules  for  the  direction  of  their 
conduct.  These  regulations,  which  Anthony 
had  made  in  Egypt,  were  soon  introduced  into 
Palestine  and  Syria  by  his  disciple  Hilarion. 
Almost  about  the  same  time,  Aoncs,  or  Euge- 
nius,  with  their  companions  Gaddanas  and 
Azyzas,  instituted  the  monastic  order  in  Meso- 
potamia, and  the  adjacent  countries;  and  their 
example  was  followed  with  such  rapid  success, 
that  in  a  short  time  the  whole  East  was  filled  with 
a  lazy  set  of  mortals,  who  abandoning  all  human 
connexions,  advantages,  pleasures,  and  concerns, 
wore  out  a  languishing  and  miserable  existence, 
amidst  the  hardships  of  want  and  various  kinds 
of  suffering,  in  order  to  arrive  at  a  more  close 
and  rapturous  communication  with  God  and 
angels. 

From  the  East  this  gloomy  disposition  passed 
into  the  West,  and  first  into  Italy  and  its  neigh- 
bouring islands ;  though  it  is  uncertain  wh» 
transplanted  it  thither.  St.  Martin,  the  cele- 
brated bishop  of  Tours,  erected  the  first  monas- 
teries in  Gaul,  and  recommended  this  religious 
solitude  with  such  power  and  efficacy,  both  by 
his  instructions  and  his  example,  that  his  funeral 
is  said  to  have  been  attended  by  no  less  than  two 
thousand  monks.  From  hence  the  monastic 
discipline  extended  gradually  its  progress  through 
the  other  provinces  and  countries  of  Europe 
There  were,  besides  the  monks  of  St.  Basil 
(called  in  the  East  Calogeri,  from  x*xoj  yi(*v,  "  a 
good  old  man",)  and  those  of  St.  Jerome,  the 
hermits  of  St.  Augustine,  and  afterwards  those 
of  St.  Benedict  and  St.  Bernard  :  at  length  came 
those  of  St.  Francis  and  St.  Dominic,  with  a 
legion  of  others,  all  which  see  under  their 
proper  heads. 

Towards  the  cl  ise  of  the  fifth  century,  the 
monks,  who  had  formerly  lived  only  for  them- 
selves in  solitary  retreats,  and  had  never  thought 
of  assuming  any  rank  among  the  sacerdotal  or- 
der, were  now  gradually  distinguished  from  the 
populace,  and  endowed  with  such  opulence  and 
honourable  privileges,  that  they  found  them- 
selves in  a  condition  to  claim  an  eminent  station 
among  the  pillars  and  supporters  of  the  Christian 
community.     The  fame  of  their  piety  and  sane- 


MONK 
(Sty  was  so  great,  that  bishops  and  presbyters 
were  often  chosen  out  of  their  order;  and  the 
passion  of  erecting  edifices  and  convents,  in 
which  the  monks  and  holv  virgins  might  serve 
God  in  the  most  commodious  manner,  was  at 
that  time  carried  beyond  all  bounds.  However, 
their  licentiousness,  even  in  this  century,  was 
become  a  proverb  ;  and  they  are  said  to  have  ex- 
cited the  most  dreadful  tumults  and  seditions  in 
various  places.  The  monastic  orders  were  at  first 
under  the  immediate  jurisdiction  of  the  bishops, 
from  which  they  were  exempted  by  the  Roman 
pontiff  about  the  end  of  the  seventh  century ;  and 
the  monks,  in  return,  devoted  themselves  wholly 
to  advance  the  interest  and  to  maintain  the  dig- 
nity of  the  bishop  of  Rome.  This  immunity 
which  they  obtained  was  a  fruitful  source  of  li- 
centiousness and  disorder,  and  occasioned  the 
greatest  part  of  the  vices  with  which  they  were 
afterwards  so  justly  charged.  In  the  eighth  cen- 
tury the  monastic  discipline  was  extremely  re- 
laxed, both  in  the  eastern  and  western  provinces, 
and  all  efforts  to  restore  it  were  ineffectual.  Ne- 
vertheless, this  kind  of  institution  was  in  the 
highest  esteem  ;  and  nothing  could  equal  the  vene- 
ration that  was  paid  about  the  close,  of  the  ninth 
century  to  such  as  devoted  themselves  to  the  sa- 
cred gloom  and  indolence  of  a  convent.  This 
veneration  caused  several  kings  and  emperors  to 
call  them  to  their  courts,  and  to  employ  them  in 
civil  affairs  of  the  greatest  moment.  Their  re- 
formation was  attempted  by  Louis  the  Meek,  but 
the  effect  was  of  short  duration.  In  the  eleventh 
century  they  were  exempted  by  the  popes  from 
the  authority  established  ;  insomuch,  that  in  the 
council  of  Lateran,  which  was  held  in  the  year 
1215,  a  decree  was  passed,  by  the  advice  of  In- 
nocent III.  to  prevent  any  new  monastic  institu- 
tions ;  and  several  were  entirely  suppressed.  In 
the  fifteenth  and  sixteenth  centuries,  it  appears, 
from  the  testimony  of  the  best  writers,  that  the 
monks  were  generally  lazy,  illiterate,  profligate, 
and  licentious  epicures,  whose  views  in  life  were 
confined  to  opulence,  idleness,  and  pleasure. 
However,  the  Reformation  had  a  manifest  in- 
fluence in  restraining  their  excesses,  and  render- 
ing them  more  circumspect  and  cautious  in  their 
external  conduct. 

Monks  are  distinguished  by  the  colour  of  their 
habits  into  black,  ichite,  grey,  &c.  Among  the 
monks,  some  are  called  monks  of  the  choir,  others 
■professed  monks,  and  others  lay  monks ;  which 
last  are  destined  for  the  service  of  the  convent, 
and  have  neither  eleri.-ate  nor  literature. 

Cloistered  monks  are  those  who  actually  reside 
in  the  house:  in  opposition  to  ex^ra-monks,  who 
have  benefices  depending  on  the  monastery. 

Monks  are  also  distinguished  into  reformed, 
whom  the  civil  and  ecclesiastical  authority  have 
made  masters  of  ancient  convents,  and  put  in 
their  power  to  retrieve  the  ancient  discipline, 
which  had  been  relaxed;  and  ancient,  who  re- 
■lain  in  the  convent,  to  live  in  it  according  to  its 
establishment  at  the  time  when  they  made  their 
vows,  without  obliging  themselves  to  any  new 
reform. 

Anciently  the  monks  were  all  lavmen,  and 
were  only  distinguished  from  the  rest  of  the  peo- 
ple by  a  peculiar  habit,  and  an  extraordinary  de- 
votion. Not  only  the  monks  were  prohibited  the 
priesthood,  but  even  priests  were  expressly  pro- 
hibited from  becoming  monks,  as  appears  from 
29U 


MONOTHELITES 

the  letters  of  St.  Gregory.  Pope  Siricius  was 
the  first  who  called  them  to  the  clericate,  on  oc- 
casion of  some  great  scarcity  of  priests  that  the 
church  was  then  supposed  to  labour  under;  and 
since  that  time  the  priesthood  has  been  usually 
united  to  the  monastical  profession.  Eric.  Brit.  ; 
British  Monachism,  or  Manners  and  Customs 
of  Monks  and  Nuns  of  England  ;  Mosheim's 
Ecc.  Hist.  ;   Gibbon's  Decline  and  Fall. 

MONOPHYSITES  (from  ^  solus,  and 
9U0-15,  nulura,)  a  general  name  given  to  all  those 
sectaries  in  the  Levant  who  only  own  one  nature 
in  Jesus  Christ ;  and  who  maintain  that  the  di- 
vine and  human  nature  of  Jesus  Christ  were  so 
united  as  to  form  only  one  nature,  yet  without 
any  change,  confusion,  or  mixture  of  the  two 
natures. 

The  Monophysites,  however,  properly  so  called, 
are  the  followers  of  Severus,  a  learned  monk  of 
Palestine,  who  was  created  patriarch  of  Antioch, 
in  513,  and  Petrus  Fullensis. 

The  Monophysites  were  encouraged  by  the 
emperor  Anastasius,  but  suppressed  by  Justin 
and  succeeding  emperors.  However,  this  sect 
was  restored  by  Jacob  Baradseus,  an  obscure 
monk,  insomuch  that  when  he  died  bishop  of 
Edessa,  A.  D.  588,  he  left  it  in  a  most  flourishing 
state  in  Syria,  Mesopotamia,  Armenia,  Egypt, 
Nubia,  Abyssinia,  and  other  countries.  The 
laborious  efforts  of  Jacob  were  seconded  in 
Egypt  and  the  adjacent  countries  by  Theodosius, 
bishop  of  Alexandria;  and  he  became  so  famous, 
that  all  the  Monophysites  of  the  East  considered 
him  as  their  second  parent  and  founder,  and  are 
to  this  day  called  Jacobites,  in  honour  of  their 
new  chief.  The  Monophysites  are  divided  into 
two  sects  or  parties,  the  one  African  and  the 
other  Asiatic ;  at  the  head  of  the  latter  is  the  pa- 
triarch of  Antioch,  who  resides  for  the  most  part 
in  the  monastery  of  St.  Athanias,  near  the  city 
of  Merdin  :  the  former  are  under  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria,  who  generally  re- 
sides at  Grand  Cairo,  and  are  subdivided  into 
Cophts  and  Abyssinians.  From  the  fifteenth 
century  downwards,  all  the  patriarchs  of  the 
Monophysites  have  taken  the  name  of  Ignatius, 
in  order  to  show  that  they  are  the  lineal  succes- 
sors of  Ignatius,  who  was  bishop  of  Antioch  in 
the  first  century,  and  consequently  the  lawful 
patriarch  of  Antioch.  In  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, a  small  body  of  Monophysites,  in  Asia, 
abandoned  for  some  time  the  doctrine  and  insti- 
tution of  their  ancestors,  and  embraced  the  com- 
munion of  Rome;  but  the  African  Monophysites, 
notwithstanding  that  poverty  and  ignorance  which 
exposed  them  to  the  seductions  of  sophistry  and 
gain,  stood  firm  in  their  principles,  and  made  an 
obstinate  resistance  to  the  promises,  presents,  and 
attempts  employed  by  the  papal  missionaries  to 
bring  them  under  the  Roman  yoke :  and  in  the 
eighteenth  century,  those  of  Asia  and  Africa  have 
persisted  in  their  refusal  to  enter  into  the  com- 
munion of  the  Romish  church,  notwithstanding 
the  earnest  entreaties  and  alluring  offers  that  have 
been  made  from  time  to  time  by  the  pope's  legates, 
to  conquer  their  inflexible  constancy. 

Mi  >N0THEL1TES,  (compounded  of  „„,*, 
': single,"  and  a^xpx,  &i\»>  volo,  "I  will,")  an  an- 
cient sect  which  sprung  out  of  the  Eutychiana ; 
thus  culled,  as  only  allowing  of  one  will  in  Jesus 
Christ. 

The  opinion  of  the  Monothehtes  had  its  riss 


MORAL 
in  630,  and  had  the  emperor  Heraelius  for  an  ad- 
herent :  it  was  the  same  with  that  of  the  acepha- 
lous Severians. — They  allowed  of  two  wills  in 
Christ,  considered  with  regard  to  the  two  na- 
tures ;  but  reduced  them  to  one  by  reason  of  the 
union  of  the  two  natures,  thinking  it  absurd  that 
there  should  be  two  free  wills  in  one  and  the 
same  person.  They  were  condemned  by  the 
sixth  general  council  in  680,  as  being  supposed 
to  destroy  the  perfection  of  the  humanity  of 
Jesus  Christ,  depriving  it  of  will  and  operation. 
Their  sentiments  were  afterwards  embraced  by 
the  Maronites. 

MONTANISTS,  a  sect  which  sprung  up 
about  the  year  171,  in  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
Marcus  Aurelius.  They  were  so  called  from 
their  leader  Montanus,  a  Phrygian  by  birth; 
whence  they  are  sometimes  called  Phrygians 
amd  Cataphrygians. 

Montanus,  it  is  said,  embraced  Christianity  in 
hopes  of  rising  to  the  dignities  of  the  church. 
He  pretended  to  inspiration ;  and  gave  out  that 
the  Holy  Ghost  had  instructed  him  in  several 
points  which  had  not  been  revealed  to  the  apos- 
tles. Priscilla  and  Maximilla,  two  enthusiastic 
women  of  Phryuia,  presently  became  his  disci- 
ples, and  in  a  short  time  he  had  a  great  number 
of  followers.  The  bishops  of  Asia  being  assem- 
bled together,  condemned  his  prophecies,  and  ex- 
communicated those  that  dispersed  them.  After- 
wards they  wrote  an  account  of  what  had  passed 
to  the  western  churches,  where  the  pretended 
prophecies  of  Montanus  and  •  his  followers  were 
likewise  condemned. 

The  Montanists,  finding  themselves  exposed 
to  the  censure  of  the  whole  church,  formed  a 
schism,  and  set  up  a  distinct  society  under  the 
direction  of  those  who  called  themselves  prophets. 
Montanus,  in  conjunction  with  Priscilla  and 
Maximilla,  were  at  the  head  of  the  sect. 

These  sectaries  made  no  alteration  in  the  creed. 
They  only  held  that  the  Holy  Spirit  made  Mon- 
tanus his  organ  for  delivering  a  more  perfect  form 
of  discipline  than  what  was  delivered  by  his  apos- 
tles. They  refused  communion  for  ever  to  those 
who  were  guilty  of  notorious  crimes,  and  be- 
lieved that  the  bishops  had  no  authority  to  recon- 
cile them.  They  held  it  unlawful  to  fly  in  time 
of  persecution.  They  condemned  second  mar- 
riages, allowed  the  dissolution  of  marriage,  and 
observed  three  lents. 

MORAL,  relating  to  the  actions  or  conduct 
of  life,  or  that  which  determines  an  action  to  be 
good  or  virtuous. — 2.  A  moral  agent  is  a  being 
that  is  capable  of  those  actions  that  have  a  moral 
quality,  and  which  can  properly  be  denominated 
good  or  evil  in  a  moral  sense. — 3.  A  moral  cer- 
tainty is  a  very  strong  probability,  and  is  used  in 
contradistinction  to  mathematical  probability. — 
4.  Moral  fitness  is  the  agreement  of  the  actions 
»f  any  intelligent  being  with  the  nature,  circum- 
stances, and  relation  of  things. — 5.  A  'moral  im- 
possibility is  a  very  great  or  insuperable  difficulty; 
opposed  to  a  natural  impossibility.  See  Inabi- 
lity.— 6.  Moral  obligation  is  the  necessity  of 
doing  or  omitting  any  action  in  order  to  be  happy 
and  good.  See  Obligation. — 7.  Moral  philo- 
sophy is  the  science  of  manners,  the  knowledge 
of  our  duty  and  felicity.  Sec  Philosophy. — 
8.  Moral  sense,  that  whereby  we  perceive  what 
is  good,  virtuous,  and  beautiful  in  actions,  man- 
ners, and  characters  •  or  it  is  a  kind  of  satisfac- 
2'J7  2  y 


MORAVIANS 
tion  in  the  mind  arising  from  tht  contemplation 
of  those  actions  of  iational  agents  which  we  call 
good  or  virtuous :  some  call  this  natural  con- 
science, others  intuitive  perception  of  right  and 
wrong,  &c.  See  article  Sense. — 0.  Moral  law. 
See  Law,  Evidence. 

MORALITY  is  that  relation  or  proportion, 
which  actions  bear  to  a  given  rule.  It  is  generally 
used  in  reference  to  a  good  life.  Morality  is  dis- 
tinguished from  religion  thus:  "Religion  is  a 
studious  conformity  of  our  actions  to  the  relations 
in  which  we  stand  to  each  other  in  civil  society. 
Morality  comprehends  only  a  part  of  religion ; 
but  religion  comprehends  the  whole  of  morality. 
Morality  finds  all  her  motives  here  below ;  reli- 
gion fetches  all  her  motives  from  above.  The 
highest  principle  in  morals  is  a  just  regard  to  the 
rights  of  men ;  the  first  principle  in  religion  is  the 
love  of  God."  The  various  duties  of  morality  are 
considered  in  their  respective  places  in  this  work. 
See  Bishop  Horslei/s  Charge,  17!)0 ;  Palcy's 
and  Grove's  Moral  Philosophy  ;  Bcattie's  Ele- 
ments of  Moral  Science  ;  Evans's  Sermons  on 
Christian  Temper ;  Watts' s  Scrm.  on  Christian 
Morals;  Mason's  Christian  Morals ;  H.  Move's 
Hints,  vol.  ii.  p.  245;  Gisbornc's  Sermons,  design- 
ed to  illustrate  and  enforce  Christian  Morality. 

MORAVIANS,  a  sect  generally  said  to  have 
arisen  under  Nicholas  Lewis,  count  of  Zinzen- 
dorf,  a  German  nobleman  of  the  last  century, 
and  thus  called,  because  the  first  converts  to  their 
system  were  some  Moravian  families.  Accord- 
ing to  the  society's  own  account,  however,  they 
derive  their  origin  from  the  Greek  church  in  the 
ninth  century,  when,  by  the  instrumentality  of 
Methodius  and  Cyrillus,  two  Greek  monks,  the 
kings  of  Bulgaria  and  Moravia  being  converted 
to  the  faith,  were,  together  with  their  subjects, 
united  in  communion  with  the  Greek  church. 
Methodius  was  their  first  bishop,  and  for  their 
use  Cyrillus  translated  the  Scriptures  into  the 
Sclavonian  language 

The  antipathy  of  the  Greek  and  Roman 
churches  is  well  known,  and  by  much  the  greater 
part  of  the  Brethren  were  in  process  of  time 
compelled,  after  many  struggles,  to  submit  to  the 
see  of  Rome.  A  few,  however,  adhering  to  the 
rites  of  their  mother  church,  united  themselves  in 
1170  to  the  Waldenses,  and  sent  missionaries 
into  many  countries.  In  1517  they  were  called 
Fratrcs  legis  Christi,  or  Brethren  of  the  law  of 
Christ ;  because,  about  that  period,  they  had 
thrown  off  all  reverence  for  human  compilations 
of  the  faith,  professing  simply  to  follow  the  doc- 
trines and  precepts  contained  in  the  word  of 
God. 

There  being  at  this  time  no  bishops  in  the 
Bohemian  church  who  had  not  submitted  to  the 
papal  jurisdiction,  three  priests  of  the  society  of 
United  Brethren  were,  about  the  year  1467.  con- 
secrated by  Stephen,  bishop  of  the  Waldenses, 
in  Austria  [see  Waldenses;]  and  these  pre- 
lates, on  their  return  to  their  own  county  con- 
secrated ten  co-bishops,  or  co-seniors,  from  aniong 
the  rest  of  the  presbyters.  In  1523,  the  United 
Brethren  commenced  a  friendly  correspondence, 
first  with  Luther,  and  afterwards  with  Calvin 
and  other  leaders  among  the  reformers.  A  per- 
secution, which  was  brought  upon  them  on  this 
account,  and  some  religious  disputes  which  took 
place  among  themselves,  threatened  for  a  while 
the  society  with  ruin ;  but  the  disputes  were,  in 


MORAVIANS 
1570,  put  an  end  to  by  a  synod,  which  decreed 
that  differences  about  non-essentials  should  not 
destroy  their  union ;  and  the  persecution  ceased 
in  1575,  when  the  United  Brethren  obtained  an 
edict  for  the  public  exercise  of  their  religion. — 
This  toleration  was  renewed  in  1609,  and  liberty 
granted  them  to  erect  new  churches.  But  a 
civil  war,  which,  in  1(512,  broke  out  in  Bohemia, 
and  a  violent  persecution  which  followed  it  in 
1621,  occasioned  the  dispersion  of  their  ministers, 
and  brought  great  distress  upon  the  Brethren  in 
general.  Some  of  them  fled  to  England,  others 
to  Saxony  and  Brandenburgh ;  whilst  many, 
overcome  by  the  severity  of  the  persecution,  con- 
formed to  the  rites  of  the  church  of  Rome.  One 
colony  of  these,  who  retained  in  purity  their  ori- 
ginal principles  and  practice,  was  in  1722,  con- 
ducted by  a  brother,  named  Christian  David, 
from  Fulneck,  in  Moravia,  to  Upper  Lusatia, 
where  they  put  themselves  under  the  protection 
of  Nicholas  Lewis,  count  of  Zinzendorf,  and 
built  a  village  on  his  estate  at  the  foot  of  a  hill, 
called  Hutberg,  or  Watch  Hill.  The  count, 
who,  soon  after  their  arrival,  removed  from  Dres- 
den to  his  estate  in  the  country,  showed  every 
mark  of  kindness  to  the  poor  emigrants;  but 
being  a  zealous  member  of  the  church  established 
by  law,  he  endeavoured  for  some  time  to  prevail 
upon  them  to  unite  themselves  with  it,  by  adopt- 
ing the  Lutheran  faith  and  discipline.  This 
they  declined;  and  the  count,  on  a  more  minute 
inquiry  into  their  ancient  history  and  distinguish- 
ing tenets,  not  only  desisted  from  his  first  pur- 
pose, but  became  himself  a  convert  to  the  faith 
and  discipline  of  the  United  Brethren. 

The  synod  which,  in  1570,  put  an  end  to  the 
disputes  which  then  tore  the  church  of  the  Bre- 
thren into  factions,  had  considered  as  non-essen- 
tials the  distinguishing  tenets  of  their  own  so- 
ciety, of  the  Lutherans,  and  of  the  Calvinists. 
In  consequence  of  this,  many  of  the  reformers  of 
both  these  sects  had  followed  the  Brethren  to 
Hermhut,  and  been  received  by  them  into  com- 
munion ;  but  not  being  endued  with  the  peace- 
able spirit  of  the  church  which  they  had  joined, 
they  started  disputes  among  themselves,  which 
threatened  the  destruction  of  the  whole  esta- 
blishment. By  the  indefatigable  exertions  of 
count  Zinzendorf  these  disputes  were  allayed ; 
and  statutes  being,  in  1727,  drawn  up  and  agreed 
to  for  the  regulation  both  of  the  internal  and  of 
the  external  concerns  of  the  congregation,  bro- 
therly love  and  union  was  again  established ;  and 
no  schism  whatever,  in  point  of  doctrine,  has 
since  that  period  disturbed  the  church  of  the 
United  Brethren. 

In  1735,  the  count,  who,  under  God,  had  been 
the  instrument  of  renewing  the  Brethren's 
church,  was  consecrated  one  of  their  bishops, 
having  the  year  before  been  examined  and  re- 
ceived into  the  clerical  order  by  the  Theological 
Faculty  of  Tubingen.  Dr.  Potter,  then  arch- 
bishop of  Canterbury,  congratulated  him  upon 
this  event,  and  promised  his  assistance  to  a  church 
of  confessors,  of  whom  he  wrote  in  terms  of  the 
highest  respect,  for  their  having  maintained  the 
pure  and  primitive  faith  and  discipline  in  the 
midst  of  the  most  tedious  and  cruel  persecutions. 
That  his  Grace,  who  had  studied  the  various 
controversies  about  church-governmer<t  with  un- 
common success,  admitted  the  Moravian  episcc- 
rwl  succession,  we  know  from  the  most  unques- 
298 


MORAVIANS 
tionable  authority ;  for  he  communicated  his 
sentiments  on  the  subject  to  Dr.  Seeker,  while 
bishop  of  Oxford.  In  conformity  with  these  sen- 
timents of  the  archbishop,  we  are  assured  that 
the  parliament  of  Great  Britain,  after  mature  in- 
vestigation, acknowledged  the  Unitas  Fratrum 
to  be  a  Protestant  episcopal  church ;  and  in 
1794  an  act  was  certainly  passed  in  their  favour. 

This  sect,  like  many  others,  has  been  shame- 
fully misrepresented,  and  things  laid  to  their 
charge  of  which  they  never  were  guilty.  It 
must,  however,  be  acknowledged,  that  some  of 
their  converts  having  previously  imbibed  extra- 
vagant notions,  propagated  them  with  zeal  among 
their  new  friends  in  a  phraseology  extremely 
reprehensible;  and  that  count  Zinzendorf  him- 
self sometimes  adopted  the  very  improper  lan- 
guage of  those  fanatics,  whom  he  wished  to  re- 
claim from  their  errors  to  the  soberness  of  truth ; 
but  much  of  the  extravagance  and  absurdity 
which  has  been  attributed  to  the  count  is  not  to 
be  charged  to  him,  but  to  those  persons  who, 
writing  his  extempore  sermons  in  short  hand, 
printed  and  published  them  without  his  know- 
ledge or  consent. 

This  eminent  benefactor  to  the  United  Bre- 
thren died  in  1760;  and  it  is  with  reason  that 
they  honour  his  memory,  as  having  been  the  in- 
strument by  which  God  restored  and  bu'It  up 
their  church.  But  they  do  not  regard  him  as 
their  head,  nor  take  his  writings,  nor  the  writings 
of  any  other  man,  as  the  standard  of  their  doc- 
trines, which  they-  profess  to  derive  immediately 
from  the  word  of  God. 

It  has  been  already  observed,  that  the  church 
of  the  United  Brethren  is  episcopal ;  but  though 
they  consider  episcopal  ordination  as  neces- 
sary to  qualify  the  servants  of  the  church  for 
their  respective  functions,  they  allow  to  their 
bishops  no  elevation  of  rank  or  pre-eminent  au- 
thority ;  their  church  having,  from  its  first  esta- 
blishment, been  governed  by  synods,  consisting 
of  deputies  from  all  the  congregations,  and  by 
other  subordinate  bodies,  which  they  call  Confer- 
ences. The  synods,  which  are  generally  held 
once  in  seven  years,  are  called  together  by  the 
elders  who  were  in  the  former  synod  appointed 
to  superintend  the  whole  unity.  In  the  first  sit- 
ting a  president  is  chosen,  and  these  elders  lay 
down  their  office ;  but  they  do  not  withdraw 
from  the  assembly;  for  they,  together  with  all 
bishops,  seniors,  civiles,  or  lay  elders,  and  those 
ministers  who  have  the  general  care  or  inspection 
of  several  congregations  in  one  province,  have 
seats  in  the  synod  without  any  particular  election. 
The  other  members  are,  one  or  more  deputies 
sent  by  each  congregation,  and  such  ministers  or 
missionaries  as  are  particularly  called  to  atteiuL 
Women,  approved  by  the  congregation,  are  also 
admitted  as  hearers,  and  are  called  upon  to  give 
their  advice  in  what  relates  to  the  ministerial 
labour  among  their  sex  ;  but  they  have  no  deci 
sive  vote  in  the  synod.  The  votes  of  all  the  other 
members  are  equal. 

In  questions  of  importance,  or  of  which  the 
consequences  cannot  be  foreseen,  neither  the  ma- 
jority of  the  vctes  nor  the  unanimous  consent  of 
all  present  can  decide ;  but  recourse  is  had  to  the 
lot  For  adopting  this  unusual  mode  of  deciding 
in  ecclesiastical  affairs,  the  Brethren  allege  as 
reasons  the  practices  of  the  ancient  Jews  and  the 
apostles ;  the  insufficiency  of  the  human  under- 


MORAVIANS 
standing  amidst  the  best  and  purest  intentions  to 
decide  for  itself  in  what  concerns  the  administra- 
tion of  Christ's  kingdom ;  and  their  own  confi- 
dent reliance  on  the  comfortable  promises  that 
the  Lord  Jesus  will  approve  himself  the  head  and 
ruler  of  his  church.  The  lot  is  never  made  use 
of  but  after  mature  deliberation  and  fervent 
prayer  ;  nor  is  any  thing  submitted  to  its  decision 
which  does  not,  after  being  thoroughly  weighed, 
appear  to  the  assembly  eligible  in  itself. 

In  every  synod  the  inward  and  outward  state 
of  the  unity,  and  the  concerns  of  the  congrega- 
tions and  missions,  are  taken  into  consideration. 
If  errors  in  doctrine,  or  deviations  in  practice 
have  crept  in,  the  synod  endeavours  not  only  to 
remove  them,  but,  by  salutary  regulations,  to  pre- 
vent them  for  the  future.  It  considers  how  many 
bishops  are  to  be  consecrated  to  fill  up  the  vacan- 
cies occasioned  by  death ;  and  every  member  of 
the  synod  gives  his  vote  for  such  of  the  clergy  as 
he  thinks  best  qualified.  Those  who  have  the 
majority  of  votes  are  taken  into  the  lot,  and  they 
who  are  approved  are  consecrated  accordingly ; 
but,  by  consecration,  they  are  vested  with  no  su- 
periority over  their  brethren,  since  it  behoves  him 
who  is  the  greatest  to  be  the  servant  of  all. 

Towards  the  conclusion  of  every  synod  a  kind 
of  executive  board  is  chosen,  and  called  The 
Elders'  Conference  of  the  Unity.  At  present  it 
consists  of  thirteen  elders,  and  is  divided  into 
four  committees,  or  departments. — 1.  The  Mis- 
sions? department,  which  superintends  all  the  con- 
cerns of  the  missions  into  heathen  countries. — 
2.  The  Helpers'  department,  which  watches  over 
the  purity  of  doctrine,  and  the  moral  conduct  of 
the  different  congregations. — 3.  The  Servants' 
department,  to  which  the  economical  concerns  of 
the  Unity  are  committed. — i.  The  Overseers' de- 
partment, of  which  the  business  is  to  see  that  the 
constitution  and  discipline  of  the  brethren  be 
every  where  maintained.  No  resolution,  how- 
ever, of  any  of  these  departments  has  the  smallest 
force  till  it  be  laid  before  the  assembly  of  the 
whole  Elders'  Conference,  and  have  the  appro- 
bation of  that  body.  The  powers  of  the  Elders' 
Conference  are,  indeed,  very  extensive :  besides 
the  general  care  which  it  is  commissioned  by  the 
synods  to  take  of  all  the  congregations  and  mis- 
sions, it  appoints  and  removes  every  servant  in 
the  Unity,  as  circumstances  may  require;  au- 
thorises the  bishops  to  ordain  presbyters  or  dea- 
cons, and  to  consecrate  other  bishops  ;  and,  in  a 
word,  though  it  cannot  abrogate  any  of  the  con- 
stitutions of  the  synod,  or  enact  new  ones  itself, 
it  is  possessed  of  the  supreme  executive  power 
over  the  whole  body  of  the  United  Brethren. 

Besides  this  general  Conference  of  Elders, 
which  superintends  the  affairs  of  the  whole 
Unity,  there  is  another  conference  of  elders  be- 
longing to  each  congregation,  which  directs  its 
affair*,  and  to  which  the  bishops  and  all  other 
ministers,  as  well  as  the  lay  members  of  the  con- 
gregation, are  subject.  This  body,  which  is 
called  the  Elders'  Conference  of  the  Congrega- 
tions, consists,  1.  Of  the  minister,  as  president, 
to  whom  the  ordinary  care  of  the  congregation  is 
committed,  except  when  it  is  very  numerous,  and 
then  the  general  inspection  of  it  is  intrusted 
to  a  separate  person,  called  the  Congregation 
Helper. — 2.  Of  the  Warden,  whose  office  it  is  to 
superintend,  with  the  aid  of  his  council,  all  out- 
ward concerns  of  the  congregation,  and  to  assist 
299 


MORAVIANS 
every  individual  with  his  advice. — 3.  Of  a  Mar- 
ried Pair,  who  care  particularly  for  the  spiritual 
welfare  of  the  married  people. — 4.  Of  a  Single 
Clergyman,  to  whose  care  the  young  women  are 
more  particularly  committed. — And,  5.  Of  those 
Women  who  assist  in  caring  for  the  spiritual  and 
temporal  welfare  of  their  own  sex,  and  who  rn 
this  conference  have  equal  votes  with  the  men. 
As  the  Elders'  Conference  of  each  Congregation 
is  answerable  for  its  proceedings  to  the  Elders' 
Conference  of  the  Unity,  visitations  from  the  lat- 
ter to  the  former  are  held  from  time  to  time,  that 
the  affairs  of  each  congregation,  and  the  conduct 
of  its  immediate  governors,  may  be  intimately 
known  to  the  supreme  executive  government  of 
the  whole  church. 

In  their  opinion,  episcopal  consecration  does 
not  confer  any  power  to  preside  over  one  or  more 
congregations;  and  a  bishop  can  discharge  no 
office  but  by  the  appointment  of  a  synod,  or  of 
the  Elders'  Conference  of  the  Unity.  Presbyters 
among  them  can  perform  every  function  of  the 
bishop,  except  ordination.  Deacons  are  assistants 
to  the  Presbyters,  much  in  the  same  way  as  in 
the  Church  of  England ;  and  in  the  Brethren's 
churches,  deaconesses  are  retained  for  the  pur- 
pose of  privately  admonishing  their  own  sex,  and 
visiting  them  in  their  sickness ;  but  though  they 
are  solemnly  blessed  to  this  office,  they  are  not 
permitted  to  teach  in  public,  and  far  less  to  admi- 
nister the  sacraments.  They  have  likewise  se- 
niores  civiles,  or  lay  elders,  in  contradistinction 
to  spiritual  elders,  or  bishops,  who  are  appointed 
to  watch  over  the  constitution  and  discipline  oi 
the  Unity  of  the  Brethren,  over  the  observance 
of  the  laws  of  the  country  in  which  congregations 
or  missions  are  established,  and  over  the  privi- 
leges granted  to  the  Brethren  by  the  govern- 
ments under  which  they  live.  They  have  econo- 
mies, or  choir  houses,  where  they  live  together 
in  community :  the  single  men  and  single  wo- 
men, widows  and  widowers,  apart,  each  under 
the  superintendence  of  elderly  persons  of  their 
own  class.  In  these  houses  every  person  who  is 
able,  and  has  not  an  independent  support,  labours 
in  their  own  occupation  and  contributes  a  stipu- 
lated sum  for  their  maintenance.  Their  children 
are  educated  with  peculiar  care  ;  their  subjection 
to  their  superiors  and  elders  is  singular,  and  ap- 
pears particularly  striking  in  their  missions  and 
marriages.  In  the  former,  those  who  have 
offered  themselves  on  the  service,  and  are  ap- 
proved as  candidates,  wait  their  several  calls,  re- 
ferring themselves  entirely  to  the  decision  of  the 
lot ;  and,  it  is  said,  never  hesitate  when  that  hath 
decided  the  place  of  their  destination.  (See 
above.)  In  marriage,  they  may  only  form  a 
connexion  with  those  of  their  own  communion. 
The  brother  who  marries  out  of  the  congregation 
is  immediately  cut  off  from  church  fellowship. 
Sometimes  a  sister,  by  express  licence  from  the 
Elders'  Conference,  is  permitted  to  marry  a  per- 
son of  approved  piety  in  another  communion, 
yet  still  to  join  in  their  church  ordinances  as  be- 
fore. A  brother  may  make  his  own  choice  of  & 
partner  in  the  society  ;  but  as  all  intercourse  be- 
tween the  different  sexes  is  carefully  avoided, 
very  few  opportunities  of  forming  particular 
attachments  are  found,  and  they  usually  rather 
refer  their  choice  to  the  church  than  decide  for 
themselves.  And  as  the  lot  must  be  cast  to  sanc- 
tion their  union,  each  receives  his  partner  as  a 


MORAVIANS 
divine  appointment ;  and,  however  strange  this 
method  may  appear  to  those  who  consult  only 
their  passions  or  their  interest,  it  is  observable, 
that  no  where  fewer  unhappy  marriages  are 
found  than  among  the  Brethren.  But  what 
characterises  the  Moravians  most,  and  holds  them 
up  to  the  attention  of  others,  is  their  missionary 
real.  In  this  they  are  superior  to  any  other  body 
of  people  in  the  world.  "Their  missionaries," 
as  one  observes,  "are  all  of  them  volunteers;  for 
k  is  an  inviolable  maxim  with  them  to  persuade 
r.o  man  to  engage  in  missions.  They  are  all  of 
one  mind  as  to  the  doctrines  they  teach,  and  sel- 
dom make  an  attempt  where  there  are  not  half  a 
dozen  of  them  in  the  mission.  Their  zeal  is  calm, 
steady,  persevering.  They  would  reform  the 
world,  but  are  careful  how  they  quarrel  with  it. 
They  carry  their  point  by  address  and  the  in- 
sinuations of  modesty  and  mildness,  which  com- 
mend them  to  all  men,  and  give  offence  to  none. 
The  habits  of  silence,  quietness,  and  decent  re- 
serve, mark  their  character.  If  any  of  their  mis- 
sionaries are  carried  off  by  sickness  or  casualty, 
men  of  the  same  stamp  are  ready  to  supply  their 
place." 

As  they  stand  first  on  the  list  of  those  who 
have  engaged  in  missionary  exertions,  we  shall 
here  insert  a  further  account  of  them  and  their 
missions,  with  which  I  have  been  favoured  by  a 
most  respectable  clergyman  of  theirdenomination : 
"  When  brethren  or  sisters  find  themselves  dis- 
posed to  serve  God  among  the  heathen,  they  com- 
municate their  wishes  and  views  to  the  committee 
appointed  by  the  synods  of  the  brethren  to  super- 
intend the  missions,  in  a  confidential  letter.  If, 
on  particular  inquiry  into  their  circumstances  and 
connexions,  no  objection  is  found,  they  are  con- 
sidered as  candidates.  As  to  mental  qualifications, 
much  erudition  is  not  required  by  the  brethren. 
To  be  well  versed  in  the  sacred  Scriptures,  and 
to  have  an  experimental  knowledge  of  the  truths 
they  contain,  is  judged  indispensably  necessary. 
And  it  has  been  found,  by  experience,  that  a 
good  understanding  joined  to  a  friendly  disposi- 
tion, and,  above  all,  a  heart  filled  with  the  love  of 
God,  are  the  best  and  the  only  essential  qualifi- 
cations of  a  missionary.  Nor  are,  in  general,  the 
habits  of  a  student  so  well  calculated  to  form  his 
body  for  a  laborious  life  as  those  of  a  mechanic. 
Yet  men  of  learning  are  not  excluded,  and  their 
gilts  have  been  made  useful  in  various  ways. 
When  vacancies  occur,  or  new  missions  are  to  be 
begun,  the  list  of  candidates  is  examined ;  and 
those  who  appear  suitable  are  called  upon,  and 
accept  or  decline  the  call  as  they  find  themselves 
disposed." 

"  The  following  are  the  names  of  the  settle- 
ments of  the  United  Brethren  in  heathen  coun- 
tries : — 

"  Begun  in  1732,  in  the  Danish  West  India 
islands.  In  St.  Thomas ;  New  Hermhut,  Niskv. 
In  St.  Croix;  Friedensberg,  Friedensthal.  In 
Si.  Jan;  Bethany,  Emmaus. — In  1733:  In 
Greenland ;  New  Hermhut,  Lichenfels,  Lich- 
tenau. — In  1731 :  In  North  America  ;  Fairfield 
in  Upper  Canada,  Goshen  on  the  river  Musk- 
ingum.— In  173G  :  At  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ; 
Bavians  Kloof  (renewed  in  1792.) — In  1738:  In 
South  America:  among  the  negro  slaves  at  Par- 
amaribo and  Sommelsdyk  ;  among  the  free  ne- 
groes at  Batnbey,  on  theSaramcca;  among  the 
native  Indians  at  Hope,  on  the  river  Corentyn. — 
300 


MORAVIANS 

Tn  1751:  In  Jamaica;  two  settlements  in  St. 
Elizabeth's  parish. — In  175G:  In  Antigua;  at 
St.  John's,  Grace  Hill,  Grace  Bay.— In  1760: 
Near  Tranquebar,  in  the  East  Indies ;  Breth- 
ren's Garden. — In  176-1  :  On  the  Coast  of  Labra- 
dor ;  Nain,  Okkak,  Hopedale. — In  1765 :  In 
Barbadoes ;  Sharon,  near  Bridgetown. — In  1765: 
In  the  Russian  part  of  Asia ;  Sarepta. — In  1775 : 
In  St.  KiWs;  at  Basseterre.— In  1789:  In  To- 
bago; Signal  Hill  (renewed  in  1798.) 

"  The  Brethren  had  three  flourishing  settle- 
ments on  the  river  Muskingum,  Salem,  Gna- 
denhuetten,  and  Schoenbruna,  before  the  late 
American  war,  during  which  these  places  were 
destroyed,  and  the  inliabitants  partly  murdered, 
partly  dispersed.  The  settlement  Fairfield,  in 
Canada,  was  made  by  those  of  the  Indian  con- 
verts, who  were  again  collected  by  the  missiona- 
ries. In  1798,  a  colony  of  Christian  Indians 
went  from  thence  to  take  possession  of  their  for- 
mer settlements  on  the  Muskingum,  which  have 
been  given  to  them  by  an  act  of  congress,  and 
built  a  new  town,  called  Goshen.  Part  of  the 
Indian  congregation  will  remain  at  Fairfield,  in 
Canada,  as  a  good  seed ;  our  missionaries  enter- 
taining hopes  that  the  Gospel  may  yet  find  en- 
trance among  the  wild  Chippeway  tribe  inhabiting 
those  parts. 

"The  mission  among  the  Hottentots  at  the 
Cape  of  Good  Hope  was  begun  in  1736,  by 
George  Schmidt,  a  man  of  remarkable  zeal  and 
courage,  who  laboured  successfully  among  these 
people,  till  he  had  formed  a  small  congregation 
of  believers,  whom  he  left  to  the  care  of  a  pious 
man,  and  went  to  Europe  with  a  view  to  repre- 
sent the  promising  state  of  the  mission,  and  to 
return  with  assistants.  But  to  his  inexpressible 
grief  and  disappointment,  he  was  not  permitted 
by  the  Dutch  East  India  Company  to  resume  his 
labours ;  some  ignorant  people  having  insinuated 
that  the  propagation  of  Christianity  among  the 
Hottentots  would  injure  the  interests  of  the 
colony. — Since  that  time  to  the  year  1792,  the 
brethren  did  not  cease  to  make  application  to  the 
Dutch  government  for  leave  to  send  missionaries 
to  the  Cape,  especially  as  they  heard  that  the 
small  Hottentot  congregation  had  kept  together 
for  some  time,  in  earnest  expectation  of  the  return 
of  their  beloved  teacher.  He  had  taught  some 
of  them  to  read,  and  had  left  a  Dutch  Bible  with 
them,  which  they  used  to  read  together  for  their 
edification.  At  length,  in  1792,  by  the  mercy  of 
God,  and  the  kind  interference  of  friends  in  the 
Dutch  government,  the  opposition  of  evil-minded 
people  was  overruled,  and  leave  granted  to  send 
out  three  missionaries,  who,  on  their  arrival,  were 
willing,  at  the  desire  of  the  governor,  to  go  first 
to  Bavians  Kloof,  about  one  hundred  and  sixty 
English  miles  east  from  Capetown,  and  there  to 
commence  their  labours  on  the  spot  where  George 
Schmidt  had  resided.  Their  instructions  from  the 
government  in  Holland,  granted  them  leave  to 
choose  the  place  of  their  residence  wherever  they 
might  find  it  most  convenient ;  but  the  circum- 
stances of  the  colony  at  that  time  would  not 
admit  of  it.  Since  the  English  have  made  them- 
selves masters  of  that  country,  they  have  built  a 
new  chapel ;  and  from  the  favour  and  protection 
which  the  British  government  has  uniformly 
granted  to  the  Brethren's  missions,  we  have  the 
best  hopes  that  they  will  remain  undisturbed  and 
protected  in  their  civil  and  religious  liberty.   The 


MORAVIANS 
late  Dutch  government  at  the  Cape  deserve  also 
our  warmest  thanks  for  the  kind  manner  in  which 
they  received  and  protected  the  missionaries,  pro- 
moting the  views  of  the  mission  to  the  utmost  of 
their  power. 

"  When  the  missionaries  first  arrived  at  Bavians 
Kloof,  in  1792,  it  was  a  barren,  uninhabited  place. 
There  are  at  present  (1811)  twelve  missionaries 
residing  there  and  in  the  neighbourhood,  and 
about  1000  Hottentots. 

"  The  settlement  near  Tranquebar,  on  the 
coast  of  Coromandel,  was  made  in  the  year  1700, 
aft  the  desire  of  the  Danish  government,  chiefly 
with  a  view  to  bring  the  Gospel  to  the  inhabitants 
of  the  Nicobar  islands.  After  a  persevering  but 
fruitless  attempt  to  form  an  establishment  at 
Nancawery,  one  of  the  Nicobar  islands,  for  that 
purpose,  the  whole  plan  was  defeated  by  the  fol- 
lowing circumstances  : — The  Danish  govern- 
ment, finding  the  advantage  gained  by  their  set- 
tlement on  these  islands  not  to  answer  the  great 
expense  attending  it,  withdrew  their  people,  who 
had  already  suffered  greatly  by  the  unwholesome- 
ness  of  the  climate ;  and  the  Brethren  residing 
♦here  being  left  alone,  and  all  communication  cut 
off  between  Tranquebar  and  the  Nicobar  islands, 
it  became  necessary  to  purchase  a  vessel  to  con- 
vey provisions  and  other  necessaries  to  the  mis- 
sionaries. This  was  done  with  great  expense 
and  hazard  for  some  years,  when,  in  the  American 
war,  the  vessel  was  taken  by  a  French  cruiser, 
though  belonging  to  a  neutral  state.  No  redress 
could  be  obtained  from  the  French,  and  the 
Brethren  at  Tranquebar  were  obliged  imme- 
diately to  procure  another  vessel,  lest  the  mis- 
sionaries in  Nancawery  should  be  left  destitute. 
The  enormous  expense  and  loss  incurred  by 
these  everts,  and  the  sickly  state  of  the  mission- 
aries, made  it  necessary  to  recal  them  ;  and  thus 
not  only  the  mission  in  these  islands,  but  the  first 
aim  of  the  Brethren's  settling  in  the  East  Indies, 
was  frustrated.  Since  that  time,  no  success  has 
attended  the  mission  near  Tranquebar.  Some 
brethren,  indeed,  went  to  Serampore  and  Patna, 
where  they  resided  for  a  time,  watching  an  oppor- 
tunity to  serve  the  cause  of  God  in  those  places ; 
but  various  circumstances  »iccasioned  both  these 
settlements  to  be  relinquished.  By  a  late  resolu- 
tion, the  East-India  mission  will  be  suspended  for 
the  present,  the  expences  attending  it  having  of 
late  years  far  exceeded  our  ability. 

"Sarepta,  near  Czarizin,  on  the  Wolga,  in 
Russian  Asia,  was  built  chiefly  with  a  view  to 
bring  the  Gospel  to  the  Calmuck  Tartars,  and 
other  heathen  tribes  in  those  vast  regions,  among 
whom  an  opening  might  be  found.  Hitherto  but 
little  success  has  attended  the  Brethren  s  labours, 
though  their  exertions  have  been  great  and  per- 
severing, and  equal  to  those  of  any  of  our  mis- 
sionaries in  other  countries.  Some  Brethren  even 
resided  for  a  considerable  time  among  the  Cal- 
mucks,  conforming  to  their  manner  of  living  in 
tents,  and  accompanying  them  wherever  they 
moved  their  camp  in  the  Steppe  (immense  plains 
covered  with  long  grass.)  They  omitted  no  op- 
portunity of  preaching  unto  them  Jesus,  and  di- 
recting them,  from  their  numberless  idols  and 
wretched  superstitions,  to  the  only  true  God,  and 
the  only  way  of  life  and  happiness;  but  though 
they  were  heard  and  treated  with  civility,  little 
impression  could  be  made  upon  the  hearts  of  these 
Heathen.  Four  Kirgess  Tartar  girls,  who  had 
301 


MORAVIANS 

been  ransomed  and  educated  by  the  Brethren, 
have  been  baptized.  These,  and  one  Calmuck 
woman,  have  as  yet  been  all  the  fruits  of  this 
mission.  The  greatest  part  of  the  Calmucks  have 
quitted  those  parts.  The  Brethren,  however, 
have  been  visited  by  the  German  colonists  living 
on  the  Wolga  ;  and  through  God's  blessing,  s<v 
cieties  have  been  formed,  and  ministers  of  the 
Gospel  provided  for  most  of  the  colonies  by  their 
instrumentality.  Thus  the  mission  has  answered 
a  very  beneficial  purpose. 

"  The  most  flourishing  missions  at  present  are 
those  in  Greenland,  Antigua,  St.  Kitt's,  the 
Danish  West-India  islands,  and  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  A  new  awakening  has  appeared  of 
late  among  the  Arawacks  and  free  negroes  in 
South  America,  the  Esquimaux  on  the  coast  of 
Labrador,  and  in  Barbadoes ;  and  the  latest  ac- 
counts give  us  the  most  pleasing  hopes  of  success 
in  those  parts.  In  Jamaica  the  progress  of  the 
missions  has  been  but  slow.  However,  of  late, 
some  of  the  most  considerable  planters  in  that 
island,  being  convinced  of  the  utility  of  the  mis- 
sion, generously  undertook  to  provide  for  the  sup- 
port of  more  missionaries,  and  measures  have 
been  adopted  accordingly,  to  which,  we  humbly 
trust,  the  Lord  will  give  success  in  due  time. 
Several  attempts  to  carry  the  Gospel  into  other 
parts  of  the  earth  made  by  the  Brethren,  have 
not  succeeded.  In  1735,  missionaries  were  sent 
to  the  Laplanders  and  Saniojedes ;  in  1737,  and 
again  in  1768,  to  the  coast  of  Guinea ;  in  1738, 
to  the  negroes  in  Georgia ;  in  1739,  to  the  slaves 
in  Algiers ;  in  1740,  to  Ceylon ;  in  1747,  to 
Persia ;  in  1752,  to  Egypt,  of  which  we  omit  any 
particular  account,  for  brevity's  sake.  In  Upper 
Egypt  there  was  a  prospect  of  their  being  useful 
among  the  Cophts,  who  were  visited  for  many 
years. 

"  A  society  for  the  furtherance  of  the  Gospel 
among  the  Heathen  was  instituted  by  the  Bre- 
thren in  London,  as  early  as  the  year  1751,  for 
the  more  effectual  co-operation  with  and  assist- 
ance of  the  said  missions'  department,  in  caring 
for  those  missionaries  who  might  pass  through 
London  to  their  several  posts.  The  society  was, 
after  some  interruption  in  their  meetings,  renewed 
in  1760,  and  took  the  whole  charge  of  the  mission 
on  the  co\st  of  Labrador  upon  themselves ;  besides 
continuing  to  assist  the  other  missions  as  much  as 
lay  in  their  power,  especially  those  in  the  British 
dominions.  As  no  regular  communication  was  kept 
up  with  the  coast  of  Labrador  by  government,  a 
small  vessel  was  employed  to  convey  the  necessa- 
ries of  life  to  the  missionaries  once  a  year;  and 
here  we  cannot  help  observing,  with  thanks  to 
God,  that  upwards  of  twenty  years  have  now 
elapsed,  during  which,  by  his  gracious  preserva- 
tion, no  disaster  has  befallen  the  vessel,  so  as  to 
interrupt  a  regular  annual  communication,  though 
the  coast  is  very  rocky,  and  full  of  ice,  and  the 
whole  navigation  of  the  most  dangerous  kind. 

"In  Amsterdam  a  similar  society  was  esta- 
blished by  the  Brethren  in  1746,  and  renewed  in 
17113,  at  Zeisl,  near  Utrecht.  This  society  took 
particular  charge  of  the  mission  at  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope ;  but  the  late  troubles  in  Holland 
have  rendered  them  unable  to  lend  much  assist- 
ance for  the  present.  The  Brethren  in  North 
America  established  a  society  for  propagating  the 
Gospel  among  the  Heathen  in  the  year  1767, 
which  was  incorporated  by  the  State  of  Punu, 
2A 


MORTIFICATION 
svtvania,  and  has  been  very  active  in  assisting  the 
missions  among  the  Indians.  These  three  so- 
cieties do  all  in  their  power  to  help  to  support  the 
great  and  accumulated  burdens  of  the  above- 
mentioned  missions'  department,  and  God  has 
laid  a  blessing  upon  their  exertions.  But  they 
have  no  power  to  begin  new  missions,  or  to  send 
out  missionaries,  which,  by  the  synods  of  the 
Brethren's  church,  is  vested  solely  in  the  Elders' 
Conference  of  the  Unity." 

The  number  of  converts  and  persons  under 
instruction  in  the  different  missions,  amount  to 
about  5"i,150,  and  the  numler  of  missionaries 
about  1G3. 

As  to  the  tenets  of  the  Moravians,  though 
they  acknowledge  no  other  standard  of  truth  than 
the  sacred  Scriptures,  they  adhere  to  the  Augs- 
burgh  confession  (see  that  article).  They  pro- 
fess to  believe  that  the  kingdom  of  Christ  is  not 
confined  to  any  particular  party,  communitv,  or 
church ;  and  they  consider  themselves,  though 
united  in  one  body,  or  visible  church,  as  spiritu- 
ally joined  in  the  bond  of  Christian  love  to  all 
who  are  taught  of  Cod,  and  belong  to  the  uni- 
versal church  of  Christ,  however  much  they  may 
differ  in  forms,  which  they  deem  non-essential-.?. 

The  Moravians  are  called  Herrnhuters,  from 
Herrnhuth,  the  name  of  the  village  where  they 
were  first  settled.  They  also  go  by  the  name  of 
Unitas  Fratrum,  or  United  Brethren.  If  the 
reader  wish  to  have  a  fuller  account  of  this  society, 
he  may  consult  Crant.z's  Ancient  and  Modern 
History  of  the  Church  of  the  United  Brethren, 
1780;  Spandcnburgtis  Exposition  of  the  Christ. 
Doctrine,  1784;  Dr.  Haiceis's  Church  History, 
vol.  iii.  p.  184,  &c. ;  Crantz's  History  of  their 
Mission  in  Greenland;  The  Periodical  Accounts 
of  their  Missions  ;  Loskiel's  History  of  the  JS'orth 
American  Indian  Missions;  Oldendorp's  His- 
tory of  the  Bretliren's  Missions  in  the  Danish 
West  India  Inlands. 

The  principal  Moravian  settlement  in  the 
United  States  is  at  Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania, 
commenced  by  Count  Zinzendorf  in  1741.  They 
are  found  chiefly  in  Pennsylvania,  New  York 
city,  and  North  Carolina.  Their  female  seminary 
at  Bethlehem  is  extensively  and  deservedly  cele- 
brated. In  1828  the  ministers  in  the  Moravian 
connexion  in  this  country  were  23,  congregations 
23,  and  members  6000.— B. 

MORNING  LECTURES.     See  Lecture. 

MORTALITY,  a  subjection  to  death.  It  is 
a  term  also  used  to  signify  a  contagious  disease 
which  destroys  great  numbers  of  either  men  or 
beasts.  Bills  of  Mortality  are  accounts  or  re- 
gisters specifying  the  numbers  bom,  married,  and 
buried,  in  any  parish,  town,  or  district.  In  gene- 
ral, they  contain  only  these  numbers,  and  even 
when  thus  limited  are  of  great  use,  by  showing 
the  degrees  of  healthiness  and  proliiicness,  an3 
the  progress  of  population  in  the  place  where 
they  are  kept. 

MORTIFICATION,  any  severe  penance 
observed  on  a  religious  account.  The  mortification 
of  sin  in  believers  is  a  duty  enjoined  in  the  sacred 
Scriptures,  Rom.  viii.  13;' Col.  iii.  5.  It  consists 
in  breaking  the  league  with  sin ;  declaration  of 
open  hostility  against  it;  and  strong  resistance  of 
it,  Eph.  vi.  10,  &c. ;  Gal.  v.  24 ;  Rom.  viii.  13. 
The  means  to  be  used  in  this  work  are,  not  ma- 
cerating the  body,  seclusion  from  society,  our  own 
resolutions ;  but  the  Holy  Spirit  is  the  chief  agent, 


MOSQ.UE 
Rom.  viii.  13,  while  faith,  prayer,  and  dependence 
arc  subordinate  means  to  this  end.  The  evi- 
dences of  mortification  are,  not  the  cessation  from 
one  sin,  for  that  may  be  only  exchanged  for  an- 
other; or  it  may  be  renounced  because  it  is  a 
gross  sin;  or  there  may  not  be  an  occasion  to 
practise  it;  but  if  sin  be  mortified,  we  shall  not 
yield  to  temptation;  our  minds  will  be  more  spi- 
ritual; we  shall  find  more  happiness  in  spiritual 
services,  and  bring  forth  the  fruits  of  the  Spiriu 
Dr.  Owen  on  Mortif  cation  and  on  the  Holy 
Spirit,  ch.  viii.  book  4 ;  Charnock's  Works,  vol. 
ii.  p.  1313;  Bryson's  Sermons  on  Romans  viii. 
p.  97,  &c. 

MOSAIC  DISPENSATION,  inferiority  of 
the,  to  the  Gospel  dispensation.  See  Dispensa- 
tion. 

MOSAIC  LAW,  or  the  law  of  Moses,  is  the 
most  ancient  that  we  know  of  in  the  world,  and 
is  of  three  kinds;  the  moral  law,  the  ceremonial 
law,  and  the  judicial  law.  See  Law.  Some  ob- 
serve, that  the  different  manner  in  which  each  of 
these  laws  was  delivered  may  suggest  to  us  a  right 
idea  of  their  different  natures.  The  moral  law, 
or  ten  commandments,  for  instance,  was  delivered 
on  the  top  of  the  mountain,  in  the  face  of  the 
whole  world,  as  being  of  universal  influence,  and 
obligatory  on  all  mankind.  The  ceremonial  was 
received  by  Moses  in  private  in  the  tabernacle,  as 
being  of  peculiar  concern,  belonging  to  the  Jews 
only,  and  destined  to  cease  when  the  tabernacle 
was  down,  and  the  veil  of  the  temple  rent.  As 
to  the  judicial  law,  it  was  neither  so  publicly  nor 
so  audibly  given  as  the  moral  law,  nor  yet  so  pri- 
vately as  the  ceremonial ;  this  kind  of  law  being 
of  an  indifferent  nature,  to  be  observed  or  not 
observed,  as  its  rites  suit  with  the  place  and  go- 
vernment under  which  we  live.  The  five  books 
of  Moses  called  the  Pentateuch,  are  frequently 
styled,  by  way  of  emphasis,  the  laic.  This  was 
held  by  the  Jews  in  such  veneration,  that  they 
would  not  allow  it  to  be  laid  upon  the  bed  of  any 
sick  person,  lest  it  should  be  polluted  by  touching 
the  dead.     See  Law. 

MOSQ.UE,  a  temple  or  place  of  religious 
worship  among  the  Mahometans.  All  mosques 
are  square  buildings,  generally  constructed  of 
stone.  Before  the  chief  gate  there  is  a  square 
court  paved  with  white  marble,  and  low  galleries 
round  it,  whose  roof  is  supported  by  marble  pil- 
lars. In  these  galleries  the  Turks  wash  them- 
selves before  they  go  into  mosque.  In  each 
mosque  there  is  a  great  number  of  lamps ;  and 
between  these  hang  many  crystal  rings,  ostriches' 
eggs,  and  other  curiosities,  which,  when  the 
lamps  are  lighted,  make  a  fine  show.  As  it  is 
not  lawful  to  enter  the  mosque  with  stockings  or 
shoes  on,  the  pavements  are  covered  with  pieces 
of  stuff  sewed  together,  each  being  wide  enough 
to  hold  a  row  of  men  kneeling,  sitting,  or  pros- 
trate. The  women  are  not  allowed  to  enter  the 
mosque,  but  stay  in  the  porches  without.  Al>out 
every  mosque  there  are  six  high  towers,  called 
minarets,  each  of  which  has  three  little  open  gal- 
leries, one  above  another :  these  towers,  as  well 
as  the  mosques,  are  covered  with  lead,  and  adorn- 
ed with  gilding  and  other  ornaments :  and  fror.i 
thence,  instead  of  a  bell,  the  people  are  called  to 
prayers  by  certain  officers  appointed  for  that  pur- 
jx>se.  Most  of  the  mosques  have  a  kind  of  hos- 
pital, in  which  travellers,  of  what  religion  soever 
are  entertained  three  days.    Each  mosque  ha» 


MUFTI 
olso  a  place  called  tarbe,  which  is  the  burymg- 
place  of  its  founders  ;  within  which  is  a  tomb  six 
or  seven  feet  long,  covered  with  green  velvet  or 
satin;  ;£  the  ends  of  which  are  two  tapers,  and 
round  it  several  seats  for  those  who  read  the 
Koran,  and  pray  for  the  souls  of  the  deceased. 

MOTIVE,  that  which  moves,  excites,  or  in- 
vites the  mind  to  volition.  It  may  be  one  thing 
singly,  or  many  things  conjunctly.  Some  call  it 
a  faculty  of  the  mind,  by  which  we  pursue  good 
and  avoid  evil.  See  Will  :  Edwards  on  the 
Will  p.  7,  8,  124,  259,  384 ;  Toplady's  Works, 
*al.  ii.  p.  41,  42. 

MOURNING,  sorrow,  grief.  See  Sorrow. 

MOURNING,  a  particular  dress  or  habit 
worn  to  signify  grief  on  some  melancholy  occa- 
sion, particularly  the  death  of  friends,  or  of  great 
public  characters.  The  modes  of  mourning  are 
various  in  various  countries  ;  as  also  are  the  co- 
lours that  obtain  for  that  end.  In  Europe  the 
ordinary  colour  for  mourning  is  black;  in  China, 
it  is  white;  in  Turkey,  blue  or  violet;  in  Egypt, 
yellow;  in  Ethiopia,  brown.  Each  people  pretend 
to  have  their  reasons  for  the  particular  colour  of 
their  mourning.  White  is  supposed  to  denote 
purity;  yellow,  that  death  is  the  end  of  all  human 
hopes,  as  leaves  when  they  fall,  and  flowers  when 
they  fade,  become  yellow;  brown  denotes  the 
earth,  whither  the  dead  return;  black,  the  priva- 
tion of  life,  as  being  the  privation  of  light ;  blue 
expresses  the  happiness  which  it  is  hoped  the  de- 
ceased enjoys;  and  purple  or  violet,  sorrow  on 
the  one  side,  and  hope  on  the  other,  as  being  a 
mixture  of  black  and  blue.  For  an  account  of 
the  mourning  of  the  Hebrews,  see  Lev.  xix.  and 
xxi. ;  Jer.  xvi.  6 ;  Num.  xx. ;  Deut.  xxxiv.  8. 

MOVER'S  LECTURES,  a  course  of  eight 
*ermons  preached  annually,  set  on  foot  by  the 
beneficence  of  Lady  Moyer,  about  1720,  who  left 
by  will  a  rich  legacy,  as  a  foundation  for  the  same. 
A  great  number  of  English  writers  having  en- 
deavoured, in  a  variety  of  ways,  to  invalidate  the 
doctrine  of  the  Trinity,  this  opulent  and  orthodox 
lady  was  influenced  to  think  of  an  institution 
which  should  produce  to  posterity  an  ample  col- 
lection ot  productions  in  defence  of  this  branch 
of  the  Christian  faith. —  The  first  course  of  these 
lectures  was  preached  by  Dr.  Waterland,  on  the 
Divinity  of  Christ,  and  are  well  worthy  of 
perusal. 

MUFTI,  the  chief  of  the  ecclesiastical  order, 
or  primate  of  the  Mussulman  religion.  The 
authority  of  the  Mufti  is  very  great  in  the  Otto- 
man empire ;  for  even  the  sultan  himself,  if  he 
will  preserve  any  appearance  of  religion,  cannot, 
without  first  hearing  his  opinion,  put  any  person 
to  death,  or  so  much  as  inflict  any  corporeal 
punishment.  In  all  actions,  especially  criminal 
ones,  his  opinion  is  required  by  giving  him  a 
writing,  in  which  the  case  is  stated  under  feigned 
names,  which  he  subscribes  with  the  words  Olur 
or  Olmuz,  l.  e.  he  shall  or  shall  not  be  punished. 

Such  outward  honour  is  paid  to  the  Mufti, 
that  the  grand  seignior  himself  rises  up  to  him, 
and  advances  seven  steps  towards  him  when  he 
comes  into  his  presence.  He  alone  has  the  ho- 
nour of  kissing  the  sultan's  left  shoulder,  whilst  the 
prime  vizier  kisses  only  the  hem  of  his  garment. 

When  the  grand  seignior  addresses  any  writ- 
ing to  the  Mufti,   he  gives   him  the  following 
titles — "  To  the  esad,  the  wisest  of  the  wise ;  in- 
structed in  all  knowledge ;  the  most  excellent  of 
303 


MUSSULMAN 
excellents  ;  abstaining  from  things  unlawful ;  the 
spring  of  virtue  and  true  science ;  heir  of  the  pro- 
phetic doctrines ;  resoher  of  the  problems  of  faith ; 
revealer  of  the  orthodox  articles  ;  key  of  the  trea- 
sures of  truth ;  the  light  to  doubtful  allegories ; 
strengthened  with  the  grace  of  the  Supreme  Legis- 
lator of  Mankind.  May  the  Most  High  God 
perpetuate  thy  favours." 

The  election  of  the  Mufti  is  solely  in  the  grand 
seignior,  who  presents  him  with  a  vest  of  rich 
sables,  and  allows  him  a  salary  of  a  thousand 
aspers  a  day,  which  is  about  five  pounds  sterling. 
Besides  this,  he  has  the  disposal  of  certain  bene- 
fices belonging  to  the  royal  mosques,  which  he 
makes  no  scruple  of  selling  to  the  best  advantage ; 
and,  on  his  admission  to  his  office,  he  is  compli- 
mented by  the  agents  of  the  bashas,  who  make 
him  the  usual  presents,  which  generally  amount 
to  a  very  considerable  sum. 

Whatever  regard  was  formerly  paid  to  the 
Mufti,  it  is  now  become  very  little  more  than 
form.  If  he  interprets  the  law,  or  gives  sentence 
contrary  to  the  sultan's  pleasure,  he  is  immft' 
diately  displaced,  and  a  more  pliant  person  put 
in  his  room.  If  he  is  convicted  of  treason,  or  any 
very  great  crime,  he  is  put  into  a  mortar  kept  for 
that  purpose  in  the  seven  towers  of  Constantino- 
ple, and  pounded  to  death. 

MUGGLETONIANS,  the  followers  of  Lu- 
dovic  Muggleton,  a  journeyman  tailor,  who,  with 
his  companion  Reeves,  (a  person  of  equal  ob- 
scurity,) set  up  for  great  prophets  in  the  time  of 
Cromwell.  They  pretended'  to  absolve  or  con- 
demn whom  they  pleased;  and  gave  out  that 
they  were  the  two  last  witnesses  spoken  of  in  the 
Revelation,  who  were  to  appear  previous  to  the 
final  destruction  of  the  world.  They  affirmed 
that  there  was  no  devil  at  all  without  the  body 
of  man  or  woman ;  that  the  devil  is  man's  spirit 
of  unclean  reason  and  cursed  imagination  ;  that 
the  ministry  in  this  world,  whether  prophetical  or 
ministerial,  is  all  a  lie  and  abomination  to  the 
Lord ;  with  a  variety  of  other  vain  and  inconsis- 
tent tenets. 

MURDER,  the  act  of  wilfully  and  feloniously 
killing  a  person  upon  malice  or  forethought. 
Heart  murder  is  the  secret  wishing  or  designing 
the  death  of  any  man ;  yea,  the  Scripture  saith, 
"  Whosoever  hateth  his  brother  is  a  murderer," 
1  John  iii.  15.  We  have  instances  of  this  kind 
of  murder  in  Ahab,  1  Kings  xxii.  9 ;  Jezebel,  2 
King?  xix.  2;  the  Jews,  Mark  xi.  18;  David, 
1  Samuel  xxv.  21,  22;  Jonah  ch.  iv.  1,  4.  Mur- 
der is  contrary  to  the  authority  of  God,  the  sove- 
reign disposer  of  life,  Deut.  xxxii.  39;  to  the 
goodness  of  God,  who  gives  it,  Job  x.  12 ;  to  the 
law  of  nature,  Acts  xvi.  28;  to  the  love  man 
owes  to  himself,  his  neighbour,  and  society  at 
large.  Not  but  that  life  may  be  taken  away,  as 
in  lawful  war,  1  Chron.  v.  22;  by  the  hands  of 
the  civil  magistrate  for  capital  crimes,  Deut.  xvii. 

8,  10 ;  and  in  self-defence.     See  Self-defence. 
According  to  the  divine  law,  murder  is  to  be 

punished  with  I'eath,  Deut.  xix.  11,  12;  1  Kings 
ii.  28,  29.  It  is  remarkable  that  God  often  givea 
up  murderers  to  the  terrors  of  a  guilty  conscience, 
Gen  iv.  13,  15,  23,  24.  Such  are  followed  with 
many  instances  of  divine  vengeance,  2  Sam.  xii. 

9,  10 ;  their  lives  arc  often  shortened,  Ps.  Iv.  23 ; 
and  judgments  for  their  sin  are  oftentimes  trans- 
mitted to  posterity,  Gen.  xlix.  7;  2  Sam.  xxi.  1. 

MUSSULMAN,  or  Musylmax,  a  title  by 


MYSTERIES 
which  the  Mahometans  distinguish  themselves; 
signifying  in  the  Turkish  language  "true  be- 
liever, or  orthodox."  There  are  two  kinds  of 
Mussulmen  very  averse  to  each  other;  the  one 
tailed  Sonnites,  and  the  other  Shiites.  The 
Sonnites  follow  the  interpretation  of  the  Alcoran 
riven  by  Omar;  the  Shiites  are  the  followers  of 
All.  The  subjects  of  the  king  of  Persia  are 
Shiites,  and  those  of  the  grand  seignior  Sonnites. 
See  Mahometans. 

MYSTERY,  pormpior,  secret,  (from  ^.v  to 
rrn/zx,  to  shut  the  mouth.)  It  is  taken,  1.  For  a 
truth  revealed  by  God  which  is  above  the  power 
of  our  natural  reason,  or  which  we  could  not  have 
discovered  without  revelation  ;  such  as  the  call  of 
the  Gentiles,  Eph.  i.  9;  the  transforming  of  some 
without  dying,  &c.  1  Cor.  xv.  51. — 2.  The  word 
is  also  used  in  reference  to  things  which  remain 
in  part  incomprehensible  after  they  are  revealed ; 
such  as  the  incarnation. of  Christ,  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead,  &c.  Some  critics,  however, 
observe  that  the  word  in  the  Scripture  does  not 
import  what  is  incapable,  in  its  own  nature,  of 
being  understood,  but  barely  a  secret,  any  thing 
not  disclosed  or  published  to  the  world. 

In  respect  to  the  mysteries  of  religion,  divines 
have  run  into  two  extremes.  "Some,"  as  one 
observes,  "  have  given  up  all  that  was  mysterious, 
thinking  that  they  were  not  called  to  believe  any 
thing  but  what  they  could  comprehend.  But,  if 
it  can  be  proved  that  mysteries  make  a  part  of  a 
religion  coming  from  God,  it  can  be  no  part  of 
piety  to  discard  them,  as  if  we  were  wiser  than 
he."  And  besides,  upon  this  principle,  a  man 
must  believe  nothing  :  the  various  works  of  na- 
ture, the  growth  of  plants,  instincts  of  brutes, 
union  of  body  and  soul,  properties  of  matter,  the 
nature  of  spirit,  and  a  thousand  other  things,  are 
all  replete  with  mysteries.  If  so  in  the  common 
works  of  nature,  we  can  hardly  suppose  that 
those  things  which  more  immediately  relate  to 
the  Divine  Being  himself,  can  be  without  mys- 
tery. "  The  other  extreme  lies  in  an  attempt  to 
explain  the  mysteries  of  revelation,  so  as  to  free 
them  from  all  obscurity. — To  defend  religion  in 
this  manner  is  to  expose  it  to  contempt.  The 
following  maxim  points  out  the  proper  way  of 
defence,  by  which  both  extremes  are  avoided. 
Where  the  truth  of  a  doctrine  depends  not  on 
the  evidence  of  the  things  themselves,  but  on  the 
authority  of  him  who  reveals  it,  there  the  only 
way  to  prove  the  doctrine  to  be  true  is  to  prove 
the  testimony  of  him  that  revealed  it  to  be  infal- 
lible." Dr.  South  observes,  that  the  mysterious- 
ness  of  those  parts  of  the  Gospel  called  the 
credenda,  or  matters  of  our faith,  is  most  subser- 
vient to  the  great  and  important  ends  of  religion, 
aril  that  upon  these  accounts  :  First,  because 
religion  in  the  prime  institution  of  it  was  de- 
signed to  make  impressions  of  awe  and  reverential 
fear  upon  men's  minds. — 2.  To  humble  the  pride 
and  haughtiness  of  man's  reason. — 3.  To  engage 
us  in  a  closer  and  more  diligent  search  into  them. 
— 4.  That  the  full  and  entire  knowledge  of  divine 
things  may  be  one  principal  part  of  our  felicity 
hereafter.  Robinson's  Claude,  vol.  i.  p.  118, 1  lfl, 
304,  303;  Campbell's  Preliminary  Dissertation 
to  the  Gospels,  vol.  i.  p.  383 ;  StillingficcVs  Ori- 
gincs  Sacrce,  vol.  ii.  c.  8 ;  Ridgley's  Div.  qu.  1 1 ; 
Calmct's  Diet. ;  Cruden's  Concordance  ;  Soulh's 
"Scrm.  ser.  G  voL  iii. 
MYSTERIES,  a  term  used  to  denote  the  ae- 
304 


MYSTICS 
cret  rites  of  the  Pagan  superstition,  which  weiv, 
carefully  concealed  from  the  knowledge  of  the 
vulgar. 

The  learned  bishop  Warburton  supposed  that 
the  mysteries  of  the  Pagan  religion  werPthe  in- 
vention of  legislators  and  other  great  personages, 
whom  fortune  or  their  own  merit  had  placed  at 
the  head  of  those  chil  societies  which  were  formed 
in  the  earliest  ages  in  different  parts  of  the  world. 

Mosheim  was  of  opinion  that  the  mysteries 
were  entirely  commemorative  ;  that  they  were  in- 
stituted with  a  view  to  preserve  the  remembrance 
of  heroes  and  great  men  who  had  been  deified  in 
consideration  of  their  martial  exploits,  useful  in- 
ventions, public  virtues,  and  especially  in  conse- 
quence of  the  benefits  by  them  conferred  on  their 
contemporaries. 

Others,  however,  suppose,  that  the  mysteries 
were  the  offspring  of  bigotry  and  priestcraft,  and 
that  they  originated  in  Egypt,  the  native  land  of 
idolatry.  In  that  country  the  priesthood  ruled 
predominant.  The  kings  were  engrafted  into 
their  body  before  they  could  ascend  the  throne. 
They  were  possessed  of  a  third  part  of  all  the 
land  of  Egypt.  The  sacerdotal  function  was  con- 
fined to  one  tribe,  and  was  transmitted  unalien- 
able from  father  to  son.  All  the  Orientals,  but 
more  especially  the  Egyptians,  delighted  in  mys- 
terious and  allegorical  doctrines.  Every  maxim 
of  morality,  every  tenet  of  theology,  every  dogma 
of  philosophy,  was  wrapt  up  in  a  veil  of  allegory 
and  mysticism.  This  propensity,  no  doubt,  con- 
spired with  avarice  and  ambition  to  dispose  them 
to  a  dark  and  mysterious  system  of  religion.  Be- 
sides, the  Egyptians  were  a  gloomy  race  of  men  ; 
they  delighted  in  darkness  and  solitude.  The  sa- 
cred rites  were  generally  celebrated  with  melan- 
choly airs,  weeping,  and  lamentation.  This 
gloomy  and  unsocial  bias  of  mind  must  have  sti- 
mulated them  to  a  congenial  mode  cf  worship. 

MYSTICS,  a  sect  distinguished  by  their  pro- 
fessing pure,  sublime,  and  perfect  devotion,  with 
an  entire  disinterested  love  of  God,  free  from  all 
selfish  considerations.  The  authors  of  this  mys- 
tic science,  which  sprung  up  towards  the  close  of 
the  third  century,  are  not  known ;  but  the  prin- 
ciples from  which  it  was  formed  are  manifest.  Its 
first  promoters  proceeded  from  the  known  doctrine 
of  the  Platonic  school,  which  was  also  adopted  by 
Origen  and  his  disciples,  that  the  divine  nature 
was  diffused  through  all  human  souls ;  or  that  the 
faculty  of  reason,  from  which  proceed  the  health 
and  vigour  of  the  mind,  was  an  emanation  from 
God  into  the.  human  soul,  and  comprehended  in 
it  the  principles  and  elements  of  all  truth,  human 
and  divine.  They  denied  that  men  could,  by  la- 
bour or  study,  excite  this  celestial  flame  in  their 
breasts ;  and  therefore  they  disapproved  highly  of 
the  attempts  of  those  who,  by  definitions,  abstract 
theorems,  and  profound  speculations,  endeavoured 
to  form  distinct  notions  of  truth,  and  to  discover 
its  hidden  nature.  On  the  contrary,  they  main- 
tained that  silence,  tranquillity,  repose,  and  soli- 
tude, accompanied  with  such  acts  as  might  tend  to 
extenuate  and  exhaust  the  body,  were  the  means 
by  which  the  hidden  and  internal  word  was  ex- 
cited to  produce  its  latent  virtues,  and  to  instruct 
men  in  the  knowledge  of  divine  things.  For  thus 
they  reasoned  : — Those  who  behold  with  a  noble 
contempt  all  human  affairs ;  who  turn  away  their 
eyes  from  terrestrial  vanities,  and  shut  all  the 
avenues  of  the  outward  senses  against  the  conta 


NAME 
ghws  influences  of  a  material  world,  must  neces- 
sarily return  to  God  when  the  spirit  is  thus  disen- 
gaged from  the  impediments  that  prevented  that 
nappy  union ;  and  in  this  blessed  frame  they  not 
only  enjoy  inexpressible  raptures  from  their  com- 
munion with  the  Supreme  Being,  but  are  also  in- 
vested with  the  inestimable  privilege  of  contem- 
plating truth  undisguised  and  uncorrupted  in  its 
native,  purity,  while  others  behold  it  in  a  vitiated 
and  delusive  form. 

The  number  of  the  Mystics  increased  in  the 
fourth  century,  under  the  influence  of  the  Grecian 
fanatic,  who  gave  himself  out  for  Dionysius  the 
Areopagite  disciple  of  St.  Paul,  and  probably 
lived  about  this  period ;  and  by  pretending  to 
higher  degrees  of  perfection  than  other  Chris- 
tians, and  practising  greater  austerity,  their  cause 
gained  ground,  especially  in  the  eastern  provinces, 
in  the  fifth  century.  A  copy  of  the  pretended 
works  of  Dionysius  was  sent  by  Balbus  to  Lewis 
the  Meek,  in  the  year  824,  which  kindled  the  only 
flame  of  mysticism  in  the  western  provinces,  and 
filled  the  Latins  with  the  most  enthusiastic  admi- 
ration of  this  new  religion.  In  the  twelfth  cen- 
tury these  Mystics  took  the  lead  in  their  method 
of  expounding  the  Scriptures.  In  the  thirteenth 
century  they  were  the  most  formidable  antagonists 
of  the  schoolmen ;  and,  towards  the  close  of  the 
fourteenth,  many  of  them  resided  and  propagated 
their  tenets  almost  in  every  part  of  Europe. — 
They  had,  in  the  fifteenth  century,  many  persons 
of  distinguished  merit  in  their  number ;  and  in 
the  sixteenth  century,  previous  to  the  Reforma- 
tion, if  any  sparks  of  real  piety  subsisted  under 
the  despotic  empire  of  superstition,  they  were 
only  to  be,  found  among  the  Mystics.  The  cele- 
brated Madame  Bourignon,  and  the  amiable.  Fe- 
nelon,  archbishop  of  Cambray,  were  of  this  sect. 
Dr.  Haweis,  in  speaking  of  the  Mystics,  Church 
History,  vol.  iii.  p.  47,  thus  observes  :  "  Among 
those  called  Mystics,  I  am  persuaded  some  were 
found  who  loved  God  out  of  a  pure  heart  fer- 
vently ;  and  though  they  were  ridiculed  and  re- 
viled for  proposing  a  disinterestedness  of  love 
without  other  motives,  and  as  professing  to 
feel  in  the  enjoyment  of  the  temper  itself  an 
abundant  reward,  their  holy  and  heavenly  con- 
versation will  carry  a  stamp  of  real  religion 
upon  it." 

As  the  late  Rev.  William  Law.  who  was  born 
in  16S7,  makes  a  distinguished  figure  among  the 
modern  Mystics,  a  brief  account  of  the  outlines 
of  his  system  may,  perhaps,  be  entertaining  to 
some  readers.  He  supposed  that  the  material 
world  was  the  very  region  which  originally  be- 
longed to  the  fallen  angels.  At  length  the  light 
and  spirit  of  God  entered  into  the  chaos,  and 


NATIVITY 
turned  the  angels'  ruined  kingdom  into  a  paradise 
on  earth.  God  then  created  man,  and  placed  him 
there.  He  was  made  in  the  image  of  the  triune 
God,  a  living  mirror  of  the  divine  nature,  formed  to 
enjoy  communion  with  Father,  Sun,  and  Holy 
Ghost,  and  live  on  earth  as  the  angels  do  in  Hea- 
ven. He  was  endowed  with  immortality,  so  that 
the  elements  of  this  outward  world  could  not  have 
any  power  of  acting  on  his  body  ;  but  by  his  fall 
he  changed  the  light,  life,  and  Spirit  of  God  for 
the  light,  life,  and  spirit  of  the  world.  He  died 
the  verv  day  of  his  transgression  to  all  the  influ- 
ences and  operations  of  the  Spirit  of  God  upon 
him,  as  we  die  to  the  influences  of  this  world 
when  the  soul  leaves  the  body ;  and  all  the  influ- 
ences and  operations  of  the  elements  of  this  life 
were  open  in  him,  as  they  were  in  any  animal, 
at  his  birth  into  this  world  :  ne  became  an  earthly 
creature,  subject  to  the  dominion  of  this  outward 
world,  and  stood  only  in  the  highest  rank  of  ani- 
mals. But  the  goodness  of  God  would  not  leave 
man  in  this  condition ;  redemption  from  it  was 
immediately  granted,  and  the  bruiser  of  the  ser- 
pent brought  the  light,  life,  and  spirit  of  heaven, 
once  more  into  the  human  nature.  All  men,  in 
consequence  of  the  redemption  of  Christ,  have  in 
them  the  first  spark,  or  seed,  of  the  divine  life,  as 
a  treasure  hid  in  the  centre  of  our  souls,  to  bring 
forth,  by  degrees,  a  new  birth  of  that  life  which 
was  lost  in  paradise.  No  son  of  Adam  can  be  lost, 
only  by  turning  away  from  the  Saviour  within 
him.  The  only  religion  which  can  save  us,  must 
be  that  which  can  raise  the  light,  life,  and  Spirit 
of  God  in  our  souls.  Nothing  can  enter  into  the 
vegetable  kingdom  till  it  have  the  vegetable  life  in 
it,  or  be  a  member  of  the  animal  kingdom  till  it 
have  the  animal  life.  Thus  all  nature  joins  with 
the  Gospel  in  affirming  that  no  man  can  enter 
into  the  kingdom  of  heaven  till  the  heavenly  life 
is  born  in  him.  Nothing  can  be  our  righteous- 
ness or  recovery  brt  the  divine  nature  of  Jesus 
Christ  derived  to  our  souls.  Law's  Life ;  Laic's 
Spirit  of  Prayer  and  Appeal ;  Law's  Spirit  of 
Love,  and  on  Regeneration. 

MYTHOLOGY,  in  its  original  import,  signi- 
fies any  kind  of  fabulous  doctrine.  In  its  more 
appropriated  sense,  it  means  those  fabulous  de- 
tails concerning  the  objects  of  worship,  which 
were  invented  and  propagated  by  men  who  lived 
in  the  early  ages  of  the  world,  and  by  them  trans- 
milted  to  succeeding  generations,  either  by  writ- 
ten records  or  by  oral  tradition.  Sec  articles 
Heathen,  Paganism,  and  Gale's  Court  of  the 
Gentiles,  a  work  calculated  to  show  that  the 
pagan  philosophers  derived  their  most  sublime 
sentiments  from  the  Scriptures.  Bryant's  Sys- 
tem of  Ancient  Mythology. 


N. 


NAME  OF  GOD.  By  this  term  we  are  to 
understand, — 1.  God  himself,  Psal.  xx.  1. — 
2.  His  titles  peculiar  to  himself,  Exod.  iii.  13, 
14.— 3.  His  word,  Psal.  v.  11;  Acts  ix.  15.— 
4.  His  works,  Psal.  viii.  1. — 5.  His  worship, 
Exod.  xx.  24. — 6.  His  perfections  and  excel- 
lences, Exod.  xxxiv.  G :  John  xvii.  20. —  The 
properties  or  qualities %of  this  name  are  these: 
1.  A  glorious  name,  Psal.  lxxii.  17. — 2.  Tran- 
scendent and  incomparable,  Rev.  xix.  '6. — 
305  3  O 


3.  Powerful,  Phil.  ii.  10. — 4.  Holy  and  reve- 
rend, Psal.  cxi.  9. — 5.  Awful  to  the  wicked. — 
6.  Perpetual,  Isa.  lv.  13.  Cruden's  Concord- 
ance; Hannam's  Anal.  Comp.  p.  20. 

NATIVITY  OF  CHRIST.  The  birth  of 
our  Saviour  was  exactly  as  predicted  by  the  pro- 
phecies of  the  Old  Testament,  Isa.  vii.  14 ;  Jer. 
xxxi.  22.  He  was  born  of  a  virgin  of  the  house 
of  David,  and  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  Matthew 
i. ;  Luke  i.  27.  His  coming  into  the  world  wa» 
2  a  2 


NATIVITY 
afW  (he  manner  of  other  men,  though  his  gene- 
ration and  conception  were  extraordinary.  The 
place  of  his  birth  was  Bethlehem,  Mic,  v.  2; 
Matt.  ii.  4.  6;  where  his  parents  were  wonder- 
fully conducted  by  Providence,  Luke  ii.  1,  7.-- 
The  time  of  his  birth  was  foretold  by  the  pro- 
phets to  In-  before  the  sceptre  or  civil  govern- 
ment departed  from  Judah,  Gen.  xlix.  10;  Mai. 
iii.  1;  lla^r.  ii.  fi.  7,  <)■  Dan.  ix.  21;  but  the 
exact  year  of  his  birth  is  not  agreed  on  by  chro- 
nologors,  but  it  was  about  the  tour  thousandth 
year  of  the  world ;  nor  can  the  season  of  the 
year,  the  month,  and  day  in  which  he  was  born, 
be  ascertained.  The  Egyptians  placed  it  in 
January;  Wagenseil  in  February;  Bochart,  in 
March;  some,  mentioned  by  Clement  of  Alex- 
andria, in  April;  others,  in  May;  Epiphanius 
speaks  of  some  who  placed  it  in  June,  and  of 
others  who  supposed  it  to  have  been  in  July ; 
Wagenseil,  who  was  not  sure  of  February,  fixed 
it  probably  in  August ;  Lightfoot,  on  the  fifteenth 
of  September ;  Scaliger,  Casaubon,  and  Calvi- 
sius,  in  October;  others  in  November;  and  the 
Latin  Church  in  December.  It  does  not,  how- 
ever, appear  probable  that  the  vulgar  account  is 
tight ;  the  circumstance  of  the  shepherds  watch- 
ing their  flocks  by  night,  agrees  not  witn  the  win- 
ter season.  Dr.  Gill  thinks  it  was  more  likely  in 
autumn,  in  the  month  of  September,  at  the  feast  of 
tabernacles,  to  which  there  seems  some  reference 
in  John  i.  11.  The  Scripture,  however,  assures 
us  that  it  was  in  the  "fulness  of  time"  Gal.  iv. 
4 ;  and,  indeed,  the  wisdom  of  God  is.  evidently 
displayed  as  to  the  time  when,  as  well  as  the  end 
for  which,  Christ  came. 

It  was  in  a  time  when  the  world  stood  in  need 
of  such  a  Saviour,  and  was  best  prepared  for  re- 
ceiving him.  "  About  the  time  of  Christ's  ap- 
pearance," says  Dr.  Robertson,  "there  prevailed 
a  general  opinion  that  the  Almighty  would  send 
forth  some  eminent  messenger  to  communicate  a 
more  perfect  discovery  of  his  will  to  mankind. 
The  dignity  of  Christ,  the  virtues  of  his  charac- 
ter, the  glory  of  his  kingdom,  and  the  signs  of 
his  coming,  were  described  by  the  ancient  pro- 
phets with  the  utmost  perspicuity.  Guided  by 
the  sure  word  of  prophecy,  the.  Jews  of  that  age 
concluded  the  period  predetermined  by  God  to  be 
then  completed,  and  that  the  promised  Messiah 
would  suddenly  appear,  Luke  ii.  25  to  38.  Nor 
were  these  expectations  peculiar  to  the  Jews. 
By  their  dispersions  among  so  many  nations,  by 
their  conversation  with  the  learned  men  among 
the  heathens,  and  the  translation  of  their  inspired 
writings  into  a  language  almost  universal,  the 
principles  of  their  religion  were  spread  all  over 
the  East ;  and  it  became  the  common  belief  that 
a  Prince  would  arise  at  that  time  in  Judea,  who 
should  change  the  face  of  the  world,  and  extend 
his  empire  from  one  end  of  the  earth  to  the 
other.  Now  had  Christ  been  manifested  at  a 
ftiore  early  period,  the  world  would  not  have  been 
prepared  to  meet  him  with  the  same  fondness 
and  zeal :  had  his  appearance  been  put  off  for 
any  considerable  time,  men's  expectations  would 
have  begun  to  languish,  and  the  warmth  of 
desire,  from  a  delay  of  gratification,  might  have 
cooled  and  died  away. 

The  birth  of  Christ  was  also  in  the  fulness  of 

time,  if  we  consider  the  then  political  state  of  the 

world.     The  world,  in  the  Most  early  ages,  was 

divided   into  small  independent  states,  differiti" 

300 


NATIVITY 
from  each  other  in  language,  manners,  lawe  and 
religion.  The  shock  of  so  many  opposite  inte- 
rests, the  interfering  of  so  many  contrary  viewS) 
occasioned  the  most  violent  convulsions  and  dis- 
orders ;  perpetual  discord  subsisted  between  these 
rival  states,  and  hostility  and  bloodshed  never 
ceased.  Commerce  had  not  hitherto  united  man 
kind,  and  opened  the  communication  of  one  na- 
tion with  another :  voyages  into  remote  countries 
were  very  rare ;  men  moved  in  a  narrow  circle, 
little  acquainted  with  any  thing  beyond  the  limits 
of  their  own  small  territory.  At  last  the  Roman 
ambition  undertook  the  arduous  enterprise  of 
conquering  the  world :  They  trod  down  the 
kingdoms,  according  to  Daniel's  prophetic  de- 
scription, by  their  exceeding  strength :  they 
devoured  the  whole  earth,  Dan.  vii.  7,  23.  How- 
ever, by  enslaving  the  world,  they  civilized  it,  and 
while  they  oppressed  mankind,  they  united  them 
together;  the  same  laws  were  every  where  esta- 
blished, and  the  same  languages  understood ; 
men  approached  nearer  to  one  another  in  senti- 
ments and  manners,  and  the  intercourse  between 
the  most  distant  corners  of  the  earth  was  rendered 
secure  and  agreeable.  Satiated  with  victory,  the 
first  emperors  abandoned  all  thoughts  of  new 
conquests :  peace,  an  unknown  blessing,  was 
enjoyed  through  all  that  vast  empire ;  or,  if  a 
slight  war  was  waged  on  an  outlying  and  barba- 
rous frontier,  far  from  disturbing  the  tranquillity, 
it  scarcely  drew  the  attention  of  mankind.  The 
disciples  of  Christ,  thus  favoured  by  the  union 
and  peace  of  the  Roman  empire,  executed  their 
commission  with  great  advantage.  The  success 
and  rapidity  with  which  they  diffused  the  know- 
ledge of  his  name  over  the  world  are  astonishing. 
Nations  were  now  accessible  which  formerly  had 
been  unknown.  Under  this  situation,  into  which 
the  providence  of  God  had  brought  the  world,  the 
joyful  sound  in  a  few  years  reached  those  remote 
corners  of  the  earth  into  which  it  could  not  other- 
wise have  penetrated  for  many  ages.  Thus  the 
Roman  ambition  and  bravery  paved  the  way,  and 
prepared  the  world  for  the  reception  of  the  Chris- 
tian doctrine." 

If  we  consider  the  state  of  the  world  with  re- 
gard to  morals,  it  evidently  appears  that  tha 
coming  of  Christ  was  at  the  most  appropriate 
time.  "The  Romans,"  continues  our  author, 
"  by  subduing  the  world,  lost  their  own  liberty. 
Many  vices,  engendered  or  nourished  by  pros- 
perity, delivered  them  over  to  the  vilest  race  of 
tyrants  that  ever  afflicted  or  disgracod  human 
nature.  The  colours  are  not  too  strong  which 
the  apostle  employs  in  drawing  the  character  of 
that  age.  See  Eph.  iv.  17,  19.  In  this  time  of 
universal  corruption  did  the  wisdom  of  God  mani- 
fest the  Christian  revelation  to  the  world.  What 
the  wisdom  of  men  could  do  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  virtue  in  a  corrupt  world  had  been  tried 
during  several  ages,  and  all  human  devices  were 
found  by  experience  to  be  of  very  small  avail ;  so 
that  no  juncture  could  be  more  proper  for  pub- 
lishing a  religion,  which,  independent  of  human 
laws  and  institut:  ins,  explains  the  principles  of 
morals  with  admirable  perspicuity,  and  enforces 
the  practice  of  them  by  most  persuasive  argu 
ments." 

The  wisdom  of  God  will  still  further  appear  in 
the  time  of  Christ's  comyig,  if  we  consider  the 
world  with  regard  to  its  religious  state.  "  The 
Jews  seem  to  have  been  deeply  tinctured  with 


NATURE 

superstition.  Delighted  with  the  ceremonial  pre- 
scriptions of  the  law,  they  utterly  neglected  the 
moral.  While  the  Pharisees  undermined  reli- 
gion, on  the  one  hand,  by  their  vain  traditions 
and  wretched  interpretations  of  the  law,  the  Sad- 
ducees  denied  the  immortality  of  the  soul,  and 
overturned  the  doctrine  of  future  rewards  and 

f vanishments ;  so  that  between  them  the  know- 
edge  and  power  of  true  religion  were  entirely 
lestroyed.  But  the  deplorable  situation  of  the 
heathen  world  called  still  more  loudly  for  an  im- 
mediate interposal  of  the  divine  hand.  The 
characters  of  their  heathen  deities  were  infamous, 
and  their  religious  worship  consisted  frequently 
in  the  vilest  and  most  shameful  rites.  According 
to  the  apostle's  observation,  they  were  in  all 
things  too  superstitious.  Stately  temples,  ex- 
pensive sacrifices,  pompous  ceremonies,  magnifi- 
cent festivals,  with  all  the  other  circumstances  of 
show  and  splendour,  were  the  objects  which  false 
religion  presented  to  its  votaries;  but  just  notions 
of  God,  obedience  to  his  moral  laws,  purity  of 
heart,  and  sanctity  of  life,  were  not  once  men- 
tioned as  ingredients  in  religious  service.  Rome 
adopted  the  gods  of  almost  every  nation  whom 
she  had  conquered,  and  opened  her  temples  to 
the  grossest  superstitions  of  the  most  barbarous 
people.  Her  foolish  heart  being  darkened,  she 
changed  the  glory  of  the  uncorruptible  God  into 
an  image  made  like  to  corruptible  man,  and  to 
birds,  and  four-footed  beasts,  and  creeping  things, 
Rom.  i.  21,  23.  No  period,  therefore,  can  be 
mentioned  when  instructions  would  have  been 
more  seasonable  and  necessary  ;"  and  no  wonder 
that  those  who  were  looking  for  salvation  should 
joyfully  exclaim,  "Blessed  be  the  Lord  God  of 
Israel,  for  he  hath  visited  and  redeemed  his 
people." 

The  nativity  of  Christ  is  celebrated  among  us 
on  the  twenty-fifth  day  of  December,  and  divine 
service  is  performed  in  the  church,  and  in  many 
places  of  worship  among  Dissenters;  but,  alas! 
the  day,  we  fear,  is  more  generally  profaned  than 
improved.  Instead  of  being  a  season  of  real  de- 
potion,  it  is  a  season  of  great  diversion.  The 
luxury,  extravagance,  intemperance,  obscene  plea- 
sures, and  drunkenness  that  abound,  are  striking 
proofs  of  the  immoralities  of  the  age.  "  It  is 
matter  of  just  complaint,"  says  a  divine,  "that 
such  irregular  and  extravagant  things  are  at  this 
time  commonly  done  by  many  who  call  them- 
selves Christians ;  as  if,  because  the  Son  of  God 
was  at  this  time  made  man,  it  were  tit  for  men  to 
make  themselves  beasts."  Man ne's  Dissertation 
on  the  Birth  of  Christ ;  Lardner's  Crcd.  part 
i.  vol.  ii.  p.  7%,  %3 ;  Gill's  Body  of  Divinity, 
on  Incarnation ;  Bishop  Law's  Theory  of  Reli- 
gion. ;  Dr.  Robertson's  admirable  Sermon  on  the 
Situation  of  the  World  at  Christ's  Appearance  ; 
Edwards's  Redemption,  p.  313,  31G;  Robinson's 
Claude,  vol.  i.  p.  270,  317 ;  John  Edwards's  Sur- 
vey of  all  the  Dispensations  and  Methods  of  Re- 
ligion, chap.  13,  vol.  i. 

NATURE,  the  essential  properties  of  a  thing, 
or  that  by  which  it  is  distinguished  from  all 
others.  It  is  used  also,  for  the  system  of  the 
world,  and  the  Creator  of  it;  the  aggregate  powers 
of  the  human  body,  and  common  sense,  Rom.  i. 
2G,  27 ;  1  Cor.  xi.  14.  The  word  is  also  used  in 
reference  to  a  variety  of  other  objects,  which  we 
shall  here  enumerate.  1.  The  Divine  nature  is 
nut  any  external  form  or  shape  hut  his  glory, 
307 


NAZARITES 
excellency,  and  perfections,  peculiar  to  himself. — 
2.  Human  nature  signifies  the  state,  properties, 
and  peculiarities  of  man. — 3.  Good  nature  is  a 
disposition  to  please,  and  is  compounded  of  kind- 
ness, forbearance,  forgiveness,  and  self-denial. — 
4.  The  law  of  nature  is  the  will  of  God  relating 
to  human  actions  grounded  in  the  moral  differ- 
ences  of  things.  Some  understand  it  in  a  more 
comprehensive  sense,  as  signifying  those  stated 
orders  by  which  all  the  parts  of  the  material  world 
are  governed  in  their  several  motions  and  opera- 
tions.— 5.  The  light  of  nature  does  not  consist 
merely  in  those  ideas  which  heathens  have  ac- 
tually attained,  but  those  which  are  presented  to 
men  by  the  works  of  creation,  and  which,  by  the 
exertion  of  reason,  they  may  obtain,  if  they  be 
desirous  of  retaining  God  in  their  mind.  See 
Religion. — 6.  By  the  dictates  of  nature,  with  re- 
gard to  right  and  wrong,  we  understand  those 
things  which  appear  to  the  mind  to  be  natural, 
fit,  or  reasonable. — 7.  The  state  of  nature  is  that 
in  which  men  have  not  by  mutual  engagements, 
implicit  or  express,  entered  into  communities. — 
8.  Depraved  nature  is  that  corrupt  state  in  which 
all  mankind  are  born,  and  which  inclines  them 
to  evil. 

NAZARENES,  Christians  converted  from 
Judaism,  whose  chief  error  consisted  in  defending 
the  necessity  or  expediency  of  the  works  of  the 
law,  and  who  obstinately  adhered  to  the  practice 
of  the  Jewish  ceremonies.  The  name  of  Naza- 
renes,  at  first,  had  nothing  odious  in  it,  and  it  was 
often  given  to  the  first  Christians.  The  fathers 
frequently  mention  the  Gospel  of  the  Nazarenes 
which  differs  nothing  from  that  of  St.  Matthew 
which  was  either  in  Hebrew  or  Syriac,  for  tha 
use  of  the  first  converts,  but  was  afterwards  cor- 
rupted by  the  Ebionites.  These  Nazarenes  pre- 
served their  first  Gospel  in  its  primitive  purity. 
Some  of  them  were  still  in  being  in  the  time  of 
St.  Jerome,  who  does  not  reproach  them  with 
any  errors.  They  were  very  zealous  observers 
of  the  law  of  Moses,  but  held  the  traditions  of  the 
Pharisees  in  very  great  contempt. 

The  word  Na2arene  was  given  to  Jesus  Christ 
and  his  disciples ;  and  is  commonly  taken  in  a 
sense  of  derision  and  contempt  in  such  authors  as 
have  written  against  Christianity. 

NAZARITES,  those  under  the  ancient  law 
who  made  a  vow  of  observing  a  more  than  ordi- 
nary degree  of  purity,  as  Samson  and  John  the 
Baptist.  The  Nazarites  engaged  by  a  vow  tc 
abstain  from  wine  and  all  intoxicating  liquors  ;  to 
let  their  hair  grow  without  cutting  or  shaving 
not  to  enter  into  any  house  that  was  polluted  by 
having  a  dead  corpse  in  *  ;  nor  to  be  present  at 
any  funeral.  And  if  by  chance  any  one  should 
have  died  in  their  presence,  they  began  again  the 
whole  ceremony  of  their  consecration  and  Naza- 
riteslup. — This  ceremony  generally  lasted  eight 
days,  sometimes  a  month,  and  sometimes  their 
whole  lives.  When  the  time  of  their  N?zarite- 
ship  was  accomplished,  the  priest  brought  the 
person  to  the  door  of  the  temple,  who  there  offered 
to  the  Lord  a  he-lamb  for  a  burnt-offering,  a  she- 
lamb  for  an  expiatory  sacrifice,  and  a  ram  for  a 
peace-offering.  They  offered  likewise  loaves  and 
cakes,  with  wine  necessary  for  the  libations. 
After  all  this  was  sacrificed  and  offered  to  the 
Lord,  the  priest  or  some  other  person,  shaved  the 
head  of  the  Nazarite  at  thedoor  of  the  tabernacle, 
and  burnt  his  hair,  throwing  it  upon  the  lire  of 


NECESSITY 
the  altar.     Then  the  priest  put  into  the  hand  of 
the  Nazarite  tin;  shoulder  of  the  ram  roasted,  with 

a  loaf  and  a  cake,  which  the  Nazarite,  returning 
into  the  hands  of  the  priest,  he  offered  them  to  the 
Lord,  lifting  them  up  in  the  presence  of  the  Na- 
zarite. And  from  this  time  he  might  again  drink 
wine,  his  Nazaritcship  being  now  accomplished. 
Numb.  vi. ;  Amos,  ii.  11,  1*2. 

Those  that  made  a  vow  of  Nazaritcship  out  of 
Palestine,  and  could  not  come  to  the  temple  when 
their  vow  was  expired,  contented  themselves  with 
observing  the  abstinence  required  by  the  law,  and 
after  that,  cutting  their  hair  in  the  place  where 
they  were  :  as  to  the  offerings  and  sacrifices  pre- 
scribed by  Moses,  which  were  to  be  offered  at  the 
temple  by  themselves,  or  by  others  for  them,  they 
deferred  this  till  they  could  have  a  convenient  op- 
portunity. Hence  it  was  that  St.  Paul,  being  at 
Corinth,  and  having  made  a  vow  of  a  Nazarite, 
had  his  hair  cut  off  at  Cenchrea,  and  put  off  ful- 
filling the  rest  of  his  vow  till  he  should  arrive  at 
Jerusalem,  Acts  xviii.  18.  When  a  person  found 
that  he  was  not  in  a  condition  to  make  a  vow  of 
Nazaritcship,  or  had  not  leisure  to  perform  the 
ceremonies  belonging  to  it,  he  contented  himself 
by  contributing  to  the  expense  of  the  sacrifice 
and  oflerings  ot  those  that  had  made  and  fulfilled 
this  vow ;  and  by  this  means  he  became  a  par- 
taker in  the  merit  of  such  Nazaritcship.  When 
St.  Paul  came  to  Jerusalem,  in  the  year  of 
Christ  53,  the  apostle  St.  James  the  Less,  with  the 
other  brethren,  said  to  him  (Acts  xxi.  23,  24,) 
that,  to  quiet  the  minds  of  the  converted  Jews, 
who  had  been  informed  that  he  every  where 
preached  up  the  entire  abolition  of  the  law  of 
Moses,  he  ought  to  join  himself  to  four  of  the 
faithful  who  had  a  vow  of  Nazaritcship  upon 
them,  and  contribute  to  the  charge  of  the  cere- 
mony at  the  shaving  of  their  heads ;  by  which 
the  new  converts  would  perceive  that  he  con- 
tinued to  keep  the  law,  and  that  what  they  had 
heard  of  him  was  not  true. 

NECESSARIANS,  an  appellation  which 
may  be  given  to  all  who  maintain  that  moral 
agents  act  from  necessity.  See  next  article,  and 
Materialists. 

NECESSITY,  whatever  is  done  by  a  cause 
or  power  that  is  irresistible,  in  which  sense  it  is 
opposed  to  freedom.  Man  is  a  necessary  agent, 
it  all  liis  actions  be  so  determined  by  the  causes 
preceding  each  action,  that  not  one  past  action 
could  possibly  not  have  come  to  pass,  or  have 
been  otherwise  than  it  hath  l>een,  nor  one  future 
action  can  possibly  not  come  to  pass,  or  be  other- 
wise th-in  it  shall  be.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
asserted,  that  he  is  a  free  agent,  if  he  be  able  at 
any  time,  under  the  causes  and  circumstances  he 
then  is,  to  do  different  things  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
it  he  lw  not  unavoidably  determined  in  every 
point  of  time  by  the  circumstances  he  is  ir., 
and  the  causes  he  is  under,  to  do  any  one  thing 
he  does,  and  not  possibly  to  do  any  other  thing. 
Whether  man  is  a  necessary  or  a  free  agent,  is  a 
question  which  has  been  debated  by  writers  of  the 
first  eminence.  Bobbes,  Collins,  Hume,  Leib- 
nitz, Kaims,  Hartley,  Priestley,  Edwards,  Crom- 
bie,  Toplady,  and  Bclsham,  have  written  on  the 
side  of  necessity;  while  Clarke,  King,  Law, 
Reid,  Butler,  Price,  Piryant,  Wollaston,  llorsley, 
Beattie,  Gregory,  and  Butterworth,  have  written 
against  it.  To  state  all  their  arguments  in  this 
•place,  would  take  up  too  much  room  ;  sullice  it  to 
308 


NECROMANCY 
say,  that  the  Anti-necessarians  suppose  that  the 
doctrine  of  necessity  charges  God  as  the  author 
of  sin  ;  that  it  takes  away  the  freedom  of  the  will, 
renders  man  unaccountable,  makes  sin  to  be  no 
evil,  and  morality  or  virtue  to  be  no  good ;  pre- 
cludes the  use  of  means,  and  is  of  the  most 
gloomy  tendency.  The  Necessarians  deny  these 
to  be  legitimate  consequences,  and  observe  thai 
the  Defty  acts  no  more  immorally  in  decreeing 
vicious  actions,  than  in  permitting  all  those  ir- 
regularities which  he  could  so  easily  have  pre- 
vented. The  difficulty  is  tne  same  on  each  hy- 
pothesis. All  necessity,  say  they,  doth  not  take 
away  freedom.  The  actions  of  a  man  may  be  at 
one  and  the  same  time  free  and  necessary  too.  It 
was  infallibly  certain  that  Judas  would  betray 
Christ,  yet  he  did  it  voluntarily.  Jesus  Christ 
necessarily  became  man,  and  died,  yet  he  acted 
freely.  A  good  man  doth  naturally  and  neces- 
sarily love  his  children,  yet  voluntarily.  It  is  part 
of  the  happiness  of  the  blessed  to  love  God  un- 
changeably, yet  freely,  for  it  would  not  be  their 
happiness  if  done  by  compulsion.  Nor  does  it, 
says  the  Necessarian,  render  man  unaccountable, 
since  the  Divine  Being  does  no  injury  to  his  ra- 
tional faculties ;  and  man,  as  his  creature,  is  an- 
swerable to  Mm ;  besides,  he  has  a  right  to  do 
what  he  will  with  his  own.  That  necessity  doth 
not  render  actions  less  morally  good,  is  evident ; 
for  if  necessary  virtue  be  neither  moral  nor  praise- 
worthy, it  will  follow  that  God  himself  is  not  a 
moral  being,  because  he  is  a  necessary  one  :  and 
the  obedience  of  Christ  cannot  be  good,  because 
it  was  necessary.  Further,  say  they,  necessity 
docs  not  preclude  the  use  of  means ;  for  means 
are  no  less  appointed  than  the  end.  It  was  or- 
dained that  Christ  should  be  delivered  up  to 
death  ;  but  he  could  not  have  been  betrayed  with- 
out a  betrayer,  nor  crucified  without  crucifiers. 
That  it  is  not  a  gloomy  doctrine,  they  allege,  be- 
cause nothing  can  be  more  consolatory  than  to 
believe  that  all  things  are  under  the  direction  of 
an  all-wise  Being  ;  that  his  kingdom  ruleth  over 
all,  and  that  he  doth  all  things  well.  So  far 
from  its  being  inimical  to  happiness,  they  suppose 
there  can  be  no  solid  true  happiness  without  the 
belief  of  it ;  that  it  inspires  gratitude,  excites 
confidence,  teaches  resignation,  produces  hu- 
mility, and  draws  the  soul  to  God.  It  is  also  ob- 
served, that  to  deny  necessity  is  to  deny  the  fore- 
knowledge of  God,  and  to  wrest  the  sceptre  from 
the  hand  of  the  Creator,  and  to  place  that  ca- 
pricious and  undefinable  principle — the  self-de- 
termining power  of  man,  upon  the  throne  of  the 
universe.  Beside,  say  they,  the  Scripture  places 
the  doctrine  beyond  all  doubt,  Job  xxiii.  13,  14 ; 
xxxiv.  29;  Prov.  xvi.  4;  Is.  xlv.  7;  Acts  xiii.48; 
Eph.  i.  11 ;  1  Thess.  iii.  3 ;  Matt.  x.  29,  30.  xviiL 
7;  Lukexxiv.  26;  John  vi.  37.  See  the  works 
of  the  above-mentioned  writers  on  the  subject ;  and 
articles  Materialists,  and  Predestination. 

NECROLOGY,  formed  of  v.*Pof,  dead,  and 
xoyoj,  discourse,  or  enumeration ;  a  book  anciently 
kept  in  churches  and  monasteries,  wherein  were 
registered  the  benefactors  of  the  same,  the  time 
of  their  deaths,  and  the  days  of  their  commemo- 
ration; as  also  the  deaths  of  the  priors,  abbots, 
religious  canons,  &c.  This  was  otherwise  called 
calendar  and  obituary. 

NECROMANCY,  the  art  of  reveal:iig  future 
events,  by  conversing  with  the  dead.  See  Divi- 
nation. 


NEOLOGY 
NEOLOGY  or  NEOLOGISM,  the  name 
given  to  a  system  of  spurious  theology,  which, 
within  the  last  fifty  years  has  sprung  up  in  Pro- 
testant Germany,  and  been  extensively  spread  by 
means  of  the  writings  of  many  of  the  most  dis- 
tinguished professors,  biblical  critics,  and  pro- 
found scholars  of  that  country  in  the  present  age. 
They  frequently  go  under  the  denomination  of 
Rationalists,  from  their  professing  a  great  reve- 
rence for  the  principles  of  human  reason  in  all 
theological  speculations,  and  making  revelation  en- 
tirely subordinate  to  the  decisions  of  this  oracle 
within  us.  The  outline  of  their  scheme  is  this  : — 
That  the  moral  contents  of  the  Bible  are  a  reve- 
lation from  God,  in  the  same  sense  in  which  all 
intellectual  proficiency  and  practical  improve- 
ments are  gifts  of  Divine  Providence :  That  the 
book  of  Genesis  is  a  collection  of  the  earliest  tra- 
ditions concerning  the  origin  and  primeval  history 
of  the  human  race,  containing  some  facts,  but 
mingled  with  much  allegory,  mythology,  and 
fable  :  That  the  institutions  of  the  Israelitish  na- 
tion were  the  ingenious  inventions  of  Moses  and 
his  coadjutors,  the  claim  of  a  divine  original  hav- 
ing been  assumed  to  obtain  the  credit  and  obe- 
dience of  a  barbarous  people :  That  the  prophets 
were  the  bards  and  patriotic  leaders  of  their  coun- 
try, warmed  with  the  love  of  virtue,  roused  by  the 
inspiration  of  genius,  using  the  name  of  the 
Lord  to  arouse  the  torpid,  and  having  no  other 
insight  into  futurity  than  the  conjectures  sug- 
gested by  deep  political  views  and  access  to  the 
secrets  of  camps  and  cabinets  :  That  Jesus  was 
one  of  the  best  and  wisest  of  men,  possessing  a 
peculiar  genius,  and  an  elevation  of  soul  far  above 
his  age  and  nation  :  That  seeing  his  countrymen 
sunk  in  ignorance  and  superstition,  and  apprized 
of  the  depravity  of  the  idolatrous  nations,  he 
formed  the  conception  of  a  pure,  simple,  and  ra- 
tional religion,  founded  on  the  Unity  of  the  God- 
head, enjoining  universal  virtue,  having  as  few 
positive  doctrines  and  outward  institutions  as  pos- 
sible,, and  therefore  adapted  to  all  times  and  all 
countries  :  That  in  order  to  accomplish  his  pur- 
pose the  more  readily  and  safely,  he  entered  into  a 
temporary  compromise  with  the  popular  opinions 
and  phraseology,  assuming  to  be  the  Messiah 
whom  the  nation  expected,  and  applying  to  him- 
self various  passages  of  the  prophets,  such  as 
were  calculated  to  excite  the  highest  veneration : 
That  by  superior  natural  science,  and  by  dexter- 
ously availing  himself  of  fortunate  coincidences, 
he  impressed  the  bulk  of  the  people  with  the  be- 
lief of  his  possessing  supernatural  powers;  an 
artifice  very  excusable  on  account  of  its  benevo- 
lent and  virtuous  motive  :  That  by  the  envy,  re- 
venge, and  selfish  policy  of  the  Jewish  ecclesias- 
tical leaders,  he  was  condemned  to  die ;  that  he 
was  fastened  to  a  cross,  but  (in  consequence,  per- 
haps, of  previous  management  by  some  friends  in 
power,)  was  not  mortally  hurt ;  that  he  was  taken 
down  in  a  swoon,  and  laid  in  a  cool  and  secluded 
recess  within  a  rock,  where,  by  the  skill  and  care 
of  liis  friends,  animation  was  restored:  That 
when  recovered,  he  concerted  measures  with  liis 
confidential  adherents  for  carrying  on  his  noble 
and  generous  views ;  that  from  a  secure  retire- 
ment, known  only  to  a  few  of  his  disciples,  he 
directed  their  operations;  and  that  in  a  personal 
interview  near  Damascus,  he  had  the  admirable 
address  to  conciliate  Saul  of  Tarsus,  and  persuade 
him  to  join  the  cause  with  all  the  weight  of  liis 
30J 


NEONOMIANS 
talents  :  That  he  probably  lived  many  years  in  thi:5 
happy  retirement,  and,  before  his  death,  had  the 
pleasure  of  knowing  that  his  moral  system  was 
extensively  received,  both  by  Jews  and  by  men 
of  other  nations*  That  this  religion,  though  a 
human  contrivance,  is  the  best  and  most  usefui 
for  the  general  happiness  of  mankind,  and  there- 
fore ought  to  be  supported  and^taught,  at  least  till 
the  prevalence  of  philosophical  morality  shall  ren- 
der it  no  longer  needful. 

Such,  in  the  main,  is  the  system  of  the  German 
Neologists,  although  doubtless,  there  are  shades 
of  difference,  and  modifications  of  belief,  which 
it  would  be  endless  to  specify ;  as  every  new  can- 
didate for  notice  in  the  theological  world  usually 
begins  by  broaching  some  new  hypothesis  of 
error,  equally  extravagant  with  any  thing  that 
had  preceded  it.  The  most  celebrated  supporters 
of  this  system,  in  some  or  other  of  its  forms,  are 
believed  to  be,  or  to  have  been,  Paulus,  Eichorn, 
Eckerman,  Gesenius,  author  of  the  Hebrew  Lexi- 
con, Gabler,  Wegscheider,  Bretschneider,  Van 
Hemert,  of  Amsterdam,  Schilling,  the  late  dra- 
matist, and  probably  Heinrichs,  Niemeyer,  and 
Schleiermacher.  These  writers  have  certainly 
rendered  useful  services  to  the  cause  of  biblical 
learning.  In  numerous  dissertations,  essays, 
treatises,  and  commentaries,  they  have  contri- 
buted materially  to  the  illustration  of  many  parts 
of  the  Scriptures.  Yet  it  is  plain  that  men  of 
such  principles  are  utterly  unfit  to  be  our  guides  in 
the  interpretation  of  the  sacred  volume.  And  no 
greater  scourge  to  the  cause  of  truth  could  befal 
our  country  than  to  have  their  Lexicons,  Scho- 
lia, and  Hermeneuties  generally  adopted  by  the 
younger  class  of  theologians  at  the  present  day. 
See  Eclectic  Review  for  July,  1827. — B. 

NEONOMIANS,  so  called  from  the  Greek 
veo{,  new,  and  vo^o;,  law,  signifying  a  new  laic, 
the  condition  whereof  is  imperfect,  though  sin- 
cere and  persevering  obedience. 

Neonomianism  seems  to  be  an  essential  part 
of  the  Arminian  system.  "  The  new  covenant 
of  grace  which,  through  the  medium  of  Christ's 
death,  the  Father  made  with  men,  consists,  ac- 
cording to  this  system,  not  in  our  Ireing  justified 
by  faith,  as  it  apprehends  the  righteousness  of 
Christ;  but  in  this,  that  God,  abrogating  the  ex- 
action of  perfect  legal  obedience,  reputes  or  ac- 
cepts of  faith  itself,  and  the  imperfect  obedience 
of  faith,  instead  of  the  perfect  obedience  of  the 
law,  and  graciously  accounts  them  worthy  of  the 
reward  of  eternal  life." — This  opinion  was  exa- 
mined at  the  synod  of  Dort,  and  has  been  can- 
vassed between  the  Calvinists  and  Armhuans  on 
various  occasions.     • 

Towards  the  close  of  the  seventeenth  century 
a  controversy  was  agitated  amongst  the  English 
Dissenters,  in  wliich  the  one  side,  who  were  par- 
tial to  the  writings  of  Dr.  Crisp,  were  charged 
with  Antivomianism,  and  the  other,  who  favour- 
ed Mr.  Baxter,  were  accused  of  Neonomianism. 
Dr.  Daniel  Williams,  who  was  a  principal  writer 
on  what  was  called  the  Nconomian  side,  after 
many  things  had  been  said,  gives  the  following  as 
a  summary  of  his  faith  in  reference  to  those  sub- 
jects.— 1.  God  has  eternally  elected  a  certain  de- 
finite number  of  men  whom  he  will  infallibly  save 
by  Christ  in  that  way  prescribed  by  the  Gospel. 
— 2.  These  very  elect  are  not  personally  justified 
until  they  receive  Christ,  and  yield  up  themselves 
to  him,  but  they  remain  condemned  wliilst  un- 


NEONOMIANS 
converted  to  Christ. — 3.  By  the  ministry  of  the 
Gospelthrre  is  a  serious  offer  of  pardon  ami  glory, 
upon  the  terms  of  the  Gospel,  to  all  that  hear  it ; 
and  God  thereby  requires  them  to  comply  vvith 
the  said  terms. — 1.  Ministers  ought  to  use  these 
and  other  Gospel  benefits  as  motives,  assuring 
men  that  if  they  believe  they  shall  be  justified  ; 
if  they  turn  to  God,  they  shall  live;  if  they  re- 
pent, their  sins  shall  be  blotted  out;  and  whilst 
they  neglect  these  duties,  they  cannot  have  a  per- 
sonal interest  in  these  respective  benefits. — 5.  It 
is  by  the  power  of  the  Spirit  of  Christ  freely  ex- 
erted, and  not  by  the  power  of  free-will,  that  the 
Gospel  becomes  effectual  for  the  conversion  of 
any  soul  to  the  obedience  of  faith. — G.  When  a 
man  believe*,  yet  it  is  not  that  very  faith,  and 
much  less  any  other  work,  the  matter  of  that 
righteousness  for  which  a  sinner  is  justified,  i.  e. 
entitled  to  pardon,  acceptance  and  eternal  glory. 
as  righteous  before  God ;  and  it  is  the  imputed 
righteousness  of  Christ  alone,  for  which  the  Gos- 
pel gives  the  believer  a  right  to  these  and  all 
saving  blessings,  who  in  this  respect  is  justified 
by  Christ's  righteousness  alone.  By  both  this 
and  the  fifth  head  it  appears  that  all  boasting  is 
excluded,  and  we  are  saved  by  free  grace. — 
7.  Faith  alone  receives  the  Lord  Jesus  and  his 
righteousness,  and  the  subject  of  this  faith  is  a 
convinced,  penitent  soul;  hence  we  are  justified 
by  faith  alone,  and  yet  the  impenitent  are  not 
forgiven. — 8.  God  has  freely  promised  that  all 
whom  he  predestinated  to  salvation  shall  not  only 
savingly  believe,  but  that  he  by  his  power  shall 
preserve  them  from  a  total  or  a  final  apostasy. — 
9.  Yet  the  believer,  whilst  he  lives  in  this  world, 
is  to  pass  the  time  of  his  sojourning  here  with 
fear,  because  his  warfare  is  not  accomplished,  and 
that  it  is  true  that,  if  he  draw  back,  God  will 
have  no  pleasure  in  him.  Which  with  the  like 
cautions  God  blesscth  as  means  to  the  saints' 
perseverance,  and  these  by  ministers  should  be 
so  urged. — 10.  The  law  of  innocence,  or  moral 
law,  is  so  in  force  still,  as  that  every  precept  there- 
of constitutes  duty,  even  to  the  believer :  every 
breach  thereof  is  a  sin  deserving  of  death  :  this 
law  binds  death  by  its  curse  on  every  unbeliever, 
and  the  righteousness  for  or  by  which  we  are 
justified  before  God,  is  a  righteousness  (at  least) 
adequate  to  that  law  which  is  Christ's  alone 
righteousness;  and  this  so  imputed  to  the  be- 
liever as  that  God  deals  judicially  with  him  ac- 
cording thereto. — 11.  Yet  such  is  the  grace  of 
the  Gospel,  that  it  promiseth  in  and  by  Christ  a 
freedom  from  the  curse,  forgiveness  of  sin,  and 
eternal  life,  to  every  sincere  believer;  which  pro- 
mis  e  Cud  will  certainly  perform,  notwithstanding 
the  threatening  of  the  law."' 

Dr.  Williams  maintains  the  conditionally  of 
the  covenant  of  grace ;  but  admits  with  D*.  Owen, 
who  also  uses  the  term  condition,  that  "Christ  un- 
dert  >ok  that  those  who  were  to  be  taken  into  this 
covenant  should  receive  grace  enabling  them  to 
comply  with  t  he  terms  oi'  it,  fulfil  its  conditions,  and 
yield  the  obedience  which  God  required  therein." 

On  tins  subject  Dr.  Williams  further  says, 
"The  question  is  not  whether  the  first  (viz.  re- 
ating)  grace,  by  which  we  are  enabled  to 
pei  form  the  condition,  be  absolutely  given.  This 
I  allirm,  though  tint  lie  dispensed  ordinarily  in  a 
due  use  of  means,  and  in  a  way  discountenancing 
i  Heness,  and  fit  encouragement  given  to  the  use 
ol  means." 

310 


NEONOMIANS 

The  following  ebjection,  among  others,  was 
made  by  several  ministers  in  1692,  against  Dr. 
Williams's  Gospel  Truth  Slated,  <JV.  "  To 
supply  the  room  of  the  moral  law,  vacated  by 
him,  he  turns  the  Gospel  into  a  new  law,  in  keep- 
ing of  which  we  shall  be  justified  for  the  sake  of 
Christ's  righteousness,  making  qualifications  and 
acts  of  ours  a  disposing  subordinate  righteousness, 
whereby  we  become  capable  of  being  justified  by 
Christ's  righteousness." 

To  this,  among  other  things,  he  answers, 
"  The  difference  is  not,  1.  Whether  the  Gospel 
be  a  new  law  in  the  Socinian,  Popish,  or  Amu- 
nian  sense.  This  I  den)-.  Nor,  2.  Is  faith,  or 
any  other  grace  or  act  of  ours,  any  atonement  for 
sin,  satisfaction  to  justice,  meriting  qualification, 
or  any  part  of  that  righteousness  for  which  we 
are  justified  at  God  our  Creator's  bar.  This  I 
deny  in  places  innumerable.  Nor,  3.  Whether 
the  Gospel  be  a  law  more  new  than  is  implied  in 
the  first  promise  to  fallen  Adam,  proposed  to 
Cain,  and  obeyed  by  Abel,  to  the  differencing 
him  from  his  unbelieving  brother.  This  I  deny. 
4.  Nor  whether  the  Gospel  be  a  law  that  allows 
sin,  when  it  accepts  such  graces  as  true,  though 
short  of  perfection,  to  be  the  conditions  of  our 
personal  interest  in  the  benefits  purchased  by 
Christ.  This  I  deny.  5.  Nor  whether  the  Gos- 
pel be  a  law,  the  promises  whereof  entitle  the 
performers  of  its  conditions  to  the  benefits  as  of 
debt.     This  I  deny. 

"  The  difference  is,  1.  Is  the  Gospel  a  law  in 
this  sense ;  viz.  God  in  Christ  thereby  cominand- 
eth  sinners  to  repent  of  sin,  and  receive  Christ 
by  a  true  operative  faith,  promising  that  there- 
upon they  shall  be  united  to  him,  justified  by  his 
righteousness,  pardoned,  and  adopted ;  and  that, 
persevering  in  faith  and  true  holiness,  they  shall 
be  finally  saved ;  also  threatening  that  if  any  shall 
die  impenitent,  unbelieving,  ungodly,  rejecters  of 
his  grace,  they  shall  perish  without  relief,  and 
endure  sorer  punishments  than  if  these  offers  had 
not  been  made  to  them? — 2.  Hath  the  Gospel  a 
sanction,  i.  e.  doth  Christ  therein  enforce  his 
commands  of  faith,  repentance,  and  perseverance, 
by  the  aforesaid  promises  and  threatenings,  as 
motives  of  our  obedience?  Both  these  I  affirm, 
and  they  deny;  saying  the  Gospel  in  the  largest 
sense  is  an  absolute  promise  without  precepts  and 
conditions,  and  a  Gospel  threat  is  a  bull. — 3.  Do 
the  Gospel  promises  of  benefits  to  certain  graces, 
and  its  threats  that  those  benefits  shall  be  with- 
held and  the  contrary  evils  inflicted  for  the  neglect 
of  such  graces,  render  those  graces  the  condition 
of  bur  personal  title  to  those  benefits  ? — This  they 
deny,  and  I  affirm,"  &c. 

It  does  not  appear  to  have  been  a  question  in 
this  controversy,  whether  God  in  his  word  com- 
mands sinners  to  repent  and  believe  in  Christ, 
nor  whether  he  promises  life  to  believers,  and 
threatens  death  to  unbelievers  ;  but  whether  it  lie 
the  Gospel  under  the  form  of  a  new  law  that  thus 
commands  or  threatens,  or  the  moral  law  on  its 
behalf,  and  whether  its  promises  to  believing  ren- 
ders such  believing  a  condition  of  the  things  pro- 
mised. In  another  controversy,  however,  wluch 
arose  about  forty  years  afterwards  among  the 
same  description  of  people,  it  became  a  question, 
whether  God  did  by  his  irord  (call  i:  law  or  Gos- 
pel) command  unregenerate  sinners  to  repent 
and  believe  in  Christ,  or  to  do  any  thing  uiiick 
is  spiritually  good.     Of  those  who  look  tlie  af 


NESTORI 
famative  side  of  this  question,  one  party  attempt- 
ed to  maintain  it  on  the  ground  of  the  Gospel 
being  a  new  law,  consisting  of  commands,  pro- 
mises, and  threatenings,  the  terms  or  conditions 
of  which  were  repentance,  faith,  and  sincere  obe- 
dience. But  those  who  first  engaged  in  the  con- 
troversy, though  they  allowed  the  encouragement 
to  repent  and  believe  to  arise  merely  from  the 
grace,  of  the  Gospel,  yet  considered  the  formal 
obligation  to  do  as  arising  merely  from  the  moral 
law,  which,  requiring  supreme  love  to  God,  re- 
quires acquiescence  in  any  revelation  which  he 
shall  at  any  time  make  known.  Witsius's  Ireni- 
cum;  Edwards  on  the  Will,  p.  220;  Williams's 
Gospel  Truth;  Edwards's  Crispianism  Un- 
masked; Chaunccy's  Nconomianism  Unmasked; 
Adams's  View  of  Religions. 

NESTORIANS,  the  followers  of  Nestorius, 
the  bishop  of  Constantinople,  who  lived  in  the 
fifth  century.  They  believed  that  in  Christ  there 
were  not  only  two  natures,  but  two  persons,  or 
uroo-Tceirsis ;  of  which  the  one  was  divine,  even 
the  eternal  word;  and  the  other,  which  was  hu- 
man, was  the  m^n  Jesus :  that  these  two  persons 
had  only  one  aspect ;  that  the  union  between  the 
Son  of  God  and  the  son  of  man  was  formed  in 
the  moment  of  the  virgin's  conception,  and  was 
never  to  be  dissolved ;  that  it  was  not,  however, 
an  union  of  nature  or  of  person,  but  only  of  will 
and  affection.  Nestorius,  however,  it  is  said, 
denied  the  last  position  ;  that  Christ  was  there- 
fore to  be  carefully  distinguished  from  God,  who 
dwelt  in  him  as  in  his  temple;  and  that  Maiy 
was  to  be  called  the  mother  of  Christ,  and  not 
the  mother  of  God. 

One  of  the  chief  promoters  of  the  Nestorian 
cause  was  Barsumas,  created  bishop  of  Nisibis, 
A.  D.  435.  Such  was  his  zeal  and  success,  that 
the  Nestorians  who  still  remain  in  Chaldea,  Per- 
sia, Assyria,  and  ^he  adjacent  countries,  consider 
him  alone  as  their  parent  and  founder.  By  him, 
Pherozes,  the  Persian  monarch,  was  persuaded 
to  expel  those  Christians  who  adopted  the  opi- 
nions of  the  Greeks,  and  to  admit  the  Nestorians 
m  their  place,  putting  them  in  possession  of  the 
principal  seat  of  ecclesiastical  authority  in  Persia, 
the  see  of  Seleucia,  which  the  patriarch  of  the 
Nestorians  has  always  filled  even  down  to  our 
time.  Barsumas  also  erected  a  school  at  Nisibis, 
from  which  proceeded  those  Nestorian  doctors 
who  in  the  fifth  and  sixth  centuries  spread  abroad 
their  tenets  through  Egypt,  Syria,  Arabia,  India, 
Tartary,  and  China. 

In  the  tenth  century,  the  Nestorians  in  Chal- 
dea, whence  they  are  sometimes  called  Chaldeans, 
extended  their  spiritual  conquests  beyond  Mount 
Imaus,  and  introduced  the  Christian  religion  into 
Tartary  properly  su  called,  and  especially  into 
that  country  called  Karit,  bordering  on  the  north- 
ern part  of  China.  The  prince  of  that  country, 
whom  the  Nestorians  converted  to  the  Christian 
faith,  assumed,  according  to  the  vulgar  tradition, 
the  name  of  John  after  his  baptism,  to  which  he 
added  the  surname  of  Presbyter,  from  a  principle 
of  modesty ;  whence,  it  is  said,  his  successors 
were  each  of  them  called  Prcstcr  John  until  the 
time  of  Gengis  Khan.  But  Mosheim  observes, 
that  the  famous  Prester  John  did  not  begin  to 
reign  in  that  part  of  Asia  before  the  conclusion 
of  the  eleventh  century.  The  Nestorians  formed 
so  considerable  a  body  ot  Christians,  that  the 
missionaries  of  Rome  were  induslrious  in  their 
311 


NEW 
endeavours  to  reduce  them  under  the  papal  voke. 
Innocent  IV.  in  1246,  and  Nicholas  IV.  in  1278, 
used  their  utmost  efforts  for  this  purpose,  but 
without  success.  Till  the  time  of  pope  Julius  III., 
the  Nestorians  acknowledged  but  one  patriarch, 
who  resided  first  at  Bagdad,  and  afterwards  at 
Mousul ;  but  a  division  arising  among  them,  in 
1551  the  patriarchate  became  divided,  at  least  for 
a  time,  and  a  new  patriarch  was  consecrated  by 
that  pope,  whose  successors  fixed  their  residence 
in  the  city  of  Ormus,  in  the  mountainous  parts 
of  Persia,  where  they  still  continue,  distinguished 
by  the  name  of  Simeon  ;  and  so  far  down  as  the 
seventeenth  centurj',  these  patriarchs  persevered 
in  their  communion  with  the  church  of  Rome, 
but  seem  at  present  to  have  withdrawn  themselves 
from  it.  The  great  Nestorian  pontiffs,  who  form 
the  opposite  party,  and  look  with  an  hostile  eye 
on  this  little  patriarch,  have,  since  the  year  1559, 
been  distinguished  by  the  general  denomination 
of  Elias,  and  reside  constantly  in  the  city  of 
Mousul.  Their  spiritual  dominion  is  very  ex- 
tensive, takes  in  a  great  part  of  Asia,  and  com- 
prehends also  within  its  circuit  the  Arabian  Nes- 
torians, and  also  the  Christians  of  St.  Thomas, 
who  dwell  along  the  coast  of  Malabar.  It  is  ob- 
served, to  the  lasting  honour  of  the  Nestorians, 
that  of  all  the  Christian  societies  established  in 
the  East,  they  have  been  the  most  careful  and 
successful  in  avoiding  a  multitude  of  superstitious 
opinions  and  practices  that  have  infected  the 
Greek  and  Latin  churches.  About  the  middle 
of  the  seventeenth  centurv,  the  Romish  mission- 
aries gained  over  to  (heir  communion  a  small 
number  of  Nestorians,  whom  they  formed  into 
a  congregation  or  church;  the  patriarchs  or 
bishops  of  which  reside  in  the  city  of  Amida,  or 
Diarbeker,  and  all  assume  the  denomination  of 
Joseph.  Nevertheless,  the  Nestorians  in  general 
persevere  to  our  own  times  in  their  refusal  to  enter 
into  the  communion  of  the  Romish  church,  not- 
withstanding the  earnest  entreaties  and  alluring 
offers  that  have  been  made  by  the  pope's  legate 
to  conquer  their  inflexible  constancy. 

NEW  JERUSALEM   CHURCH.    See 

SwEDFNBORGIANS. 

NEW  PLATONICS,  or  Ammonians,  so 
called  from  Ammonius  Saccas,  who  taught  with 
the  highest  applause  in  the  Alexandrian  school, 
about  the  conclusion  of  the  second  century.  This 
learned  man  attempted  a  general  reconciliation  of 
all  sects,  whether  philosophical  or  religious.  He 
maintained  that  the  great  principles  of  all  philoso- 
phical and  religious  truth  were  to  be  found  equally 
in  all  sects,  and  that  they  differed  from  each  other 
only  in  their  method  of  expressing  them,  in  some 
opinions  of  little  or  no  importance ;  and  that  by 
a  proper  interpretation  of  their  respective  senti- 
ments they  might  easily  be  united  in  one  body. 

Ammonius  supposed  that  true  philosophy  de- 
rived its  origin  and  its  consistence  from  the  eastern 
nations ;  that  it  was  taught  to  the  Egyptians  by 
Hermes;  that  it  was  brought  from  them  to  the 
Greeks,  and  preserved  in  its  original  purity  by 
Plato,  who  was  the  best  interpreter  of  Hermes 
and  the  other  oriental  sages.  He  maintained 
that  all  the  different  religions  which  prevailed  in 
the  world  were,  in  their  original  integrity,  con- 
formable to  this  ancient  philosophy ;  but  it  ur> 
fortunately  happened,  that  the  symbolsand  fictions 
under  wlfich,  according  to  the  ancient  manner, 
the  ancients  delivered   their   precepts  and  doc- 


NOETIANS 

tnnes,  were  in  process  of  time  erroneously  under- 
stood, both  by  priests  and  people,  in  a  literal 
sense;  that  in  consequence  of  this  the  invisible 
beings  and  daemons  whom  the  Supreme  Deity 
had  placed  in  the  different  parts  of  the  universe 
as  the  ministers  of  his  providence,  were  by  the 
suggestions  of  superstition  converted  into  gods, 
and  worshipped  with  a  multiplicity  of  vain  cere- 
monies. He  therefore  insisted  that  all  the  reli- 
gions of  all  nations  should  be  restored  to  their 
primitive  standard  :  viz.  The  ancient  philosophy 
of  the  east ;  and  he  asserted  that  his  project  was 
agreeable  to  the  intentions  of  Jesus  Christ,  whom 
he  acknowledged  to  be  a  most  excellent  man,  the 
friend  of  God ;  and  affirmed  that  his  soic  view 
in  descending  on  earth  was  to  set  bounds  to  the 
reigning  superstition,  to  remove  the  errors  which 
had  crept  into  the  religion  of  all  nations,  but  not 
to  abolish  the  ancient  theology  from  which  they 
were  derived. 

Taking  these  principles  for  granted,  Ammo- 
nius  associated  the  sentiments  of  the  Egyptians 
with  the  doctrines  of  Plato;  and  to  finish  this 
conciliatory  scheme,  he  so  interpreted  the  doc- 
trines of  the  other  philosophical  and  religious 
sects,  by  art,  invention,  and  allegory,  that  they 
seemed  to  bear  some  semblance  to  the  Egyptian 
and  Platonic  systems. 

With  regard  to  moral  discipline,  Ammonius 
permitted  the  people  to  live  according  to  the  law 
of  their  country,  and  the  dictates  of  nature ;  but 
a  more  sublime  rule  was  laid  down  for  the  wise. 
They  were  to  raise  above  all  terrestrial  things,  by 
the  towering  efforts  of  holy  contemplation,  those 
souls  whose  origin  was  celestial  and  divine.  They 
were  ordered  to  extenuate  by  hunger,  thirst,  and 
other  mortifications,  the  sluggish  body,  which 
restrains  the  liberty  of  the  immortal  spirit,  that  in 
this  life  they  might  enjoy  communion  with  the 
Supreme  Being,  and  ascend  after  death,  active 
and  unincumbered,  to  the  universal  Parent,  to 
live  in  his  presence  for  ever. 

NEW  TESTAMENT.  See  Inspiration, 
and  Scripture. 

NICENE  CREED.    See  Creed. 

NICOLAIT  ANS,  heretics  who  assumed  this 
name  from  Nicholas  of  Antioch ;  who,  bein<r  a 
Gentile  by  birth,  first  embraced  Judaism,  and 
then  Christianity ;  when  his  zeal  and  devotion 
recommended  him  to  the  church  of  Jerusalem,  by 
whom  he  was  chosen  one  of  the  first  deacons. 
Many  of  the  primitive  writers  believed  that 
Nicholas  was  rather  the  occasion  than  the  author 
of  the  infamous  practices  of  those  who  assumed 
his  name  who  were  expressly  condemned  bv  the 
Spirit  of  God  himself,  Rev.  i'i.  6.  And,  indeed, 
their  opinions  and  actions  were  highly  extrava- 
gant and  criminal.  They  allowed  a  community 
of  wives,  and  made  no  distinction  between  ordi- 
nary meats  and  those  offered  to  idols.  According 
to  Eusebius,  they  subsisted  but  a  short  time;  but 
Tertullian  says,  that  they  only  changed  their 
name,  and  that  their  heresies  passed  into  the  sect 
of  the  Cainites. 

NOETIANS,  Christian  heretics  in  the  third 
century,  followers  of  Noietius,  a  philosopher  of 
Ephesue,  who  pretended  that  he  was  another' 
Moses  sent  by  Cod,  and  that  his  brother  was  a 
oew  Aaron.  His  heresy  consisted  in  affirming 
that  there  was  but  one  person  in  the  Godhead; 
an. I  that  (he  Word  and  the  I  loly  Spirit  were  but 
external  denominations  given  to  God  in  conse- 
312 


NONCONFORMIST 
quence  of  different  operations;  that,  as  Creatof 
he  is  called  Father;  as  incarnate,  Son  ;  and  as 
descending  on  the  apostles.  Holy  Ghost. 

NONCONFORMISTS,  those  who  refuse  to 
join  the  established  church.  Nonconformists 
in  England  may  be  considered  of  three  parts. 
1.  Such  as  absent  themselves  from  divine  wor- 
ship in  the  established  church  through  total  irre- 
ligion,  and  attend  the  service  of  no  other  persua- 
sion.— 2.  Such  as  absent  themselves  on  the  plea 
of  conscience;  as  Presbyterians,  Independents, 
Baptists,  &c. — 3.  Internal  Nonconformists,  or 
unprincipled  clergymen,  who  applaud  and  propa- 
gate doctrines  quite  inconsistent  with  several  of 
those  articles  they  promised  on  oath  to  defend. 
The  word  is  generally  used  in  reference  to  those 
ministers  who  were  ejected  from  their  livings  bv 
the  Act  of  Uniformity,  in  1662.  The  number  of 
these  was  about  two  thousand.  However  some 
affect  to  treat  these  men  with  indifference,  and 
suppose  that  their  consciences  were  more  tender 
than  they  need  be,  it  must  be  remembered,  that 
they  were  men  of  as  extensive  learning,  great 
abilities,  and  pious  conduct,  as  ever  appeared. 
Mr.  Locke,  if  his  opinion  have  any  weight,  calls 
them  "  worthy,  learned,  pious,  orthodox  divines, 
who  did  not  throw  themselves  out  of  service,  but 
were  forcibly  ejected."  Mr.  Bogue  thus  draws 
their  character:  " As  to  their  public  ministra- 
tion," he  says,  "they  were  orthodox,  experimen- 
tal, serious,  affectionate,  regular,  faithful,  able, 
and  popular  preachers.  As  to  their  moral  quali- 
ties, they  were  devout  and  holy ;  faithful  to  Christ 
and  the  souls  of  men  ;  wise  and  prudent ;  of  great 
liberality  and  kindness  ;  and  strenuous  advocates 
for  liberty,  civil  and  religious.  As  to  their  intel- 
lectual qualities,  they  were  learned,  eminent,  and 
laborious."  These  men  were  driven  from  theiz 
houses,  from  the  society  of  their  friends,  and  ex- 
posed to  the  greatest  difficulties.  Their  burdens 
were  greatly  increased  by  the  Conventicle  Act, 
whereby  they  were  prohibited  from  meeting  for 
any  exercise  of  religion  (above  five  in  number)  in 
any  other  manner  than  allowed  by  the  liturgy  or 
practice  of  the  Church  of  England.  For  the  first 
offence  the  penalty  was  three  months'  imprison- 
ment, or  pay  five  pounds ;  for  the  second  offence, 
six  months'  imprisonment,  or  ten  pounds;  and 
for  the  third  offence,  to  be  banished  to  some  of 
the  American  plantations  for  seven  years,  or  pay 
one  hundred  pounds ;  and  in  case  they  returned, 
to  suffer  death  without  benefit  of  clergy.  By 
virtue  of  this  act,  the  jails  were  quickly  tilled  with 
dissenting  Protestants,  and  the  trade  of  an  infor- 
mer was  very  gainful.  So  great  was  the  severity 
of  these  times,  says  Neale,  that  they  were  afraid 
to  pray  in  their  families,  if  above  four  of  their  ac- 
quaintance, who  came  only  to  visit  them,  were 
present :  some  families  scrupled  asking  a  blessing 
on  their  meat,  if  five  strangers  were  at  tabic. 

But  this  was  not  all  (to  say  nothing  of  the 
Test  Act :)  in  16l>5,  an  act  was  brought  into  the 
House  to  banish  them  from  their  friends,  com- 
monly called  the  Oxford  Five  Mile  Act,  by 
which  all  dissenting  ministers,  on  the  penalty  of 
forty  pounds,  who  would  not  take  an  oath  (that 
it  was  not  lawful,  upm  any  pretence  whatever, 
to  take  arms  against  the  king,  &C.)  were  prohi- 
bited from  coming  within  i'wc  miles  of  any  city, 
town  corporate,  or  borough,  or  any  place  where 
they  had  exercised  their  ministry,  and  from 
teaching  any  school.     Some  few  took  the  oath; 


NONCONFORMIST 
others  could  not,  and  consequently  suffered  the 
penalty. 

In  lf>73,  "  the  mouths  of  the  high  church  pul- 
piteers were  encouraged  to  open  as  loud  as  pos- 
sible. One,  in  his  sermon  before  the  House  of 
Commons  told  them,  that  the  Nonconformists 
ought  not  to  be.  tolerated,  but  to  be  cured  by  ven- 
geance. He  urged  them  to  set  lire  to  the  faggot, 
and  to  teach  them  by  scourges  or  scorpions,  and 
open  their  eyes  with  gall." 

Such  were  the  dreadful  consequences  of  this 
intolerant  spirit,  that  it  is  supposed  near  eight 
thousand  died  in  prison  in  the  reign  of  Charles 
II.  It  is  said,  that  Mr.  Jeremiah  White  had 
carefully  collected  a  list  of  those  who  had  suffered 
between  Charles  II.  and  the  revolution,  which 
amounted  to  sixty  thousand.  The  same  perse- 
cutions were  carried  on  in  Scotland ;  and  there, 
as  well  as  in  England,  many,  to  avoid  persecu- 
tion, fled  from  their  country. 

But,  notwithstanding  all  these  dreadful  and 
furious  attacks  upon  the  Dissenters,  they  were 
not  extirpated.  Their  very  persecution  was  in 
their  favour.  The  infamous  characters  of  their 
informers  and  persecutors ;  their  piety,  zeal,  and 
fortitude,  no  doubt,  had  influence  on  considerate 
minds ;  and,  indeed,  they  had  additions  from  the 
established  church,  which  "  several  clergymen  in 
tins  reign  deserted  as  a  persecuting  church,  and 
took  their  lot  among  them."  In  addition  to  this, 
king  James  suddenly  altered  his  measures,  grant- 
ed a  universal  toleration,  and  preferred  Dissenters 
to  places  of  trust  and  profit,  though  it  was  evi- 
dently with  a  view  to  restore  Popery. 

King  William  coming  to  the  throne,  the  famous 
Toleration  Act  passed,  by  which  they  were  ex- 
empted from  suffering  the  penalties  abovemen- 
tioned,  and  permission  given  them  to  worship 
God  according  to  the  dictates  of  their  own  con- 
sciences. In  the  latter  end  of  Queen  Anne's 
reign  they  began  to  be  a  little  alarmed.  An  act 
of  parliament  passed,  called  the  Occasional  Con- 
formity Bill,  which  prevented  any  person  in 
office  under  the  government  entering  into  a 
meeting-house.  Another,  called  the  Schism 
Bill,  had  actually  obtained  the  royal  assent,  which 
suffered  no  Dissenters  to  educate  their  own  chil- 
dren, but  required  them  to  be  put  into  the  hands 
of  Conformists  ;  and  which  forbade  all  tutors  and 
schoolmasters  being  present  at  any  conventicle, 
or  dissenting  place  of  worship  ;  but  the  very  day 
this  iniquitous  act  was  to  have  taken  place,  the 
Queen  died  (August  1,  1714.) 

But  his  majesty  king  George  I.,  being  fully 
satisfied  that  these  hardships  were  brought  upon 
the  Dissenters  for  their  steady  adherence  to  the 
Protestant  succession  in  his  illustrious  house, 
against  a  tory  and  jacobite  ministry,  who  were 
paving  the  way  for  a  popish  pretender,  procured 
the  repeal  of  them  in  the  fifth  year  of  his  reign ; 
though  a  clause  was  left  that  forbade  the  mayor 
or  other  magistrate  to  go  into  any  meeting  for  re- 
ligious worship  with  the  ensigns  of  his  office. — 
See  Boguc's  Charge  at  Mr.  Knight's  Ordina- 
tion;  Neale's  History  of  the  Puritans;  De 
Laune's  Plea  for  the  Nonconformists;  Palmer's 
Nonconformists'  Mem.  ;  Martin's  Letteis  on 
Nonconform  ill/ ;  Iiobi7ison's  Lectures;  Cornisk's 
History  of  Nonconformity ;  Dr.  Cat amy's  Life 
of  Baxter  ;  Pierce's  Vindication  of  the  Dissen- 
ters ;  Bogue  and  Bennct's  History  of  the  Dis- 
ecnlers. 

313  2  P 


NUN 

NONJURORS,  those  who  refused  to  take  the 
oaths  to  government,  and  who  were  in  conse- 
quence under  certain  incapacities,  and  liable  to 
certain  severe  penalties.  ]  t  can  scarcely  be  said 
that  there  are  any  Nonjurors  now  in  the  king- 
dom; and  it  is  well  known  that  all  penalties  havo 
been  removed  both  from  Papists  and  Protestants, 
formerly  of  that  denomination,  as  well  in  Scot- 
land as  in  England. — The  members  of  the  epis- 
copal church  of  Scotland  have  long  been  denomi- 
nated Nonjurors;  but  perhaps  they  are  now 
called  so  improperly,  as  the  ground  of  their  differ- 
ence from  the  establishment  is  more  on  account 
of  ecclesiastical  than  political  principles. 

NONRESIDENCE,  the  act  of  not  residing 
on  an  ecclesiastical  benefice.  Nothing  can  reflect 
greater  disgrace  on  a  clergyman  of  a  parish,  than 
to  receive  the  emolument  without  ever  visiting 
his  parishioners,  and  being  unconcerned  for  the 
welfare  of  their  souls ;  yet  this  has  been  a  reign- 
ing evil  in  our  land,  and  proves  that  there  are  too 
many  who  care  little  about  the  flock,  so  that  they 
may  but  live  at  ease.  Let  such  remember  what  an 
awful  account  they  will  have  to  give  of  talents 
misapplied,  time  wasted,  souls  neglected,  and  a 
sacred  office  abused. 

NOVATIANS,  Novatiani,  a  sect  of  ancient 
heretics  that  arose  towards  the  close  of  the  third 
century ;  so  called  from  Novatian,  a  priest  of 
Rome.  They  were  called  also  Cathari,  from 
x«5*pof,  pure,  q.  d.  Puritans. 

Novatian  first  separated  trom  the  communion 
of  pope  Cornelius,  on  pretence  of  his  being  too 
easy  in  admitting  to  repentance  those  who  had 
fallen  off  in  times  of  persecution.  He  indulged 
his  inclination  to  severity  so  far,  as  to  deny  that 
such  as  had  fallen  into  gross  sins,  especially  those 
who  had  apostatized  from  the  faith  under  the 
persecution  set  on  foot  by  Decius,  were  to  be 
again  received  into  the  bosom  ol  the  cnurch ; 
grounding  his  opinion  on  that  of  St.  Paul:  "It 
is  impossible  for  those  who  were  once  enlightened, 
and  have  tasted  of  the  heavenly  gift,  &c.  if  they 
shall  fall  away,  to  renew  them  again  unto  repen- 
tance."    Heb.  vi.  4  to  G. 

The  Novatians  did  not  deny  but  a  person  fall- 
ing into  any  sin,  how  grievous  soever,  might 
obtain  pardon  by  repentance;  for  they  them- 
selves recommended  repentance  in  the  strongest 
terms ;  but  their  doctrine  was,  that  the  church 
had  it  not  in  its  power  to  receive  sinners  into  its 
communion,  as  having  no  way  of  remitting  sins 
but  by  baptism;  which  once  received,  could  not 
be  repeated. 

In  process  of  time  the  Novatians  softened  and 
moderated  the  rigour  of  their  master's  doctrine, 
and  only  refused  absolution  to  very  great  sinners. 

The  two  leaders,  Novatian  and  Novatus,  were 
proscribed,  and  declared  heretics,  not  for  exclud- 
ing penitents  from  communion,  but  for  denying 
that  the  church  had  the  power  of  remitting  sins. 

NOVITIATE,  a  year  of  probation  appointed 
for  the  trial  of  religious,  whether  or  no  they  have 
a  vocation,  and  the  necessary  qualities  for  living 
up  to  the  rule,  the  observation  whereof  they  are 
to  bind  themselves  to  by  vow.  The  novitiate 
lasts  a  year  at  least ;  in  some  houses  more.  It  is 
esteemed  the  bed  of  the  civil  death  of  a  novice, 
who  expires  to  the  world  by  profession. 

NUN,  a  woman,  in  several  Christian  coun- 
tries, who  devotes  herself,  in  a  cloister  or  nun- 
nery, to  a  religious  life. .  See  article  Monk. 


OATH 

There  were  women  in  the  ancient  Christian 
church,  who  made  public  profession  of  virginity 
cefore  the  monastic  life  was  known  in  the  world, 
as  appears  from  the  writings  of  Cyprian  and  Ter- 
tullian.  These,  for  distinction's  sake,  are  some- 
times called  ecclesiastical  virgins,  and  were 
commonly  enrolled  in  the  canon  or  matricula  of 
the  church.  They  differed  from  the  monastic 
virgins  chiefly  in  this,  that  they  lived  privately  in 
their  fathers'  houses,  whereas  the  others  lived  in 
communities;  but  their  profession  of  virginity 
was  not  so  strict  as  to  make  it  criminal  for  them 
to  marry  afterwards,  if  they  thought  fit.  As  to 
the  consecration  of  virgins,  it  had  some  things 
peculiar  in  it :  it  was  usually  performed  publicly 
in  the  church  by  the  bishop.  The  virgin  made 
a  public  profession  of  her  resolution,  and  then  the 
bishop  put  upon  her  the  accustomed  habit  of  sa- 
cred virgins.  One  part  of  this  habit  was  a  veil, 
called  the  sacrum  velamen ;  another  was  a  kind 
of  mitre  or  coronet  worn  upon  the  head.  At  pre- 
sent, when  a  woman  is  to  be  made  a  nun,  the 
habit,  veil,  and  ring  of  the  candidate  are  carried 
to  the  altar ;  and  she  herself,  accompanied  by  her 
nearest  relations,  is  conducted  to  the  bishop,  who, 


OATH 
after  mass  and  an  anthem  (the  subject  of  which  ig, 
"  that  she  ought  to  have  her  lamp  lighted,  because 
the  bridegroom  is  coming  to  meet  her,")  pro- 
nounces the  benediction  :  then  she  rises  up,  and 
the  bishop  consecrates  the  new  habit,  sprinkling 
it  with  holy  water.  When  the  candidate  has 
put  on  her  religious  habit,  she  presents  herself 
before  the  bishop,  and  sings  on  her  knees,  An- 
cilia  Christi  sum,  &c;  then  she  receives  the  veil, 
and  afterwards  the  ring,  by  which  she  is  married 
to  Christ;  and,  lastly,  the  crown  of  virginity. 
When  she  is  crowned,  an  anathema  is  denounced 
against  all  who  shall  attempt  to  make  her  break 
her  vows.  In  some  few  instances,  perhaps,  it 
may  have  happened  that  nunneries,  monasteries, 
&c.  may  have  been  useful  as  well  to  morality  and 
religion  as  to  literature;  in  the  gross,  how- 
ever, they  have  been  highly  prejudicial;  and 
however  well  they  might  be  supposed  to  do 
when  viewed  in  theory,  in  fact  they  are  un- 
natural and  impious.  It  was  surely  far  from 
the.  intention  of  Providence  to  seclude  youth 
and  beauty  in  a  cloister,  or  to  deny  them  the 
innocent  enjoyment  of  their  years  and  sex.  See 
Monastery. 


o. 


OATH,  a  solemn  affirmation,  wherein  we 
appeal  to  God  as  a  witness  of  the  truth  of  what 
we  say,  and  with  an  imprecation  of  his  vengeance, 
or  a  renunciation  of  his  favour,  if  what  we  affirm 
be  false,  or  what  we  promise  be  not  performed. 

"  The  forms  of  oaths,"  says  Dr.  Paley,  "like 
other  religious  ceremonies,  have  in  all  ages  been 
various ;  consisting,  however,  for  the  most  part, 
of  some  bodily  action,  and  of  a  prescribed  form  of 
words.  Amongst  the  Jews,  the  juror  held  up 
his  right  hand  towards  heaven,  Psal.  cxliv.  8 ; 
Rev.  x.  5.  (The  same  form  is  retained  in  Scot- 
land still.)  Amongst  the  Jews,  also,  an  oath  of 
fidelity  was  taken  by  the  servant's  putting  his 
hand  under  the  thigh  of  his  lord,  Gen.  xxiv.  2. 
Amongst  the  Greeks  and  Romans,  the  form  va- 
ried with  the  subject  and  occasion  of  the  oath ; 
in  private  contracts,  the  parties  took  hold  of  each 
other's  hand,  whilst  they  swore  to  the  perform- 
ance ;  or  they  touched  the  altar  of  the  god  by 
whose  divinity  they  swore.  Upon  more  solemn 
occasions  it  was  the  custom  to  slay  a  victim,  and 
the  beast  being  struck  down,  with  certain  ceremo- 
nies and  invocations,  gave  birth  to  the  expressions, 
tjjuviii/  tfKov,  ferire  pactum;  and  to  our  English 
phrase,  translated  from  these,  of  '  striking  a  bar- 
gain.' The  forms  of  oaths  in  Christian  countries 
are  also  very  different ;  but  in  no  country  in  the 
world  worse  contrived,  either  to  convey  the  mean- 
ing, or  impress  the  obligation  of  an  oath,  than  in 
our  own.  The  juror  with  us,  after  repeating  the 
promise  or  affirmation  which  the  oath  is  intended 
to  confirm,  adds,  '  So  help  me  God ;'  or  more 
frequently  the  substance  of  the  oath  is  repeated 
to  the  juror  by  the  magistrate,  who  adds  in  the 
conclusion,  '  So  help  you  God.'  The  energy  of 
the  sentence  resides  in  the  particle  so ;  so,  that 
is,  hac  lege,  upon  condition  of  my  speaking  the 
truth,  or  performing  this  promise,  and  not  other- 
wise, may  God  help  ma  The  juror,  whilst  he 
hears  or  repeats  the  words  of  the  oath,  holds  his 
right  hand  upon  the  Bible  or  other  book  con- 
314 


taining  the  four  Gospels,  and  at  the  conclu- 
sion kisses  the  book.  This  obscure  and  ellip- 
tical form,  together  with  the  levity  and  fre- 
quency with  which  it  is  administered,  has  brought 
about  a  general  inadvertency  to  the  obligation  of 
oaths,  which  both  in  a  religious  and  political  view 
is  much  to  be  lamented ;  and  it  merits  public  con- 
sideration," continues  Dr.  Paley,  "whether  the 
requiring  of  oaths  on  so  many  frivolous  occasions, 
especially  in  the  customs,  and  in  the  qualification 
for  petty  offices,  has  any  other  effect  than  to  make 
them  cheap  in  the  minds  of  the  people.  A  pound 
of  tea  cannot  travel  regularly  from  the  ship  to  the 
consumer  without  costing  half  a  dozen  oaths  at 
least;  and  the  same  security  for  the  due  dis- 
charge of  their  office,  namely,  that  of  an  oath,  is 
required  from  a  churchwarden  and  an  archbishop, 
from  a  petty  constable  and  the  chief  justice  of 
England.  Oaths,  however,  are  lawful;  and, 
whatever  be  the  form,  the  signification  is  the 
same."  It  is  evident  that,  so  far  as  atheism  pre- 
vails, oaths  can  be  of  no  use.  "  Remove  God  once 
out  of  heaven,  and  there  will  never  be  any  gods 
upon  earth.  If  man's  nature  had  not  something 
of  subjection  in  it  to  a  Supreme  Being,  and  inhe- 
rent principles,  obliging  him  how  to  behave  him- 
self toward  God  and  toward  the  rest  of  the 
world,  government  could  never  have  been  intro- 
duced, nor  thought  of.  Nor  can  there  be  the 
least  mutual  security  between  governors  and  go- 
verned, where  no  God  is  admitted.  For  it  is 
acknowledging  of  God  in  his  supreme  judgment 
over  the  world,  that  is  the  ground  of  an  oath,  and 
upon  which  the  validity  of  all  human  engage- 
ments depends."  Historians  have  justly  re- 
marked, that  when  the  reverence  for  an  oath 
began  to  be  diminished  among  the  Romans,  and 
the  loose  Epicurean  system,  which  discarded  the 
belief  of  Providence,  was  introduced,  the  Roman 
honour  and  prosperity  from  that  period  began  to 
decline.  "The  Quakers  refuse  to  swear  upon 
any  occasion,  founding  their  scruples  concerning 


OBEDIENCE 

the  lawfulness  of  oaths  upon  our  Saviour's  pro- 
hibition, '  Swear  not  at  all,"  Matt.  v.  34.  But  it 
seems  our  Lord  there  referred  to  the  vicious,  wan- 
ton, and  unauthorized  swearing  in  common  dis- 
course, and  not  to  judicial  oaths  :  for  he  himself 
answered  when  interrogated  upon  oath,  Matt. 
xxvi.  63,  64  ;  Mark  xiv.  61.  The  apostle  Paul 
also  makes  use  of  expressions  which  contain  the 
nature  of  oaths,  Rom.  i.  9 ;  1  Cor.  xv.  31 ;  2  Cor. 
i.  18 ;  Gal.  i.  20 ;  Heb.  vi.  13,  17.  Oaths  are 
nugatory,  that  is,  carry  with  them  no  proper 
force  or  obligation,  unless  we  believe  that  God 
will  punish  false  swearing  with  more  severity 
than  a  simple  lie  or  breach  of  promise  ;  for  which 
belief  there  aie  the  following  reasons' :  1.  Perjury 
is  a  sin  of  greater  deliberation. — 2.  It  violates  a 
superior  confidence. — 3.  God  directed  the  Israel- 
ites to  swear  by  his  name,  Deut.  vi.  13 ;  x.  20, 
and  was  pleased  to  confirm  his  covenant  with 
that  people  by  an  oath ;  neither  of  which  it  is 
probable  he  would  have  done,  had  he  not  in- 
tended to  represent  oaths  as  having  some  mean- 
ing and  effect  beyond  the  obligation  of  a  bare 
promise. 

"  Promissory  oaths  are  not  binding  where  the 
promise  itself  would  not  be  so.  See  Promises. 
As  oaths  are  designed  for  the  security  of  the  im- 
poser,  it  is  manifest  that  they  must  be  interpreted 
and  performed  in  the  sense  in  which  the  imposer 
intends  them  "  Oaths,  also,  must  never  be  taken 
but  in  matters  of  importance,  nor  irreverently, 
and  without  godly  fear.  Paleifs  Mor.  Phil.  ch. 
16.  vol.  i. ;  Grot,  de  Jure,  1. 11.  c.  13,  §  21 ;  Bar- 
row's Works,  vol.  i.  ser.  15  ;  Burnet's  Exposition 
of  the  39th  Article  of  the  Church  of  England; 
Herport's  Essay  on  Truths  of  Importance,  and 
Doctrine  of  Oaths ;  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lect. 
189 ;  Tillotsoris  22d  Sermon  ;  Wolscly's  Un- 
reasonableness of  Atheism,  p.  152. 

Oath  of  allegiance  is  as  follows:  "  I,  A.  B. 
do  sincerely  promise  and  swear,  that  I  will  be 
faithful,  and  bear  true  allegiance  to  his  Majesty, 
King  George.  So  help  me  God."  This  is 
taken  by  Protestant  dissenting  ministers,  when 
licensed  by  the  civil  magistrates;  as  is  also  the 
following: 

Oath  of  supremacy :  "  I,  A.  B.  do  swear,  that 
I  do  from  my  heart  abhor,  detest,  and  abjure,  as 
impious  and  heretical,  that  damnable  doctrine  and 

!>osition,  that  princes  excommunicated  or  deprived 
>y  the  Pope,  or  any  authority  of  the  see  of  Rome, 
may  be  deposed  or  murdered  by  their  subjects, 
or  any  other  whatsoever.  And  I  do  declare, 
that  no  foreign  prince,  person,  prelate,  state,  or 
potentate,  hath,  or  ought  to  have,  any  jurisdiction, 
power,  pre-eminence,  or  authority,  ecclesiastical 
or  spiritual,  within  this  realm.  So  help  me 
God." 

OBEDIENCE,  the  performance  of  the  com- 
mands of  a  superior.  Obedience  to  God  may  be 
considered,  1.  As  virtual,  which  consists  in  a  be- 
lief of  the  Gospel,  of  the  holiness  and  equity  of 
its  precepts,  ot  the  truth  of  its  promises,  and  a 
true  repentance  of  all  our  sins. — 2.  Actual  obe- 
dience, which  is  the  practice  and  exercise  of  the 
several  graces  and  duties  of  Christianity. — 3.  Per- 
fect obedience,  which  is  the  exact  conformity  of 
our  hearts  and  lives  to  the  law  of  God,  without 
the  least  imperfection.  This  last  is  only  peculiar 
to  a  glorified  state.  The  obligation  we  arc  under 
to  obedience  arises,  1.  From  the  relation  we  stand 
in  to  God  as  creatures,  Psalm  xcv.  6. — 2.  From 


OBLIGATION 
he  law  he  hath  revealed  to  us  in  his  word,  Psalm 
cxix.  3 ;  2  Pet.  i.  5,  7. — 3.  From  the  blessings  of 
his  providence  we  are  constantly  receiving,  Acts 
xiv.  17 ;  Psalm  cxlv. — 4.  From  the  love  and  good- 
ness of  God  in  the  grand  work  of  redemption, 
1  Cor.  vi.  20.  As  to  the  nature  of  this  obedience, 
it  must  be,  1.  Active,  not  only  avoiding  what  is 
prohibited,  but  performing  what  is  commanded, 
Col.  hi.  8,  10. — 2.  Personal ;  for  though  Christ 
has  obeyed  the  law  for  us  as  a  covenant  of  works, 
yet  he  hath  not  abrogated  it  as  a  rule  of  life, 
Rom.  vii.  22;  iii.  31. — 3.  Sincere,  Psalm  li.  6; 

1  Tim.  5. — 4.  Affectionate,  springing  from  love, 
and  not  from  terror,  1  John  v.  19  ;  ii.  5  j  2  Cor. 
v.  14. — 5.  Diligent,  not  slothfully,  Gal.  i.  16; 
Psalm  xviii.  44 ;  Rom.  xii.  11. — 6.  Conspicuous 
and  open,  Phil.  ii.  15;  Matt.  v.  16. — 7.  Univer- 
sal; not  one  duty,  but  all  must   be  performed, 

2  Pet.  i.  5,  10. — 8.  Perpetual,  at  all  times,  places, 
and  occasions,  Rom.  ii.  7 ;  Gal.  vi.  9.  The  ad- 
vantages of  obedience  are  these,  1.  It  adorns  the 
Gospel,  Tit.  ii.  10. — 2.  It  is  evidential  of  grace, 
2  Cor.  v.  17. — 3.  It  rejoices  the  hearts  of  the  mi- 
nisters and  people  of  God,  1  John  2;  2  Thess. 
i.  19,  20. — 4.  It  silences  gainsayers.  2  Pet.  i.  11, 
12. — 5.  Encourages  the  saints,  wh>  '<?  it  reproves 
the  lukewarm,  Matt.  v.  16. — 6.  Affords  peace  to 
the  subject  of  it,  Psalm  xxv.  12,  13 ;  Acts  xxiv. 
16. — 7.  It  powerfully  recommends  religion,  as 
that  which  is  both  delightful  and  practicable, 
Col.  i.  10. — 8.  It  is  the  forerunner  and  evidence 
of  eternal  glory,  Rom.  vi.  22;  Rev.  xxii.  14. 
See  Holiness,  Sanctification  ;  Charnock's 
Works,  vol.  xi.  p.  1212 ;  Tillotson's  Sermons, 
ser.  122,  123;  Saurin's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  ser.  4; 
Ridgley's  Body  of  Divinity,  qu.  92. 

OBEDIENCE  OF  CHRIST  is  generally 
divided  into  active  and  passive.  His  active  obe- 
dience implies  what  he  did ;  his  passive  what  he 
suffered.  Some  divines  distinguish  these.  They 
refer  our  pardon  to  his  passive,  and  our  title  to 
glory  to  his  active  obedience  :  though  Dr.  Owen 
observes,  that  it  cannot  be  clearly  evinced  that 
there  is  any  such  thing  in  propriety  of  speech  as 
passive  obedience :  obeying  is  doing,  to  which 
passion  or  suffering  doth  not  belong.  Of  the  ac- 
tive obedience  of  Christ,  the  Scriptures  assure 
us  that  he  took  upon  him  the  form  of  a  servant, 
and  really  became  one,  Isa.  xlix.  3 ;  Phil.  ii.  5 ; 
Heb.  viii.  He  was  subject  to  the  law  of  God. 
"  He  was  made  under  the  law ;"  the  judicial  or 
civil  law  of  the  Jews ;  the  ceremonial  law,  and 
the  moral  law,  Matt.  xvii.  24,  27 ;  Luke  ii.  22 ; 
Psalm  x.  7,  8.  He  was  obedient  to  the  law  of 
nature ;  he  was  in  a  state  of  subjection  to  his 
parents;  and  he  fulfilled  the  commands  of  his 
heavenly  Father  as  it  respected  the  first  and  se 
cond  table.  His  obedience,  1  Was  voluntarv, 
Psalm  xl.  6.-2.  Complete,  1  Pel.  ii.  22.-3. 
Wrought  out  in  the  room  and  stead  of  his  peo- 
ple, Rom.  x.  4 ;  v.  19. — 4.  Well  pleasing  and  ac- 
ceptable in  the  sight  of  God.  See  Atonement  ; 
Death  and  Suffering  of  Christ. 

OBLATI,  secular  persons  who  devoted  them- 
selves and  their  estates  to  some  monastery,  into 
which  they  were  admitted  as  a  kind  of  lay-bro- 
thers. The  form  of  their  admission  was  putting 
the  bell-ropes  of  the  church  round  their  necks,  as 
a  mark  of  servitude.  They  wore  a  religious 
habit,  but  different  from  that  of  the  monks. 

OBLIGATION  is  that  by  which  we  are 
bound  to  the  performance  of  any  action.     1.  /?o- 


OFFERING 
lional  obligation  is  that  which  arises  from  reason, 
abstractly  taken,  to  do  or  forbear  certain  actions. 

2.  Authoritative  obligation  is  that  which  arisrs 
from  the  commands  of  a  superior,  or  one  who  has 
a  rifjht  or  authority  to  prescribe  rules  to  others. — 

3.  Moral  obligation  is  that  by  which  we  are 
bound  to  perform  that  which  is  right,  and  to 
ovoid  that  which  is  wrong.  It  is  a  moral  neces- 
sity of  doing  actions  or  forbearing  them ;  that  is, 
such  a  necessity  as  whoever  breaks  through  it,  is 
ipso  facto,  worthy  of  blame  for  so  doing.  Vari- 
ous, however,  have  been  the  opinions  concern- 
ing the  ground  of  moral  obligation,  or  what  it 
arises  from.  One  says,  from  the  moral  fitness 
of  things;  another,  because  it  is  conformable  to 
reason  and  nature ;  another,  because  it  is  con- 
formable to  truth  ;  and  another,  because  it  is  ex- 
pedient, and  promotes  the  public  good.  A  late 
writer  has  defined  obligation  to  be  "  a  state  of 
mind  perceiving  the  reasons  for  acting,  or  for- 
bearing to  act."  But  I  confess  this  has  a  diffi- 
culty in  it  to  rue ;  because  it  carries  with  it  an  idea 
that  if  a  man  should  by  his  habitual  practice  of 
iniquity  be  so  hardened  as  to  lose  a  sense  of  duty, 
and  not  perceive  the  reasons  why  he  should  act 
morally,  then  he  is  under  no  obligation.  And 
thus  a  depraved  man  might  say  he  is  under  no 
obligation  to  obey  the  laws  of  the  land,  because, 
through  his  desire  of  living  a  licentious  life,  he  is 
led  to  suppose  that  there  should  be  none.  In  my 
opinion,  a  difference  should  be  made  between 
obligation  and  a  sense  of  it.  Moral  obligation,  I 
think,  arises  from  the  will  of  God,  as  revealed  in 
the  light  and  law  of  nature,  and  in  his  word.  This 
is  binding  upon  all  men,  because  there  is  no  situ- 
ation in  which  mankind  have  not  either  one  or  the 
other  of  these.  We  find,  however,  that  the  gene- 
rality of  men  are  so  far  sunk  in  depravity,  that  a 
sense  of  obligation  is  nearly  or  quite  lost.  Still, 
however,  their  losing  the  sense  does  not  render 
the  obligation  less  strong.  "  Obligation  to  virtue 
i-  eternal  and  immutable,  but  the  sense  of  it  is 
lost  by  sin."  See  Warburtori1  s  Legation,  vol.  i. 
p.  38,  46,  &c. ;  Paley's  Mot.  Phil.  p.  54,  vol.  i. ; 
Robinson's  Preface  to  the  Fourth  Volume  of 
Saurin' 's  Sermons ;  Mason's  Christian  Morals, 
ser.  23.  p.  25i),  vol.  ii. ;  Doddridge's  Led.  lee. 
52 ;   Grove's  Phil.  vol.  ii.  p.  66. 

OBSERVATION.     See  Mind. 

(ECONOMY.    See  Dispensation. 

(ECONOMISTS,  a  sect  of  philosophers  in 
France,  who  have  made  a  great  noise  in  Europe, 
and  are  generally  supposed  to  have  been  un- 
friendly to  religion.  The  founder  of  this  sect 
was  Dr.  Duquesnoi,  who  had  so  well  insinuated 
nimself  into  the  favour  of  Louis  XV.,  that  the 
king  used  to  call  him  his  Thinker.  The  sect 
was  called  (Economists,  because  the  ceconomy 
and  order  to  be  introduced  into  the  finances,  and 
other  means  of  alleviating  the  distresses  of  the 
people  were  perpetually  in  their  mouths.  The 
abbe  Barruel  admits  that  there  may  have  been 
some  few  of  them  who  directed  their  speculations 
to  no  other  object ;  but  he  brings  very  sufficient 
proof  that  the  aim  of  the  majority  of  the  sect  was 
to  distribute  the  writings  of  Voltaire,  Diderot, 
ami  others,  and  thus  to  eradicate  from  the  minds 
of  the  people  all  reverence  for  divine  revelation. 
See  Philosophists. 

OFFERING,  or  Oblation',  denotes  whatever 
is  sacrificed  or  consumed  in  the  worship  of  God. 
For  an  account  of  the  various  offerings  under 
316 


OMNIPRESENCE 

the  law,  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  book  of  Le- 
viticus.    See  also  Sacrifice. 

OFFICERS,  CHURCH.  See  Church, 
Deacon,  Elder. 

OFFICES  OF  CHRIST  are  generally  con- 
sidered  as  three-fold.  1.  A  prophet  to  enlighten 
and  instruct,  John  vi.  14;  iii.  2. — 2.  A  priest 
to  make  atonement  for  his  people,  Isa.  liii.; 
Heb.  vii. — 3.  A  king  to  reign  in,  and  rule  over 
them,  Zech.  xi.  9;  Psal.  ii.  G.  See  articles  In- 
tercession', Mediator,  &c. 

OMEN  is  a  word  which,  in  its  proper  sense, 
signifies  a  sign  or  indication  of  some  future  event, 
especially  of  an  alarming  nature.  Against  the 
belief  of  omens  it  is  observed,  that  it  is  contrary 
to  every  principle  of  sound  philosophy ;  and  who- 
ever has  studied  the  writings  of  St.  Paul  must 
be  convinced  thai,  it  is  inconsistent  with  the 
spirit  of  genuine  Christianity.  We  cannot  pre- 
tend to  discuss  the  subject  here,  but  will  present 
the  reader  with  a  quotation  on  the  other  side  of 
the  question.  "  Though  it  be  true,"  says  Mr.  Top- 
lady,"  "  that  all  omens  are  not  worthy  of  observa- 
tion, and  though  they  should  never  be  so  regarded 
as  to  shock  our  fortitude,  or  diminish  our  confi- 
dence in  God,  still  they  are  not  to  be  constantly 
despised.  Small  incidents  have  sometimes  been 
prelusive  to  great  events ;  nor  is  there  any  supersti- 
tion in  noticing  these  apparent  prognostications, 
though  there  may  be  much  superstition  in  being 
either  too  indiscriminately  or  too  deeply  sway- 
ed bv  them."    Toplady's  Works,  vol.  iv.  p.  192. 

OMNIPOTENCE  OF  GOD  is  his  al- 
mighty power.  This  is  essential  to  his  nature  as 
an  infinite,  independent,  and  perfect  being.  The 
power  of  God  is  divided  into  absolute,  and  ordi- 
nate, or  actual.  Absolute  is  that  whereby  God 
is  able  to  do  that  which  he  will  not  do,  but  is 
possible  to  be  done.  Ordinate  is  that  whereby 
he  doeth  that  which  he  hath  decreed  to  do.  The 
power  of  God  may  be  more  especially  seen,  1.  In 
creation,  Rom.  i.  20 ;  Gen.  i. — 2.  In  the  pre- 
servation of  his  creatures,  Heb.  i.  3 ;  Col.  i.  16, 
17;  Job  xxvi. — 3.  In  the  redemption  of  men  by 
Christ,  Luke  i.  35,  37 ;  Eph.  i.  19.— 4.  In  the 
conversion  of  sinners,  Psal.  ex.  3;  2  Cor.  iv.  7; 
Rom.  i.  16. — 5.  In  the  continuation  and  success 
of  the  Gospel  in  the  world,  Matt.  xiii.  31,  32. — 
6.  In  the  final  perseverance  of  the  saints,  1  Pet. 
i.  5. — 7.  In  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  1  Cor. 
xv. — 8.  In  making  the  righteous  happy  for  ever, 
and  punishing  the  wicked,  Phil.  iii.  21 ;  Matt, 
xxv.  34,  &c.  See  Gill's  Body  of  Div.  vol.  i.  oct. 
edit.  p.  77;  Charnock's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  423; 
Saurin' 8  Sermons,  vol.  i.  p.  157;  Tillotson's 
Sermons,  ser.  152. 

OMNIPRESENCE  OF  GOD  is  his  ubi- 
quity, or  his  being  present  in  every  place.  This 
may  be  argued  from  his  infinity,  Psal.  exxxix ; 
his  power,  which  is  every  where,  Heb.  i.  3 ;  his 
providence,  Acts  xvii.  27,  28,  which  supplies  all. 
As  he  is  a  Spirit,  he  is  so  omnipresent  as  not  to 
be  mixed  with  the  creature,  or  divided,  part  in 
one  place,  and  part  in  another;  nor  is  he  multi- 
plied or  extended,  but  is  essentially  present  every 
where.  From  the  consideration  of  this  attribute 
we  should  learn  to  fear  and  reverence  God,  Psal. 
Ixxxix.  7.  To  derive  consolation  in  the  hour  of 
distress,  Isa.  xlii.  2 ;  Psal.  xlvi.  1.  To  be  active 
and  diligent  in  holy  services,  Psal.  cxix.  168. — 
See  Charnock's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  2-10;  Aberne- 
thy's  Sermons,  ser.  7;  Howe's  U'orks,  vol.  i.  pp 


ORACLE 
108,    110;    Saurin's   Sermons,   vol.    i.   ser.   3; 
Gill's  Body  of  Did.  b.  i. ;   Spectator,  vol.  viii. 
Nos.  565,  571 ;    Tillotson's  Sermons,  ser.  154. 

OMNISCIENCE  OF  GOD  is  that  perfec- 
tion by  which  he  knows  all  things,  and  is,  1.  In- 
finite knowledge,  Ps.  cxlvii.  5. — 2.  Eternal,  gene- 
rally called  foreknowledge,  Acts  xv.  18 ;  Is.  xlvi. 
10;  Eph.  i.  4;  Acts  ii.  23.-3.  Universal,  ex- 
tending to  all  persons,  times,  places,  and  things, 
Heb.  iv.  13 ;  Ps.  i.  10,  &c— 4.  Perfect,  relating 
to  what  is  past,  present  and  to  come.  He  knows 
all  by  his  own  essence,  and  not  derived  from  any 
other;  not  successively,  as  we  do,  but  indepen- 
dently, distinctly,  infallibly,  and  perpetually,  Jer. 
x.  G,  7;  Rom.  xi.  33. — 5.  This  knowledge  is 
peculiar  to  himself,  Mark  xiii.  32;  Job  xxxvi.  4, 
and  not  communicable  to  any  creature. — G.  It  is 
incomprehensible  to  us  how  God  knows  all  things, 
yet  it  is  evident  that  he  does;  for  to  suppose 
otherwise  is  to  suppose  him  an  imperfect  being, 
and  directly  contrary  to  the  revelation  he  has 
given  of  himself,  1  John  iii.  20 ;  Job  xxviii.  24 ; 
xxi.  22.  See  Charnock's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  271 ; 
Abcrnethy's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  p.  290,  30G ;  Howe's 
Works,  vol.  i.  p.  102,  103;  Gill's  Div.  vol.  i. 
p.  85,  oct. 

OPHITES.     See  Serpentinians. 

OPINION  is  that  judgment  which  the  mind 
forms  of  any  proposition  for  the  truth  or  false- 
hood of  which  there  is  not  sufficient  evidence  to 
produce  absolute  belief. 

ORACLE,  among  the  heathens,  was  the  an- 
swer which  the  gods  were  supposed  to  give  to 
those  who  consulted  them  upon  any  a  flair  of  im- 
portance. It  is  also  used  for  the  god  who  was 
thought  to  give  the  answer,  and  for  the  place 
where  it  was  given.  Learned  men  are  much 
divided  as  to  the  source  of  these  oracles.  Some 
suppose  that  they  were  only  the  invention  of 
priests;  while  others  conceive  that  there  was 
a  diabolical  agency  employed  in  the  business. 
There  are,  as  one  observes,  several  circumstances 
leading  to  the  former  hypothesis;  such  as  the 
gloomy  solemnity  with  which  many  of  them  were 
delivered  in  caves  and  subterraneous  caverns ; 
the  numerous  and  disagreeable  ceremonies  en- 
joined, as  sometimes  sleeping  in  the  skins  of 
beasts,  bathing,  and  expensive  sacrifices;  the 
ambiguous  and  unsatisfactory  answers  frequently 
returned :  these  look  very  much  like  the  contri- 
vances of  artful  priests  to  disguise  their  villany ; 
the  medium  of  priests,  speaking  images,  vocal 
groves,  &c.  seem  much  to  confirm  it.  On  the 
other  hand,  if  we  may  credit  the  relation  of  an- 
cient writers,  either  among  Heathens  or  Chris- 
tians, this  hypothesis  will  hardly  account  for  many 
of  the  instances  they  mention.  And  since  it 
cannot  be  proved  either  impossible  or  unscriptu- 
ral,  is  it  not  probable  that  God  might  sometimes 
permit  an  intercourse  with  infernal  spirits,  with 
a  design,  in  the  end,  to  turn  this  and  every  ether 
circumstance  to  his  own  glory  1 

Respecting  the  cessation  of  these  oracles,  there 
have  been  a  variety  of  opinions.-  It  has  been 
generally  held,  indeed,  that  oracles  ceased  at  the 
birth  of  Jesus  Christ ;  yet  some  have  endeavoured 
to  maintain  the  contrary,  by  showing  that  they 
were  in  being  in  the  days  of  Julian,  commonly 
called  the  apostate,  and  that  this  emperor  himself 
consulted  them ;  nay,  further,  say  they,  history 
makes  mention  of  several  laws  published  by  the 
Christian  emperors  Theodosius,  Gratian,  and 
317 


ORACLE 

Valentmian,  to  punish  persons  who  interrogated 
them,  even  in  their  days ;  and  that  the  Epicu- 
reans were  the  first  who  made  a  jest  of  this 
superstition,  and  exposed  the  roguery  of  its  priests 
to  the  people. 

But,  on  the  other  side,  it  is  observed,  1.  That 
the  question,  properly  stated,  is  not,  Whether 
oracles  became  extinct  immediately  upon  the 
birth  of  Christ,  or  from  the  very  moment  he  was 
born;  but,  Whether  they  fell  gradually  into  dia- 
esteem,  and  ceased  as  Christ  and  his  Gospel  be- 
came known  to  mankind  7  And  that  they  did  so 
is  most  certain  from  the  concurrent  testimonies 
of  the  Fathers,  which  whoever  would  endeavour 
to  invalidate,  may  equally  give  up  the  most  re 
spectable  traditions  and  relations  of  every  kind. 

2d!y,  But  did  not  Julian  the  apostate  consult 
these  oracles  ?  We  answer  in  the  negative :  he 
had,  indeed,  recourse  to  magical  operations,  but 
it  was  because  oracles  had  already  ceased ;  for  he 
bewailed  the  loss  of  them,  and  assigned  pitiful 
reasons  for  it;  which  St.  Cyril  has  vigorously 
refuted,  saying  that  he  never  coxdd  have  offered 
such  but  from  an  unicillingness  to  acknowledge 
that,  when  the  xeorld  had  received  the  light  of 
Christ,  the  dominion  of  the  devil  was  at  an  end. 

3dly,  The  Christian  emperors  do,  indeed,  seem 
to  condemn  the  superstition  and  idolatry  of  those 
who  were  still  for  consulting  oracles ;  but  the 
edicts  of  those  princes  do  not  prove  that  oracles 
actually  existed  in  their  times,  any  more  than 
that  they  ceased  in  consequence  of  their  laws. 
It  is  certain  that  they  were  for  the  most  part  ex- 
tinct before  the  conversion  of  Constantine. 

4thly,  Some  Epicureans  might  make  a  jest  of 
this  superstition  ;  however,  the  Epicurean  phi- 
losopher Celsus,  in  the  second  century  of  the 
church,  was  for  crying  up  the  excellency  of  seve- 
ral oracles,  as  appears  at  large  from  Origen's 
seventh  book  against  him. 

Among  the  Jews  there  were  several  sorts  of 
real  oracles.  They  had.  first,  oracles  that  were 
delivered  viva  voce ;  as  when  God  spake  to  Moses 
face  to  face,  and  as  one  friend  speaks  to  another, 
Num.  xii.  8.  Secondly,  Prophetical  dreams  sent 
by  God ;  as  the  dreams  which  God  sent  to  Jo- 
seph, and  which  foretold  his  future  greatness, 
Gen.  xxvii.  5,  6.  Thirdly,  Visions ;  as  when  a 
prophet  in  an  ecstacy,  being  neither  properly 
asleep  nor  awake,  had  supernatural  revelations, 
Gen.  xv.  1 ;  xlvi.  2.  Fourthby,  The  oracle  of  the 
Urim  and  Thummim,  which  was  accompanied 
with  the  ephod,  or  the  pectoral  worn  by  the  high 
priest,  and  which  God  had  endued  with  the  gift 
of  foretelling  things  to  come,  Num.  xii.  G ;  Joel 
ii.  28.  This  manner  of  inquiring  of  the  Lord  was 
often  made  use  of,  from  Joshua's  time  to  the 
erection  of  the  temple  at  Jerusalem.  Fifthly, 
After  the  building  of  the  temple,  they  generally 
consulted  the  prophets,  who  were  frequent  in  the 
kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel.  From  Haggai, 
Zechariah,  and  Malachi,  who  are  the  last  of 
the  prophets  that  have  any  of  their  writings  re- 
maining, the  Jews  pretend  that  God  gave  them 
what  they  call  Bathkol,  the  Daughter  of  the 
Voice,  which  was  a  supernatural  manifestation 
of  the  will  of  God,  which  was  performed  either 
by  a  strong  inspiration  or  internal  voice,  or 
else  by  a  sensible  and  external  voice,  which 
was  heard  by  a  number  of  persons  sufficient  to 
bear  testimony  of  it.  For  example,  such  was  the 
voice  that  was  heard  at  the  baptism  of  Jesus 


ORATORY 
Christ,  saying,   This  is   mv  beloved  Son,   &c. 
Matt.  ii.  17. 

The  Scripture  affords  us  examples  likewise  of 
profane  oracles.  Balaam,  at  the  instigation  of  his 
own  spirit,  and  urged  on  by  his  avarice,  fearing 
to  lose  the  recompense  that  was  promised  by  Ba- 
lak,  king  of  the  Moabites,  suggests  a  diabolical 
expedient  to  this  prince,  of  making  the  Israelites 
fall  into  idolatry  and  fornication,  (Num.  xxiv. 
14;  xxxi.  16,)  by  which  he  assures  him  of  a  cer- 
tain victory,  or  at  least  of  considerable  advan- 
tage against  the  people  of  God. 

Micaiah,  the  son  of  Imlah,  a  prophet  of  the 
Lord,  says,  (1  Kings  xxii.  20.,  &c.)  that  he  saw 
the  Almighty,  sitting  upon  his  throne,  and  all 
the  host  of  heaven  round  about  him ;  and  the 
Lord  said,  Who  shall  tempt  Ahab,  king  of  Israel, 
that  he  may  go  to  war  with  Ramoth  Gilead,  and 
fall  in  the  battle  ?  One  answered  after  one  man- 
ner, and  another  in  another.  At  the  same  time 
an  evil  spirit  presented  himself  before  the  Lord, 
and  said,  I  will  seduce  him.  And  the  Lord 
asked  him,  How?  To  which  Satan  answered, 
1  will  go  and  be  a  lying  spirit  in  the  mouth  of  his 
prophets.  And  the  Lord  said,  Go,  and  thou  shalt 
prevail.  This  dialogue  clearly  proves  these  two 
things :  first,  that  the  devil  could  do  nothing  by 
his  own  power;  and,  secondly,  that,  with  the 
permission  of  God,  he  could  inspire  the  false 
prophets,  sorcerers,  and  magicians,  and  make 
them  deliver  false  oracles.  See  Vandale  and 
Font  en  die1  s  Hist,  dc  Orac.  ;  Potter's  Greek  An- 
tiquities, vol.  i.  b.  2.  ch.  7;  Edwards's  Hist,  of 
Red.  p.  40S ;  Farmer  on  Mir.  p.  281,  285 ;  Enc. 
Brit,  article  Oracle. 

ORAL,  delivered  by  the  mouth,  not  written. 
See  Tradition'. 

ORATORY,  a  name  given  by  Christians  to 
certain  places  of  religious  worship. 

In  ecclesiastical  antiquity,  the  term  o.*oi  (u«T?- 
pn«,  houses  of  prayer,  or  oratories,  is  frequently 
given  to  churches  in  general,  of  which  tltere 
are  innumerable  instances  in  ancient  Christian 
writers.  But  in  some  canons  the  name  oratory 
seems  confined  to  private  chapels  or  places  of 
worship  set  up  for  the  convenience  ot'  private 
families,  yet  still  depending  on  the  parochial 
churches,  and  differing  from  them  in  this,  that 
they  were  only  places  of  prayer,  but  not  for  cele- 
brating the  communion :  for  if  that  were  at  any 
time  allowed  to  private  families,  yet,  at  least,  upon 
the  great  and  solemn  festivals,  they  were  to  resort 
for  communion  to  the  parish  churches. 

Orator)/  is  used  among  the  Romanists  for  a 
closet,  or  little  apartment  near  a  bedchamber,  fur- 
nished with  a  little  altar,  crucifix,  &c.  for  private 
devotion. 

Oratory,  Priests  of  the. — There  were  two  con- 

f rogations  of  religious,  one  in  Italy,  the  other  in 
'ranee,  which  were  called  by  this  name. 
The  priests  of  the  Oratory  in  Italy  had  for 
their  founder,  St.  Philip  de'Neri,  a  native  of 
Florence,  who,  in  the  year  15 lis,  founded  at 
Rome  the  Confraternity  of  the  Holy  Trinity. 
This  society  originally  consisted  of  but  fifteen 
poor  persons,  who  assembled  in  the  church  of  St. 
Saviour,  i»  campo,  every  lirst  Sunday  in  the 
month,  to  practise  the  exercUes  of  piety  described 
by  the  holy  founder.  Afterwards  their  number 
increasing  by  the  addition  of  several  persons  of 
distinction  to  the  society,  St.  Philip  proceeded  to 
establish  an  hospital  for  the  reception  of  poor  pil- 
318 


ORDER 

grims,  who,  coming  to  Rome  to  visit  the  tomh# 
of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  were  obliged,  for  want 
of  a  lodging,  to  lie  in  the  streets  and  at  the  doors 
of  churches.  For  this  charitable  purpose,  pope 
Paul  IV.  gave  to  the  society  the  parochial  church 
of  St.  Benedict,  close  by  which  was  built  an  hos- 
pital, so  large,  that  in  the  Jubilee  year  1600,  it 
received  44-1,500  men,  and  25,500  women,  who 
came  in  pilgrimage  to  Rome. 

The  Priests  of  the  Oratory  in  France  were 
established  on  the  model  of  those,  in  Italy,  and 
owe  their  rise  to  cardinal  Berulle,  a  native  of 
Champagne,  who  resolved  upon  this  foundation 
in  order  to  revive  the  splendour  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical state,  which  was  greatly  sunk  through  the 
miseries  of  the  civil  wars,  the  increase  of  heresies, 
and  a  general  corruption  of  manners.  To  this 
end  he  assembled  a  community  of  ecclesiastics, 
in  1G1 1,  in  the  suburb  of  St.  James.  They  ob- 
tained the  king's  letter  patent  for  their  establish- 
ment; and,  in  1(513,  pope  Paul  V.  approved  this 
congregation,  under  the  title  of  the  Oratory  of 
Jesus. 

This  congregation  consisted  of  two  sorts  of 
persons :  the  one,  as  it  were,  incorporated ;  the 
other,  only  associates :  the  former  governed  the 
houses  of  this  institute ;  the  latter  were  only  em- 
ployed in  forming  themselves  to  the  life  and  mari- 
ners of  ecclesiastics.  And  this  was  the  true  spirit 
of  this  congregation,  in  which  they  taught  neither 
human  learning  nor  theology,  but  only  the  vir- 
tues of  the  ecclesiastical  life. 

ORDER,  method  ;  the  established  manner  of 
performing  a  thing.  Nothing  can  be  more  beau- 
tiful in  religion  and  morals  than  order.  The  ne- 
glect of  it  exposes  us  to  the  inroads  of  vice,  and 
often  brings  upon  us  the  most  perplexing  events. 
Whether  we  consider  it  in  reference  to  ourselves, 
or  our  families,  or  the  church,  it  is  of  the  greatest 
importance.  As  to  the  first,  order  should  be  at- 
tended to  as  it  respects  our  principles,  Heb.  xiii.  9 ; 
James  i.  8  ;  our  tempers,  Prov.  xvii.  14  ;  Eph.  iv. 
31;  our  conversation,  Col.  iv.  6;  our  business, 
Prov.  xxii.  29;  our  time,  Ps.  xc.  12;  Eccl.  iii.  1; 
our  recreations,  and  our  general  conduct,  Phil.  i. 
27;  2  Pet.  i.  5,  ftft — 2.  As  it  regards  our  fami- 
lies, there  shou'd  be  order  ;  as  xo  the  economy  or 
management  of  its  concerns,  Matt.  xii.  25  ;  as  to 
devotion,  and  the  time  of  it,  Joshua  xxiv.  15 ;  as 
to  the  instruction  thereof,  Eph.  vi.  1 ;  Gen.  xviii. 
19;  2  Tim.  i.  5. — 3.  In  respect  to  the  church-, 
order  should  be  observed  as  to  the  admission  of 
members,  2  Cor.  vi.  15 ;  as  to  the  administration 
of  its  ordinances,  1  Cor.  xiv.  33,  40;  as  to  the  at- 
tendance on  its  worship,  Ps.  xxvii.  4  ;  as  to  our 
behaviour  therein,  Col.  i.  10 ;  Matt.  v.  16.  To 
excite  us  to  the  practice  of  this  duty  we  should 
consider  that  God  is  a  God  of  order,  1  Cor.  xiv. 
33;  his  works  are  all  in  the  exactest  order,  Eph. 
i.  11 ;  Ps.  civ.  25;  Ecel.  iii.  11  ;  heaven  is  a  place 
of  order,  Rev.  vii.  9.  Jesus  Christ  was  a  most 
beautiful  example  of  regularity.  The  advan- 
tages of  order  are  numerous.  "  The  observance 
of  it,"  says  Dr.  Blair,  "serves  to  correct  that  negli- 
gence which  makes  us  omit  some  duties,  and  that 
hurry  and  precipitancy  which  make  us  perform 
others  imperfectly.  Our  attention  is  thereby  di- 
rected to  its  proper  objects.  We  follow  the 
straight  path  which  Providence  has  pointed  out 
to  us;  in  the  course  of  which  all  the  different 
business  of  life  presents  itself  regularly  to  us  on 
every  side."     Scr.  vol.  ii.  p.  OX 


ORDINATION 

ORDERS,  by  way  of  eminence,  or  holy  orders, 
denote  a  character  peculiar  to  ecclesiastics  where- 
by they  are  set  apart  for  the  ministry.  This  the 
Romanists  make  their  sixth  sacrament  In  no 
reformed  church  are  there  more  than  three  orders, 
viz.  bishops,  priests,  and  deacons.  In  the  Romish 
church  there  are  seven,  exclusive  of  the  episco- 
pate; all  which  the  council  of'  Trent  enjoins  to 
be  received  and  believed  on  pain  of  anathema. 
They  are  distinguished  into  petty  or  secular  or- 
ders, and  major  or  sacred  orders.  Orders,  the 
petty  or  minor,  are  four,  viz  those  of  door-keep- 
ers, exorcist,  reader,  and  acolyth.  Sacred,  or 
major,  are  deacon,  priest,  and  bishop. 

ORDERS,  RELIGIOUS,  are  congregations 
or  societies  of  monasteries  living  under  the  same 
superior,  in  the  same  manner,  and  wearing  the 
same  habit.  Religious  orders  may  be  reduced  to 
five  kinds,  viz.  monks,  canons,  knights,  mendi- 
cants, and  regular  clerks.  Wliilc  order  denotes 
the  order  of  regular  canons,  of  St.  Augustine. 
Black  order  denotes  the  order  of  St.  Benedict. 
Orders  religious  military  are  those  instituted  in 
defence  of  the  faith,  and  privileged  to  say  mass, 
and  who  are  prohibited  marriage,  &c.  Of  this 
kind  are  the  knights  of  Malta,  or  of  St.  John  of 
Jerusalem.  Such  also  were  the  knights  tem- 
plars, the  knights  of  Calatrave,  of  St.  Lazarus, 
Teutonic  knights,  &c. 

ORDINANCES  OF  THE  GOSPEL  are 
institutions  of  divine  authority  relating  to  the 
worship  of  God ;  such  as  baptism,  Matt,  xxviii. 
19.— 2.  The  Lord's  Supper,  1  Cor.  xi.  24,  &c— 

3.  Public  ministry,  or  preaching  and  reading  the 
word,  Rom.  x.  15;  Eph.  iv.  13;  Mark  xvi.  15. — 

4.  Hearing  the  Gospel,  Mark  iv.  24 ;  Rom.  x. 
17.— 5.  Public  prayer,   1  Cor.  xiv.  15,  19 ;  Matt. 

i.  6 ;  Psalm  v.  1,  7. — 6.  Singing  of  psalms,  Col. 

d.  16 ;  Eph.  v.  1!). — 7.  Fasting,  James  iv.  9 ; 
Matt.  ix.  15;  Joel  ii.  12. — 8.  Solemn  thanks- 
giving, Psalm  v.  14 ;  1  Thess.  v.  18.  See  these 
different  articles ;  also  Means  of  Grace. 

ORDINATION,  the  act  of  conferring  holy 
orders,  or  of  initiating  a  person  into  the  priesthood 
by  prayer  and  the  laying  on  of  hands.  Among 
the  Dissenters,  ordination  is  the  public  setting 
apart  of  a  minister  to  his  work,  or  over  the  people 
whose  call  he  has  accepted.  In  the  church  of 
England,  ordination  has  always  been  esteemed 
the  principal  prerogative  of  bishops,  and  they  still 
retain  the  function  as  a  mark  of  their  spiritual 
sovereignty  in  their  diocese.  Without  ordination 
no  person  can  receive  any  benefice,  parsonage, 
vicarage,  &c.  A  person  must  be  twenty-three 
years  of  age,  or  near  it,  before  he  can  be  or- 
dained deacon,  or  have  any  share  in  the  ministry ; 
and  full  twenty-four  before  he  can  be  ordained 
priest,  and  by  that  means  be  permitted  to  ad- 
minister the  holy  communion.  A  bishop,  on  the 
ordination  of  clergymen,  is  to  examine  them  in 
the  presence  of  the  ministers,  who  in  the  ordina- 
tion of  priests,  but  not  of  deacons,  assists  him  at 
the  imposition  of  hands ;  but  this  is  only  done  as 
a  mark  of  assent,  not  because  it  is  thought  ne- 
cessary. In  case  any  crime,  as  drunkenness, 
perjury,  forgery,  etc.,  is  alleged  against  any  one 
that  is  to  be  ordained  either  priest  or  deacon,  the 
bishop  ought  to  desist  from  ordaining  him.  The 
person  to  be  ordained  is  to  bring  a  testimonial  of 
his  life  and  doctrine  to  the  bishop,  and  to  give 
account  of  his  faith  in  Latin ;  and  both  priests 
and  deacons  are  obliged  to  subscribe  to  the  thirty- 
319 


ORDINATION 
nine  articles.  In  the  ancient  discipline  there  was 
no  such  thing  as  a  vague  and  absolute  ordination; 
but  every  one  was  to  have  a  church,  whereof  he 
was  to  be  ordained  clerk  or  priest.  In  the  twelfth 
century  they  grew  more  remiss,  and  ordained 
without  any  title  or  benefice.  The  council  of 
Trent,  however,  restored  the  ancient  discipline, 
and  appointed  that  none  should  be  ordained  but 
those  who  were  provided  with  a  benefice ;  which 
practice  still  obtains  in  England.  The  times  of 
ordination  are  the  four  Sundays  immediately  fol- 
lowing the  Ember  weeks ;  being  the  second 
Sunday  in  Lent,  Trinity  Sunday,  and  the  Sun- 
days following  the  first  Wednesday  after  Septem- 
ber 14  and  December  13.  These  arc  the  stated 
times ;  but  ordination  may  take  place  at  any  other 
time,  according  to  the  discretion  of  the  bishop,  or 
circumstances  of  the  case.  Among  Seceders  or 
Dissenters,  ordinations  vary.  In  the  establish- 
ment of  Scotland,  where  there  are  no  bishops, 
the  power  of  ordination  is  lodged  in  the  presby- 
tery. Among  the  Calvinistic  Methodists,  ordina- 
tion is  performed  by  the  sanction  and  assistance 
of  their  own  ministers.  Among  the  Independ- 
ents and  Baptists,  the  power  of  ordination  lies  in 
the  suffrage  of  the  people.  The  qualifications 
of  the  candidate  are  first  known,  tried,  and  ap- 
proved by  the  church.  After  which  trial,  the 
church  proceeds  to  give  him  a  call  to  be  their 
minister;  which  he  accepting,  the  public  ac- 
knowledgment thereof  is  signified  by  ordination, 
the  mode  of  which  is  so  well  known,  as  not  to 
need  recital  here. 

Though  the  Dissenters  practise  ordination,  we 
find  they  are  not  agreed  respecting  it.  Some 
contend  for  the  power  of  ordination  as  belonging 
to  the  people :  the  exercise  of  which  right  by 
them  constitutes  a  minister,  and  confers  validity 
on  his  public  ministrations.  Others  suppose  it 
belongs  to  those  who  are  already  in  office.  With- 
out pretending  to  determine  the  question,  wa 
shall  here  give  an  outline  of  the  arguments  on 
both  sides. 

According  to  the  former  opinion,  it  is  argued  that 
the  word  ordain  was  originally  equal  to  choose  or 
appoint ;  so  that  if  twenty  Christians  nominated 
a  man  to  instruct  them  once,  the  man  was  ap- 
pointed or  ordained  a  preacher  for  the  time. 
The  essence  of  ordination  lies  in  the  voluntary 
choice  and  call  of  the  people,  and  in  the  voluntary 
acceptance  of  that  call  by  the  person  chosen  and 
called ;  for  this  affair  must  be  by  mutual  consent 
and  agreement,  which  joins  them  together  as 
pastor  and  people.  And  this  is  to  be  done  among 
themselves ;  and  public  ordination,  so  called,  is 
no  other  than  a  declaration  of  that.  Election  and 
ordination  are  spoken  of  as  the  same ;  the  latte' 
is  expressed  and  explained  by  the  former.  It  is 
said  of  Christ,  that  he  ordained,  twelve,  Mark  in. 
14,  that  is,  he  chose  them  to  the  office  of  apostle- 
ship,  as  he  himself  explains  it,  John  vi.  70.  Paul 
and  Barnabas  are  said  to  ordain  elders  in  every 
church  (Acts  xiv.  23.)  or  to  choose  them  ;  that 
is,  they  gave  orders  and  directions  to  every 
church  as  to  the  choice  of  elders  over  them :  for 
sometimes  persons  are  said  to  do  that  which  they 
give  orders  and  directions  for  doing ;  as  Moses 
and  Solomon,  with  respect  to  building  the  taber- 
nacle and  temple,  though  done  by  others ;  and 
Moses  particularly  is  said  to  choose  the  judges, 
Exod.  xviii.  25.  the  choice  being  made  under  his 
direction  and  guidance.     The  word  that  is  ur-ed 


QRDENATION 

hi  Acts  xiv.  23,  is  translated  chosen  in  Cor. 
ii.  8,  1!',  where  the  apostle  speaks  of  a  brother, 
■ce.fOTcv^jMc,  who  was  chosen  of  the  churches  to 
travel  with  us,  and  is  so  rendered  when  ascribed 
to  God,  Acts  x.  11.  This  choice  and  ordination, 
in  primitive  times,  was  made  two  way;-;  by  cast- 
ing lots  and  giving  votes,  signified  by  the  stretch- 
ng  out  of  hands.  Matthias  was  chosen  and 
ordained  to  be  an  apostle  in  the  room  of  Judas  by 
casting  lots ;  that  being  an  extraordinary  office, 
required  an  immediate  interposition  of  the  Divine 
Being,  a  lot  being  nothing  more  nor  less  than  an 
appeal  to  God  for  the  decision  of  an  affair.  But 
ordinary  officers,  as  elders  and  pastors  of  churches, 
were  chosen  and  ordained  by  the  votes  of  the  peo- 
ple, expressed  by  stretching  out  their  hands ;  thus 
it  is  said  of  the  apostles,  Acts  xiv.  23.  When 
they  had  ordained  them  ciders  in  every  church, 
XfiifOTOvti<r*vTes,  by  taking  the  suffrages  and  votes 
of  the  members  of  the  churches,  shown  by  the 
stretching  out  of  their  hands,  as  the  word  signi- 
fies ;  and  which  they  directed  them  to,  and  upon 
it  declared  the  elders  duly  elected  and  ordained. 

Some,  however,  on  this  side  of  the  question, 
do  not  go  so  far  as  to  say,  that  the  essence  of  or- 
dination lies  in  the  choice  of  the  people,  but  in 
the  solemn  and  public  separation  to  office  by 
prayer :  still,  however,  they  think  that  ordination 
by  either  bishops,  presbyters,  or  any  superior 
character,  cannot  be  necessary  to  make  a  minister 
or  ordain  a  pastor  in  any  particular  church;  for 
Jesus  Christ,  say  they,  would  never  leave  the  sub- 
sistence of  his  churches,  or  the  efficacy  of  his 
word  and  sacraments,  to  depend  on  the  uninter- 
rupted succession  of  any  office  or  officer;  for  then 
it  would  be  impossible  for  any  church  to  know 
whether  they  ever  have  had  any  authentic  minis- 
ter; for  we  could  never  be  assured  that  such  or- 
dinations had  been  rightly  transmitted  through 
1700  years.  A  whole  nation  might  be  corrupted, 
and  every  bishop  and  elder  therein  might  have 
apostatised  from  the  faith,  as  it  was  in  England  in 
the  days  of  popery.  To  say,  therefore,  that  the 
right  of  ordaining  lies  in  men  who  are  already  in 
office,  would  drive  us  to  hold  the  above-mentioned 
untenable  position  of  uninterrupted  succession. 

On  the  other  side,  it  is  observed,  that,  although 
Christians  have  the  liberty  of  choosing  their  own 
pastor,  yet  they  have  no  power  or  right  to  confer 
the  office  itself.  Scripture  represents  ordination 
to  be  the  setting  apart  of  a  person  to  the  holy 
ministry,  by  the  authority  of  Jesus  himself  acting 
by  the  medium  of  men  in  office ;  and  this  solemn 
investing  act  is  necessary  to  his  being  lawfully 
accounted  a  minister  of  Christ.  The  original 
word,  Acts  vi.  3.  is  hxtx^t^^/hv,  which  accord- 
ing to  Scapula,  and  the  best  writers  on  the  sacred 
language,  signifies  to  put  one  in  rule,  or  to  give 
him  authority.  Now,  did  this  power  lodge  in  the 
people,  how  happens  it  that  in  all  the  epistles, 
not  a  single  word  is  to  be  found  giving  them  any 
directions  about  constituting  ministers?  On  the 
other  hand,  in  the  epistles  to  Timothy  and  Titus, 
who  were  persons  in  office,  we  find  particular 
instruction  given  them  to  lay  hands  suddenly  on 
no  man,  to  examine  his  qualifications  before  they 
ordain  him,  and  to  take  care  that  they  commit 
the  office  only  to  faithful  men,  who  shall  be  able 
to  teach  others  also,  Titus  i.  5;  2  Tim.  iv.  11; 
Acts  xiv.  2:!. 

Besides,  it  is  said,  tho  primitive  Christians 
eviuc-jitly  viewed  tliis  matter  in  the  same  lioht. 
320 


ORDINATION 
There  is  scarcely  a  single  ecclesiastical  writer  that 
does  not  expressly  mention  ordination  as  ..r.'e  work 
of  the  elders,  anil  as  being  regarded  as  a  distinct 
thing  from  the  choice  of  the  people,  and  subse- 
quent to  it. 

Most  of  the  foregoing  remarks  apply  chiefly  to 
the  supposition  that  a  person  cannot  be  ordained 
in  any  other  way  than  as  a  pastor  over  a  church. 
But  here,  also,  we  find  a  difference  of  opinion. 
On  the  oiu!  side  it  is  said,  that  there  is  no  Scrip- 
ture authority  whatever  for  a  person  being  or- 
dained without  being  chosen  or  nominated  to  the 
office  of  a  minister  by  a  church.  Elders  and 
bishops  were  ordained  in  ercry  church,  not  with- 
out any  church.  To  ordain  a  man  originally 
says  Dr.  Campbell,  was  nothing  else  but  in  a 
solemn  manner  to  assign  him  a  pastoral  charge* 
To  give  him  no  charge,  and  not  to  ordain  him, 
were  perfectly  identical.  On  the  other  side  it  is 
contended,  that  from  these  words,  "  Go  ye  into 
all  the  world,  and  preach  the  Gospel  to  every 
creature;  and,  lo,  I  am  with  you  always,  even 
unto  the  end  of  the  world,"  it  is  evident  that  mis- 
sionaries and  itinerants  must  be  employed  in  the 
important  work  of  the  ministry;  that,  as  such 
cannot  be  ordained  over  any  particular  church, 
there  cannot  be  the  least  impropriety  in  ordain- 
ing them  for  the  church  universal.  Allowing 
that  they  have  all  those  talents,  gifts,  and  grace, 
that  constitute  a  minister  in  the  sight  of  God, 
who  will  dare  say  they  should  not  be  designated 
by  their  brethren  for  the  administration  ot  those 
ordinances  Christ  has  appointed  in  the  church? — 
Without  allowing  this,  how  many  thousands 
would  be  destitute  of  these  ordinances  ?  Besides, 
these  are  the  very  men  whom  God  in  general  ho- 
nours as  the  first  instruments  in  raising  churches, 
over  which  stated  pastors  are  afterwards  fixed. 
The  separation  of  Saul  and  Barnabas,  say  they, 
was  an  ordination  to  missionary  work,  including 
the  administration  of  sacraments  to  the  converted 
Heathen,  as  well  as  public  instruction,  Acts  xiii. 
1,  3.  So  Timothy  was  ordained,  1  Tim.  iv.  14 ; 
Acts  xvi.  3 ;  and  there  is  equal  reason,  by  analogy, 
to  suppose  that  Titus  and  other  companions  of 
Paul  were  similarly  ordained,  without  any  of 
them  having  a  particular  church  to  take  under 
his  pastoral  care.  So  that  they  appear  to  have 
been  ordained  to  the  work  of  the  Christian 
ministry  at  large. 

On  reviewing  the  whole  of  this  controversy,  I 
would  say  with  Dr.  Watts,  "that  since  there  are 
some  texts  in  the  New  Testament,  wherein  sin 
gle  persons,  either  apostles,  as  Paul  and  Barna- 
bas, ordained  ministers  in  their  churches;  or 
evangelists,  as  Timothy  and  Titus;  and  since 
other  missions  or  ordinations  are  intimated  to  be 
performed  by  several  persons,  viz.  prophets, 
teachers,  elders,  or  a  presbytery,  as  in  Acts  xiii. 
1 ;  and  1  Tim.  iv.  14 ;  since  there  is  sometimes 
mention  made  of  the  imposition  of  hands  in  tho 
mission  of  a  minister,  and  sometimes  no  mention 
of  it;  and  since  it  is  evident  that  in  some  cases 
popular  ordinations  are  and  must  be  valid  with- 
out any  bishop  or  elder ;  1  think  none  of  these 
differences  should  be  made  a  matter  of  violent 
contest  among  Christians;  nor  ought  any  words 
to  be  pronounced  against  each  other  by  those  of 
the  episcopal,  presbyterian,  or  independent  way. 
Surety,  all  may  agree  thus  far,  that  various  forms 
or  modes,  seeming  to  be  used  in  the  mission  or 
ordination  of  ministers  in  primitive  times,  may 


ORIGENISTS 
give  a  reasonable  occasion  or  colour  for  sincere 
and  honest  searchers  after  truth  to  follow  different 
opinions  on  this  head,  and  do  therefore  demand 
our  candid  and  charitable  sentiments  concerning 
those  who  differ  from  us."  See  articles  Episco- 
pacy, Imposition  of  Hands,  Independents, 
and  Ministerial  Call,  in  this  work;  James 
Owen's  Plea  for  Scripture  Ordination  •  Dod- 
dridge's Tracts,  vol.  ii.  p.  253 — 257;  Dr.  Ow- 
en's True  Nature  of  a  Gospel  Church,  p.  78,  83  ; 
Brekell's  Essay  on  Ord "nation;  Watts' s  Ra- 
t tonal  foundation  of  a  Christian  Church,  sec. 3; 
i^r.  Campbell's  Lectures  on  Ecclesiastical  His- 
tory, vol.  i  p.  345;  Gill's  Body  of  Divinity,  p. 
24(i,  vol.  iii.  8vo.  ed. ;  Theological  Magazine  for 
1802;  p.  33,  90,  1G7;  Ewing's  Remarks  on 
Dick's  Sermon,  preached  before  the  Edinburgh 
Missionary  Society,  in  1801. 

ORIGENISTS,  a  denomination  which  ap- 
peared in  the  third  century,  who  derived  their 
opinions  from  the  writings  of  Origen,  a  presbyter 
of  Alexandria,  and  a  man  of  vast  and  uncommon 
abilities,  who  interpreted  the  divine  truths  of  re- 
ligion according  to  the  tenor  of  the  Platonic  phi- 
losophy. He  alleged,  that  the  source  of  many 
evils  lies  in  adhering  to  the  literal  and  external 
part  of  Scripture;  and  that  the  true  meaning  of 
the  sacred  writers  was  to  be  sought  in  a  myste- 
rious and  hidden  sense,  arising  from  the  nature 
of  things  themselves. 

The  principal  tenets  ascribed  to  Origen,  to- 
gether with  a  few  of  the  reasons  made  use  of  in 
their  defence,  are  comprehended  in  the  following 
summary : — 

1.  That  there  is  a  pre-existent  state  of  human 
souls.  For  the  nature  of  the  soul  is  such  as  to 
make  her  capable  of  existing  eternally,  backward 
as  well  as  forward,  because  her  spiritual  essence, 
as  such,  makes  it  impossible  that  she  should, 
either  through  age  or  violence,  be  dissolved ;  so 
that  nothing  is  wanting  to  her  existence  but  the 
good  pleasure  of  him  from  whom  all  things  pro- 
ceed. And  if,  according  to  the  Platonic  scheme, 
we  assign  the  production  of  all  things  to  the  exu- 
berant fulness  of  life  in  the  Deity,  which,  through 
the  blessed  necessity  of  his  communicative  nature, 
empties  itself  into  all  possibilities  of  being,  as  into 
so  many  capable  receptacles,  we  must  suppose 
her  existence  in  a  sense  necessary,  and  in  a  de- 
gree co-eternal  with  God. 

2.  That  souls  were  condemned  to  animate 
mortal  bodies,  in  order  to  expiate  faults  they  had 
committed  in  a  pre-existent  state  :  for  we  may  be 
assured,  from  the  inlinite  goodness  of  their  Cre- 
ator, that  they  were  at  first  joined  to  the  purest 
matter,  and  placed  in  those  regions  of  the  uni- 
verse which  were  most  suitable  to  the  purity  of 
essence  they  then  possessed.  For  that  the  souls 
of  men  are  an  order  of  essentially  incorporate 
spirits,  their  deep  immersion  into  terrestrial  mat- 
ter, the  modification  of  all  their  operations  by  it, 
and  the  heavenly  body  promised  in  the  Gospel, 
as  the  highest  perfection  of  our  renewed  nature, 
clearly  evince.  Therefore  if  our  souls  existed 
before  they  appeared  inhabitants  of  the  earth, 
they  were  placed  in  a  purer  element,  and  enjoyed 
far  greater  degrees  of  happiness.  And  certainly 
he,  whose  overflowing  goodness  brought  them 
into  existence,  would  not  deprive  them  of  their 
felicity,  till  by  their  mutability  they  rendered 
themselves  less  pure  in  the  whole  extent  of  their 
powers,  and  became  disposed  for  the  susception 

321  2  Q, 


ORIGENISTS 
of  such  a  degree  of  corporeal  life  as  was  exactly 
answerable  to  their  present  disposition  of  spirit. 
Hence  it  was  necessary  that  they  should  become 
terrestrial  men. 

3.  That  the  soul  of  Christ  was  united  to  the 
Word  before  the  incarnation.  For  the  Scrip- 
tures teach  us  that  the  soul  of  the  Messiah  was 
created  before  the  beginning  of  the  world,  Phil, 
ii.  5,  7.  This  text  must  be  understood  of  Christ's 
human  soul,  because  it  is  unusual  to  propound 
the  Deity  as  an  example  of  humility  in  Scrip- 
ture. Though  the  humanity  of  Christ  was  so 
God-like,  he  emptied  himself  of  this  fulness  of 
life  and  glory,  to  take  upon  him  the  form  of  a 
servant.  It  was  this  Messiah  who  conversed 
with  the  patriarchs  under  a  human  form  :  it 
was  he  who  appeared*  to  Moses  upon  the  Holy 
Mount:  it  was  he  who  spoke  to  the  prophets 
under  a  visible  appearance ;  and  it  is  he  who 
will  at  last  come  in  triumph  upon  the  clouds  to 
restore  the  universe  to  its  primitive  splendour  and 
felicity. 

4.  That  at  the  resurrection  of  the  dead  we 
shall  be  clothed  with  etherial  bodies.  For  the 
elements  of  our  terrestrial  compositions  are  such 
as  almost  fatally  entangle  us  in  vice,  passion,  and 
misery.  The  purer  the  vehicle  the  soul  is  united 
with,  the  more  perfect  is  her  life  and  operations. 
Besides,  the  Supreme  Goodness  who  made  all 
things,  assures  us  he.  made  all  tilings  best  at  first, 
and  therefore  his  recovery  of  us  to  our  lost  hap- 
piness (which  is  the  design  of  the  Gospel)  must 
restore  us  to  our  better  bodies  and  happier  habi- 
tations, which  is  evident  from  1  Cor.  xv.  4'J, 
2  Cor.  v.  1 ;  and  other  texts  of  Scripture. 

5.  That,  after  long  periods  of  time,  the  damned 
shall  be  released  from  their  torments,  and  restored 
to  a  new  state  of  probation.  For  the  Deity  has 
such  reserves  in  his  gracious  providence,  as  will 
vindicate  his  sovereign  goodness  and  wisdom 
from  all  disparagement.  Expiatory  pains  are  a 
part  of  his  adorable  plan ;  for  this  sharper  kind 
of  favour  has  a  righteous  place  in  such  creatures 
as  are  by  nature  mutable.  Though  sin  has  ex- 
tinguished or  silenced  the  divine  life,  yet  it  has 
not  destroyed  the  faculties  of  reason  and  under- 
standing, consideration  and  memory,  which  will 
serve  the  life  which  is  most  powerful.  If,  there- 
fore, the  vigorous  attraction  of  the  sensual  nature 
be  abated  by  a  ceaseless  pain,  these  powers  may 
resume  the  sense  of  a  better  life  and  nature.  As 
in  the  material  system  there  is  a  gravitation  of 
the  less  bodies  towards  the  greater,  there  must  of 
necessity  be  something  analogous  to  this  in  the 
intellectual  system;  and  since  the  spirits  created 
by  God  are  emanations  and  streams  from  his  own 
abyss  of  being,  and  as  self-existent  power  must 
needs  subject  all  beings  to  itself,  the  Deity  could 
not  but  impress  upon  her  intimate  natures  and 
substances  a  central  tendency  towards  himself; 
an  essential  principle  of  re-union  to  their  great 
original. 

b\  That  the  earth,  after  its  conflagration,  shall 
become  habitable  again,  and  be  the  mansion  of 
men  and  animals,  and  that  in  eternal  vicissitudes. 
For  it  is  thus  expressed  in  Isaiah  :  Behold  I 
make  new  heavens,  and  a  new  earth,  &c,  and 
in  Heb.  i.  10,  12,  Thov,  Lord,  in  the  beginning 
hast  laid  the  foundations  of  the  earth;  as  a 
vesture  shalt  thou  change  them,  and  they  sliaJl 
be  changed,  &c.  Where  there  is  only  a  change 
the  substance  is  not  destroyed,  this  change  boUi£ 


PACIFICATION 
only  as  that  of  a  garment  worn  out  and  decaying. 
The  fashion  of  the  world  passes  away  like  a 
turning  scene,  to  exhibit  a  fresh  and  new  repre- 
sentation of  things;  and  if  only  the  present  dress 
and  appearance  of  things  go  off  the  substance  is 
supposed  to  remain  entire. 

ORIGINAL  SIN.    See  Pall,  Sin. 

ORIGIN  OP   EVIL.     See  Si  v. 

ORTHODOXY,  soundness  of  doctrine  or 
opinion  in  matters  of  religion.  The  doctrines 
which  are  generally  considered  as  orthodox 
among  us,  are  such  as  were  generally  professed 
at  tiie  time  of  the  Reformation,  viz.  the  fall  of 
man,  regeneration,  atonement,  repentance,  justi- 
fication by  free  grace,  &c. 

Some  have  thought,  that,  in  order  to  keep 
error  out  of  the  church,  there  should  be  some 
human  form  as  a  standard  of  orthodoxy,  wherein 
certain  disputed  doctrines  shall  be  expressed  in 
such  determinate  phrases  as  may  be  directly 
levelled  against  such  errors  as  shall  prevail  from 
time  to  time,  requiring  those  especially  who  are 
to  be  public  teachers  in  the  church  to  subscribe 
or  virtually  to  declare  their  assent  to  sucli  formu- 
laries. But,  as  Dr.  Doddridge  observes,  1.  Had 
this  been  requisite,  it  is  probable  that  the  Scrip- 
tures would  have  given  us  some  such  formularies 
as  these,  or  some  directions  as  to  the  manner  in 
which  they  should  be  drawn  up,  proposed,  and 
received. — 2.  It  is  impossible  that  weak  and  pas- 
sionate men,  who  have  perhaps  been  heated  in 
the  very  controversy  thus  decided,  should  express 
themselves  with  greater  propriety  than  the  apos- 
tles did. — 3.  It  is  plain,  in  fact,  that  this  practice 
lias  been  the  cause  of  great  contention  in  the 
Christian  church,  and  such  formularies  have 
been  the  grand  engine  of  dividing  it,  in  propor- 
tion to  the  degree  in  which  they  have  been  mul- 
tiplied and  urged. — 4.  This  is  laving  a  great 
temptation  in  the  way  of  such  as  desire  to  un- 
dertake the  office  of  teachers  in  the  church,  and 
will  be  most  likely  to  deter  and  afflict  those  who 
have  the  greatest  tenderness  of  conscience,  and 
therefore  (ccet.par.)  best  deserve  encouragement. 

5.  It  is  not  likely  to  answer  the  end  proposed, 
viz.  the  preserving  an  uniformity  of  opinion; 
since  persons  of  little  integrity  may  satisfy  their 
consciences,  in  subscribing  what  they  do  not  at 


PACIFICATION 

!  all  b?liove  as  article*  of  -peace,  or  in  putting  the 
most  unnatural  sense  on  the  words.  Ano 
whereas,  in  answer  to  all  thesj  inconveniences,  it 
is  pleaded,  that  such  forms  are  necessary  to  keep 
the  church  from  heresy,  and  it  is  letter  there 
should  be  some  hypocrites  under  siu-h  forms  of 
orthodoxy,  than  that  a  freedom  of  debate  and 
opinion  should  be  allowed  to  all  teachers;  the 
answer  is  plain,  that,  when  any  one  begins  to 
preach  doctrines  which  appear  to  those  who  at- 
tend upon  him  dangerous  and  subversive  of 
Christianity,  it  will  be  time  enough  to  proceed  to 
such  animadversion  as  the  nature  of  his  error  in 
their  apprehension  will  require,  and  his  relation 
to  them  vvill  admit.  See  articles  Establishment 
and  Subscription'  ;  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lee. 
171 ;    Watts' 8  Orthodoxy  and  Charity  United. 

OSIANDRIANS,  a  denomination  among 
the  Lutherans,  which  was  founded  in  the  year 
1550,  by  Andrew  Osiander,  a  celebrated  German 
divine,  whose  doctrine  amounted  to  the  following 
propositions  : 

1.  That  Christ,  considered  in  his  human  na- 
ture only,  could  not,  by  his  obedience  to  the  divine 
law,  obtain  justification  and  pardon  for  sinners; 
neither  can  we  be  justified  before  God,  by  em- 
bracing and  applying  to  ourselves,  through  faith, 
the  righteousness  and  obedience  of  the  man 
Christ.  It  is  only  through  that  eternal  and  essen- 
tial righteousness  which  dwells  in  Christ,  consi- 
dered as  God,  and  which  resides  in  his  divine 
nature,  that  is  united  to  the  human,  that  man- 
kind can  obtain  complete  justification. 

2.  That  a  man  becomes  a  partaker  of  this 
divine  righteousness  by  faith,  since  it  is  in  conse- 
quence of  this  uniting  principle  that  Christ  dwells 
in  the  heart  of  man  with  his  divine  righteous- 
ness. Now.  wherever  this  divine  righteousness 
dwells,  there  God  can  behold  no  sin ;  therefore, 
when  it  is  present  with  Christ  in  the  hearts 
of  the  regenerate,  they  are  on  its  account  consi- 
dered by  the  Deity  as  righteous,  although  they  be 
sinners.  Moreover,  this  divine  and  justifying 
righteousness  of  Christ  excites  the  faithful  to  the 
pursuit  of  holiness,  and  to  the  practice  of  virtue. 

OSSENIANS,  a  denomination,  in  the  first 
century,  which  taught  that  faith  may  and  ought 
to  be  dissembled. 


P. 


PACIFICATION,  EDICTS  OF,  were  de- 
crees, granted  by  the  kings  of  France  to  the 
Protestants,  for  appeasing  the  troubles  occasioned 
by  their  persecution.  The  first  Edict  of  Paci- 
fication was  granted  by  Charles  IX.  in  January 
1502,  permitting  the  free  exercise  of  the  reformed 
religion  near  all  the  cities  and  towns  of  the 
realm.  March  ID,  1363,  the  same  king  granted 
a  second  Edict  of  Pacification,  at  Amooise,  per- 
mitting the  free  exercise  of  the  reformed  religion 
in  the  houses  of  gentlemen  and  lords  high  justi- 
ciaries (or  those  that  had  the  power  of  life  and 
death.)  to  their  families  and  dependants  onlv; 
and  allowing  other  Protestants  to  have  their  ser- 
mons in  such  towns  as  they  had  them  in  before 
the  seventh  of  March  ;  obliging  them  withal  to 
quit  the  churches  they  had  possessed  themselves 
of  during  the  troubles.  Another,  called  the  Edict 
of  Lonjumeau,  ordering  the  execution  of  that  of 
322 


Amboise,  was  published  Marc!:  27,  1568,  after  a 
treaty  of  peace.  This  pacification  was  but  of 
short  continuance;  for  Charles  perceiving  a  gene- 
ral insurrection  of  the  Huguenots,  revoked  the 
said  edicts  in  September,  15(J8,  forbidding  the 
exercise  of  the  Protestant  religion,  and  command- 
ing all  the  ministers  to  depart  the  kingdom  in 
fifteen  days.  But  on  the  eighth  of  August,  1570, 
he  made  peace  with  them  again,  and  published 
an  edict  on  the  eleventh,  allowing  the  lords  high 
justiciaries  to  have  sermons  in  their  houses  for  all 
coiners,  and  granting  other  Protestants  two  pub- 
lic exercises  in  each  government.  He  likewise 
gave  them  four  cautionary  towns,  viz.  Nochclle, 
\fontaiiban,  Cognat,  and  La  Charite,  to  be 
places  of  security  for  them  during  the  space  of 
two  years. 

Nevertheless,  in  August,  1572,  he  authorized 
the  Bartholomew  massacre,  and  at  the  same  time 


PAGANISM 

issued  a  declaration,  forbidding  the  exercise  of 
the  Protestant  religion. 

Henry  III.  in  April,  157(5,  made  peace  with 
the  Protestants;  and  the  Relict  of  Pacification 
was  published  in  parliament,  May  M,  permitting 
them  to  build  churches  and  have  sermons  where 
they  pleased.  The  Guisian  faction,  enraged  at 
this  general  liberty,  began  the  famous  league  for 
defence  of  the  Catholic  religion,  which  became  so 
formidable,  that  it  obliged  the  king  to  assemble 
the  states  of  the  kingdom  at  Blois,  in  December 
1576,  where  it  was  enacted  that  there  should  be 
but  one  religion  in  France,  and  that  the  Pro- 
testant ministers  should  be  all  banished.  In  1577, 
the  king,  to  pacify  the  troubles,  published  an  edict 
m  parliament,  October  8th,  granting  the  same 
liberty  to  the  reformed  which  they  had  before. 
However,  in  July  1585,  the  league  obliged  him 
to  publish  another  edict,  revoking  all  former 
edicts  granted  to  the  Protestants,  and  ordering 
them  to  depart  the  kingdom  in  six  months,  or 
turn  Papists.  This  edict  was  followed  by  more 
to  the  same  purpose. 

Henry  IV.  coming  to  the  crown,  published  a 
declaration,  July  4,  1591,  abolishing  the  edicts 
against  the  Protestants.  This  edict  was  verified 
in  the  parliament  of  Chalons;  but  the  troubles 
prevented  the  verification  of  it  in  the  parliaments 
of  the  other  provinces;  so  that  the  Protestants 
had  not  the  free  exercise  of  their  religion  in  any 
place  but  where  they  were  masters,  and  had  ba- 
nished the  Romish  religion.  In  April  1598,  the 
king  published  a  new  Edict  of  Pacification  at 
Nantz,  granting  the  Protestants  the  free  exercise 
of  their  religion  in  all  places  where  they  had  the 
same  in  1596  and  1597,  and  one  exercise  in  each 
bailiwick. 

This  Edict  of  Nantz  was  confirmed  by  Lewis 
XIII.  in  1610,  and  by  Lewis  XIV.  165:2.  But 
this  latter  abolished  it  entirely  in  1685.  See 
Huguenots,  and  Persecution. 

PjEDOB  APTISTS,  those  who  baptise  their 
children.  The  word  comes  from  it*.;,  infant, 
and  3ur lo-jKoc,  baptism.     See  Baptism. 

PAGANISM,  the  religious  worship  and  dis- 
cipline of  Pagans,  or  the  adoration  of  idols  and 
false  gods.  The  theology  of  the  Pagans  accord- 
ing to  themselves,  as  Seaevola  and  Varro,  was  of 
three  sorts.  The  first  of  these  may  well  be  called 
fabulous,  as  treating  of  the  theology  and  gene- 
alogy of  their  deities,  in  which  they  say  such 
things  as  are  unworthy  of  deity;  ascribing  to 
them  thefts,  murders,  adulteries,  and  all  manner 
of  crimes;  and  therefore  this  kind  of  theology  is 
condemned  by  the  wiser  sort  of  heathens  as  nu- 
gatory and  scandalous :  the  writers  of  this  sort 
of  theology  were  Sanchoniatho,  the.  Phoenician  ; 
and  of  the  Grecians,  Orpheus,  Hcsiod,  Phere- 
cyde,  &c.  The  second  sort,  called  physic,  or 
natural,  was  studied  and  taught  by  the  philoso- 
phers, who,  rejecting  the  multiplicity  of  gods 
introduced  by  the  poets,  brought  their  theology 
to  a  more  natural  and  rational  form,  and  supposed 
that  there  was  but  one  Supreme  God,  which  they 
commonly  make  to  be  the  sun;  at  least,  an  em- 
blem of  him,  but  at  too  great  a  distance  to  mind 
the  affairs  of  the  world,  and  therefore  devised 
certain  demons,  which  they  considered  as  media- 
tors between  the  Supreme  God  and  man ;  and  the 
doctrines  of  these  demons,  to  which  the  apostle  is 
thought  to  allude  in  1  Tim.  iv.  1,  were  what  the 
philosophers  had  a  concern  with,  and  who  treat 


PANTHEISM 

of  their  nature,  office,  and  regard  to  men :  as  did 
Thales,  Pythagoras,  Plato,  and  the  Stoics.  The 
third  part,  called  politic,  or  civil,  was  instituted 
by  legislators,  statesmen,  and  politicians ;  the 
first  among  the  Romans  was  Numa  Pompilius : 
this  chiefly  respected  their  gods,  temples,  altars, 
sacrifices;  and  rites  of  worship,  and  was  properly 
their  idolatry,  the  care  of  which  belonged  to  the 
priests ;  and  this  was  enjoined  the  common  peo- 
ple, to  keep  them  in  obedience  to  the  civil  state. 
Thus  things  continued  in  the  Gentile  world, 
until  the  light  of  the  Gospel  was  sent  among 
them :  the  times  before  were  limes  of  ignoruna , 
as  the  apostle  calls  them  :  they  were  ignorant  of 
the  true  God,  and  of  the  worship  of  him  ;  and  of 
the  Messiah,  and  salvation  by  him.  Their  state 
is  truly  described,  Eph.  ii.  12,  that  they  were 
then  without  Christ;  aliens  from  the  common- 
wealth of  Israel;  strangers  from  the  covenants 
of  promise  ;  having  no  hope,  and  without  God 
in  the  world  ;  and,  consequently,  their  theology 
was  insufficient  for  their  salvation.  The  reader 
will  find  some  admirable  reflections  on  the  growth 
of  heathenism  among  modern  Christians,  in  the 
third  volume  of  the  Rev.  W.  Jones's  Works. 
See  Heathens,  Idolatry,  Polytheism. 

PAGODA,  or  Pagod,  a  name  given  by  the 
East  Indians  to  their  temples,  where  they  wor- 
ship their  gods. 

PALM  SUNDAY,  the  Sunday  next  before 
Easter,  so  called  from  palm  branches  being  strew- 
ed on  the  road  by  the  multitude,  when  our  Sa- 
viour made  his  triumphal  entry  into  Jerusalem. 

PANTHEISM,  a  philosophical  species  of 
idolatry,  leading  to  atheism,  in  which  the  uni- 
verse was  considered  as  the  Supreme  God.  Who 
was  the  inventor  of  this  absurd  system,  is  per- 
haps not  known,  but  it  was  of  early  origin  and 
differently  modified  by  different  philosophers. 
Some  held  the  universe  to  be  one  immense 
animal,  of  which  the  incorporeal  soul  was  pro- 
perly their  god,  and  the  heavens  and  the  earth 
the  body  of  that  god;  whilst  others  held  but 
one  substance,  partly  active,  and  partly  passive, 
and  therefore  looked  upon  the  visible  universe 
as  the  only  Numen.  The  earliest  Grecian  pan- 
theist of  whom  we  read  was  Orpheus,  who  called 
the  world  the  body  of  GW-,  and  its  several  parts 
his  members,  making  the  whole  universe  one 
divine  animal.  According  to  Cudworth,  Or- 
pheus and  his  followers  believed  in  the  immaterial 
soul  of  the  world :  therein  agreeing  with  Aristotle, 
who  certainly  held  that  God  and  matter  are  co- 
eternal  :  and  that  there  is  some  such  union  be- 
tween them,  as  subsists  between  the  souls  and 
bodies  of  men.  An  institution,  imbibing  senti- 
ments nearly  of  this  kind,  was  set  on  foot  about 
eighty  or  ninety  years  ago,  in  this  kingdom,  by  a 
society  of  philosophical  idolaters,  who  called  them- 
selves Pantheists,  because  they  professed  the 
worship  of  All  Nature  as  their  deity.  They  had 
Mr.  John  Toland  for  their  secretary  and  chap- 
lain. Their  liturgy  was  in  Latin ;  an  English 
translation  was  published  in  1751,  from  which 
the  following  sentiments  are  extracted : — "  The 
ethereal  fire  environs  all  things,  and  is  therefore 
supreme.  The  aether  is  a  reviving  fire :  it  rules 
all  things,  it  disposes  all  things.  In  it  is  ooul, 
mind,  prudence.  This  fire  is  Horace's  par- 
ticle of  divine  breath,  and  Virgil's  inwardly  nou- 
rishing spirit.  All  things  are  comprised  in  an 
intelligent  nature."   This  force  they  call  the  soul 


PARDON 
of  the  world  j  ns  also,  a  mind  of  perfect  wisdom, 
and,  consequently,  God.  Vanini,  the  Italian 
philosopher,  was  nearly  of  this  opinion  :  his  god 
was  nature.  Some  very  learned  and  excellent 
remarks  are  made  on  this  error  by  Mr.  Boyle,  in 
his  discourse  on  the  vulgarly  received  notion  of 
nature.  Sea  Jones  of  Nay  land' 8  Works,  vol.  ix. 
p.  50,  and  article  SplNOSISM. 

PAN  THEOLOGY,  the  whole  sum  or  body 
of  divinity. 

PAPlST,  one  who  adheres  to  the  communion 
of  the  pope  and  church  of  Rome.  See  Por-E,  and 
Popery. 

PARABLE,  a  fable  or  allegorical  instruction, 
founded  on  something  real  or  apparent  in  nature 
or  history,  from  which  a  moral  is  drawn,  by  com- 
paring it  with  something  in  which  the  people  are 
more  immediately  concerned  :  such  are  the  para- 
bles of  Dives  and  Lazarus,  of  the  prodigal  son, 
of  the  ten  virgins,  &c.  Dr.  Blair  observes,  that 
"  of  parables,  which  form  a  part  of  allegory,  the 
prophetical  writings  are  full ;  and  if  to  us  they 
sometimes  appear  obscure,  we  must  remember, 
that,  in  those  early  times,  it  was  universally  the 
mode  throughout  all  the  eastern  nations,  to  con- 
vey sacred  truths  under  some  mysterious  figures 
and  representations." 

PARACLETE,  an  advocate  or  comforter; 
generally  applied  to  the  third  person  in  the  Tri- 
nity, John  xv.  2(3. 

PARADISE,  the  garden  of  Eden,  in  which 
Adam  and  Eve  were  placed.  It  is  also  used  to 
denote  heaven,  Luke  xxiii.  44.  As  to  the  ter- 
restrial paradise,  there  have  been  many  inquiries 
about  its  situation.  It  has  been  placed  in  the 
third  heaven,  in  the  orb  of  the  moon,  in  the 
moon  itself,  in  the  middle  region  of  the  air,  above 
the  earth,  under  the  earth,  in  the  place  possessed 
by  the  Caspian  sea,  and  under  the  arctic  pole. 
The  learned  Huetius  places  it  upon  the  river 
that  is  produced  by  the  conjunction  of  the  Tigris 
and  Euphrates,  now  called  the  river  of  the  Arabs, 
between  this  conjunction  and  the  division  made 
by  the  same  river  before  it  falls  into  the  Persian 
sea.  Other  geographers  have  placed  it  in  Ar- 
menia, between  the  sources  of  the  Tigris,  the 
Euphrates,  the  Araxes,  and  the  Phasis,  which 
they  suppose  to  be  the  four  rivers  described  by 
Moses.  But  concerning  the  exact  place,  we  must 
necessarily  be  very  uncertain,  if,  indeed,  it  can  be 
thought  at  all  to  exist  at  present,  considering  the 
muny  changes  which  have  taken  place  on  the 
surface  of  the  earth  since  the  creation.  See  Man. 
PARAPHRASE,  an  explanation  of  some 
text  in  clearer  and  more  ample  terms,  wherein 
more  regard  is  had  to  an  author's  meaning  than 
his  words.     See  Commentary. 

PARDON,  the  act  of  forgiving  an  offender, 
or  removing  the  guilt  of  sin,  that  the  punish- 
ment due  to  it  may  not  be  inflicted.  Of  the  na- 
ture of  pardo7i  it  may  be  observed,  that  the 
Scripture  represents  it  by  various  phrases :  a  lift- 
ing up,  or  taking  away,  Ps.  xxxii.  1;  a  covering 
of  it,  Ps.  lxxxv.  2;  a  non-imputation  of  it,  Ps. 
xxxii.  2;  a  blotting  it  out,  Ps.  xliii.  25;  a  no£»- 
remembrance  of  it,  Heb.  viii.  12 ;  Is.  xliii.  25. 
1.  It  is  an  act  of  free  grace,  Ps.  li.  1  ;  Isa.  xliii. 
25. — 2.  A  point  of  justice,  God  having  received 
satisfaction  by  the  blood  of  Christ,  1  John  i.  9. — 
3.  A  complete  act,  a  forgiveness  of  all  the  sins  of 
Lis  people,  1  John  i.  7;  Psal.  ciii.  2,  3.-4.  An 
uct  that  will  never  be  repealed,  Mic.  vii.  19.  The 
324 


PARENT'S 

author  or  cause  of  pardon  is  not  any  creatuw*, 
angel,  or  man;  but  God.  Ministers  are  said  t« 
remit  sin  declaratively,  but  not  authoritatively ; 
Chat  is,  they  preach  and  declare  that  there  is  re- 
mission of  sins  in  Christ;  but  to  pretend  to  ab- 
solve men  is  the  height  of  blasphemy,  1  Thess. 
ii.  4;  Rev.  xiii.  5,  6,  See  Absolution,  Indul- 
gences. There  is  nothing  that  man  has,  or  can 
do,  by  which  pardon  can  be  procured :  wealth 
cannot  buy  pardon,  Prov.  xi.  4;  human  works  or 
righteousness  cannot  merit  it,  Rom.  xi.  G;  nor  can 
water  baptism  wash  away  sin.  It  is  the  prero- 
gative of  God  alone  to  forgive,  Mark  ii.  7;  the 
first  cause  of  which  is  his  own  sovereign  grace 
and  mercy,  Eph.  i.  7.  The  meritorious  cause  is 
the  blood  of  Christ,  Heb.  ix.  14 ;  1  John  i.  7. 
Pardon  of  sin  and  justification  are  considered  by 
some  as  the  same  thing ;  and  it  must  be  con- 
fessed that  there  is  a  close  connexion;  in  many 
parts  they  agree,  and  it  is  without  doubt  that 
every  sinner  who  shall  be  found  pardoned  at  the 
great  day,  will  likewise  be  justified  ;  yet  they 
have  been  distinguished  thus :  1.  An  innocent 
person  when  falsely  accused  and  acquitted,  is 
justified,  but  net  pardoned  ;  and  a  criminal  may 
be  pardoned,  though  he  cannot  be  justified  or  de- 
clared innocent.  Pardon  is  of  men  that  are  sin- 
ners, and  who  remain  such,  though  pardoned 
sinners ;  but  justification  is  a  pronouncing  persons 
righteous,  as  if  they  had  never  sinned. — 2.  Par- 
don frees  from  punishment,  but  does  not  entitle 
to  everlasting  life  ;  but  justification  does,  Rom.  v. 
If  we  were  only  pardoned,  we  should  indeed, 
escape  the  pains  of  hell,  but  could  have  no  claim 
to  the  joys  of  heaven ;  for  these  are  more  than 
the  most  perfect  works  of  man  could  merit ; 
therefore  they  must  be  what  the  Scripture  de- 
clares— "the  gift  of  God." 

After  all,  however,  though  these  two  may  \m 
distinguished,  yet  they  cannot  be  separated;  anil, 
in  reality,  one  is  not  prior  to  the  other ;  for  he  that 
is  pardoned  by  the  death  of  Christ,  is  at  the  same 
time  justified  by  his  life,  Rom.  v.  10;  Acts  xiii. 
38,39.  See  Grace,  Mercy.  Charnock's  Works, 
vol.  ii.  p.  101 ;  Gill's  Body  of  Divinity,  article 
Pardon;  Owen  on  Psal.  exxx. ;  Hcrvey's  Works 
vol.  ii.  p.  352. 

PARENTS,  a  name  appropriated  to  imme- 
diate progenitors,  as  father  and  mother.  The 
duties  of  parents  to  children  relate  to  their  health, 
their  maintenance,  their  education,  and  morals. 
Many  rules  have  been  delivered  respecting  the 
health  of  children,  which  cannot  be  inserted  here ; 
yet  we  shall  just  observe,  that,  if  a  parent  wishes 
to  see  his  progeny  healthy,  he  must  not  indulge 
them  in  every  thing  their  little  appetites  desire  ; 
not  give  them  too  much  sleep,  nor  even  give  them 
strong  liquors.  He  must  accustom  them  to  in- 
dustry and  moderate  exercise.  Their  food  and 
clothing  should  be  rather  light.  They  should  go 
to  rest  soon,  and  rise  early  ;  and,  above  all,  should, 
if  possible,  be  inspired  with  a  love  of  cleanlinesa. 
As  to  their  maintenance,  it  is  the  parent's  duty 
to  provide  every  thing  for  them  that  is  necessary 
until  they  be  capable  of  providing  for  themselves. 
They,  therefore,  who  live  in  habits  of  idleness, 
desert  their  families,  or  by  their  negligent  conduct 
reduce  them  to  a  state,  of  indigence  and  distress, 
are  violating  the  law  of  nature  and  of  revelation, 
1  Tim.  v.  8.  In  respect  to  their  education  ami 
morals,  great  care  should  be  taken.  As  it  relate- 
to  the  present  life,  habits  of  courage,  application 


PARSON 

?Taile,  prudence,  labour,  justice,  contentment, 
temperance,  truth,  benevolence,  &c.  should  be 
formed.  Their  capacities,  age,  temper,  strength, 
inclination,  should  be  consulted,  and  advice  given 
suitable  to  these.  As  it  relates  to  a  future  life, 
their  minds  should  be  informed  as  to  the  being  of 
God,  his  perfections,  glory,  and  the  mode  of  sal- 
vation by  Jesus  Christ.  They  should  be  cate- 
chised ;  allured  to  a  cheerful  attendance  on  divine 
worship;  instructed  in  the  Scriptures;  kep>t  from 
bad  company;  prayed  with  anil  for;  and,  above 
all,  a  good  example  set  them.  Prov.  xxii.  G ;  Eph. 
vi.  1,  2.  Nothing  can  be  more  criminal  than  the 
conduct  of  some  parents  in  the  inferior  classes 
of  the  community,  who  never  restrain  the  de- 
sires and  passions  of  their  children,  suffer  them 
to  live  in  idleness,  dishonesty,  and  profanation  of 
the  Lord's  day ;  the  consequence  of  which  is  often 
an  ignominious  end.  So,  among  the  great,  per- 
mitting their  children  to  spend  their  time  and 
their  money  as  they  please,  indulging  them  in 
perpetual  public  diversions,  and  setting  before 
them  awful  examples  of  gambling,  indolence, 
blasphemy,  drinking,  and  almost  every  other 
vice;  what  is  this  but  ruining  their  children,  and 
"bequeathing  to  posterity  a  nuisance?3'  But, 
while  we  would  call  upon  parents  to  exercise 
their  authority,  it  must  not  be  understood  that 
children  are  to  lie  entirely  at  their  disposal  under 
all  circumstances,  especially  when  they  begin  to 
think  for  themselves.  Though  a  parent  has  a 
right  over  his  children,  yet  he  is  not  to  be  a  do- 
mestic tyrant,  consulting  his  own  will  and  pas- 
sions in  preference  to  their  interest.  In  fact,  his 
right  over  them  is  at  an  end  when  he  goes  be- 
yond his  duty  to  them.  "  For  parents,"  as  Mr. 
Paley  observes,  "  have,  no  natural  right  over  the 
lives  of  their  children,  as  was  absurdly  allowed 
to  Roman  lathers;  nor  any  to  exercise  unprofit- 
able severities ;  nor  to  command  the  commission 
of  crimes  :  for  these  rights  can  never  be  wanted 
for  the  purposes  of  a  parent's  duty.  Nor  have 
parents  any  right  to  sell  their  children  into  sla- 
very ;  to  shut  up  daughters  and  younger  sons  in 
nunneries  and  monasteries,  in  order  to  preserve 
entire  the  estate  and  dignity  of  the  family;  or  to 
use  any  arts  cither  of  kindness  or  unkindness,  to 
induce  them  to  make  choice  of  this  way  of  life 
themselves ;  or  in  countries  where  the  clergy  are 
prohibited  from  mamage,  to  put  sons  into  the 
church  for  the  same  end,  who  are  never  likely  to 
do  or  receive  any  good  in  it  sufficient  to  compen- 
sate for  this  sacrifice;  nor  to  urge  children  to 
marriages  from  which  they  are  averse,  with  the 
view  at  exalting  or  enriching  the  family,  or  for 
the  sake  of  connecting  estates,  parties,  or  inte- 
rests ;  nor  to  oppose  a  marriage  in  which  the  child 
would  probably  find  his  happiness,  from  a  motive 
of  pride  or  avarice,  of  family  hostility  or  personal 
pique."  Palei/s  Moral  Philosophy,  vol.  i.  p.  345 
to  370;  Stennet's  Discourses  on  Domestic  Duties, 
dis.  5;  Bcattic's  Elements  of  Moral  Science,  vol. 
ii.  p.  139,  148;  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lect.  74; 
SauriPl's  Sermons,  Robinson's  Translation,  vol. 
v.  ser.  1 ;  Searlc's  Christian  Parent. 

PARSIMONY,  covetousness.     See  Covet- 

OUSNESS. 

PARSON,  (■persona  ecclesite)  one  that  hath 
full  possession  of  ail  the  rights  of  a  parochial 
churcli.  He  is  called  parson  (persona)  because 
'jy  his  person  the  church,  which  is  an  invisible 
body,  is  represented,  and  he  is  in  himself  a  body 
325 


PASSION 
corporate,  in  order  to  protect  and  defend  the 
rights  of  the  church  which  he  personates.  There 
are  three  ranks  of  clergymen  below  that  of  a  dig- 
nitary, viz.  parson,  vicar,  and  curate.  Parson 
is  the  first,  meaning  a  rector,  or  he  who  receives 
the  great  tithes  of  a  benefice.  Clergyman  may 
imply  any  person  ordained  to  serve  at  the  altar. 
Parsons  are  always  priests,  whereas  clergymen 
are  only  deacons.     See  Clergy,  Curate. 

PASAGIN1ANS,  a  denomination  which 
arose  in  the  twelfth  century,  known  also  by  the 
name  of  the  Circumcised.  Their  distinguishing 
tenets  were  these :  1.  That  the  observation  of 
the  law  of  Moses  in  every  thing  except  the  offer- 
ing of  sacrifices  was  obligatory  upon  Christians. 
In  consequence  of  which,  they  circumcised  their 
followers,  abstained  from  those  meats,  the  use  of 
which  was  prohibited  under  the  Mosaic  econo- 
my, and  celebrated  the  Jewish  sabbath. — 2.  That 
Christ  was  no  more  than  the  first  and  purest 
creature  of  God. 

This  denomination  had  the  utmost  aversion  to 
the  doctrine  and  discipline  of  the  church  of  Rome. 

PASSALORYNCH1TES,  a  branch  of  the 
Montanists.  They  held,  that  in  order  to  l« 
saved,  it  was  necessary  to  observe  a  perpetual 
silence;  wherefore  they  kept  their  finger  con- 
stantly on  their  mouth,  and  dared  not  open  it,  even 
to  say  their  prayers.  Their  name  is  derived  from 
the  Greek  ^ao-o-ce^o?,  a  nail,  and  piv,  a  nostril,  be- 
cause, when  they  put  their  finger  to  their  mouth 
thev  touched  their  nose. 

PASSIVE  OBEDIENCE  OF  CHRIST. 
See  Odkdirnxe,  and  Sufferings  of  Christ. 

PASSIVE  PRAYER,  among  the  mystic  di- 
vines, is  a  total  suspension  or  ligature  of  the  in- 
tellectual faculties,  in  virtue  whereof  the  soul 
remains  of  itself,  and,  as  to  its  own  power,  im- 
potent with  regard  to  the  producing  of  any  effects. 
The  passive  stale,  according  to  Fenelon,  is  only 
passive  in  the  same  sense  as  contemplation ;  i.  e, 
it  does  not  exclude  peaceable  disinterested  acts, 
but  only  unquiet  ones,  er  such  as  tend  to  our  own 
interests.  In  the  passive  state  the  soul  has  not 
properly  any  activity,  any  sensation  of  its  own. 
It  is  a  mere  inflexibility  of  the  soul,  to  which  the 
feeblest  impulse  of  grace  gives  motion.  See 
Mystic. 

PASSION,  in  its  general  import,  signifies 
every  feeling  of  the  mind  occasioned  by  an  ex- 
trinsic cause.  It  is  used  to  describe  a  violent 
commotion  or  agitation  of  the  mind ;  emotion, 
zeal,  ardour,  or  of  ease  wherein  a  man  can  con- 
quer his  desires,  or  hold  them  in  subjection.  1.  As 
to  the  number  of  the  passions,  Le  Brun  makes 
them  about  twenty: — 1.  Attention;  2.  admira- 
tion ;  3.  astonishment ;  4.  veneration  ;  5.  rapture  ; 
6.  joy,  with  tranquillity;  7.  desire;  8.  laughter; 
9.  acute  pain  ;  10.  pains,  simply  bodily ;  11.  sad- 
ness; 12.  weeping;  13.  compassion  ;  14.  scorn; 
15.  horror;  1G.  terror  or  fright ;  17.  anger;  18.  ha- 
tred ;  19.  jealousy ;  20.  despair.  All  these  may 
be  represented  on  canvas  by  the  pencil.  Some 
make  their  number  greater,  adding  aversion,  love, 
emulation,  &c.  &c. ;  these,  however,  may  be  con- 
sidered as  included  in  the  above  list.  They  are 
divided  by  some  into  public  and  private;  proper 
and  improper ;  social  and  selfish  passions. — 
2.  The  original  of  the  passions  are  from  impres- 
sions on  the  senses ;  from  the  operations  of  rea- 
son, by  which  good  or  evil  is  foreseen  ;  and  from 
the  recollections  of  memory. — 3.  The  objects  of 
2  C 


PASSION 

I'ue  passions  arc  mostly  things  sensible,  on  account 
(if  their  near  alliance  lo  the  body  ;  but  objects  of 
a  spiritual  nature  also,  though  invisible,  have  a 
tendency  to  excite  the  passions:  such  as  the  love 
of  God,  heaven,  hell,  eternity,  &C — 1.  As  to  the 
innocenry  of  the  passions:  in  themselves  they 
are  neither  good  nor  evil,  but  according  to  the 
good  or  ill  use  that  is  made  of  them,  and  the  de- 
grees to  which  they  rise. — 5.  The  usefulness  of 
the  passions  is  considerable,  and  were  given  us 
for  a  kinc'  of  spring  or  elasticity,  to  correct  the 
natural  sluggishness  of  the  corporeal  part.  They 
gave  birth  to  poetry,  science,  painting,  music,  and 
all  the  polite  arts  which  minister  to  pleasure;  nor 
are  they  less  serviceable  in  the  cause  of  religion 
and  truth.  "  They,"  says  Dr.  Watts,  "  when 
sanctified,  set  the  powers  of  the  understanding  at 
work  in  the  search  of  divine  truth  and  religious 
duty;  they  keep  the  soul  fixed  to  divine  things; 
render  the  duties  of  holiness  much  easier,  and 
temptations  to  sin  much  weaker;  and  render  us 
more  like  Christ,  and  litter  for  his  presence  and 
enjoyment  in  heaven." — 6.  As  to  the  regulation 
of  the  passions  :  to  know  whether  they  are  under 
due  restraints,  and  directed  to  proper  objects,  we 
must  inquire  whether  they  influence  our  opinions; 
run  before  our  understanding;  engaged  in  tri- 
fling, and  neglectful  of  important  objects ;  express 
themselves  in  an  indecent  manner;  and  whether 
they  disorder  our  conduct.  If  this  be  the  case, 
they  are  out  of  their  due  bounds,  and  will  become 
sources  of  trial  rather  than  instruments  of  good. 
To  have  them  properly  regulated,  we  should  pos- 
sess knowledge  of  our  duty,  take  God's  word  for 
our  rule,  be  much  in  prayer  and  dependence  on 
the  Divine  Being. — 7.  Lastly,  we  should  study 
the  passions.  To  examine  them  accurately,  in- 
deed, requires  much  skill,  patience,  observation, 
and  judgment;  hut  to  form  any  proper  idea  of 
the  human  mind,  and  its  various  operations ;  to 
detect  the  errors  that  arise  from  heated  tempera- 
ment and  intellectual  excess ;  to  know  how  to 
toi'.  "h  their  various  strings,  and  to  direct  and  em- 
ploy them  in  the  best  of  all  services ;  I  say,  to 
accomplish  these  ends,  the  study  of  the  passions 
is  of  the  greatest  consequence. 

"Amidst  the  numerous  branches  of  know- 
ledge," says  Mr.  Cogan,  "  which  claim  the  atten- 
tion of  the  human  mind,  no  one  can  be  more  im- 
portant than  this.  Whatever  most  intimately 
concerns  ourselves  must  be  of  the  first  moment. 
An  attention,  therefore,  to  the  workings  of  our 
own  minds ;  tracing  the  power  which  external 
objects  have  over  us ;  discovering  the  nature  of 
our  emotions  and  affections;  ami  comprehending 
the  reason  of  our  being  affected  in  a  particular 
manner,  must  have  a  direct  influence  upon  our 
pursuits,  our  characters,  and  our  happiness.  It 
may  with  justice  be  advanced,  that  the  happiness 
of  ourselves  in  this  department  is  of  much  greater 
utility  than  abstruser  speculations  concerning  the 
nature  ol  the  human  soul,  or  even  the  most  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  its  intellectual  powers;  for  it 
is  according  as  the  passions  and  affections  are  ex- 
cited and  directed  towards  the  objects  investigated 
by  our  intellectual  natures  that  we  become  useful 
to  ourselves  or  others;  that  we  rise  into  respecta- 
bility, or  sink  into  contempt;  that  we  diffuse  or 
enjoy  happiness,  diffuse  or  sutler  misery.  An 
accurate  analysis  of  these  passions  and  affections, 
therefore,  is  to  the  moralist  what  the  science  of 
anatomy  is  to  the  surgeon.  It  constitutes  the  first 
336 


TATIENCE 
principles  of  rational  practice;  it  is,  in  a  moral 
view,  the  anatomy  of  the  heart ;  it  discovers  why 
it  beats,  and  hozo  it  beats ;  indicates  appearances 
in  a  sound  and  healthy  state;  detects  diseases 
with  their  causes,  and  it  is  infinitely  more  fortu- 
nate in  the  power  it  communicates  of  applying 
suitable  remedies. 

See  Hutcheson,  Watts,  Lc  Brun,  Cogan,  and 
Davan  on  the  Passions  ;  Grore's  Mor.  Phil.  vol. 
i.  ch.  7. ;  Rcid's  Active  Pmcers  of  Man  ;  Fordycc's 
El.  of  Mor,  Phil.  ;  Burke  on  the  Sublime,  p.  50. 

PASSOVER,  a  solemn  festival  of  the  Jews, 
instituted  in  commemoration  of  their  coming 
out  of  Egypt ;  because,  the  night  before  their  de- 
parture, the  destroying  angel,  who  put  to  death 
the  first-born  of  the  Egyptians,  passed  over  the 
houses  of  the  Hebrews,  without  entering  therein  ; 
because  they  were  marked  with  the  blood  of  the 
lamb,  which  was  killed  the  evening  before,  and 
which  for  this  reason  was  called  the  paschal  lamb. 
See  Exod.  xii. ;  Brown's  Diet,  article  Feast, 
and  M'Eteen  on  the  Types,  p.  172. 

PASTOR,  literally  a  shepherd ;  figuratively 
a  stated  minister  appointed  to  watch  over  and  in- 
struct a  congregation.  Of  the  qualifications  of 
ministers  we  have  already  made  some  remarks 
under  that  article;  but  the  following,  taken  from 
the  works  of  a  spiritual  and  useful  writer,  we 
hope,  will  not  be  found  superfluous.  Jesus  Christ's 
description  of  an  evangelical  pastor,  Matt.  xxiv. 
45,  includes  two  things,  faithfulness  and  -pru- 
dence. "If  a  minister  be  faithful,  he  deceives 
not  others ;  and  if  he  be  prudent,  he  is  not  apt  to 
be  deceived  himself.  His  prudence  suffers  not 
deceivers  easily  to  impose  upon  him;  and  his 
faithfulness  will  not  suffer  him  knowingly  to  im- 
pose upon  his  people.  His  prudence  will  enable 
him  to  discern,  and  his  faithfulness  oblige  him  to 
distribute  wholesome  food  to  his  flock.  But  more 
particularly, 

"  1.  Prudence  wSl  direct  us  to  lay  a  good 
foundation  of  knowledge  in  our  people's  souls  by 
catechising  and  instructing  them  in  the  princi- 
ples of  Christianity,  without  which  we  labour  in 
vain. — 2.  Ministerial  prudence  discovers  itself  in 
the  choice  of  such  subjects  as  the  needs  of  our 
people's  souls  do  most  require  and  call  for. — 3.  It 
will  not  only  direct  us  in  the  choice  of  our  sub- 
jects, but  of  the  language,  too,  in  which  we  dress 
and  deliver  them  to  our  people. — 4.  It  will  show 
us  of  what  great  use  our  own  affections  are  lor 
the  moving  of  others ;  and  will  therefore  advise 
us,  that,  if  ever  we  expect  the  truths  we  preach 
should  operate  upon  the  hearts  of  others,  we  must 
first  have  them  impressed  on  our  own  hearts, 
Phil.  iii.  18.— 5.  It  will  direct  us  to  be  careful  by 
the  strictness  and  gravity  of  our  deportment,  to 
maintain  our  esteem  in  the  consciences  of  our 
people. — 0".  It  will  excite  us  to  seek  a  blessing 
from  God  upon  our  studies  and  labours,  as  know- 
ing all  our  ministerial  success  entirely  depends 
thereupon."  1  Cor.  iii.  7.  See  Flavel's  Charac- 
ter of  an  Evangelical  Pastor,  in  the  second 
volume  of  Aw  Works,  p.  703,  fol.  ed.;  and  books 
under  article  Ministry. 

PATIENCE,  that  calm  and  unruffled  tem- 
per with  which  a  good  man  bears  the  evils  ot  life. 
"Patience,"  says  an  eminent  writer,  "is  apt  to 
be  ranked  by  many  among  the  more  humble  and 
obscure  virtues,  belonging  chiefly  to  those  who 
groan  on  a  sick  bed,  or  who  languish  in  a  prison ; 
but  in  every  circumstance  of  life  no  virtue  is  more 


PATIENCE 
important  both  to  duty  and  to  happiness.  It  is 
not  confined  to  a  situation  of  continued  adversity  : 
it  principally,  indeed,  regards  the  disagreeable 
circumstances  which  are  apt  to  occur :  but  pros- 
perity cannot  be  enjoyed,  any  more  than  adver- 
sity supported,  without  it.  It  must  enter  into  the 
temper,  and  form  the  habit  of  the  soul,  if  we 
would  pass  through  the  world  with  tranquillity 
and  honour."  "Christian  patience,"  says  Ma- 
son, "is  essentially  different  from  insensibility, 
whether  natural,  artificial,  or  acquired.  This, 
indeed,  sometimes  passes  for  patience,  though  it 
be  in  reality  quite  another  thing;  for  •patience 
signifies  suffering.  Now  if  you  inflict  ever  so 
much  pain  on  the  body  of  another,  if  he  is  not 
sensible  of  it,  it  is  no  pain  to  him ;  he  sutlers  no- 
thing; consequently  calmness  under  it  is  no 
patience.  This  insensibility  is  sometimes  natu- 
ral. Some,  in  the  native  temperament  of  their 
mind  and  body,  are  much  less  susceptible  of  pain 
than  others  are. — There  are  different  degrees  of 
insensibility  in  men,  both  in  their  animal  and 
mental  frame ;  so  that  the  same  event  may  be  a 
great  exercise  of  patience  to  one  man,  which  is 
none  at  all  to  another,  as  the  latter  feels  little  or 
no  pain  from  that  wound  inflicted  on  the  body  or 
mind  which  gives  the  most  exquisite  anguish  to 
the  former.  Again ;  there  is  an  artificial  insen- 
sibility, such  as  is  procured  by  opiates,  which 
blunt  the  edge  of  pain;  and  there  is  an  acquired 
insensibility,  or  that  which  is  attained  by  the 
force  of  principles  strongly  inculcated  or  by  long 
custom.  Such  was  the  apathy  of  the  Stoics,  who 
obstinately  maintained  that  pain  was  no  evil,  and 
therefore  bore  it  with  amazing  firmness,  which, 
however,  was  very  different  from  the  virtue  of 
Christian  patience,  as  appears  from  the  principles 
from  which  they  respectively  proceeded ;  the  one 
springing  from  pride,  the  other  from  humility." 
Christian  patience,  then,  is  something  different 
from  all  these.  "  It  is  not  a  careless  indolence,  a 
stupid  insensibility,  mechanical  bravery,  consti- 
tutional fortitude,  a  daring  stoutness  of  spirit,  re- 
sulting from  fatalism,  philosophy,  or  pride  : — it  is 
derived  from  a  divine  agency,  nourished  by  hea- 
venly truth,  and  guided  by  Scriptural  rules." 

We  have  the  most  powerful  motives  to  excite 
us  to  the  attainment  of  this  grace.  1.  God  is  a 
God  of  patience.  Rom.  xv.  5. — 2.  It  is  enjoined 
by  the  Gospel,  Rom.  xii.  12 ;  Luke  xxi.  11). — 
3.  The  present  state  of  man  renders  the  practice 
of  it  absolutely  necessary,  Heb.  x.  3ti. — 4.  The 
manifold  inconvenience  oi'  impatience  is  a  strong 
motive,  John  iv. ;  Ps.  cvi. — 5.  Eminent  exam- 
ples of  it,  Heb.  xii.  2;  vi.  12;  Job  i.  22.— G.  Re- 
flect that  all  our  trials  will  terminate  in  triumph, 
James  v.  7,  8 ;  Rom.  ii.  7.  Barrow's  Works,  vol. 
iii.  ser.  10 ;  Jay's  Sermons,  ser.  2,  vol.  i. ;  Ma- 
son's Christian  Morals,  vol.  i.  ser.  3;  Blair's 
Sermons,  vol.  iii.  ser.  11:  Bishop  Home's  Dis- 
courses, vol.  ii.  ser.  10  ;  Bishop  Hopkins's  Death 
disarmed,  p.  1,  120. 

PATIENCE  OF  GOD  is  his  long-suffering 
or  forbearance.  He  is  called  the  God  of  patience, 
not  only  because  he  is  the  author  and  object  of 
the  grace  of  patience,  but  because  he  is  patient  or 
long  suffering  in  himself,  and  towards  his  crea- 
tures. It  is  not,  indeed,  to  be  considered  as  a 
quality,  accident,  passion,  or  affection  in  God  us 
in  creatures,  but  belongs  to  the  very  nature  and 
essence  of  God,  and  springs  from  his  goodi>ess 
and  mercv,  Rom.  ii.  4.  It  is  said  to  be  exercised 
327 


PATRIARCHS 
towards  his  chosen  people,  2  Pet,  iii.  9 ;  Rom.  iii. 
25 ;  Isa.  xxx.  18 ;  1  Tim.  i.  16 ;  and  towards  the 
ungodly,  Rom.  ii.  4;  Eccl.  viii.  11.  The  end  of 
his  forbearance  to  the  wicked,  is,  that  they  may 
be  without  excuse ;  to  make  his  power  and  good- 
ness visible ;  and  partly  for  the  sake  of  his  own 
people,  Gen.  xviii.  32 ;  Rev.  vi.  1 1 ;  2  Pet.  iii.  9. 
His  patience  is  manifested  by  giving  warnings 
of  judgments  before  he  executes  them,  Hos.  vi.  5 ; 
Amos  i.  1 ;  2  Pet.  ii.  5.  In  long  delaying  his 
judgments,  Eccl.  viii.  11.  In  often  mixing  mercy 
with  them.  There  are  many  instances  of  his 
patience  recorded  in  the  Scriptures ;  with  the  old 
world,  Gen.  vi.  3 ;  the  inhabitants  of  Sodom,  Gen. 
xviii. ;  in  Pharaoh,  Exod.  v. ;  in  the  people  of 
Israel  in  the  wilderness,  Acts  xiii.  18;  in  the 
Amorites  and  Canaanites,  Gen.  xv.  15;  Lev. 
xviii.  28 :  in  the  Gentile  world,  Acts  xvii.  30 ;  in 
fruitless  professors,  Luke  xiii.  G,  9 ;  in  Antichrist, 
Rev.  ii.  21 ;  xiii.  6;  xviii.  8.  See  Charnock's 
Works,  vol.  i.  p.  780 ;  Gill's  Body  of  Divinity, 
vol.  i.  p.  130;  Saurin's  SeTmovs,  vol.  i.  ser.  10 
and  11,  148,  149;    Tillotson's  Sermons. 

PATRIARCHS,  heads  of  families;  a  name 
applied  chiefly  to  those  who  lived  before  Moses, 
who  were  both  priests  and  princes,  without  pe- 
culiar places  fitted  for  worship,  Acts  ii.  29 ;  vii. 
8,  9;  Heb.  vii.  4. 

Patriarchs,  among  Christians,  are  ecclesiasti- 
cal dignitaries,  or  bishops,  so  called  from  their 
paternal  authority  in  the  church.  The  power 
of  patriarchs  was  not  the  same  in  all,  but  differed 
according  to  the  different  customs  of  countries,  or 
the  pleasures  of  kings  and  councils.  Thus  the 
patriarch  of  Constantinople  grew  to  be  a  patriarch 
over  the  patriarchs  of  Ephesus  and  Casarea,  and 
was  called  the  CEcumenical  and  Universal  Pa- 
triarch ;  and  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria  had 
some  prerogatives  which  no  other  patriarch  but 
himself  enjoyed ;  such  as  the  right  of  consecrat- 
ing and  approving  of  every  single  bishop  under 
his  jurisdiction.  The  patriarchate  has  ever  been 
esteemed  the  supreme  dignity  in  the  church:  the 
bishop  had  only  under  him  the  territory  of  the 
city  of  which  he  was  bishop;  the  metropolitan 
superintended  a  province,  and  had  for  suffragans 
the  bishops  of  his  province ;  the  primate  was  the 
chief  of  what  was  then  called  a  diocese,  and  had 
several  metropolitans  under  him ;  and  the  pa- 
triarch had  under  him  several  dioceses,  composing 
one  exarchate,  and  the  primates  thc«iselves  were 
under  him.  Usher,  Pagi,  De  Marca,  and  Mori- 
nus,  attribute  the  establishment  of  the  grand 
patriarchate  to  the  apostles  themselves,  who,  in 
their  opinion,  according  to  the  description  of  the 
world  then  given  by  geographers,  pitched  on 
three  principal  cities  in  the  three  parts  of  the 
known  world,  viz.  Rome  in  Europe,  Antioch  in 
Asia,  and  Alexandria  in  Africa  ;  and  thus  formed 
a  trinity  of  patriarchs.  Others  maintain,  that 
the  name  patriarch  was  unknown  at  the  time  of 
the  council  of  Nice ;  and  that  for  a  long  time  after- 
wards patriarchs  and  primates  were  confounded 
together,  as  being  all  equally  chiefs  of  dioceses, 
and  equally  superior  to  metropolitans,  who  were 
only  chiefs  of  provinces.  Hence  Socrates  gives 
the  title  patriarch  to  all  the  chiefs  of  dioceses,  and 
reckons  ten  of  them.  Indeed,  it  does  not  appear 
that  the  dignity  of  patriarch  was  appropiiated  to 
the  five  grand  sees  of  Rome,  Constantinople, 
Alexandria,  Antioch,  and  Jerusalem,  till  alter 
the  council  of  Chalcedon,  in  451 ;  for  when  the 


PATRIPASSTANS 
council  of  Nice  regulated  the  limits  and  preroga- 
tives of  the  three  patriarchs  of  Rome,  Antioch, 
and  Alexandria,  it  did  not  give  them  the  title  of 
patriarchs,  though  it  allowed  them  the  pre-emi- 
nence and  privileges  thereof:  thus  when  the 
courcil  of  Constantinople  adjudged  the  second 
place  to  the  bishop  of  Constantinople,  who,  till 
then,  was  only  a  sutTragan  of  Heraclea,  it  said 
nothing  of  the  patriarchate.  Nor  is  the  term 
patriarch  found  in  the  decree  of  the  council  of 
Chalcedon,  whereby  the  fifth  place  is  assigned  to 
the  bishop  of  Jerusalem ;  nor  did  these  live  pa- 
triarchs govern  all  the  churches. 

There  were  besides  many  independent  chiefs 
of  dioceses,  who,  far  from  owning  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  grand  patriarchs,  called  themselves  pa- 
triarclis,  such  as  that  of  Aquileia;  nor  was  Car- 
thage ever  subject  to  the  patriarch  of  Alexandria. 
Mosheim  (Eccles.  Hist.  vol.  i.  p.  281.)  imagines 
that  the  bishops  who  enjoyed  a  certain  degree  of 
pre-eminence  over  the  rest  of  their  order,  were 
distinguished  by  the  Jewish  title  of  patriarchs,  in 
the  fourth  century.  The  authority  of  the  pa- 
triarchs gradually  increased  till  about  the  close 
of  the  fifth  century  :  all  affairs  of  moment  within 
the  compass  of  their  patriarchates  came  before 
them,  cither  at  first  hand,  or  by  appeals  from  the 
metropolitans.  They  consecrated  bishops ;  as- 
sembled yearly  in  council  the  clergv  of  their 
respective  districts ;  pronounced  a  decisive  judg- 
ment in  those  cases  where  accusations  were 
brought  against  bishops ;  and  appointed  vicars  or 
deputies  clothed  with  their  authority,  for  the  pre- 
servation of  order  and  tranquillity  in  the  remoter 
provinces.  In  short,  nothing  was  done  without 
consulting  them,  and  their  decrees  were  executed 
with  the  same  regularity  and  respect  as  those  of 
the.  princes. 

It  deserves  to  he  remarked,  however,  that  the 
authority  of  the  patriarchs  was  not  acknowledged 
through  all  the  provinces  without  exception. 
Several  districts,  both  in  the  eastern  and  western 
empires,  were  exempted  from  their  jurisdiction. 
The  Latin  church  had  no  patriarchs  till  the  sixth 
century;  and  the  churches  of  Gaul,  Britain,  &c 
were  never  subject  to  the  authority  of  the  pa- 
triarch of  Rome,  whose  authority  only  extended 
to  the  suburbicary  provinces.  There  was  no 
primacy,  no  exarchate,  nor  patriarchate,  owned 
here ;  but  the  bishops,  with  the  metropolitans, 
governed  the  church  in  common.  Indeed,  after 
the  name  patriarch  became  frequent  in  the  West, 
it  was  attributed  to  the  bishop  of  Bourges  and 
Lyons;  but  it  was  only  in  the  first  signification, 
viz.  as  heads  of  dioceses.  Du  Cange  says,  that 
there  have  been  some  abbots  who  have  borne  the 
title  of  patriarchs. 

PATRICIANS,  ancient  sectaries,  who  dis- 
turbed the  peace  of  the  church  in  the  beginning 
of  the  third  century ;  thus  called  from  their 
founder,  Patricias,  preceptor  of  a  Mareionite 
coiled  Symmaohus.  His  distinguishing  tenet  was, 
that  the  substance  of  the  fleslfis  not  the  work  of 
God,  but  that  of  the  devil ;  on  which  account  his 
adherents  bore  an  implacable  hatred  to  their  own 
flesh,  which  sometimes  carried  them  so  far  as  to 
kill  themselves. 

PATRIl'ASSIANS,  a  sect  that  appeared 
about  the  latter  end  of  the  second  century;  so 
tailed  from  their  ascribing  the  passion  or  suli'er- 
i.igs  of  Christ  to  the  Father;  for  they  asserted 
(he  unity  of  God  in  such  a  manner  iis  to  destroy 
328 


PAULICIANS 
all  distinctions  of  persons,  and  to  make  the  Fa- 
ther and  Son  precisely  the  same;  in  which  they 
were  followed  by  the  Sabellians  and  others. 
The  author  and  head  of  the  Patripassians  was 
Praxeas,  a  philosopher  of  Phrygia  in  Asia. 

PATRONAGE,  or  Advowson-.  a  sort  of  in- 
corporeal hereditament,  consisting  in  the  right  of 
presentation  to  a  church,  or  ecclesiastical  benefice. 
Advowson  signifies  the  taking  into  protection, 
and  therefore  is  synonymous  with  patronage ; 
and  he  who  has  the  right  of  advowson  is  called 
the  patron  of  the  church. 

PAULIANISTS,  a  sect  so  called  from  their 
founder,  Paulus  Samosatenus,  a  native  of  Sa- 
mosata,  elected  bishop  of  Antioch  in  26'2.  His 
doctrine  seems  to  have  amounted  to  this  :  that 
the  Son  and  the  Holy  Ghost  exist  in  God  in  the 
same  manner  as  the  faculties  of  reason  and  acti- 
vity do  in  man;  that  Christ  was  born  a  mere 
man  ;  but  that  the  reason  or  wisdom  of  the  Fa- 
ther descended  into  him,  and  by  him  wrought 
miracles  upon  earth,  and  instructed  the  nations; 
and,  finally,  that  on  account  of  this  union  of  the 
divine  Word  with  the  man  Jesus.  Christ  might, 
though  improperly,  be  called  God.  It  is  also 
said  that  he  did  not  baptise  in  the  name  of  the 
Father  and  the  Son,  &c;  for  which  reason  the 
council  of  Nice  ordered  those  baptised  by  him  to 
be  re-haptised.  Being  condemned  by  Dionysius 
Alexandrinus  in  a  council,  he  abjured  his  errors 
to  avoid  deposition ;  but  soon  after  he  resumed 
them,  and  was  actually  deposed  by  another  coun- 
cil in  269.  He  may  be  considered  as  the  father 
of  the  modern  Socinians  ;  and  his  errors  are  se- 
verely condemned  by  the  council  of  Nice,  whose 
creed  differs  a  little  from  that  now  used  under 
the  same  name  in  the  church  of  England.  The 
creed  agreed  upon  by  the  Nicene  fathers  with  a 
view  to  the  errors  of  Paulus  Samosatenus  con- 
cludes thus  :  "  But  those  who  say  there  was  a 
time  when  he  was  not,  and  that  he  was  not  he- 
fore  he  was  born,  the  catholic  and  apostolic 
church  anathematize.'' 

PAULICIANS,  a  branch  of  the  ancient 
Manichees,  so  called  from  their  founder,  one  Pau- 
lus, an  Armenian,  in  the  seventh  century,  who, 
with  his  brother  John,  both  of  Samosata,  formed 
this  sect :  though  otherstire  of  opinion  that  they 
were  thus  called  from  another  Paul,  an  Armenian 
by  birth,  who  lived  under  the  reign  of  Justinian 
II.  In  the  seventh  century,  a  zealot,  called  Con- 
stantine,  revived  this  drooping  sect,  which  had 
suffered  much  from  the  violence  of  its  adversa- 
ries, and  was  ready  to  expire  under  the  severity 
of  the  imperial  edicts,  and  that  zeal  with  which 
they  were  carried  into  execution.  The  Pauli- 
cians,  however,  by  their  number,  and  the  counte- 
nance of  the  emperor  Nicephorus,  became  for- 
midable to  all  the  East.  But  the  cruel  rage  of 
persecution,  which  had  for  some  years  been  sus- 
pended, broke  forth  with  redoubled  violence  under 
the  reigns  of  Michael  Curopnlatcs,  and  Leo  the 
Armenian,  who  inflicted  capital  punishment  on 
such  of  the  Paulicians  as  refused  to  return  into 
the  bosom  of  the  church.  The  empress  Theo- 
dora, tutoress  of  the  emjtfror  Michael,  in  815, 
would  oblige  them  cither  to  he  converted,  or  to 
quit  the  empire;  upon  which  several  of  them 
were  put  to  death,  and  more  retired  among  the 
Saracens;  but  they  were  neither  all  externa 
nuted  nor  banished. 

Upon  tiiis  they  entered  into  a  league  with  the 


PEACE 

Saracens,  and  choosing  for  their  chief  an  officer 
of  the  greatest  resolution  and  valour,  whose  name 
was  Carbeus.  they  declared  against  the  Greeks  a 
war,  which  was  carried  on  for  fifty  years  with  the 
greatest  vehemence,  and  fury.  During  these 
commotions,  some  Paulicians,  towards  the  con- 
clusion of  this  century,  spread  abroad  their  doc- 
trines among  the  Bulgarians :  many  of  them, 
either  from  a  principle  of  zea!  for  the  propagation 
of  their  opinions,  or  from  a  natural  desire  of  Hy- 
ing from  the  persecution  which  they  suffered 
under  the  Grecian  yoke,  retired  about  the  close 
of  the  eleventh  century  from  Bulgaria  and 
Thrace,  and  formed  settlements  in  other  coun- 
tries. Their  first  migration  was  into  Italy ; 
whence,  in  process  of  time,  they  sent  colonies  into 
almost  all  the  other  provinces  of  Europe,  and 
formed  gradually  a  considerable  number  of  reli- 
gious assemblies,  who  ad  tiered  to  their  doctrine, 
and  who  were  afterwards  persecuted  with  the 
utmost  vehemence  by  the  Roman  pontiffs.  In 
Italy  they  were  called  Patarini,  from  a  certain 
place  called  Pataria,  being  a  part  of  the  city  of 
Milan,  where  they  held  their  assemblies;  and 
Galliari,  or  Gazari,  from  Gazaria,  or  the  Lesser 
Tartary.  In  France  they  were  called  Albigcnscs, 
though  their  faith  differed  widely  from  that  of  the 
Albigenses  whom  Protestant  writers  generally 
vindicate.  (See  Albigenses.)  The  first  reli- 
gious assembly  the  Paulicians  had  formed  in 
Europe,  is  said  to  have  been  discovered  at  Orleans 
in  1017,  under  the  reign  of  Robert,  when  many 
of  them  were  condemned  to  be  burnt  alive.  The 
ancient  Paulicians,  according  to  Phot  ius,  expressed 
the  utmost  abhorrence  of  Manes  and  his  doctrine. 
The  Greek  writers  comprise  their  errors  under 
the  six  following  particulars:  1.  They  denied 
that  this  inferior  arid  visible  world  is  the  produc- 
tion of  the  Supreme  Being  ;■  and  they  distinguish 
the  Creator  of  the  world  and  of  human  bodies 
from  the  Most  High  God  who  dwells  in  the  hea- 
vens; and  hence  some  have  been  led  to  conceive 
that  they  were  a  branch  of  the  Gnostics  rather 
than  of  the  Manicheans. — 2.  They  treated  con- 
temptuously the  Virgin  Mary,  or,  according  to 
the.  usual  manner  of  speaking  among  the  Greeks, 
they  refused  to  adore  and  worship  her.  -3.  They 
refused  to  celebrate  the  institution  of  the  Lord's 
Supper. — 4.  They  loaded  the  cross  of  Christ  with 
contempt  and  reproach,  by  which  we  are  only  to 
understand  that  they  refused  to  follow  the  absurd 
and  superstitious  practice  of  the  Greeks,  who 
paid  to  the  pretended  wood  of  the  cross  a  certain 
sort  of  religious  homage. — 5.  They  rejected,  after 
the  example  of  the  greatest  part  of  the  Gnostics, 
the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  looked  upon 
the  writers  of  that  sacred  history  as  inspired  by 
the  Creator  of  this  world,  and  not  by- the.  Su- 
preme God. — 1'>.  They  excluded  presbyters  and 
elders  from  all  part  in  the  administration  of  the 
church. 

PEACE,  that  state  of  mind  in  which  per- 
sons are  exposed  to  no  open  violence  to  interrupt 
their  tranquillity.  1.  Social  peace  is  mutual 
agreement  one  with  another,  whereby  we  forbear 
injuring  one,  .mother,  Psal  xxxiv.  14;  exxxii. — 
2.  Ecclesiastical  -peace  is  freedom  from  conten- 
tions, and  rest  from  persecutions,  Isa.  xi.  t.3 ; 
xxxii.  17;  Rev.  xii.  14. — 3.  Spiritual  peace  is 
deliverance  from  sin,  by  which  we  were  at  en- 
mity with  God,  Rom.  v.  1 ;  the  result  of  which 
is  peace  in  the  conscience,  Heb.  x.  22.  This 
329  2  R 


PELAGIANS 

peace  is  the  gift  of  God  through  Jesus  Christ, 
2  Thess.  iii.  1G.  It  is  a  blessing  of  great  impor- 
tance, Psal.  cxix.  1G5.  It  is  denominated  perfect, 
Isa.  xxvi.  3;  inexpressible,  Phil.  iv.  7;  perma- 
nent, Job  xxxiv.  2!*;  John  xvi.  22;  eternal,  Isa. 
lvii.  2;  Heb.  iv.  9.     See  Happiness. 

PELAGIANS,  a  sect  who  appeared  about 
the  end  of  the  fourth  century.  They  maintained 
the  following  doctrines :  1.  That  Adam  was  by 
nature  mortal,  and,  whether  he  had  sinned  or 
not,  would  certainly  have  died.  2.  That  the 
consequences  of  Adam's  sin  were  confined  to  his 
own  person. — 3.  That  new-born  infants  are  in 
the  same  situation  with  Adam  before  the  fall. — 
4.  That  the  law  qualified  men  for  the  kingdom 
of  heaven,  and  was  founded  upon  equal  pro- 
mises with  the  Gospel. — 5.  That  the  general 
resurrection  of  the  dead  does  not  follow  in  vir- 
tue of  our  Saviour's  resurrection. — 6.  That  the 
grace  of  God  is  given  according  to  our  merits. — 
7.  That  this  grace  is  not  granted  for  the  per- 
formance of  every  moral  act ;  the  liberty  of  the 
will  and  information  in  points  of  duty  being 
sufficient. 

The  founder  of  this  sect  was  Pelagius,  a  na- 
ti-e  of  Great  Britain.  He  was  educated  in  th«5 
monastery  of  Banchor,  in  Wales,  of  which  ne 
became  a  monk,  and  afterwards  an  abbot.  In 
the  early  part  of  his  life  he  went  over  to  France, 
and  thence  to  Rome,  where  he  and  his  friend 
Celestius  propagated  their  opinions,  though  in  a 
private  manner.  Upon  the  approach  of  the 
Goths,  A.  D.  410,  they  retired  from  Rome,  and 
went  first  into  Sicily,  and  afterwards  into  Africa, 
where  they  published  their  doctrines  with  more 
freedom.  From  Africa,  Pelagius  passed  into 
Palestine,  while  Celestius  remained  at  Carthage, 
with  a  view  to  preferment,  desiring  to  be  admit- 
ted among  the  presbyters  of  that  city.  But  the 
discovery  of  his  opinions  having  blasted  all  his 
hopes,  and  his  errors  being  condemned  in  a  coun- 
cil held  at  Carthage,  A.  D.  412,  he  departed 
from  that  city,  and  went  into  the  East.  It  was 
from  this  time  that  Augustin,  the  famous  bishop 
of  Hippo,  began  to  attack  the  tenets  of  Pelagius 
and  Celestius  in  his  learned  and  elegant  writings; 
and  to  him,  indeed,  is  principally  due  the  glory 
of  having  suppressed  this  sect  in  its  very  birth. 

Things  went  on  more  smoothly  with  Pelagius 
in  the  East,  where  he  enjoyed  the  protection  and 
favour  of  John,  bishop  of  Jerusalem,  whose  at- 
tachment to  the  sentiments  of  Origen  led  him 
naturally  to  countenance  those  of  Pelagius,  on 
account  of  the  conformity  that  there  seemed  to 
be  between  these  two  systems.  Under  the  sha- 
dow of  this  powerful  protection,  Pelagius  made 
a  public  profession  of  his  opinions,  and  formed 
disciples  in  several  places.  And  though,  in  the 
year  415,  he  was  accused  by  Orosius,  a  Spanish 
presbyter,  whom  Augustin  had  sent  into  Pales- 
tine for  that  purpose,  before  an  assembly  of 
bishops  met  at  Jerusalem,  yet  he  was  dismissed 
without  the  least  censure  ;  and  not  only  so,  but 
was  sooii  after  fully  acquitted  of  all  errors  by  the 
council  of  Piospolis. 

This  controversy  was  brought  to  Rome,  and 
referred  by  Celestius  and  Pelagius  to  the  decision 
of  Zosimus,  who  was  raised  to  the  pontificate 
A.  D.  417.  The  new  pontiff,  gained  over  by 
the  ambiguous  and  seemingly  orthodox  confes- 
sion of  laith  that  Celestius,  who  was  now  at 
Rome,  had  artfully  drawn  up,  and  also  by  the 
2  c  2 


PENITENCE 
letters  and  protestations  of  Pelagius,  pronounced 
in  favour  of  these  monks,  declared  them  sound 
in  the  faith,  and  unjustly  persecuted  by  their  ad- 
versaries. The  African  bishops,  with  Augustin 
at  their  head,  little  affected  with  this  declaration, 
continued  obstinately  to  maintain  the  judgment 
they  had  pronounced  in  this  matter,  and  to 
strengthen  it  by  their  exhortations,  their  letters, 
and  their  writings.  Sosimus  yielded  to  the  per- 
severance of  the  Africans,  changed  his  mind,  and 
condemned,  with  the  utmost  severity,  Pelagius 
and  Celestius  whom  he  had  honoured  with  his 
approbation,  and  covered  with  his  protection. — 
This  was  followed  by  a  train  of  evils,  which  pur- 
sued these  two  monks  without  interruption. 
They  were  condemned,  says  Mosheim,  by  that 
same  Ephesian  council  which  had  launched  its 
thunder  at  the  head  of  Nestorius.  In  short,  the 
Gauls,  Britons,  and  Africans,  by  their  councils 
and  emperors,  by  their  edicts  and  penal  laws,  de- 
molished this  sect  in  its  infancy,  and  suppressed 
it  entirely  before  it  had  acquired  any  tolerable 
degree  of  vigour  or  consistence. 

PENANCE,  a  punishment  either  voluntary, 
or  imposed  by  authority,  for  the  faults  a  person 
has  committed.  Penance  is  one  of  the  seven 
sacraments  of  the  Romish  church.  Besides  fast- 
ing, alms,  abstinence,  and  the  like,  which  are  the 
general  conditions  of  penance,  there  are  others  of 
more  particular  kind ;  as  the  repeating  a  certain 
number  of  avemarys,  paternosters,  and  credos : 
wearing  a  hair  shift,  and  giving  oneself  a  certain 
number  of  stripes.  In  Italy  and  Spain  it  is  usual 
to  see  Christians,  almost  naked,  loaded  with 
chains,  and  lashing  themselves  at  every  step. — 
See  Popery. 

PENITENCE  is  sometimes  used  for  a  state 
of  repentance,  and  sometimes  for  the  act  of  re- 
penting. It  is  also  used  for  a  discipline  or  punish- 
ment attending  repentance,  more  usually  called 
penance.  It  also  gives  title  to  several  religious 
orders,  consisting  either  of  converted  debauchees 
and  reformed  prostitutes,  or  of  persons  who  de- 
vote themselves  to  the  office  of  reclaiming  them. 
Sec  next  article. 

Order  of  Penitents  of  St.  Magdalen  was  es- 
tablished about  the  year  1273,  by  one  Bernard,  a 
citizen  of  Marseilles,  who  devoted  himself  to  the 
work  of  converting  the  courtezans  of  that  city. 
Bernard  was  seconded  by  several  others,  who, 
forming  a  kind  of  society,  were  at  length  erected 
into  a  religious  order  by  pope  Nicholas  III.  under 
the  rule  of  St.  Augustin.  F.  Gesney  says,  they 
also  made  a  religious  order  of  the  penitents,  or 
women  they  converted,  giving  them  the  same 
rules  and  observances  which  they  themselves 
kept. 

Congregation  of  Penitents  of  St.  Magdalen, 
ot  Paris,  owed  its  rise  to  the  preaching  of  F. 
Tisseran,  a  Franciscan,  who  converted  a  vast 
Dumber  of  courtezans,  about  the  year  1492. 
Louis,  Duke  of  Orleans,  gave  them  his  house 
for  a  monastery;  or  rather,  as  appears  ay  their 
constitution,  Charles  VIII.  gave  them  the  hotel 
called  liochaigne,  whence  they  were  removed  to 
St.  George's  Chapel,  in  1572.  By  virtue  of  a 
brief  of  pope  Alexander,  Simon  bishop  of  Paris, 
in  14!>7,  drew  them  up  a  body  of  statutes,  and 
gave  them  the  rule  of  St.  Augustin.  It  was  ne- 
crss.nv  before  a  woman  could  be  admitted,  that 
she  had  iirst  committed  the  sin  of  the  flesh.  None 
were  admitted  who  were  above  thirty-live  years 
330  3 


PENITENTIARY 

of  age.  Since  its  reformation  by  Mary  Alvequin, 
in  1616,  none  have  been  admitted  but  maids,  who, 
however,  still  retain  the  ancient  name,  penitents. 

PENITENTS,  an  appellation  given  to  certain 
fraternities  of  penitents,  distinguished  by  the  dif- 
ferent shape  and  colour  of  their  habits.  These 
are  secular  societies,  who  have  their  rules,  sta- 
tutes, and  churches,  and  make  public  processions 
under  their  particular  crosses  or  banners.  Of 
these,  it  is  said,  there  are  more  than  a  hundred, 
the  most  considerable  of  which  are  as  follow : 
The  White  Penitents,  of  which  there  are  several 
different  sorts  at  Rome,  the  most  ancient  of  which 
was  constituted  in  1264  :  the  brethren  of  this  fra- 
ternity every  year  give  portions  to  a  certain  num- 
ber of  young  girls,  in  order  to  their  being  mar- 
ried :  their  habit  is  a  kind  of  white  sackcloth,  and 
on  the  shoulder  is  a  circle,  in  the  middle  of  which 
is  a  red  and  white  cross.  Black  Penitents,  the 
most  considerable  of  which  are  the  Brethren  of 
Mercy,  instituted  in  1488  by  some  Florentines,  in 
order  to  assist  criminals  during  {heir  imprison- 
ment, and  at  the  time  of  their  death.  On  the 
day  of  execution  they  walk  in  procession  before 
them,  singing  the  seven  penitential  psalms,  and 
the  litanies ;  and  after  they  are  dead,  they  take 
them  down  from  the  gibbet,  and  bury  them  :  their 
habit  is  black  sackcloth.  There  are  others  whose 
business  it  is  to  bury  such  persons  as  are  found 
dead  in  the  streets :  these  wear  a  death's  head  on 
one  side  of  their  habit.  There  are  also  blue,  gray, 
red,  green,  and  violet  penitents,  all  which  are  re- 
markable tor  little  else  besides  the  diilerent  colours 
of  their  habits. 

Penitents,  or  Converts  of  the  Name  of  Jcsia, 
a  congregation  of  religious  at  Seville,  in  Spain, 
consisting  of  women  who  have  led  a  licentious 
life,  founded  in  1550.  This  monastery  is  divided 
into  three  quarters  :  one  for  professed  religious ; 
another  for  novices ;  a  third  for  those  who  are 
under  correction.  When  these  last  give  signs  of 
a  real  repentance,  they  are  removed  into  the  quar- 
ter of  the  novices,  where,  if  they  do  not  behave 
themselves  well,  they  are  remanded  to  their  cor- 
rection.    They  observe  the  rule  of  St.  Augustin, 

Penitents  of  Orvieto  are  an  order  of  nuns  in- 
stituted by  Antony  Simoncelli,  a  gentleman  of 
Orvieto,  in  Italy.  The  monastery  he  built  was 
at  first  designed  for  the  reception  of  poor  girls 
abandoned  by  their  parents,  and  in  danger  of 
losing  their  virtue.  In  1662  it  was  erected  into 
a  monastery,  for  the  reception  of  such  as,  having 
abandoned  themselves  to  impurity,  were  willing 
to  take  up,  and  consecrate,  themselves  to  God  by 
solemn  vows.  Their  rule  is  that  of  the  Car- 
melites. 

PENITENTIAL,  an  ecclesiastical  book  re- 
tained among  the  Romanists,  in  which  is  pre- 
scribed what  relates  to  the  imposition  of  penance, 
and  the  reconciliation  of  penitents.  There  are 
various  penitentials,  as  the  Roman  penitential ; 
that  of  the  venerable  Bede ;  that  of  pope  Gre- 
gory the  Third,  &c. 

PENITENTIARY,  in  the  ancient  Christian 
church,  a  name  given  to  certain  presbyters  or 
priests,  appointed  in  every  church  to  receive  the 
private  confessions  of  the  people,  in  order  to  fa- 
cilitate public  discipline,  by  acquainting  them 
what  sins  were  to  be  expiated  by  public  penance, 
and  to  appoint  private  penance  for  such  private 
crimes  as  were  not  proper  to  be  publicly  censured. 

Penitentiary,  also,  ia  the  court  of  Rome,  is  an 


PENTATEUCH 
office  in  which  are  examined  and  delivered  out 
the  secret  bulls,  dispensations,  &c.  Penitentiary 
is  also  an  officer  in  some  cathedrals  vested  with 
power  from  the  bishop  to  absolve  in  cases  re- 
ferred to  him. 

PENTATEUCH,  from  ^v™,  five,  and  rSvx°s, 
an  instrument  or  volume,  signifies  the  collection 
of  the  five  instruments  or  books  of  Moses,  which 
are  Genesis,  Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  and 
Deuteronomy.  Some  modern  writers,  it  seems, 
have  asserted  that  Moses  did  not  compose  the 
Pentateuch,  because  the  author  always  speaks  in 
the  third  person;  abridges  his  narration  like  a 
writer  who  collected  Irom  ancient  memoirs ; 
sometimes  interrupts  the  thread  of  his  discourse, 
for  example,  Gen.  iv.  23 ;  and  because  of  the  ac- 
count of  the  death  of  Moses  at  the  end,  &c.  It 
is  observed,  also,  in  the  text  of  the  Pentateuch, 
that  there  are  some  places  that  are  defective :  for 
example,  in  Exod.  xii.  8,  we  see  Moses  speaking 
to  Pharaoh,  where  the  author  omits  the  beginning 
of  his  discourse.  The  Samaritan  inserts  in  the 
same  place  what  is  wanting  in  the  Hebrew.  In 
other  places  the  same  Samaritan  copy  adds  what 
is  deficient  in  the  Hebrew;  and  what  is  contained 
more  than  the  Hebrew  seems  so  well  connected 
with  the  rest  of  the  discourse,  that  it  would  be 
difficult  to  separate  them.  Lastly,  they  think 
they  observe  certain  strokes  in  the  Pentateuch 
which  can  hardly  agree  with  Moses,  who  was 
born  and  bred  in  Egypt ;  as  what  he  says  of  the 
earthly  paradise,  of  the  rivers  that  watered  it  and 
ran  through  it ;  of  the  cities  of  Babylon,  Erech, 
Resen,  and  Calneh ;  of  the  gold  of  Pison ;  of 
the  bdellium,  of  the  stone  of  Sohem,  or  onyx 
stone,  which  was  to  be  found  in  that  country. 
These  particulars,  observed  with  such  curiosity, 
seem  to  prove  that  the  author  of  the  Pentateuch 
lived  beyond  the  Euphrates.  Add  what  he  says 
concerning  the  ark  of  Noah,  of  its  construction, 
of  the  place  where  it  rested,  of  the  wood  where- 
with it  was  built,  of  the  bitumen  of  Babylon,  &c. 
But  in  answer  to  all  these  objections  it  is  justly 
observed,  that  these  books  are,  by  the  most  an- 
cient writers,  ascribed  to  Moses,  and  it  is  con- 
firmed by  the  authority  of  heathen  writers  them- 
selves, that  they  are  his  writing  :  besides  this,  we 
have  the  unanimous  testimony  of  the  whole 
Jewish  nation  ever  since  Moses's  time.  Divers 
texts  of  the  Pentateuch  imply  that  it  was  written 
by  him ;  and  the  book  of  Joshua  and  other 
parts  of  Scripture  import  as  much ;  and  though 
some  passages  have  been  thought  to  imply  the 
contrary,  yet  this  is  but  a  late  opinion,  and  has 
been  sufficiently  confuted  by  several  learned  men. 
It  is  probable,  however,  that  Ezra  published  a 
new  edition  of  the  books  of  Moses,  in  which  he 
might  add  those  passages  that  many  suppose 
Moses  did  not  write.  The  Abbe  Torne,  in  a 
sermon  preached  before  the  French  King  in 
Lent,  1764,  makes  the  following  remarks :  "The 
legislator  of  the  Jews  was  the  author  of  the  Pen- 
tateuch ;  an  immortal  work,  wherein  he  paints 
the  marvels  of  his  reign,  with  the  majestic  pic- 
ture of  the  government  and  religion  which  he  es- 
tablished !  Who  before  our  modern  infidels  ever 
ventured  to  obscure  this  incontestable  fact '?  Who 
ever  sprang  a  doubt  about  this  among  the  He- 
brews ? — What  greater  reasons  have  there  ever 
been  to  attribute  to  Mahomet  his  Alcoran,  to 
Plato  his  Republic,  or  to  Homer  his  sublime 
poems ']  Rather  let  us  say,  What  work  in  any  age 
331 


PERFECTION 
ever  appeared  more  truly  to  bear  the  name  of  its 
real  author  1  It  is  not  an  ordinary  book,  which, 
like  many  others,  may  be  easily  hazarded  under 
a  fictitious  name.  It  is  a  sacred  boook,  which 
the  Jews  have  always  read  with  a  veneration, 
that  remains  after  seventeen  hundred  years  exile, 
calamities,  and  reproach.  In  this  book  the  He- 
brews included  all  their  science ;  it  was  their 
civil,  political,  and  sacred  code,  their  only  trea- 
sure, their  calendar,  their  annals,  the  only  title  of 
their  sovereigns  and  pontiffs,  the  alone  rule  of 
polity  and  worship :  by  consequence  it  must  be 
formed  with  their  monarchy,  and  necessarily  have 
the  same  epoch  as  their  government  and  religion, 
&c. — Moses  speaks  only  truth,  though  infidels 
charge  him  with  imposture.  But,  great  God  ! 
what  an  impostor  must  he  be,  who  first  spoke  of 
the  Divinity  in  a  manner  so  sublime,  that  no  one 
since,  during  almost  four  thousand  years,  has 
been  able  to  surpass  him!  What  an  impostor 
must  he  be  whose  writings  breathe  only  virtue ; 
whose  style,  equally  simple,  affecting,  and  su- 
blime, in  spite  of  the  rudeness  of  those  first  ages, 
openly  displays  an  inspiration  altogether  divine  !'' 
See  Ainsworth  and  Kidder  on  the  Pentateuch  ; 
Prideaux's  Con.  vol.  i.  p.  342,  345,  573,  575; 
Marsh's  Authenticity  of  the  Five  Books  of 
Moses  considered ;  Warburton's  Divine  Lega- 
tion ;  Dr.  Graves's  Lectures  on  the  last  four 
books  in  the  Old  Test.  ;  Jenkins's  Reasonable- 
ness of  Christianity ;  Watson's  Apology,  let.  2 
and  3  ;  Faber's  Horaz  Mosaicee,  or  a  View  of  the 
Mosaical  Records. 

PENTECOST,  a  solemn  festival  of  the  Jews, 
so  called,  because  it  was  celebrated  fifty  days  after 
the  feast  of  the  passover,  Lev.  xxiii.  15.  It  cor- 
responds with  the  Christians'  Whitsuntide,  for 
which  it  is  sometimes  used. 

PERFECTION,  that  state  or  quality  of  a 
thing,  in  which  it  is  free  from  defect  or  redun- 
dancy. According  to  some,  it  is  divided  into  phy- 
sical or  natural,  whereby  a  thing  has  all  its  powers 
and  faculties;  moral,  or  an  eminent  degree  of 
goodness  and  piety ;  and  metaphysical  or  tran- 
scendant  is  the  possession  of  all  the  essential  at- 
tributes or  parts  necessary  to  the  integrity  of  a 
substance ;  or  it  is  that  whereby  a  thing  has  or  is 
provided  of  every  thing  belonging  to  its  nature ; 
such  is  the  perfection  of  God. — The  term  perfec- 
tion, says  the  great  Witsius,  is  not  always  used 
in  the  same  sense  in  the  Scriptures.  1.  There  is 
a  perfection  of  sincerity^  whereby  a  man  serves 
God  without  hypocrisy,  Job  i.  1 ;  Is.  xxxviii.  3. 
— 2.  There  is  a  perfection  of  parts,  subjective 
with  respect  to  the  whole  man,  1  Thess.  v.  23 ; 
and  objective  with  respect  to  the  whole  law,  when 
all  the  duties  prescribed  by  God  are  observed,  Ps. 
cxix.  128;  Luke  i.  6. — 3.  There  is  a  comparative 
perfection  ascribed  to  those  who  are  advanced  in 
knowledge,  faith,  and  sanctification,  in  compari- 
son of  those  who  are  still  infants  and  untaught, 
1  John  ii.  13 ;  1  Cor.  ii.  6 ;  Phil.  iii.  15.— A.  There 
is  an  evangelical  perfection.  The  righteousness 
of  Christ  being  imputed  to  the  believer,  he  is  com- 
plete in  him,  and  accepted  of  God  as  perfect 
through  Christ,  Col.  ii.  10;  Eph.  v.  27;  2  Cor. 
v.  21. — 5.  There  is  also  a  perfection  of  degrees, 
by  which  a  person  performs  all  the  commands  of 
God  with  the  full  exertion  of  all  his  powers,  with- 
out the  least  defect.  This  is  what  the  law  of 
God  requires,  but  what  the  saints  cannot  attain 
to  in  this  life,  though  we  willingly  allow  them  all 


PERSECUTION 
the  other  kinds  above-mentioned,  Rom.  vii.  24; 
Ihil.  iii.  13;  1  John  i.  8;  Witsii  GZconomia 
Fwdcriun  Pri,  lib.  iii.  cap.  12.  §  124  ;  Bates's 
Works,  p.  557,  &c. ;  Law  and  Wesley  on  Per- 
fection ;   Doddridge's  Lectures,  lecture  181. 

PERFECTIONS  OF  GOD.  See  Attri- 
butes. 

PERJURY  is  the  taking  of  an  oath,  in  order 
to  tell  or  confirm  a  falsehood.  This  is  a  very 
heinous  crime,  as  it  is  treating  the  Almighty  with 
irreverence ;  denying,  or  at  least  discarding  his 
omniscience ;  profaning  his  name,  and  violating 
truth.  It  has  always  been  esteemed  a  very  detect- 
able thing,  and  those  who  have  been  proved  guilty 
of  it,  have  been  looked  upon  as  the  {tsU  of  so- 
ciety.    See  Oath. 

PERMISSION  OF  SIN.     See  Sin. 

PERSECUTION  is  any  pain  or  affliction 
which  a  person  designedly  inflicts  upon  another: 
and  in  a  more  restrained  sense,  the  sufferings  of 
Christians  on  account  of  their  religion.  Perse- 
cution is  threefold. — 1.  Mental,  when  the  spirit 
of  a  man  rises  up  and  opposes  another. — 2.  Ver- 
bal, when  men  give  hard  words,  and  deal  in  un- 
charitable censures. — 3.  Actual  or  open,  by  the 
hand,  such  as  the  dragging  of  innocent  persons 
before  the  tribunal  of  justice,  Matt.  x.  18.  The 
unlawfulness  of  persecution  for  conscience'  sake 
must  appear  plain  to  every  one  that  possesses  the 
least  degree  of  thought  or  of  feeling.  "  To  ba- 
nish, imprison,  plunder,  starve,  hang,  and  burn 
men  for  religion,"  says  the  shrewd  Jortin,  "  is  not 
the  Gospel  of  Christ;  it  is  the  Gospel  of  the  De- 
vil. Where  persecution  begins,  Christianity  ends. 
Christ  never  used  any  thing  that  looked  like  force 
or  violence,  except  once;  and  that,  was  to  drive 
bad  men  out  of  the  temple,  and  not  to  drive 
them  in." 

We  know  the  origin  of  it  to  be  from  the  prince 
of  darkness,  who  began  the  dreadful  practice  in 
the  first  family  on  earth,  and  who,  more  or  less, 
has  been  carrying  on  the  same  work  ever  since, 
stnd  that  almost  among  all  parties.  "  Persecution 
for  conscience'  sake,"  says  Dr.  Doddridge,  "is 
every  way  inconsistent,  because,  1.  It  is  founded 
on  an  absurd  supposition,  thatone  man  has  a  right 
to  judge  for  another  in  matters  of  religion. — 
2.  It  is  evidently  opposite  to  that  fundamental 
principle  of  morality,  that  we  should  do  to  others 
as  we  could  reasonably  desire  they  should  do  to 
us. — 3.  It  is  by  no  means  calculated  to  answer  the 
end  which  its  patrons  profess  to  intend  by  it. — 
4.  It  evidently  tends  to  produce  a  great  deal  of 
mischief  and  confusion  in  the  world. — 5.  The 
Christian  religion  must,  humanly  speaking,  be 
not  only  obstructed,  but  destroyed,  should  perse- 
cuting principles  universally  prevail. — G.  Perse- 
cution is  so  far  from  being  required  or  encouraged 
by  the  Gospel,  that  it  is  most  directly  contrary  to 
many  of  its  precepts,  and  indeed  to  the  whole 
of  it." 

The  chief  objects  who  have  fell  a  prey  to  this 
diabolical  spirit  have  been  Christians;  a  short  ac- 
count of  whose  sufferings  we  shall  here  give,  as 
persecuted  by  the  Jews,  Heathens,  and  those  of 
the  same  name. 

Persecution  of  Christians  by  the  Jews. — Here 
vvc  need  not  be  copious,  as  the  New  Testament 
will  inform  the  reader  more  particularly  how  the 
first  Christians  Buffered  for  the  cause  of  truth. 
Jesus  Christ  himself  was  exposed  to  it  in  the 
greatest  degree.  The  four  evangelists  record  the 
332 


PERSECUTION 

dreadfnl  scenes,  which  need  not  here  be  enlarged 
on.  After  his  death,  the  apostles  suffered  every 
evil  which  the  malice  of  the  Jews  could  invent, 
and  their  mad  zeal  execute.  They  who  read  the 
Acts  of  the  Apostles,  will  find  that,  like  their 
Master,  they  were  despised  and  rejected  of  men, 
and  treated  with  the  utmost  indignity  and  con 
tempt. 

II.  Persecution  of  Christians  by  the  Hea- 
then.— Historians  usually  reckon  ten  general 
persecutions,  the  first  of  which  was  under  the 
emperor  Nero,  thirty-one  years  after  our  Lord's 
ascension,  when  that  emperor,  having  set  fire  to 
the  city  of  Rome,  threw  the  odium  of  that  exe- 
crable action  on  the  Christians.  First,  Those 
were  apprehended  who  openly  avowed  themselves 
to  be  of  that  sect ;  then  hy  them  were  discovered 
an  immense  multitude,  all  of  whom  were  convict- 
ed. Their  death  and  tortures  were  aggravated 
by  cruel  derision  and  sport ;  for  they  were  either 
covered  with  the  skins  of  wild  beasts  and  torn  in 
pieces  by  devouring  dogs,  or  fastened  to  crosses, 
and  wrapped  up  in  combustible  garments,  that, 
when  the  day-light  failed,  they  might,  like  torches, 
serve  to  dispel  the  darkness  of  the  night.  For 
this  tragical  spectacle  Nero  lent  his  own  gardens; 
and  exhibited  at  the  same  time  the  public  diver- 
sions of  the  circus ;  sometimes  driving  a  chariot 
in  person,  and  sometimes  standing  as  a  spectator, 
while  the  shrieks  of  women  burning  to  ashes  sup- 
plied music  for  his  ears. — 2.  The  second  general 
persecution  was  under  Domitian,  in  the  year  95, 
when  40,000  were  supposed  to  have  suffered 
martyrdom. — 3.  The  third  began  in  the  thin! 
year  of  Trajan,  in  the  year  100,  and  was  carried 
on  with  great  violence  for  several  years.— 4.  The 
fourth  was  under  Antoninus,  when  the  Christians 
were  banished  from  their  houses,  forbidden  to 
show  their  heads,  reproached,  beaten,  hurried 
from  place  to  place,  plundered,  imprisoned,  and 
stoned. — 5.  The  fifth  began  in  the  year  127,  un- 
der Severus,  when  great  cruelties  were  committed. 
In  this  reign  happened  the  martyrdom  of  Perpe- 
tua  and  Felicitas,  and  their  companions.  Per- 
petua  had  an  infant  at  the  breast,  and  Felicitas 
was  just  delivered,  at  the  time  of  their  being  put 
to  death.  These  two  beautiful  and  amiable  young 
women,  mothers  of  infant  children,  after  suffer- 
ing much  in  prison,  were  exposed,  before  an  in- 
sulting multitude,  to  a  wild  cow,  who  mangled 
their  bodies  in  a  most  horrid  manner;  after  which 
they  were  carried  to  a  conspicuous  place,  and  put 
to  death  by  the  sword. — 6.  The  sixth  began  with 
the  reign  of  Maximinus,  in  235. — 7.  The  se- 
venth, which  was  the  most  dreadful  ever  known, 
began  in  250,  under  the  emperor  Decius,  when 
the  Christians  were  in  all  places  driven  from  their 
habitations,  stripped  of  their  estates,  tormented 
with  racks,  &c. — 8.  The  eighth  began  in  257, 
under  Valerian.  Both  men  and  women  suffered 
death,  some  by  scourging,  some  by  the  sword, 
and  some  by  fire. — 9.  The  ninth  was  under  Au- 
relian,  in  274;  but  this  was  inconsiderable,  com- 
pared with  the  others  before  mentioned. —10.  The 
tenth  began  in  the  ninteenth  year  of  Diocletian, 
303.  In  this  dreadful  persecution,  which  lasted 
ten  years,  houses  filled  with  Christians  were  set 
on  fire,  and  whole  droves  were  tied  together  witc 
ropes  and  thrown  into  the  sea.  It  is  related  that 
17,000  were  slain  in  one  month's  time ;  and  that 
during  the  continuance  of  this  persecution,  in  the 
province  of  Egypt  alone,  no  less  than  144,000 


PERSECUTION 

Christians  died  by  the  violence  of  their  persecu- 
tors; besides  700.000  that  died  through  the  fa- 
tigues of  banishment,  or  the  public  works  to 
which  they  were  condemned. 

III.  Persecution  of  Christians  by  those  of  the 
same  name. — Numerous  were  the  persecutions 
of  different  sects  from  Constantine's  time  to  the 
Reformation ;  but  when  the  famous  Martin  Lu- 
ther arose,  and  opposed  the  errors  and  ambition 
of  the  church  of  Rome,  and  the  sentiments  of 
this  good  man  began  to  spread,  the  pope  and  his 
clergy  joined  all  their  forces  to  hinder  their  pro- 
gress. A  general  council  of  the  clergy  was  called ; 
this  was  the  famous  council  of  Trent,  which  was 
held  for  near  eighteen  successive  years,  for  the 
purpose  of  establishing  poperv  in  greater  splen- 
dour, and  preventing  the  Reformation.  The 
friends  to  the  Reformation  were  anathematized 
and  excommunicated,  and  the  life  of  Luther  was 
often  in  danger,  though  at  last  he  died  on  the  bed 
of  peace.  From  time  to  time  innumerable  schemes 
were  suggested  to  overthrow  the  reformed  church, 
and  wars  were  set  on  foot  for  the  same  purpose. 
The  invincible  armada,  as  it  was  vainly  called, 
had  the  same  end  in  view.  The  inquisition, 
which  was  established  in  the  twelfth  century 
against  the  Waldenses  (see  Inciuisition)  was 
now  more  effectually  set  to  work.  Terrible  per- 
secutions were  carried  on  in  various  parts  of  Ger- 
many, and  even  in  Bohemia,  which  continued 
about  thirty  years,  and  the  blood  of  the  saints 
was  said  to  flow  like  rivers  of  water.  The  coun- 
tries of  Poland,  Lithuania,  and  Hungary,  were 
in  a  similar  manner  deluged  with  Protestant 
blood.     In 

HOLLAND, 
and  in  the  other  Low  Countries,  for  many  years 
the  most  amazing  cruellies  were  exercised  under 
the  merciless  and  unrelenting  hands  of  the  Spa- 
niards, to  whom  the  inhabitants  in  that  part  of 
the  world  were  then  in  subjection.  Father  Paul 
observes,  that  these  Belgic  martyrs  were  50,000 ; 
but,  Grotius  and  others  observe,  that  there  were 
100,000  who  suffered  by  the  hand  of  the  execution- 
er. Herein,  however,  Satan  and  his  agents  failed 
oft  heir  purpose;  for  in  the  issue  great  part  of  the  Ne- 
therlands sliook  off  the  Spanish  yoke,  and  erected 
themselves  into  a  separate  and  in  Jependent  state, 
which  has  ever  since  been  considered  as  one  of 
the  principal  Protestant  countries  of  the  universe. 

FRANCE. 
No  country,  perhaps,  has  ever  produced  more 
martyrs  than  this.  After  many  cruelties  had 
been  exercised  against  the  Protestants,  there  was 
a  most  violent  persecution  of  them  in  the  year 
1572,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  IX.  Many  of  the 
principal  Protestants  were  invited  to  Paris  under 
a  solemn  oath  of  safety,  upon  occasion  of  the 
marriage  of  the  king  of  Navarre  with  the  French 
king's  sister.  The  queen  dowager  of  Navarre, 
a  zealous  Protestant,  however,  was  poisoned  by  a 
pair  of  gloves  before  the  marriage  was  solemnized. 
Coligni,  admiral  of  France,  was  basely  murdered 
in  his  own  house,  and  then  thrown  out  of  the 
window  to  gratify  the  malice  of  the  duke  of 
Guise ;  his  head  was  afterwards  cut  off,  and  sent 
to  the  king  and  queen  mother ;  and  his  body,  after 
a  thousand  indignities  offered  to  it,  hung  by  the 
feet  on  a  gibbet.  After  this,  the  murderers  ra- 
vaged the  whole  city  of  Paris,  and  butchered,  in 
three  days,  above  ten  thousand  lords,  gentlemen, 
presidents,  and  people  of  all  ranks.  A  horrible 
333 


PERSECUTION 
scene  of  things,  says  Thuanus,  when  the  verj 
streets  and  passages  resounded  with  the  noise  of 
those  that  met  together  for  murder  and  plunder 
the  groans  of  those  who  were  dying,  and  tha 
shrieks  of  those  who  were  just  going  to  l* 
butchered,  were  every  where  heard ;  the  bodif  ? 
of  the  slain  thrown  out  of  the  windows;  the 
courts  and  chambers  of  the  houses  filled  with 
them;  the  dead  bodies  of  others  dragged  through 
the  streets ;  their  blood  running  through  the 
channels  in  such  plenty,  that  torrents  seemed  to 
empty  themselves  m  the  neighbouring  river ;  in  a 
word,  an  innumerable  multitude  of  men,  women 
with  child,  maidens,  and  children,  were  all  in- 
volved in  one  common  destruction  ;  and  the  gates 
and  entrances  of  the  king's  palace  all  besmeared 
with  their  blood.  From  the  city  of  Paris  the 
massacre  spread  throughout  the  whole  kingdom.  In 
the  city  of  Meaux  they  threw  above  two  hundred 
into  gaol;  and  after  they  had  ravished  and  killed 
a  great  number  of  women,  and  plundered  the 
houses  of  the  Protestants,  they  executed  their 
fury  on  those  they  had  imprisoned ;  and  calling 
them  one  by  one,  they  were  killed,  as  Thuanus 
expresses,  like  sheep  in  a  market.  In  Orleans 
they  murdered  above  live  hundred  men,  women, 
and  children,  and  enriched  themselves  with  the 
spoil.  The  same  cruelties  were  practised  at  An 
gers,  Troyes,  Bourges,  la  Charite,  and  especially 
at  Lyons,  where  they  inhumanly  destroyed  above 
eight  hundred  Protestants;  children  hanging  on 
their  parents'  necks ;  parents  embracing  their 
children  ;  putting  ropes  about  the  necks  of  some, 
dragging  them  through  the  streets,  and  throwing 
them,  mangled,  torn,  and  half  dead,  into  the  river. 
According  to  Thuanus,  above  30,000  Protestants 
were  destroyed  in  this  massacre ;  or,  as  others  af- 
firm, above  100,000.  But  what  aggravates  these 
scenes  with  still  greater  wantonness  and  cruelty, 
was,  the  manner  in  which  the  news  was  received 
at  Rome.  When  the  letters  of  the  pope's  legate 
were  read  in  the  assembly  of  the  cardinals,  by 
which  he  assured  the  pope  that  all  was  transacted 
by  the  express  will  and  command  of  the  king,  it 
was  immediately  decreed  that  the  pope  should 
march  with  his  cardinals  to  the  church  of  St. 
Mark,  and  in  the  most  solemn  manner  give 
thanks  to  God  for  so  great  a  blessing  conferred  on 
the  see  of  Rome  and  the  Christian  world  j  and 
that,  on  the  Monday  after,  solemn  mass  should 
be  celebrated  in  the  church  of  Minerva,  at  which 
the  pope,  Gregory  XIII.  and  cardinals  were  pre- 
sent; and  that  a  jubilee  should  be  published 
throughout  the  whole  Christian  world,  and  the 
cause  of  it  declared  to  be,  to  return  thanks  to 
God  for  the  extirpation  of  the  enemies  of  the 
truth  and  church  in  France.  In  the  evening  the 
cannon  of  St.  Angelo  were,  fired  to  testify  the 
public  joy  ;  the  whole  city  illuminated  with  bon- 
fires; and  no  one  sign  of  rejoicing  omitted  that 
was  usually  made  for  the  greatest  victories  ob- 
tained in  favour  of  the  Roman  church. 

But  all  these  persecutions  were,  however,  far 
exceeded  in  cruelty  by  those  which  took  place  in 
the  time  of  Louis  XIV.  It  cannot  be  pleasant 
to  any  man's  fcelijgs,  who  has  the  least  hu- 
manity, to  recite  these  dreadful  scenes  of  horror, 
cruelty,  and  devastation ;  but  to  show  what  su- 
perstition,  bigotry  and  fanaticism  are  capable  of 
producing,  and  lor  the  purpose  of  holding  up  tin" 
spirit  of  persecution  to  contempt,  we  shall  here 
give  as  concise  a  detail  as  possible.  The  troopers, 


PERSECUTION 
BoWicrs,  and  dragoons,  went  into  the  Protestants' 
houses,  where  they  marred  and  defaced  their 
household  stufl";  broke  their  looking-glasses  and 
other  utensils;  threw  about  their  corn  and  wine; 
sold  what  they  could  not  destroy;  and  thus,  in 
four  or  five  days,  the  Protestants  were  stripped 
of  above  a  million  of  money.  But  this  was  not 
the  worst:  they  turned  the  dining-rooms  of  gen- 
tlemen into  stables  for  horses,  and  treated  the 
owners  of  the  houses  where  they  quartered  with 
the  greatest  cruelty,  lashing  them  about,  not  suf- 
fering them  to  eat  or  drink.  When  they  saw  the 
blood  and  sweat  run  down  their  faces,  they 
sluiced  them  with  water,  and,  potting  over  their 
heads  kettle-drums  turned  upside  down,  they 
made  a  continual  din  upon  them  till  these  un- 
happy creatures  lost  their  senses.  At  Negre- 
plisse,  a  town  near  Montauban,  they  hung  up 
Isaac  Favin,  a  Protestant  citizen  of  that  place, 
by  his  arm-pits,  and  tormented  him  a  whole 
night  by  pinching  and  tearing  off  his  flesh  with 
pincers.  They  made  a  great  tire  round  about  a 
boy,  twelve  years  old,  who,  with  hands  and  eyes 
lifted  up  to  heaven,  cried  out,  "My  God,  help 
me!"  and  when  they  found  the  youth  resolved 
to  die  rather  than  renounce  his  religion,  they 
snatched  him  from  the  lire  just  as  he  was  on 
the  point  of  being  burnt.  In  several  places  the 
soldiers  applied  red  hot  irons  to  the  hands  and 
feet  of  men,  and  the  breasts  of  women.  At 
Nantes,  they  hung  up  several  women  and  maids 
by  their  feet,  and  others  by  their  arm-pits,  and 
thus  exposed  them  to  public  view  stark-naked. — 
They  bound  mothers,  that  gave  suck,  to  posts, 
and  let  their  sucking  infants  lie  languishing  in 
their  sight  for  several  days  and  nights,  crying 
and  gasping  for  life.  Some  they  bound  before  a 
great  fire,  and,  being  half-roasted,  let  them  go  ;  a 
punishment  worse  than  death.  Amidst  a  thou- 
sand hideous  cries,  they  hung  up  men  and  wo- 
men by  the  hair,  and  some  by  their  feet,  on  hooks 
in  chimneys,  and  smoked  them  with  wisps  of 
wet  hay  till  they  were  suffocated.  They  tied 
some  under  the  arms  with  ropes  and  plunged 
them  again  and  again  into  wells;  they  bound 
others,  put  them  to  the  torture,  and  with  a  fun- 
nel filled  them  with  wine  till  the  fumes  of  it  took 
away  their  reason,  when  they  made  them  say 
they  consented  to  be  Catholics.  They  stripped 
them  naked,  and,  after  a  thousand  indignities, 
stuck  them  with  pins  and  needles  from  head  to 
foot.  In  some  places  they  tied  fathers  and  hus- 
bands to  their  bed-posts,  and,  before  their  eyes, 
ravished  their  wives  and  daughters  with  impu- 
nity. They  blew  up  men  and  women  with  bel- 
lows till  they  burst  them.  If  any,  to  escape  these 
barbarities,  endeavoured  to  save  themselves  by 
flight,  they  pursued  them  into  the  fields  and 
woods,  where  they  shot  at  them  like  wild  beasts, 
and  prohibited  them  from  departing  the  kingdom 
(a  cruelty  never  practised  by  Nero  or  Diocle- 
tian,) upon  pain  of  confiscation  of  effects,  the  gal- 
leys, the  lash,  and  perpetual  imprisonment. — 
With  these  scenes  ot  desolation  and  horror  the 
popish  clergy  feasted  their  eyes,  and  made  only 
matter  of  laughter  and  sport  of  them  ! 

ENGLAND 
has  also  been  the  seat  of  much  persecution. — 
Though  Wiclilfe,  the  first  reformer,  died  peace- 
ably in  his  bed,  yet  such  was  the  malice  and 
spirit  of  persecuting  Rome,  that  his  bones  were 
ordered  to  be  dug  dp,  and  cast  upon  a  dunghill. 
331      ° 


PERSECUTION 
The  remains  of  this  excellent  man  were  accord- 
ingly dug  out  of  the  grave,  where  they  had  lain 
undisturbed  four-and-forty  years.  His  bones  were 
burnt,  and  the  ashes  cast  into  an  adjoining  brook. 
In  the  reign  of  Henry  VIII.,  Bilney,  Bayman, 
and  many  other  reformers,  were  burnt ;  but  when 
queen  Alary  came  to  the  throne,  the  most  severe 
persecutions  took  place.  Hooper  and  Rogers  were 
burnt  in  a  slow  fire.  Saunders  was  cruelly  tor- 
mented a  long  time  at  the  stake  before  he  ex- 
pired. Taylor  was  put  into  a  barrel  of  pitch, 
and  set  fire  to  it.  Eight  illustrious  persons, 
among  whom  was  Ferrar,  bishop  of  St.  David's, 
were  sought  out,  and  burnt  by  the  infamous  Bon- 
ner in  a  few  days.  Sixty-seven  persons  were 
this  year,  A.  D.  1555,  burnt,  amongst  whom 
were  the  famous  Protestants,  Bradford,  Ridley, 
Latimer,  and  Philpot.  In  the  following  year, 
1550,  eighty-five  persons  were  burnt.  Women 
suffered  ;  and  one,  in  the  flames,  which  burst  her 
womb,  being  near  her  time  of  delivery,  a  child 
fell  from  her  into  the  fire,  which  being  snatch- 
ed out  by  some  of  the  observers  more  humane 
than  the  rest,  the  magistrate  ordered  the  babe  to 
be  again  thrown  into  the  fire,  and  burnt.  Thus 
even  the  unborn  child  was  burnt  for  heresy  !  O 
God,  what  is  human  nature  when  left  to  itself! 
Alas!  dispositions  ferocious  as  infernal  then 
reign  and  usurp  the  heart!  The  queen  erected  a 
commission  court,  which  was  followed  by  the  de- 
struction of  near  eighty  more.  Upon  the  whole, 
the  number  of  those  who  suffered  death  for  the 
reformed  religion  in  this  reign,  were  no  less  than 
two  hundred  and  seventy-seven  persons;  of 
whom  were  five  bishops,  twenty-one  clergymen, 
eight  gentlemen,  eighty-four  tradesmen,  one  hun- 
dred husbandmen,  labourers,  and  servants,  fifty- 
five  women,  and  four  children.  Besides  these, 
there  were  fifty-four  more  under  prosecution, 
seven  of  whom  were  whipped,  and  sixteen 
perished  in  prison.  Nor  was  the  reign  of 
Elizabeth  free  from  this  persecuting  spirit.  If 
any  one  refused  to  consent  to  the  least  cere- 
mony in  worship,  he  was  cast  into  prison,  where 
many  of  the  most  excellent  men  in  the  land 
perished.  Two  Protestant  Anabaptists  were 
burnt,  and  many  perished.  She  also,  it  is  said, 
put  two  Brownists  to  death;  and  though  her 
whole  reign  was  distinguished  for  its  political 
prosperity,  yet  it  is  evident  that  she  did  not  un- 
derstand the  rights  of  conscience ;  for  it  is  said 
that  more  sanguinary  laws  were  made  in  her 
reign  than  in  any  of  her  predecessors,  and  her 
hands  were  stained  with  the  blood  both  of  Papists 
and  Puritans.  James  1.  succeeded  Elizabeth: 
he  published  a  proclamation,  commanding  all 
Protestants  to  conform  strictly,  and  without  any 
exception,  to  all  the  rites  and  ceremonies  of  the 
church  of  England.  Above  five  hundred  clergy 
were  immediately  silenced,  or  degraded,  for  not 
complying.  Some  were  excommunicated,  and 
some  "  banished  the  country.  The  Dissenters 
were  distressed,  censured,  and  fined,  in  the  Star- 
chamber.  Two  persons  were  burnt  for  heresy, 
one  at  Smithfield,  and  the  other  at  Litchfield. 
Worn  out  with  endless  vexations,  and  unceasing 
persecutions,  many  retired  into  Holland,  and 
from  thence  to  America.  It  is  witnessed  by  a 
judicious  historian,  that,  in  this  and  in  some  fol- 
lowing reigns,  22,000  persons  were  banished 
from  England  by  persecution  to  America.  In 
Charles  the  First's  time  ar;*e  the  persecuting 


PERSECUTION 

I.aud,  who  was  the  occasion  of  distress  to  num- 
bers. Dr.  Leighton,  for  writing  a  book  against 
the  hierarchy,  was  fined  ten  thousand  pounds, 
perpetual  imprisonment,  and  whipping.  He  was 
whipped,  and  then  placed  in  the  pillory ;  one  of 
his  ears  cut  off;  one  side  of  his  nose  slit;  brand- 
ed on  the  cheek  with  a  red  hot  iron,  with  the  let- 
ters S.  S. ;  whipped  a  second  time,  and  placed  in 
the  pillory.  A  fortnight  afterwards,  his  sores 
being  yet  uncured,  he  had  the  other  ear  cut  oil", 
the  other  side  of  his  nose  slit,  and  the  other  cheek 
branded.  He  continued  in  prison  till  the  long 
parliament  set  him  at  liberty.  About  four  years 
afterwards,  William  Prynn,  a  barrister,  for  a 
book  he  wrote  against  the  sports  on  the  Lord's 
day,  was  deprived  from  practising  at  Lincoln's 
Inn,  degraded  from  his  degree  at  Oxford,  set  in 
the  pillory,  had  his  ears  cut  off,  imprisoned  for 
life,  and  fined  five  thousand  pounds.  Nor  were 
the  Presbyterians,  when  their  government  came 
to  be  established  in  England,  free  from  the  charge 
of  persecution.  In  1615  an  ordinance  was  pub- 
lished, subjecting  all  who  preached  or  wrote 
against  the  Presbyterian  directory  for  public 
worship  to  a  fine  not  exceeding  fifty  pounds;  and 
imprisonment  for  a  year,  for  the  third  offence,  in 
using  the  episcopal  book  ot  common  prayer,  even 
in  a  private  family.  In  the  following  year  the 
Presbyterians  applied  to  Parliament,  pressing 
them  to  enforce  uniformity  m  religion,  and  to 
extirpate  popery,  prelacy,  heresy,  schism,  &c., 
but  their  petition  was  rejected ;  but  in  1G48  the 
parliament,  ruled  by  them,  published  an  ordi- 
nance against  heresy,  and  determined  that  any 
person  who  maintained,  published,  or  defended 
the  following  errors  should  suffer  death.  These 
errors  were,  1.  Denying  the  being  of  a  God. — 

2.  Denying  his  omnipresence,  omniscience,  &c. 

3.  Denying  the  Trinity  in  any  way. — 4.  Deny- 
ing that  Christ  had  two  natures. — 5.  Denying 
the  resurrection,  the  atonement,  the  Scriptures. 
In  Charles  the  Second's  reign  the  Act  of  Uni- 
formity passed,  by  which  two  thousand  clergy- 
men were  deprived  of  their  benefices.  Then  fol- 
lowed the  Conventicle  Act,  and  the  Oxford  Act, 
under  which,  it  is  said,  eight  thousand  persons 
were  imprisoned  and  reduced  to  want,  and  many 
to  the  grave.  In  this  reign  also,  the  Quakers 
were  much  persecuted,  and  numbers  of  them  im- 
prisoned. Thus  we  see  how  England  has  bled 
under  the  hands  of  bigotry  and  persecution ;  nor 
was  toleration  enjoyed  until  William  III.  came 
to  the  throne,  who  showed  himself  a  warm  friend 
to  the  rights  of  conscience.  The  accession  of  the 
present  royal  family  was  auspicious  to  religious 
liberty  ;  and  as  these  monarchs  have  always  be- 
friended toleration,  the  spirit  of  persecution  has 
been  long  curbed. 

IRELAND 
has  likewise  been  drenched  with  the  blood  of  the 
Protestants,  forty  or  fifty  thousand  of  whom 
were  cruelly  murdered  in  a  few  days,  in  different 
parts  of  the  kingdom,  in  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 
It  began  on  the  23d  of  October,  1641.  Having 
secured  the  principal  gentlemen,  and  seized  their 
effects,  they  murdered  the  common  people  in  cold 
blood,  forcing  many  thousands  to  fly  from  their 
houses  and  settlements  naked  into  the  bogs  and 
woods,  where  they  perished  with  hunger  and 
cold.  Some  they  whipped  to  death,  others  they 
stripped  naked,  and  exposed  to  shame,  and  then 
drove  them  like  herds  of  swine  to  perish  in  the 
335 


PERSECUTION 

mountains:  many  hundreds  were  drowned  in 
rivers,  some  had  their  throats  cut,  others  were 
dismembered.  With  some  the  execrable  villains 
made  themselves  sport,  trying  who  could  hack 
the  deepest  into  an  Englishman's  flesh;  wives 
and  young  virgins  abused  in  the  presence  of  their 
nearest  relations ;  nay,  they  taught  their  children 
to  strip  and  kill  the  children  of  the  English,  and 
dash  out  their  brains  against  the  stones.  Thus 
many  thousands  were  massacred  in  a  few  days, 
without  distinction  of  age,  sex,  or  quality,  before 
they  suspected  their  danger,  or  had  time  to  pro- 
vide for  their  defence. 

SCOTLAND,  SPAIN,  &c. 

Besides  the  above-mentioned  persecutions, 
there  have  been  several  others  carried  on  in 
different  parts  of  the  world.  Scotland  for  many 
years  together  was  the  scene  of  cruelty  and 
bloodshed,  till  it  was  delivered  by  the  monarch  at 
the  revolution.  Spain,  Italy,  and  the  valley  of 
Piedmont,  and  other  places,  have  been  the  seate 
of  much  persecution.  Popery,  we  see,  has  had 
the  greatest  hand  in  this  mischievous  work.  It 
has  to  answer,  also,  for  the  lives  of  millions  of 
Jews,  Mahometans,  and  barbarians.  When  the 
Moors  conquered  Spain,  in  the  eighth  century, 
they  allowed  the  Christians  the  free  exercise  of 
their  religion  ;  but  in  the  fifteenth  century,  when 
the  Moors  were  overcome,  and  Ferdinand  sub- 
dued the  Moriscoes,  the  descendants  of  the  above 
Moors,  many  thousands  were  forced  to  be  bap- 
tized, or  burnt,  massacred,  or  banished,  and  their 
children  sold  for  slaves;  besides  innumerable 
Jews,  who  shared  the  same  cruelties,  chiefly  by 
means  of  the  infernal  courts  of  inquisition.  A 
worse  slaughter,  if  possible,  was  made  among 
the  natives  of  Spanish  America,  where  fifteen 
millions  are  said  to  have  been  sacrificed  to  the 
genius  of  popery  in  about  forty  years.  It  has 
been  computed  that  fifty  millions  of  Protestants 
have  at  different  times  been  the  victims  of  the 
persecutions  of  the  Papists,  and  put  to  death  for 
their  religious  opinions.  Well,  therefore,  might 
the  inspired  penman  say,  that  at  mystic  Baby- 
lon's destruction,  '  was  found  in  her  the  blood  of 
prophets,  of  saints,  and  of  all  that  was  slain  upon 
the  earth,'  Rev.  xviii.  24. 

To  conclude  this  article,  who  can  peruse  the 
account  here  given  without  feeling  the  most  pain- 
ful emotions,  and  dropping  a  tear  over  the  mad- 
ness and  depravity  of  mankind?  Does  it  not 
show  us  what  human  beings  are  capable  of  when 
influenced  by  superstition,  bigotry,  and  prejudice  1 
Have  not  these  baneful  principles  metamorphosed 
men  into  internals ;  and  entirely  extinguished  all 
the  feelings  of  humanity,  the  dictates  of  con- 
science, and  the  voice  of  reason '?  Alas !  what 
has  sin  done  to  make  mankind  such  curses  to  one 
another?  Merciful  God!  by  thy  great  power 
suppress  this  worst  of  all  evils,  and  let  truth  and 
love,  meekness  and  forbearance,  universally  pre- 
vail. Limborch's  Introduction  to  his  History  of 
the  Inquisition ;  Memoirs  of  the  Persecutions 
of  the  Protestants  in  France,  by  Lewis  De  Ena- 
rolles  ;  Comber's  History  of  the  Parisian  Mas- 
sacre of  St.  Bartholomew  ;  A.  Robinson's  History 
of  Persecution  ;  Lockman's  History  of  Popish 
Persecution  ;  Clark's  Looking-glass  for  Perse- 
cutors ;  Doddridge's  Sermon  on  Persecution  ; 
Jortin's  ditto,  ser.  0.  vol.  iv. ;  Bower's  Lives  of 
the  Popes  ;  Fox's  Martyrs  ;  Woodrow's  History 
of  the  Sufferings  of  the   Church  of  Scotland 


PERSEVERANCE 
Scale's  History  of  the   Puritans,  arid  of  New 
England  ;  History  of  the  Bohemian  Persecu- 
tions. 

^PERSEVERANCE  is  the  continuance  in 
any  design,  state,  opinion,  or  course  of  action. 
The  perseverance  of  the  saints  is  their  continu- 
ance in  a  state  of  grace  to  a  state  of  glory.  This 
doctrine  has  afforded  considerable  matter  for  con- 
troversy between  Calvinists  and  Arminians.  We 
shall  briefly  here  state  the  arguments  and  objec- 
tions. And,  first,  the  perfections  of  Cod  are  con- 
sidered as  strong  arguments  to  prove  this  doctrine. 
God,  as  a  Being  possessed  of  infinite  love,  faithful- 
ness, wisdom  and  power,  can  hardly  be  supposed  to 
suffer  any  of  his  people  finally  to  fall  into  perdi- 
tion. This  would  be  a  reflection  on  his  attributes, 
and  argue  him  to  be  worse  than  a  common  father 
of  his  family.  His  lore  to  his  people  is  unchange- 
able, and  therefore  they  cannot  be  the  objects  of 
it  at  one  time  and  not  at  another,  John  xiii.  1 ; 
Zeph.  iii.  17;  Jer.  xxxi.  3.  His  faithfulness  to 
them  and  to  his  promise  is  not  founded  upon 
their  merit,  but  his  own  will  and  goodness ;  this, 
therefore,  cannot  be  violated,  Mai.  iii.  6;  Num. 
xxiii.  19.  His  wisdom  foresees  every  obstacle 
in  the  way,  and  is  capable  of  removing  it,  and 
directing  them  into  the  right  path.  It  would  be 
a  reflection  on  his  wisdom,  after  choosing  a  right 
end,  not  to  choose  right  means  in  accomplishing 
the  same,  Jer.  x.  G,  7.  His  power  is  insuperable, 
and  is  absolutely  and  perpetually  displayed  in 
their  preservation  and  protection,  1  Pet.  i.  5. — 
2.  Another  argument  to  prove  this  doctrine,  is 
their  union  to  Christ,  and  what  he  has  done  for 
them.  They  are  said  to  be  chosen  in  him,  Eph. 
i.  4 ;  united  "to  him,  Eph.  i.  23 ;  the  purchase  of 
his  death,  Rom.  viii.  34;  Tit.  ii.  14;  the  objects 
of  his  intercession,  Rom.  v.  10;  viii.  34;  1  John 
ii.  1,  2.  Now  if  there  be  a  possibility  of  their 
finally  falling,  then  this  choice,  this  union,  his 
death  and  intercession,  may  all  be  in  vain,  and 
rendered  abortive ;  an  idea  as  derogatory  to  the 
divine  glory,  and  as  dishonourable  to  Jesus  Christ, 
as  possibly  can  be. — 3.  It  is  argued  from  the  work 
of  the  Spirit,  which  is  to  communicate  grace  and 
strength  equal  to  the  da}',  Ihil.  i.  6;  2  Cor.  i.  21, 
22.  If,  indeed,  divine  grace  were  dependent  on 
the  will  of  man,  if  by  his  own  power  he  has 
brought  himself  into  a  state  of  grace,  then  it  might 
follow  that  he  might  relapse  into  an  opposite 
state  when  that  power  any  time  was  weakened  : 
but  as  the  perseverance  of  the  saints  is  not  pro- 
duced by  any  native  principles  in  themselves,  but 
by  the  agency  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  enlightening, 
confirming,  and  establishing  them  of  course,  they 
must  persevere,  or  otherwise  it  would  be  a  reflec- 
tion on  this  Divine  Agent,  Rom.  viii.  9 ;  1  Cor. 
vi.  11;  John  iv.  14;  xvi.  14. — 4.  Lastly,  the 
declarations  and  promises  of  Scripture  are  very 
numerous  in  favour  of  this  doctrine,  Job  xvii.  !); 
Ps.  xciv.  14  j  exxv. ;  Jer.  xxxii.  40;  John  x.  28; 
xvii.  12 ;  1  Cor.  i.  8,  9;  1  Pet.  i.  5;  Prov.  iv.  18, 
all  which  could  not  be  true,  if  this  doctrine  were 
false.  There  are  objections,  however,  to  this 
doctrine,  which  we  must  state.— 1.  There  are  va- 
rious threatenings  denounced  against  those  who 
apostatise,  Ezek.  iii.  20 ;  Heb.  vl  3,  G ;  Ps.  exxxv. 
3—5;  Ezek.  xviii.  24.  To  this  it  is  answered, 
that  some  of  these  texts  do  not  so  much  as  sup- 
pose the  falling  away  of  a  truly  good  man  ;  and 
to  all  of  them,  it  is  said,  that  they  only  show  what 
would  be  the  consequence  if  such  skould  fall 
336 


PERSON 
away;  but  cannot  prove  that  it  erer  in  fact  hap- 
pens.— 2.  it  is  foretold  as  a  future  event  that 
some  should  fall  awav,  Matt.  xxiv.  12,  13;  John 
xv.  G;  Matt.  xiii.  20,  21.  To  the  first  of  thesq 
passages  it  is  answered,  that  their  love  might  bo 
said  to  wax  cold  without  totally  ceasing  ;  or  there 
might  have  been  an  outward  zeal  and  show  of 
love  where  there  never  was  a  true  faith.  To  the 
second  it  is  answered,  that  persons  may  be  said 
to  be  is  Christ  only  by  an  external  profession,  or 
mere  members  of  the  visible  church,  John  xv.  2 ; 
Matt.  xiii.  47,  48.  As  to  Matthew,  xiii.  20, 
21,  it  is  replied,  that  this  may  refer  to  the  joy 
with  which  some  may  entertain  the  oilers  of  par- 
don, who  never,  after  all,  attentively  considered 
them. — 3.  It  is  objected  that  many  have  in  fact 
fallen  away,  as  David,  Solomon,  Peter,  Alexan- 
der, Hymeneus,  &C.  To  which  it  is  answered, 
that  David,  Solomon,  and  Peter's  fall,  were  not 
total ;  and  as  to  the  others,  there  is  no  proof  of 
their  ever  being  true  Christians. — 4.  It  is  urged, 
that  this  doctrine  supersedes  the  use  of  means, 
and  renders  exhortation  unnecessary.  To  which 
it  may  be  answered,  that  perseverance  itself  im- 
plies the  use  of  means,  and  that  the  means  are 
equally  appointed  as  well  as  the  end  ;  nor  has  it 
ever  been  found  that  true  Christians  have  re- 
jected them.  They  consider  exhortations  and 
admonitions  to  be  some  of  the  means  they  are  to 
attend  to  in  order  to  promote  their  holiness; 
Christ  and  his  apostles,  though  they  often  asserted 
this  doctrine,  yet  proved,  exhorted,  and  made 
use  of  means.  See  Exhortation',  Means. — 
5.  Lastly,  it  is  objected  that  this  doctrine  gives 
great  encouragement  to  carna-1  security  and  pre- 
sumptuous sin.  To  which  it  is  answered,  that 
this  doctrine,  like  many  others,  may  be  abused  by 
hyjwcrites,  hut  cannot  be  so  by  those  who  are 
truly  serious,  it  being  the  very  nature  of  grace  to 
lead  to  righteousness,  Tit.  ii.  10,  12.  Their 
knowledge  leads  to  veneration ;  their  love  ani- 
mates to  duty;  their  faith  purifies  the  heart; 
their  gratitude  excites  to  obedience ;  yea,  all  their 
principles  have  a  tendency  to  set  before  them  the 
evil  of  sin,  and  the  beauty  of  holiness.  See  Whit- 
by and  Gill  on  the  Fire  Points;  Cole  on  the 
Sovereignty  of  God ;  Doddridge's  Lectures,  lee. 
179;  Turretini  Comp.  T'heologicet  loc.  14,  p. 
15G;  (Economia  Witsii,  lib.  iii.  cap.  13;  Top- 
lady's  Works,  p.  47b',  vol.  v. ;  Ridgley's  Body 
of  Div.  qu.  79. 

PERSON,  an  individual  substance  of  a  ra- 
tional intelligent  nature.  Some  have  been  of- 
fended at  the  term  persons,  as  applied  to  the 
Trinity,  as  unwarrantable.  The  term  person, 
when  applied  to  the  Deity,  is  certainly  used  in  a 
sense  somewhat  different  from  that  in  which  we 
apply  it  to  one  another;  but  when  it  is  considered 
that  the  Greek  words  TOoo-rao-i?  and  npoo-a-irov,  to 
which  it  answers,  are,  in  the  New  1  estament, 
applied  to  the  Father  and  Son,  Heb.  i.  3  ;  2  Cor. 
iv.  6 ;  and  that  no  single  term,  at  least,  can  be 
found  more  suitable ;  it  can  hardly  be  condemned 
as  unseriptural  and  improper.  There  have  been 
warm  debates  between  the  Greek  and  Latin 
churches  aoout  the  words  hypostasis  and  per- 
sona ;  the  Latin,  concluding  that  the  word  hypos- 
tasis signified  substance  or  essence,  thought  that 
to  assert  that  there  were  three  divine  hypostases 
was  to  say  that  there  were  three  gods.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  Greek  church  thought  the  word 
person  did  not  sufficiently  guard  against  the  Sa- 


PETROBRUSSIANS 
Lilian  notion  of  the  same  individual  Being  sus 
fcaining  three  relations;  whereupon  each  part  of' 

the  church  was  ready  to  brand  the  other  with 
heresy,  till  by  a  free  and  mutual  conference  in  a 
synod  at  Alexandria,  A.  U.  3(J2,  they  made  it  ap- 
pear that  it  was  but  a  mere  contention  about  the 
grammatical  sense  of  a  word ;  and  then  it  was 
allowed  by  men  of  temper  on  both  sides,  that 
either  of  the  two  words  might  be  indifferently 
used.  Sec  Marci  Medulla,  1.  5.  §  3;  Ridgley's 
Divinity,  qu.  11 ;  Hurrion  on  the.  Spirit,  p.  140  ; 
Doddridge's  Lectures,  lee.  15i) ;  Gill  on  the 
Trinity,  p.  93 ;  Watts's  Works,  vol.  v.  p.  48, 
208  ;  Gill's  Body  of  Divinity,  vol.  i.  p.  205,  8vo. ; 
Edwards's  History  of  Redemption,  p.  51,  note  ; 
flora',  Sol.  vol.  ii.  p.  20. 
PERSUASION,  the  act  of  influencing  the 

i'udgment  and  passions  by  arguments  or  ruotiws. 
t  is  different  from  conviction.  Conviction  affects 
the  understanding  only;  persuasion,  the  will  and 
the  practice.  It  may  be  considered  as  an  assent 
to  a  proposition  not  sufficiently  proved.  It  is 
more  extensively  used  than  conviction,  which  last 
is  founded  on  demonstration,  natural  or  super- 
natural. But  a-U  things  of  which  we  may  be 
persuaded,  arc  not  capable  of  demonstration.  See 
Blair's  Rhetoric,  vol.  ii.  p.  174. 

PETER-PENCE  was  an  annual  tribute  of 
one  penny  paid  at  Rome  out  of  every  family,  at 
the  least  of  St.  Peter;  this,  Ina,  the  Saxon  king, 
when  he  went  in  pilgrimage  to  Rome,  about  the 
year  740,  gave  to  the  pope,  partly  as  alms,  and 
partly  in  recompense  of  a  house  erected  in  Rome 
for  English  pilgrims.  It  continued  to  be  paid 
generally  until  the  time  of  Henry  VIII.,  when  it 
was  enacted,  that  henceforth  no  persons  shall  pay 
any  pensions,  peter-pence,  or  other  impositions, 
to  the  use  of  the  bishop  and  see  of  Rome. 

PETITION,  according  to  Dr.  Watts,  is  the 
fourth  part  of  prayer,  and  includes  a  desire  of 
deliverance  from  evil,  and  a  request  of  good  things 
to  be  bestowed.  On  both  these  accounts  petitions 
ate  to  be  offered  up  to  God,  not  only  for  our- 
selves, but  for  our  fellow-creatures  also.  This 
part  of  prayer  is  frequently  called  intercession. 
See  Prayer. 

PETROBRUSSIANS,  a  sect  founded  about 
the  year  1110  in  Languedoc  and  Provence,  by 
Peter  de  Bruys,  who  made  the  most  laudable  at- 
tempts to  reform  the  abuses  and  to  remove  the 
superstitions  that  disfigured  the  beautiful  sim- 
plicity of  the  Gospel ;  though  not  without  a 
mixture  of  fanaticism.  The  following  tenets 
were  held  by  him  and  his  disciples  :  1.  That  no 
persons  whatever  were  to  be  baptized  before  they 
were  come  to  the  full  use  of  their  reason. — 2. 
That  it  was  an  idle  superstition  to  build  churches 
for  tlie  service  of  God,  who  will  accept  of  a  sin- 
cere worship  wherever  it  is  offered;  and  that, 
therefore,  such  churches  as  had  already  been 
erected,  were  to  be  pulled  down  and  destroyed. — 
3.  That  the  crucifixes,  as  instruments  of  super- 
stition, deserved  the  same  fate. — 4.  That  the  real 
body  and  blood  of  Christ  were  not  exhibited  in  the 
cucharist,  but  were  merely  represented  in  that  or- 
dinance.— 5.  That  the  oblations,  prayers,  and  good 
works  of  the  living,  could  be  in  no  respect  advan- 
tageous to  the  dead.  The  founder  of  this  sect, 
after  a  laborious  ministry  of  twenty  years,  was 
burnt  in  the  year  1130,  by  an  enraged  populace 
set  on  by  the  clergy,  whose  traffic  was  in  danger 
from  the  enterprising  spirit  of  this  new  reformer. 
337  3S 


PHARISEES 

PETROJOANNITES  were  followers  of 
Peter  John  or  Peter  Joannis,  that  is,  Peter  the 
son  of  John,  who  nourished  in  the  twelfth  cen- 
turv.  His  doctrine  was  not  known  till  after  hi* 
death,  when  his  body  was  taken  out  of  his  grave 
and  burnt.  His  opinions  were,  that  he  alone  had 
the  knowledge  of  the  true  sense  wherein  the 
apostles  preached  the  Gospel;  that  the  reasonable 
soul  is  not  the  form  of  man ;  that  there  is  no 
grace  infused  by  baptism  ;  and  that  Jesus  Christ 
was  pierced  with  a  lance  on  the  cross,  before  he 
expired. 

PPIARISEES,  a  famous  sect  of  the  Jews 
who  distinguished  themselves  by  their  zeal  for  the 
traditions  of  the  elders,  which  "they  derived  from 
the  same  fountain  with  the  written  word  itself; 
pretending  that  both  were  delivered  to  Moses 
from  mount  Sinai,  and  were  therefore  both  of 
equal  authority.  From  their  rigorous  observance 
of  these  traditions,  they  looked  upon  themselves 
as  more  holy  than  other  men,  and  therefore  se- 
parated themselves  from  those  whom  they  thought 
sinners  or  profane,  so  as  not  to  eat  or  drink  with 
them ;  and  hence,  from  the  Hebrew  word  pilaris, 
which  signifies  "to  separate,"  they  had  the  name 
of  Pharisees,  or  Separatists. 

This  sect  was  one  of  the  most  ancient  and 
most  considerable  among  the  Jews,  but  its  origi- 
nal is  not  very  well  known  ;  however,  it  was  in 
great  repute  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour,  and  most 
probably  had  its  original  at  the  same  time  with 
the  traditions. 

The  extraordinary  pretences  of  the  Pharisees 
to  righteousness,  drew  after  them  the  common 
people,  who  held  them  in  the  highest  esteem  and 
veneration.  Our  Saviour  frequently,  however, 
charges  them  with  hypocrisy,  and  making  the 
law  of  God  of  no  eficct.  through  their  traditions, 
Matt.  ix.  12;  xvi.  6;  xxiii.  13,  33;  Luke  xi.  3;), 
52.  Several  of  these  traditions  are  particularly 
mentioned  in  the  Gospel ;  but  they  had  a  vast 
number  more,  which  may  be  seen  in  the  Talmud, 
the  whole  subject  whereof  is  to  dictate  and  ex- 
plain those  traditions  which  this  sect  imposed  to 
be  believed  and  observed. 

The  Pharisees,  contrary  to  the  opinion  of  the 
Sadducc-s,  held  a  resurrection  from  the  dead, 
and  the  existence  of  angels  and  spirits,  Aets 
xxiii.  8.  But,  according  to  Josephus,  this  resur- 
rection of  theirs  was  no  more  than  a  Pythagorean 
resurrection,  that  is,  of  the  soul  only,  by  its  trans- 
migration into  another  body,  and  being  born  anew 
with  it.  From  this  resurrection  they  excluded  all 
who  were  notoriously  wicked ;  being  of  opinion 
that  the  souls  of  such  persons  were  transmitted 
into  a  state  of  everlasting  woe.  As  to  lesser 
crimes,  they  held  they  were  punished  in  the 
bodies  which  the  souls  of  those  who  committed 
them  were  next  sent  into. 

Josephus,  however,  either  mitfook  the  faith  of 
his  countrymen,  or  which  is  more  probable,  wil- 
fully misrepresented  it,  to  render  their  opinions 
more  respected  by  the  Roman  philosophers, 
whom  he  appears  to  have,  on  every  occasion, 
been  desirous  to  please.  The  Pharisees  had  manv 
pagan  notions  respecting  the  soul ;  but  Bishop 
Bull,  in  his  Ilarmonia  Apostolica,  has  clearly 
proved  that  they  held  a  resurrection  of  the  body, 
and  that  they  supposed  a  certain  bone  to  remain 
uncorrupted,  to  furnish  the  matter  of  which  the 
resurrection  body  was  to  be  formed.  They  did 
not,  however,  believe  that  all  mankind  wert  to  be 
2D 


PHILANTHROPY 
raised  from  the  dead.  A  resurrection  was  the 
privilege  of  the  children  <>f  Abraham  alone,  who 
were  all  to  rise  on  Mount  Zion;  their  uncor- 
ruptible bono-;,  wherever  they  might  he  buried, 
being  carried  to  that  mountain  below  tin1  surface 
of  the  earth.  The  state  of  future  felicity  in 
which  the  Pharisees  believed  was  very  gross: 
they  imagined  that  men  in  the  next  world,  as 
well  as  in  the  present,  were  to  eat  and  drink,  and 
enjoy  the  pleasures  of  love,  each  being  re-united  to 
his  former  wife.  Hence  the  Sadducees,  who  be- 
lieved in  no  resurrection,  and  supposed  our  Sa- 
viour to  teach  it  as  a  Pharisee,  very  shrewdly 
urged  the  difficulty  of  disposing  of  the  woman 
who  had  in  this  world  been  the  wife  of  seven 
husbands.  Had  the  resurrection  of  Christianity 
been  the  Pharisaical  resurrection,  this  difficulty 
would  have  been  insurmountable;  and  accord- 
ingly we  find  the  people,  and  even  some  of  the 
Pharisees  themselves,  struck  with  the  manner  in 
which  our  Saviour  removed  it. 

This  sect  seems  to  have  had  some  confused 
notions,  probably  derived  from  the  Chaldeans  and 
Persians,  respecting  the  pre-existence  of  souls  ; 
and  hence  it  was  that  Christ's  disciples  asked 
him  concerning  the  blind  man,  John  ix.  2.  "  Who 
did,  sin,  this  man  or  his  parents,  that  he  was  born 
blind?" — And  when  the  disciples  told  Christ 
that  some  said  he  was  Elias,  Jeremias,  or  one  of 
the  prophets,  Matt.  xvi.  14,  the  meaning  can  only 
be,  that  they  thought  he  was  come  into  the  world 
with  the  soul  of  Elias,  Jeremias,  or  some  other 
of  the  old  prophets,  transmigrated  into  him. 
With  the  Essenes  they  held  absolute  predestina- 
tion, and  with  the  Sadducees  free  will ;  but  how 
they  reconciled  these  seemingly  incompatible  doc- 
trines, is  no  where  sufficiently  explained.  The 
sect  of  the  Pharisees  was  not  extinguished  Ly  the 
ruin  of  the  Jewish  commonwealth.  The  greatest 
part  of  the  modern  Jews  are  still  of  this  sect,  be- 
ing as  much  devoted  to  traditions,  or  the  oral  law, 
as  their  ancestors  were. 

PHILADELPHIA?*  SOCIETY,  a  sect  or 
society  of  the  seventeenth  century  ;  so  called  from 
an  English  female  whose  name  was  Jane  Leadly. 
She  embraced,  it  is  said,  the  same  views  and  the 
same  kind  of  religion  as  Madame  Bourignon. 
(See  Bourignonists.)  She  was  of  opinion  that 
all  dissensions  among  Christians  would  cease, 
and  the  kingdom  of  the  Redeemer  become,  even 
here  below,  a  glorious  scene  of  charity,  concord, 
and  felicity,  if  those  who  bear  the  name  of  Jesus, 
without  regarding  the  forms  of  doctrine  or  disci- 
pline that  distinguished  particular  communions, 
would  all  join  in  committing  their  souls  to  the 
care  of  the  internal  guide,  to  be  instructed, 
governed,  and  formed  by  his  divine  impulse  and 
suggestions.  Nay,  she  went  still  further,  and 
declared,  in  the  name  of  the  Lord,  that  this  de- 
sirable event  would  actually  come  to  pass,  and 
that  she  had  a  divine  commission  to  proclaim  the 
approach  of  this  glorious  communion  of  saints, 
who  were  to  be  gathered  in  one  visible  universal 
church  or  kingdom  before  the  dissolution  of  this 
earthly  globe.  This  prediction  she  delivered  with 
a  peculiar  degree  of  confidence,  from  a  notion 
that  her  Philadelphia!)  society  was  the  true  king- 
dom t/  Christ,  \n  which  alone  the  Divine  Spirit 
resided  and  reigned.      She  believed,  it  is  said,  the 

doctrine  of  the  final  restoration  of  all  intelligent 
brio  ja  to  perfection  and  happiness. 
PHILANTHROPY,  compounded  of  ?.xc« 
338 


nilLOSOPHISTS 
and  j,.?p„i;?)  which  signify  the  love  of  mankind.  P 
differs  from  benevolence  only  in  this:  that  hette* 
volenee  extends  to  every  being  that  has  life  and 
sense,  and  is  of  course  susceptible  of  pain  and 
pleasure;  whereas  philanthropy  cannot  compre- 
hend more  than  the  human  race.  It  differs  from 
friendship,  ps  this  affection  subsists  only  between 
a  few  individuals,  whilst  philanthropy  compre- 
hends the  whole  human  species.  It  is  a  calm 
sentiment,  which  perhaps  hardly  ever  rises  to  the 
warmth  of  affection,  and  certainly  not  to  the  heat 
of  passion. 

PH1L1PISTS,  a  sect  or  party  among  the 
Lutherans,  the  followers  of  Philip  Melancthcn. 
He  had  strenuously  opposed  the  Ubiquists,  who 
arose  in  his  time ;  and,  the  dispute  growing  still 
hotter  after  his  death,  the  University  of  Witten- 
berg, who  espoused  Melancthon's  opinion,  were 
called  by  the  Flaccians,  who  attacked  it,  Phi- 
lipi.tts. 

PHILOSOPHISTS,  a  name  given  to  several 
persons  in  France  who  entered  into  a  combina- 
tion to  overturn  the  religion  of  Jesus,  and  eradi- 
cate from  the  numan  heart  every  religious  senti- 
ment. The  man  more  particularly  to  whom  this 
idea  first  occurred  was  Voltaire,  who  being  weary 
(as  he  said  himself)  of  hearing  people  repeat  thai 
twelve  men  were  sufficient  to  establish  Chris- 
tianity, resolved  to  prove  that  one  might  be  suf- 
ficient to  overturn  it.  Full  of  this  project,  he 
swore,  before  the  year  1730,  to  dedicate  his  life  to 
its  accomplishment;  and,  for  sometime,  he  flat- 
tered himself  that  he  should  enjoy  alone  the  glory 
of  destroying  the  Christian  religion.  He  found, 
however,  that  associates  would  be  necessary ;  and 
from  the  numerous  tribe  of  his  admirers  and  dis- 
ciples he  chose  D'Alembert  and  Diderot  as  the 
most  proper  persons  to  co-operate  with  him  in 
his  designs.  But  Voltaire  was  not  satisfied  with 
their  aid  alone.  He  contrived  to  embark  in  the 
same  cause  Frederick  II.  king  of  Prussia,  who 
wished  to  be  thought  a  philosopher,  and  who,  of 
course,  deemed  it  expedient  to  talk  and  write 
against  a  religion  which  he  had  never  studied, 
and  into  the  evidence  of  which  he  had  probably 
never  deigned  to  inquire.  This  royal  adept  was 
one  of  the  most  zealous  of  Voltaire's  coadjutors, 
till  he  discovered  that  the  philosophists  were 
waging  war  with  the  throne  as  well  as  with  the 
altar.  This,  indeed,  was  not  originally  Voltaire's 
intention.  He  was  vain  ;  he  loved  to  be  caressed 
by  the  great ;  and,  in  one  word,  he  was.  from 
natural  disposition,  an  aristocrat,  and  an  admirer 
of  royalty.  But  when  he  found  that  almost  every 
sovereign  but  Frederic  disapproved  of  his  impious 
projects,  as  soon  as  he  perceived  their  issue,  he 
determined  to  oppose  all  the  governments  on 
earth  rather  than  forfeit  the  glory  with  which  he 
had  flattered  himself  of  vanquishing  Christ  and 
his  apostles  in  the  field  of  controversy. 

He  now  set  himself,  with  D'Alembert  and 
Diderot,  to  excite  universal  discontent  with  the 
established  order  of  things.  For  this  purpose 
they  formed  secret  societies,  assumed  new  names, 
and  employed  an  enigmatical  language.  Thus 
Frederic  was  called  Luc;  D'AIeniln'rt,  Prota- 
goras, and  sometimes  Bertrand ;  Voltaire,  Ra- 
ton ;  and  Diderot,  Platon,  or  its  anagram  Ton  pi  a  ; 
while  the  general  term  for  the  conspirators  was 
Cacouec.  In  their  secret  meetings  they  professed 
U)  celebrate  the  mysteries  of  Mylhra  ;  and  their 
great  object,  as  they  professed  to  one  ai  other 


PHILOSOPHISTS 
was  to  confound  the  wretch,  meaning  Jesus 
Christ.  Hence  their  secret  watchword  was 
Ecrasez  rinflme,  "Crush  Christ."  If  we  look 
into  some  of  the  books  expressly  written  for 
general  circulation,  we  shall  there  find  the  fol- 
h>wing  doctrines ;  some  of  them  standing  aione 
in  all  their  naked  horrors,  others  surrounded  by 
sophistry  and  meretricious  ornaments,  to  entice 
the  mind  into  their  net  before  it  perceives  their 
nature.  "The  Universal  Cause,  that  god  of  the 
philosophers,  of  the  Jews,  and  of  the  Christians, 
is  hut  a  chimera  and  a  phantom.  The  phenome- 
na of  nature  only  prove  the  existence  of  God  to 
A  few  prepossessed  men:  so  far  from  bespeaking 
a  Coil,  they  are  but  the  necessary  effects  of  mat- 
ter prodigiously  diversified.  It  is  more  reasona- 
ble to  admit,  with  Manes,  of  a  twofold  God,  than 
Of  the  God  of  Christianity.  We  cannot  know 
whether  a  God  really  exists,  or  whether  there  is 
:he  smallest  difference  between  good  and  evil,  or 
vice  and  virtue.  Nothing  can  be.  move  absurd 
;han  to  believe  the  soul  a  spiritual  beinr/.  The 
immortality  of  the  soul,  so  far  from  stimulating 
man  to  the  practice  of  virtue,  is  nothing  but  a 
barbarous,  desperate,  fatal  tenet,  and  contrary  to 
all  legislation.  All  ideas  of  justice  and  injustice, 
of  virtue  and  vice,  of  glory  and  infamy,  are  purely 
arbitrary  and  dependent  on  custom.  Conscience 
and  remorse  are  nothing  but  the  foresight  of 
t  hose  physical  penalties  to  which  crimes  expose 
us.  The  man  who  is  above  the  law  can  commit, 
without  remorse,  the  dishonest  act  that  may  serve 
his  purpose.  The  fear  of  God,  so  far  from  being 
the  beginning  of  wisdom,  should  be  the  begin- 
ning of  folly.  The  command  to  love  one's  pa- 
rents is  more  the  work  of  education  than  of 
nature.  Modesty  is  only  an  invention  of  refined 
voluptuousness.  The  law  which  condemns  mar- 
ried people  to  live  together,  becomes  barbarous 
and  cruel  on  the  day  thev  cease  to  love  one  ano- 
ther. ' — These  extracts  from  the  secret  corres- 
pondence and  the  public  writings  of  these  men, 
will  suffice  to  show  us  the  nature  and  tendency 
of  the  dreadful  system  they  had  formed. 

The  philosophists  were  diligently  employed  in 
attempting  to  propagate  their  sentiments.  Their 
grand  Encyclopaedia  was  converted  into  an  en- 
gine to  serve  this  purpose.  Voltaire  proposed  to 
establish  a  colony  of  philosophists  at  Clevcs,  who, 
protected  by  the  king  of  Prussia,  might  publish 
their  opinions  without  dread  or  danger;  and 
Frederic  was  disposed  to  take  them  under  bis 
]  protection,  till  he  discovered  that  their  opinions 
were  anarchical  as  well  as  impious,  when  he 
threw  them  off,  and  even  wrote  against  them. 
They  contrived,  however,  to  engage  the  ministers 
of  the  court  of  France  in  their  favour,  by  pre- 
tending to  have  nothing  in  view  but  the  enlarge- 
ment of  science,  in  works  which  spoke  indeed 
respectfully  of  revelation,  while  every  discovery 
which  they  brought  forward  was  meant  to  under- 
mine its  very  ft  undation.  When  the  throne  was 
to  he  attacked,  and  even  when  barefaced  atheism 
was  to  be  promulgated,  a  number  of  impious  and 
licentious  pamphlets  were  dispersed  (Sat  some 
time  none  knew  how.)  from  a  secret  society 
formed  at  the  Hotel  d'Holbach,  at  Paris,  of  which 
Voltaire  was  elected  honorary  and  perpetual  pre- 
sident. To  conceal  their  real  design,  which  was 
I  he  diffusion  of  their  infidel  sentiments,  they 
railed  themselves  (Economists.  (See  (Econo- 
mists.) The  books,  however,  that  were  issued 
339 


PHRYGIANS 

from  this  club  were  calculated  to  impair  and 
overturn  religion,  morals,  and  government;  and 
which  indeed,  spreading  over  all  Europe,  imper- 
ceptibly took  possession  of  public  opinion.  As 
soon  as  the  sale  was  sufficient  to  pay  the  ex- 
penses, inferior  editions  were  printed,  and  given 
away  or  sold  at  a  very  low  price :  circulating 
libraries  of  them  formed,  and  reading  societies  in- 
stituted. While  they  constantly  denied  these 
productions  to  the  world,  they  contrived  to  give 
them  a  false  celebrity  through  their  confidential 
agents  and  correspondents,  who  were  not  them- 
selves always  trusted  with  the  entire  seciet.  By 
degrees  they  got  possession  nearly  of  all  the  re- 
views and  periodical  publications,  established  a 
general  intercourse  by  means  of  hawkers  and 
pedlars  with  the  distant  provinces,  and  instituted 
an  office  to  supply  all  schools  with  teachers  ;  and 
thus  did  they  acquire  unprecedented  dominion 
over  every  species  of  literature,  over  the  minds  of 
all  ranks  of  people,  and  over  the  education  ot 
youth,  without  giving  any  alarm  to  the  world. 
The  lovers  of  wit  and  polite  literature  were 
caught  by  Voltaire  ;  the  men  of  science  were  per- 
verted, and  children  corrupted  in  the  first  rudi- 
ments of  learning,  by  D' Alembert  and  Uiderot ; 
stronger  appetites  were  fed  by  the  secret  club  of 
Baron  Holbach ;  the  imaginations  of  the  higher 
orders  were  set  dangerously  afloat  by  Montes- 
quieu ;  and  the  multitude  of  all  ranks  was  sur- 
prised, confounded,  and  hurried  away  by  Rousseau. 
Thus  was  the  public  mind  in  France  completely 
corrupted,  and  which  no  doubt  greatly  accelerated 
those  dreadful  events  which  disgraced  the  course 
of  the  French  revolution. 

PHILOSOPHY  properly  denotes  love,  or  de- 
sire of  wisdom  (from  p«7ue  and  <ra$tx.)  Pytha- 
goras was  the  first  who  devised  this  name,  because 
he  thought  no  man  was  wise,  but  God  only  ;  and 
that  learned  men  ought  rather  to  be  considered  as 
lovers  of  wisdom  than  really  wise.  1.  Natural 
philosophy  is  that  art  or  science  which  leads  us  to 
contemplate  the  nature,  causes,  and  effects  of  the 
material  works  of  God. — 2.  Moral  philosophy  is 
the  science  of  manners,  the  knowledge  of  our 
duty  and  felicity.  The  various  articles  included  in 
the  latter  are  explained  in  their  places  in  this  work. 
PHOTINIANS,  a  sect  of  heretics,  in  the 
fourth  century,  who  denied  the  divinity  of  our 
Lord.  They  derive  their  name  from  Photinus, 
their  founder,  who  was  bishop  of  Sermium,  and 
a  disciple  of  Marcellus.  Photinus  published,  in 
the  year  313,  his  notions  respecting  the  Deity, 
which  were  repugnant  both  to  the  orthodox  and 
Arian  systems.  He  asserted  that  Jesus  Christ 
was  born  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  the  Virgin 
Mary ;  and  that  a  certain  divine  emanation, 
which  he  called  the  Ward,  descended  upon  him  ; 
and  that,  because  of  the  union  of  the  Divine 
Word  with  his  human  nature,  he  was  called  the 
Son  of  God,  and  even  God  himself;  and  that  the 
Hcly  Ghost  was  not  a  person,  but  merely  a  ce- 
lestial virtue  proceeding  from  the  Deity. 

PHP^YGIANS,  or  Catafhrygians,  a  sect  in 
the  second  century ;  so  called,  as  Leing  of  the 
country  of  Phrygia.  They  were  orthodox  in 
every  thing,  setting  aside  this,  that  they  took 
Montanus  for  a  prophet,  andPriscilla  and  Maxi- 
milla  for  true  prophetesses,  to  be  consulted  in 
every  thing  relating  to  religion  ;  as  supposing  tho 
Holy  Spirit  had   abandoned   the   church.     Si  a 

MOXTANISTS. 


PICARDS 

PHYLACTERY,  in  the  general,  was  a  name 
given  by  the  ancients  to  all  kinds  of  charms, 
spells,  or  characters,  which  they  wore  about  them 
as  amulets,  to  preserve  them  from  dangers  or 
diseases. 

Ph ylactcry  particularly  denoted  a  slip  of  parch- 
ment, wherein  was  written  some  text  of  holy 
Scripture,  particularly  of  the  decalogue,  which 
the  more  devout  people  among  the  Jews  wore  at 
the  forehead,  the  breast,  or  the  neck,  as  a  mark 
of  their  religion. 

The  primitive  Christians  also  gave  the  name 
phylacteries  to  the  cases  wherein  they  inclosed 
the  relics  of  their  dead.  Phylacteries  are  often 
mentioned  in  the  New  Testament.,  and  appear  to 
ha\e  been  very  common  among  the  Pharisees  in 
our  Lord's  time. 

PICARDS,  a  sect  which  arose  in  Bohemia, 
in  the  lifteenth  century.  Picard,  the  author  of 
this  sect,  from  whom  it  derived  its  name,  drew 
after  him,  as  has  been  generally  said,  a  number 
of  men  and  women,  pretending  he  would  restore 
them  to  the  primitive  state  of  innocence  wherein 
man  was  created ;  and  accordingly  he  assumed 
the  title  of  New  Adam.  With  this  pretence,  he 
taught  his  followers  to  give  themselves  up  to  all 
impurity,  saying,  that  therein  consisted  the  liberty 
of  the  sons  of  God,  and  all  those  not  of  their 
sect  were  in  bondage.  He  first  published  his  no- 
tions in  Germany  and  the  Low  Countries,  and 
persuaded  many  people  to  go  naked,  and  gave 
them  the  name  of  Adamites.  After  this,  he 
seized  on  an  island  in  the  river  Lausnecz,  some 
leagues  from  Thabor,  the  head-quarters  of  Zisca, 
where  he  fixed  himself  and  his  followers.  His 
women  were  common,  but  none  were  allowed  to 
enjoy  them  without  his  permission ;  so  that  when 
any  man  desired  a  particular  woman,  he  carried 
her  to  Picard,  who  gave  him  leave  in  these  words  : 
Go,  increase,  multiply,  and  Jill  the  earth.  At 
length,  however,  Zisca,  general  of  the  Hussilrf 
(famous  for  his  victories  over  the  emperor  Sigis- 
inund,)  hurt  at  their  abominations,  marched 
against  them,  made  himself  master  of  their  island, 
and  put  them  all  to  death  except  two,  whom  he 
spared  that  he  might  learn  their  doctrine. 

Such  is  the  account  which  various  writers,  re- 
iving on  the  authorities  of  JEneas  Sylvius,  and 
Varillas,  have  given  of  the  Picards.  Some,  how- 
ever, doubt  whether  a  sect  of  this  denomination 
chargeable  with  such  wild  principles  and  such 
licentious  conduct,  ever  existed.  It  appears  pro- 
bable that  the  reproachful  representations  of  the 
writers  just  mentioned,  were  calumnies  invented 
and  propagated  in  order  to  disgrace  the  Picards, 
merely  because  they  deserted  the  communion,  and 
protested  against  the  errors  of  the  church  of 
Rome.  Lasitius  informs  us,  that  Picard,  together 
with  forty  other  persons,  besides  women  and 
children,  settled  in  Bohemia,  in  the  year  1418. 
Balbinus,  the  Jesuit,  in  his  Epitome  Rcruvi 
Bohemicarum,  lib.  ii.  gives  a  similar  account,  and 
charges  on  the  Picards  none  of  the  extravagances 
or  crimes  ascribed  to  them  by  Sylvius.  Schlecta, 
secretary  of  Ladislaus,  king  of  Bohemia,  in  his 
letters  to  Erasmus,  in  which  he  gives  a  particular 
account  of  the  Picards,  says,  that  they  considered 
the  pope,  cardinals,  and  bishops  of  Rome  as  the 
true  antichrists,  ami  the  adorers  of  the  consecrated 
elements  in  the  eucharist  as  downright  idolaters; 
that  they  denied  the  corporeal  presence  of  Christ 
tn  this  ordinance;  that  they  condemned  the  wor- 
310 


PIETISTS 
ship  of  saints,  prayers  for  the  dead,  auricular 
confession,  the  penance  imposed  by  priests,  the 
feasts  and  vigils  observed  in  the  Romish  church ; 
and  that  they  confined  themselves  to  the  "-bserv- 
ance  of  the  sabbath,  and  of  the  two  great  feasts 
of  Christmas  and  Pentecost.  From  this  account 
it  appears  that  they  were  no  other  than  the  Vau- 
dois  that  fled  from  persecution  in  their  own  coun- 
try, and  sought  refuge  in  Bohemia.  M.  De 
Beausobre  has  shown  that  they  were  both  of  the 
same  sect,  though  under  different  denominations. 
Besides,  it  is  certain  that  the  Vaudois  were  set- 
tled in  Bohemia  in  the  year  1178,  where  some  of 
them  adopted  the  rites  of  the  Greek,  and  others 
those  of  the  Latin  church.  1  he  former  were 
pretty  generally  adhered  to  till  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  when  the  establishment  of  the 
Latin  rites  caused  great  disturbance.  On  the 
commencement  of  the  national  troubles  in  Bohe- 
mia, on  account  of  the  opposition  of  the  papal 
power,  the  Picards  more  publicly  avowed  and  de- 
fended their  religious  opinions ;  and  they  formed 
a  considerable  body  in  an  island  by  the  river 
La  unitz,  or  Lausnecz,  in  the  district  of  Bechin, 
and,  recurring  to  arms,  were  defeated  by  Zisca. 

PIETISTS,  a  religious  sect  that  sprung  up 
among  the  Protestants  in  Germany  in  the  latter 
end  of  the  seventeenth  century.  Pietism  was  set 
on  foot  by  the  pious  and  learned  Spener,  who,  by 
the  private  societies  he  formed  at  Francfort  with 
a  design  to  promote  vital  religion,  roused  the  luke- 
warm from  their  indifference,  and  excited  a  spirit 
of  vigour  and  resolution  in  those  who  had  been 
satisfied  to  lament  in  silence  the  progress  of  im- 
piety. The  remarkable  effect  of  these  pious 
meetings  was  increased  by  a  book  he  published 
under  the  title  of  Pious  Desires,  in  which  he  ex- 
hibited a  striking  view  of  the  disorders  of  the 
church,  and  proposed  the  remedies  that  were 
proper  to  heal  them.  Many  persons  of  good  and 
upright  intentions  were  highly  pleased  both  with 
the  proceedings  and  writings  of  Spener ;  and,  in- 
deed, the  greatest  part  of  those  who  had  the  cause 
of  virtue  and  practical  religion  truly  at  heart,  ap- 
plauded the  designs  of  this  good  man,  though  an 
apprehension  of  abuses  retained  numbers  from 
encouraging  them  openly.  These  abuses  actu- 
ally happened.  The  remedies  proposed  by  Spe- 
ner to  heal  the  disorders  of  the  church  fell  into 
unskilful  hands,  were  administered  without  sa- 
gacity or  prudence,  and  thus,  in  many  cases, 
proved  to  be  worse  than  the  disease  itself.  Hence 
complaints  arose  against  these  institutions  of 
pietism,  as  if,  under  a  striking  appearance  of 
sanctity,  they  led  the  people  into  false  notions  of 
religion,  and  fomented  in  Chose  who  were  of  a 
turbulent  and  violent  character,  the  seeds  and 
principles  of  mutiny  and  sedition. 

These  complaints  would  have  been  undoubt- 
edly hushed,  and  the  tumults  they  occasioned 
would  have  subsided  by  degrees,  had  not  the  con- 
tests that  arose  at  Leipsic  in  the  year  1689  added 
fuel  to  the  flame.  Certain  pious  and  learned  pro- 
fessors of  philosophy,  and  particularly  Franckius, 
Schadius,  and  Paulus  Antonius,  the  disciples  of 
Spener,  who  at  that  tune  was  ecclesiastical  super- 
intendent of  the  court  of  Saxony.  I>egan  to  con- 
sider with  attention  the  defects  that  prevailed  in 
the  ordinary  method  of  instructing  the  candi- 
dates for  the  ministry  ;  and  this  review  persuaded; 
them  of  the  necessity  of  using  their  best  endea- 
vours to  supply  what  was  wanting,  and  correct 


PIETISTS 

what  was  amiss.  For  this  purpose  they  under- 
took to  explain  in  their  colleges  certain  books  of 
holy  Scripture,  in  order  to  render  these  genuine 
sources  of  religious  knowledge  better  understood, 
and  to  promote  a  spirit  of  practical  piety  and  vital 
religion  in  the  minds  of  their  hearers.  The  no- 
velty of  this  method  drew  attention,  and  rendered 
it  singularly  pleasing  to  many ;  accordingly,  these 
lectures  were  much  frequented,  and  their  effects 
were  visible  in  the  lives  and  conversations  of  se- 
veral persons,  whom  they  seemed  to  inspire  with 
a  deep  sense  of  the  importance  of  religion  and 
virtue.  Many  things,  however,  it  is  said,  were 
clone  in  these  Biblical  Colleges  (as  they  were 
called,)  which,  though  they  might  be  looked  upon 
by  equitable  and  candid  judges  as  worthy  of  tole- 
ration and  indulgence,  were,  nevertheless,  con- 
trary to  custom,  and  far  from  being  consistent 
with  prudence.  Hence  rumours  were  spread, 
tumults  excited,  animosities  kindled,  and  the 
matter  at  length  brought  to  a  public  trial,  in 
which  the  pious  and  learned  men  above  mention- 
ed were,  indeed,  declared  free  from  the  errors  and 
heresies  that  had  been  laid  to  their  charge,  but 
were,  at  the  same  time,  prohibited  from  carrying 
on  the  plan  of  religious  instruction  they  had  un- 
dertaken with  such  zeal.  It  was  during  these 
troubles  and  divisions  that  the  invidious  denomi- 
nation of  Pietists  was  first  invented ;  it  may,  at 
least,  be  affirmed,  that  it  was  not  commonly 
tnown  before  this  period.  It  was  at  first  applied 
By  some  giddy  and  inconsiderate  persons  to  those 
who  frequented  the  Biblical  Colleges,  and  lived 
in  a  manner  suitable  to  the  instructions  and  ex- 
hortations that  were  addressed  to  them  in  these 
seminaries  of  piety.  It  was  afterwards  made  use 
of  to  characterize  all  those  who  were  either  dis- 
tinguished by  the  excessive  austerity  of  their 
manners,  or  who,  regardless  of  truth  and  opinion, 
were  only  intent  upon  practice,  and  turned  the 
whole  vigour  of  their  efforts  towards  the  attain- 
ment of  religious  feelings  and  habits.  But,  as  it 
is  the  fate  of  all  those  denominations  by  which 
peculiar  sects  are  distinguished,  to  be  variously 
and  often  very  improperly  applied,  so  the  title  of 
Pietists  was  frequently  given,  in  common  con- 
versation, to  persons  of  eminent  wisdom  and 
sanctity,  who  were  equally  remarkable  for  their 
adherence  to  truth,  and  their  love  of  piety ;  and, 
not  seldom,  to  persons  whose  motley  characters 
exhibited  an  enormous  mixture  of  profligacy  and 
enthusiasm,  and  who  deserved  the  title  of  deliri- 
ous fanatics  better  than  any  other  denomination. 
This  contest  was  by  no  means  confined  to  Leip- 
sic,  but  spread  with  incredible  celerity  through  all 
the  Lutheran  churches  in  the  different  states  and 
kingdoms  of  Europe.  For,  from  this  time,  in  all 
the  cities,  towns,  and  villages  where  Lutheranism 
was  professed,  there  started  up,  all  of  a  sudden, 
persons  of  various  ranks  and  professions,  of  both 
sexes,  who  declared  that  they  were  called  by  a 
divine  impulse,  to  pull  up  iniquity  by  the  root; 
to  restore  to  its  primitive  lustre,  and  propagate 
through  the  world,  the  declining  cause  of  piety 
and  virtue;  to  govern  the  church  of  Christ  by 
wiser  rules  than  those  by  which  it  was  at  present 
directed  ;  and  who,  partly  in  their  writings,  and 
partly  in  their  private  and  public  discourses, 
jtointed  out  the  means  and  measures  that  were 
necessary  to  bring  about  this  important  revolu- 
tion. Several  religious  societies  were  (firmed  in 
various  places,  which,  though  they  differed  in 
341 


PIETISTS 
some  circumstances,  and  were  not  all  conducteJ 
and  composed  with  equal  wisdom,  piety,  and  pru- 
dence, were,  however,  designed  to  promote  the 
same  general  purpose.  In  the  mean  time,  these 
unusual  proceedings  filled  with  uneasy  and 
alarming  apprehensions  both  those  who  were  en- 
trusted with  the  government  of  the  church,  and 
those  who  sat  at  the  helm  of  the  state.  These 
apprehensions  were  justified  by  this  important 
consideration,  that  the  pious  and  well-meaning 
persons  who  composed  these  assemblies,  had  in- 
discreetly admitted  into  their  community  a  parcel 
of  extravagant  and  hot-headed  fanatics,  who  fore- 
told the  approaching  destruction  of  Babel,  (by 
which  they  meant  the  Lutheran  church,)  terri- 
fied the  populace  with  fictitious  visions,  assumed 
the  authority  of  prophets  honoured  with  a  divine 
cominission,"obscured  thesublime  truths  of  religion 
by  a  gloomy  kind  of  jargon  of  their  own  invention, 
and  revived  doctrines  that  had  long  before  been 
condemned  by  the  church.  The  most  violent 
debates  arose  in  all  the  Lutheran  churches;  and 
persons  whose  differences  were  occasioned  rather 
by  mere  words  and  questions  of  little  consequence, 
than  by  any  doctrines  or  institutions  of  consi- 
derable importance,  attacked  one  another  with 
the  bitterest  animosity ;  and,  in  many  countries, 
severe  laws  were  at  length  enacted  against  the 
Pietists. 

These  revivers  of  piety  were  of  two  kinds, 
who,  by  their  different  manner  of  proceeding,  de- 
serve to  be  placed  in  two  distinct  classes.  One 
sect  of  these  practical  reformers  proposed  to  carry 
on  their  plan  without  introducing  any  change 
into  the  doctrine,  discipline,  or  form  of  govern- 
ment that  were  established  in  the  Lutheran 
church.  The  other  maintained,  on  the  contrary, 
that  it  was  impossible  to  promote  the  progress  of 
real  piety  among  the  Lutherans  without  making 
considerable,  alterations  in  their  doctrine,  and 
changing  the  whole  form  of  their  ecclesiastical 
discipline  and  polity.  The  former  had  at  their 
head  the  learned  and  pious  Spener,  who,  in  the 
year  1691,  removed  from  Dresden  to  Berlin,  and 
whose  sentiments  were  adopted  by  the  professors 
of  the  new  academy  of  Hall ;  and  particularly  by 
Franckius  and  Paulus  Antonius,  who  had  been 
invited  thither  from  Leipsic,  where  they  began  to 
be  suspected  of  Pietism.  Though  few  pretended 
to  treat  either  with  indignation  or  contempt,  the 
intentions  and  purposes  of  these  good  men  (which, 
indeed,  none  could  despise,  without  affecting  to 
appear  the  enemy  of  practical  religion  and  vir- 
tue,) yet  many  eminent  divines,  and  more  espe- 
cially the  professors  and  pastors  of  Wittenberg, 
were  of  opinion,  that,  in  the  execution  of  this 
laudable  purpose,  several  maxims  were  adopted, 
and  certain  measures  employed,  that  were  preju- 
dicial to  the  trutli,  and  also  detrimental  to  the 
interests  of  the  church.  Hence  they  looked  on 
themselves  as  obliged  to  proceed  publicly  against 
Spener,  in  the  year  1695,  and  afterwards  against 
his  disciples  and  adherents,  as  the  inventors  and 
promoters  of  erroneous  and  dangerous  opinions. 
These  debates  are  of  a  recent  date  ;  so  that  those 
who  are  desirous  of  knowing  more  particularly 
how  far  the  principles  of  equity,  moderation,  and 
candour,  influenced  the  minds  and  directed  the 
conduct  of  the  contending  parties,  may  easily  re- 
ceive a  satisfactory  information. 

These  debates  turned  upon  a  variety  of  points, 
and  therefore  the  matter  of  them  cannot  be  com- 
•2d2 


PIETISTS 

preheniled  under  any  one  general  head.  If  we 
consider  them,  indeed,  in  relation  to  their  origin, 
and  the  circumstances  that  gave  rise  to  them,  we 
shall  then  be  able  to  reduce  them  to  some  fixed 
principles.  It  is  well  known,  that  those  who  had 
the  advancement  of  piety  most  zealously  at  heart, 
were  possessed  of  a  notion  that  no  order  of  men 
contributed  mure  to  retard  its  progress  than  the 
el-ergy,  whose  peculiar  vocation  it  was  to  incul- 
cate and  promote  it.  Looking  upon  this  as  the 
root  of  the  evil,  it  was  but  natural  that  their  plans 
of  reformation  should  begin  here ;  and  accord- 
ingly, they  laid  it  down  as  an  essential  principle, 
that  none  should  be  admitted  into,  the  ministry 
but  such  as  had  received  a  proper  education,  were 
distinguished  by  their  wisdom  and  sanctity  of 
manners,  and  had  hearts  filled  with  divine  love. 
Hence  they  proposed,  in  the  first  place,  a  tho- 
rough reformation  of  the  schools  of  divinity  ;  and 
they  explained  dearly  enough  what  they  meant 
by  this  reformation,  which  consisted  in  the  follow- 
ing points:  That  the  systematic  theology  which 
reigned  in  the  academies,  and  was  composed  of 
intricate  and  disputable  doctrines,  and  obscure 
and  unusual  forms  of  expression,  should  be  to- 
tally abolished :  that  polemical  divinitv,  which 
comprehended  the  controversies  subsisting  be- 
tween Christians  of  different  communions,  should 
lie  less  eagerly  studied,  and  less  frequently  treat- 
ed, though  not  entirely  neglected;  that  all  mix- 
ture of  philosophy  and  human  learning  with 
divine  wisdom,  was  to  be  most  carefully  avoided  ; 
that,  on  the  contrary,  all  those  who  were  designed 
for  the  ministry  should  be  accustomed  from  their 
earlv  youth  to  the  perusal  and  study  of  the  holy 
Scriptures ;  that  they  should  he  taught  a  plain 
system  of  theology  drawn  from  these  unerring 
sou/ces  of  truth ;  and  that  the  whole  course  of 
their  education  was  to  be  so  directed  as  to  render 
them  useful  in  life,  by  the  practical  power  of  their 
doctrine,  and  the  commanding  influence  of  their 
example.  As  these  maxims  were  propagated 
with  the  greatest  industry  and  zeal,  and  were  ex- 
plained inadvertently,  by  some,  without  those 
restrictions  which  prudence  seemed  to  require, 
these  professed  patrons  and  revivers  of  piety 
were  suspected  of  designs  that  could  not  but  ren- 
der them  obnoxious  to  censure.  They  were 
supposed  to  despise  philosophy  and  learning;  to 
treat  with  indifference,  and  even  to  renounce,  all 
inquiries  into  the  nature  and  foundations  of  reli- 
gious truth  ;  to  disapprove  of  the  zeal  and  labours 
of  those  who  defended  it  against  such  as  either 
corrupted  or  opposed  it;  and  to  place  the  whole 
ol  their  theology  in  certain  vague  and  incoherent 
declamations  concerning  the  duties  of  morality. 
Hence  arose  those  famous  disputes  concerning 
the  use  of  philosophy,  and  the  value  of  human 
learning,  considered  in  connexion  with  the  in- 
terests of  religion,  the  dignity  and  usefulness  of 
systematic  theology,  the  necessity  of  polemic 
divinity,  the  excellence  of  the  mystic  system,  and 
also  concerning  the  true  method  of  instructing 
the  people. 

The  second  great  object  that  employed  the  zeal 
and  attention  of  the  persons  now  under  consi- 
deration, was,  that  the  candidates  for  the  minis- 
try should  not  only  for  the  future  receive  such  an 
academical  education  as  would  tend  rather  to 
solid  utility  than  to  mere  speculation ;  but  also 
that  they  should  dedicate  themselves  to  God  in  a 
peculiar  manner,  and  exlubit  the  most  striking 
342 


PIETISTS 
examples  of  piety  and  virtue.  This  maxim, 
which,  when  considered  in  it-self,  must  be  con 
siilered  to  be  highly  laudable,  not  only  gave  o<-- 
casioo  to  several  new  regulations,  designed  to 
restrain  the  passions  of  the  studious  youth,  to 
inspire  them  with  pious  sentiments,  and  to  excite 
in  them  holy  resolutions,  but  also  produced  ano- 
ther maxim,  which  was  a  lasting  source  of  con- 
troversy and  debate,  viz.  "  That  no  person  that 
was  not  himself  a  model  of  piety  and  divine  love, 
was  qualified  to  be  a  public  teacher  of  piety,  or  ■) 
guide  to  others  in  the  way  of  salvation."  This 
opinion  was  considered  by  many  as  derogatory 
from  the  power  and  efficacy  of  the  word  of  God, 
which  cannot  be  deprived  of  its  divine  influence 
by  the  vices  of  its  ministers;  and  as  a  sort  of  re- 
vival of  the  long-exploded  errors  of  the  Dona- 
tists  ;  and  what  rendered  it  peculiarly  liable  to  an 
interpretation  of  this  nature  was,  the  imprudence 
of  some  Pietists,  who  inculcated  and  explained 
it  without  those  restrictions  that  were  necessary 
to  render  it  unexceptionable.  Hence  arose  end- 
less and  intricate  debates  concerning  the  follow- 
ing questions:  "Whether  the  religious  know- 
ledge acquired  by  a  wicked  man  can  be  termed 
theology?"  "  Whether  a  vicious  person  can,  in 
effect,  attain  a  true  knowledge  of  religion?" 
"  How  far  the  office  and  ministry  of  an  impious 
ecclesiastic  can  be  pronounced  salutary  and  effi- 
cacious?" "  Whether  a  licentious  and  ungodly 
man  cannot  be  susceptible  of  illumination?"  and 
other  questions  of  a  like  nature. 

These  revivers  of  declining  piety  went  still 
further.  In  order  to  render  the  ministry  of  their 
pastors  as  successful  as  possible  in  rousing  men 
from  their  indolence,  and  in  stemming  the  tor- 
rent of  corruption  and  immorality,  they  judged 
two  things  indispensably  necessary.  The  first 
was,  to  suppress  entirely,  in  the  course  of  pub- 
lic instruction,  and  more  especially  in  that  de- 
livered from  the  pulpit,  certain  maxims  and 
phrases  which  the  corruption  of  men  leads  them 
frequently  to  interpret  in  a  manner  favourable  to 
the  indulgence  of  their  passions.  Such,  in  the 
judgment  of  the  Pietists,  were  the  following  pro- 
positions :  No  man  is  able  to  attain  to  that  per- 
fection which  the  divine  law  requires:  Good 
works  are  not  necessary  to  salvation:  In  the  art 
of  justification  on  the  part  of  man,  faith  alone 
is  concerned,  %cithout  good  works.  The  second 
step  they  *ook  in  order  to  give  efficacy  to  their 
plans  of  reformation,  was  to  form  new  rules  of 
life  and  manners,  much  more  rigorous  and  aus- 
tere than  those  that  had  been  formerly  practised  ; 
and  to  place  in  the  class  of  sinful  and  unlaw- 
ful gratifications,  several  kinds  of  pleasure  and 
amusement  which  had  hitherto  been  looked  upon 
as  innocent  in  themselves,  and  which  could  only 
become  good  or  evil  in  consequence  of  the  re- 
spective characters  of  those  who  used  them  with 
prudence,  or  abused  them  with  intemperance. 
Thus,  dancing,  pantomimes,  public  sports,  the- 
atrical diversions,  the  reading  of  humorous  and 
comical  books,  with  several  other  kinds  of  plea* 
sure  and  entertainment,  were  prohibited  by  the 
Pietists  as  unlawful  and  unseemly,  and  therefore 
by  no  means  of  an  indifferent  nature.  The  third 
thing  on  which  the  Pietists  insisted,  was,  that, 
besides  the  stated  meetings  for  public  worship, 
private  assemblies  should  tie  held  tor  prayer  anj 
other  religious  exercises. 

The  other  class  of  Pietists  already  mentioned, 


PIETY 

whose  reforming  views  extended  so  far  as  to 
change  the  system  of  doctrine  and  the  form  of 
ecclesiastical  government  that  were  estahlished  in 
the  Lutheran  church,  comprehended  persons  of 
various  characters,  and  different  ways  of  think- 
ing. Some  of  them  were  totally  destitute  of  judg- 
ment ;  their  errors  were  the  reveries  of  a  dis- 
ordered hrain  ;  and  they  were  rather  considered 
as  lunatics  than  as  heretics.  Others  were  less 
extravagant,  and  tempered  the  singular  notions 
they  had  derived  from  reading  or  meditation, 
with  a  certain  mixture  of  the  important  truths 
and  doctrines  of  religion. 

So  far  Mosheim,  whose  account  of  the  Pietists 
seems  to  have  been  drawn  up  with  a  degree  of 
severity.  Indeed,  he  represents  the  real  charac- 
ter of  Franck  and  his  colleagues  as  regardless  of 
truth  and  opinion.  A  more  recent  historian,  how- 
ever, (Dr.  Haweis)  observes,  "that  no  men  more 
rigidly  contended  for,  or  taught  more  explicitly 
the  fundamental  doctrines  of  Christianity:  from 
all  1  have  read  or  known,  I  am  disposed  to  be- 
lieve thev  were  remarkably  amiable  in  their  beha- 
viour, kind  in  their  spirit,  and  compassionate  to 
the  feeble-minded." 

PIE  VY  consists  in  a  firm  belief,  and  in  right 
conceptions  of  the  being,  perfections,  and  provi- 
dence of  God  ;  with  suitable  affections  to  him, 
resemblance  of  his  moral  perfections,  and  a  con- 
stant obedience  to  his  will.  The  different  articles 
included  in  this  definition,  such  as  knowledge, 
veneration,  love,  resignation,  &c.  are  explained  in 
their  proper  places  in  this  work. 

We  shall,  however,  present  the  reader  with  a 
few  ideas  on  the  subject  of  early  piety ;  a  sub- 
ject of  infinite  importance,  and  which  we  beg 
our  young  readers  especially  to  regard.  "  Youth," 
savs  Mr.  Jay,  "is  a  period  which  presents  the 
fewest  obstacles  to  the  practice  of  godliness, 
whether  we  consider  our  external  circumstances. 
our  nature,  pov/ers,  or  our  moral  habits.  In  that 
season  we  are  most  free  from  those  troubles  which 
imbitter,  those  schemes  which  engross,  those  en- 
gagements  which  hinder  us  in  more  advanced 
and  connected  life.  Then  the  body  possesses 
health  and  strength  ;  the  memory  is  receptive  and 
tenacious;  the  fancy  glows;  the  mind  is  lively 
and  vigorous;  the  understanding  is  more  docile; 
the  affections  are  more  easily  touched  and  moved : 
we  are  more  accessilile  to  the  influence  of  joy 
and  sorrow,  hope  and  fear;  we  engage  in  an  en- 
terprise with  more  expectation,  and  ardour,  and 
zeal.  Under  the  legal  oeconomy,  the  first  was  to 
be  chosen  for  God  ;  the  first-born  of  man ;  the 
first-born  of  beasts,  the  first-fruits  of  the  field. 
It  was  an  honour  becoming  the  God  they  wor- 
shipped, to  serve  him  first.  This  duty  the  young 
alone  can  spiritualize  and  fulfil,  by  giving  Him 
who  deserves  all  their  lives  the  first-born  of  their 
days,  and  the  first-fruits  of  their  reason  and  their 
affection:  and  never  have  they  such  an  oppor- 
tunity to  prove  the  goodness  of  their  motives  as 
they  then  possess.  See  an  old  man  :  what  does 
he  offer  1  His  riches?  but  he  can  use  them  no 
longer.  His  pleasures?  but  he  can  enjoy  them 
no  longer.  His  honour?  but  it  is  withered  on 
his  brow.  His  authority  ?  but  it  has  dropped 
from  his  feeble  hand.  He  leaves  his  sins  ;  but  it 
is  because  they  will  no  longer  bear  him  company. 
He  ties  from  the  world  ;  but  it  is  because  he  is 
burnt  out.  He  enters  the  temple ;  but  it  is  as  a 
sanctuary ;  it  is  only  to  take  hold  of  the  honw  of 
343 


FIETY 
the  altar ;  it  is  a  refuge,  not  a  place  of  devotion, 
he  seeks.  But  they  who  consecrate  to  him  their 
youth,  they  do  not  profanely  tell  him  to  suspend 
his  claims  till  the  rest  are  served  ;  till  they  have 
satisfied  the  world  and  the  flesh,  bis  degrading 
rivals.  They  do  not  send  him  forth  to  gather 
among  the  stubble  the  gleanings  of  life,  after  the 
enemy  has  secured  the  harvest.  They  are  not 
like  those,  who,  if  they  reach  Immanuel's  land, 
are  forced  thither  by  shipwreck :  they  sail  thither 
by_  intention. 

"Consider  the  beneficial  influence  of  early 
piety  over  the  remainder  of  our  days.  Youth  is 
the  spring  of  life,  and  by  this  will  be  determined 
the  glory  of  summer,  the  abundance  of  autumn, 
the  provision  of  winter.  It  is  the  morning  of 
life ;  and  if  the  sun  of  righteousness  does  not  dis- 
pel the  moral  mists  and  fogs  before  noon,  the 
whole  day  generally  remains  overspread  and 
gloomy.  Piety  and  youth  will  have  a  good  influ- 
ence over  our  bodies ;  it  will  preserve  them  from 
disease  and  deformity.  Sin  variously  tends  to 
the  injury  of  health;  and  often  by  intemperance 
the  constitution  is  so  impaired,  that  late  religion 
is  unable  to  restore  what  early  religion  would  have, 
prevented.  Early  piety  will  have  a  good  influence 
to  secure  us  from  all  those  dangers  to  which  we 
are  exposed  in  a  season  of  life  the  most  perilous. 
Conceive  of  a  youth  entering  a  world  like  this, 
destitute  of  the  presiding,  governing  care  of  re- 
ligion; his  passions  high,  his  prudence  weak,  im- 
patient, rash,  confident  without  experience ;  a 
thousand  avenues  of  seduction  opening  around 
him,  and  a  siren  voice  singing  at  the  entrance  of 
each  ;  pleased  with  appearances,  and  embracing 
theni  for  realities,  joined  by  evil  company,  and 
ensnared  by  erroneous  publications :  these  hazards 
exceed  all  the  alarm  I  can  give.  How  necessary, 
therefore,  that  we  should  trust  in  the  Lord  with 
all  our  hearts,  and  lean  not  to  our  own  under- 
standing ;  but  in  all  our  ways  acknowledge  him, 
that  he  may  direct  our  paths! 

"  Early  piety  will  have  a  beneficial  influence 
in  forming  our  connexions,  and  establishing  our 
plans  for  life.  It  will  teach  us  to  ask  counsel  of 
the  Lord,  and  arrange  all  under  the  supcrintend- 
ency  of  Scripture.  Those  changes  which  a  per- 
son who  becomes  religious  in  manhood  is  obliged 
to  make,  are  always  very  embarrassing.  With 
what  difficulty  do  some  good  men  establish  family 
worship,  after  living,  in  the  view  of  children  and 
servants,  so  long  in  the  neglect  of  it ! — but  this 
would  have  been  avoided,  had  they  early  followed 
the  example  of  Joshua :  '  As  for  me  and  my  house, 
we  will  serve  the  Lord.'  How  hard  is  it  to  dis- 
entangle ourselves  from  associates  with  whom  we 
have  been  lonff  familiar,  and  who  have  proved  a 
snare  to  our  souls !  Some  evils,  indeed,  are  reme- 
diless ;  persons  have  formed  alliances  which  they 
cannot  dissolve:  but  they  did  not  walk  by  the 
rule,  '  Be  ye  not  unequally  yoked  together  with 
unbelievers:'  they  are  now  wedded  to  misery  all 
their  days;  and  repentance,  instead  of  visiting 
them  like  a  faithful  friend,  to  elude  them  when 
they  do  wrong,  and  withdraw,  is  quartered  upon 
them  for  lite.  An  early  dedication  to  God,  there- 
fore, renders  a  religious  life  more  easy,  pleasant, 
and  safe.  It  is  of  unspeakable  advantage  also  un- 
der the  calamities  of  life.  It  turns  the  curse  into 
a  blessing ;  it  enters  the  house  of  mourning,  and 
soothes  the  troubled  nui,d ;  it  prepares  us  for  all, 
sustains  us  in  all,  sanctifies  us  by  all,  and  delivers 


PILGRIMAGE 

09  fiom  all.  Finally,  it  will  bless  old  age  :  we  shall 
■ook  back  with  pleasure  on  some  instances  of  use- 
fulness ;  to  some  poor  traveller,  to  whom  we  have 
lieen  a  refreshing  stream;  some  deluded  wanderer 
we  guided  into  the  path  of  peace.  We  shall  look 
forward,  and  see  the  God  who  has  guided  us  with 
his  counsel,  and  be  enabled  to  say,  'Henceforth 
ihere  is  laid  up  for  me  a  crown  of  righteousness, 
which  the  Lord,  the  righteous  Judge,  shall  give 
me  at  that  day ;  and  not  to  me  only,  but  unto  all 
them  that  love  his  appearing.'  "  jay's  Ser.  vol. 
i.ser.  5  ;  Jennings's,  Evans's,  Doddridge's,  Jer- 
ment's,  and  Thornton's  Sermons  to  Young  Peo- 
ple ;  Brysan's  Address  to  Youth. 

PILGRIM,  one  who  travels  through  foreign 
countries  to  visit  holy  places,  and  to  pay  his  devo- 
tion to  the  relics  of  dead  saints.  The  word  is  form- 
ed from  the  Flemish  pelgrim,  or  Italian  pelegrino, 
which  signifies  the  same;  and  those  originally 
from  the  Latin  peregrinus,  a  stranger  or  traveller. 

PILGRIMAGE,  a  kind  of  religious  discipline, 
which  consists  in  faking  a  journey  to  some  holy 
place,  in  order  to  adore  the  relics  of  some;  deceas- 
ed saint.  Pilgrimages  began  to  he  made  about 
the  middle  ages  of  the  church,  but  they  were  most 
in  vogue  after  the  end  of  the  eleventh  century, 
when  every  one  was  for  visiting  places  of  devo- 
tion, not  excepting  kings  and  princes;  and  even 
bishops  made  no  difficulty  of  being  absent  from 
their  churches  on  the  same  account.  The  places 
most  visited  were  Jerusalem,  Rome,  Tours,  and 
Compostella.  As  to  the  latter  place,  we  find  that 
in  the  year  1428,  under  the  reign  of  Henry  VI. 
abundance  of  licenses  were  granted  by  the  crown 
of  England  to  captains  of  English  ships,  for  car- 
rying numbers  of  devout  persons  thither,  to  the 
shrine  of  St.  James;  provided,  however,  that 
those  pilgrims  should  first  take  an  oath  not  to 
convey  any  thing  prejudicial  to  England,  nor  to 
reveal  any  of  its  secrets,  nor  to  carry  out  with 
them  any  more  gold  or  silver  than  what  would  be 
sufficient  for  their  reasonable  expenses.  In  this 
yea;  there  went  thither  from  England  on  the  said 
pilgrimage  the  following  number  of  persons  :  from 
London  280,  Bristol  '200,  Weymouth  12*2,  Dart- 
mouth DO,  Yarmouth  GO,  Jersev  60,  Plymouth 
40,  Exeter  30,  Poole  24,  Ipswich  20;  in  all,  926 
persons.  Of  late  years  the  greatest  numbers 
nave  resorted  to  Loretto,  in  order  to  visit  the 
chamber  of  the  blessed  Virgin,  in  which  she  was 
bom,  and  brought  up  her  son  Jesus  till  he  was 
twelve  years  of  age. 

In  almost  every  country  where  popery  has  been 
established,  pilgrimages  have  been  common.  In 
England,  the  shrine  of  St.  Thomas-a-Becket  was 
the  chief  resort  of  the  pious;  and  in  Scotland, 
St.  Andrews,  where,  as  tradition  informs  us,  was 
deposited  a  leg  of  the  holy  apostle.  In  Ireland 
they  have  been  continued  even  down  to  modern 
tunes;  lor  from  the  beginning  of  May  till  the 
middle  of  August  every  year,  crowds  of  popish 
penitents  from  all  parts  of  that  country  resoit  to 
tm  island  near  the  centre,  of  Lough  Pin,  or 
White  Lake,  in  the  county  of  Donegal,  to  the 
amount  of  3000  or  4000.  These  are  mostly  of 
the  poorer  sort,  and  many  of  them  are  proxies  for 
(hose  who  are  richer;  some  of  whom,  however, 
together  with  some  of  the  priests  and  bishops  on 
occasion,  make  their  appearance  there,  when 
the  pilgrim  comes  within  sight  of  the  holy  lake,  In- 
must  uncover  his  hands  ami  feet,  and  thus  walk 
to  the  water  side,  and  is  taken  to  the  island  fci 
344 


PILGRIMAGE 

six-pence.  Here  there  are  two  chapels,  and  fifteen 
other  houses;  to  which  are  added  confessionals 
so  contrived,  that  the  priest  cannot  see  the  person 
confessing.  The  penance  varies  according  to  the 
circumstances  of  the  penitent;  during  the  con 
tinuance  of  which  (which  is  sometimes  three,  six, 
or  nine  days)  he  subsists  on  oatmeal,  sometimes 
made  into  bread.  He  traverses  sharp  stones  op 
his  bare  knees  or  feet,  and  goes  through  a  variety 
of  other  forms,  paving  six-pence  at  every  ditler- 
cnt  confession.  When  all  is  over,  the  priest  bores 
a  gimlet-hole  through  the  top  of  the  pilgrim's 
staff,  in  which  he  fastens  a  cross  peg;  gives  him 
as  many  holy  pebbles  out  of  the  lake  a.<  he  cares 
to  carry  away,  for  amulets  to  be  presented  to  his 
friends,  and  so  dismisses  him,  an  object  of  vene- 
ration to  all  other  Papists  not  thus  initiated  ;  who 
no  sooner  see  the  pilgrim's  cross  in  his  hands, 
than  they  kneel  down  to  get  his  blessing. 

There  arc,  however,  it  is  said,  other  parts  of 
Ireland  sacred  to  extraordinary  worship  and  pil- 
grimage; and  the  number  of  holy  wells,  and 
miraculous  cures,  &c.  produced  by  them,  are  very 
great.  That  such  things  should  exist  in  this 
enlightened  age,  and  in  a  Protestant  country,  is 
indeed  strange  ;  but  our  wonder  ceases  when  we 
reflect  that  it  is  among  the  lowest,  and  perhaps 
the  worst  of  the  people. 

Pilgrimage,  however,  is  not  peculiar  to  Roman 
Catholic  countries.  The  Mahometans  place  a 
great  part  of  their  religion  in  it.  Mecca  is  the 
grand  place  to  which  they  go;  and  this  pilgrim- 
age is  so  necessary  a  point  of  practice,  that,  ac- 
cording to  a  tradition  of  Mahomet,  he  who  dies 
without  performing  it,  may  as  well  die  a  Jew  or  a 
Christian ;  and  the  same  is  expressly  commanded 
in  the  Koran. 

What  is  principally  reverenced  in  this  place, 
and  gives  sanctity  to  the  whole,  is  a  square  stone 
building,  called  the  Caaba.  Before  the  time  of 
Mahomet  this  temple  was  a  place  of  worship  for 
the  idolatrous  Arabs,  and  is  said  to  have  con- 
tained no  less  than  three  hundred  and  sixty  dif- 
ferent images,  equalling  in  number  the  days  of 
the  Arabian  year.  They  were  all  destroyed  by 
Mahomet,  who  sanctified  the  Caaba,  and  ap- 
pointed it  to  be  the.  chief  place  of  worship  for  all 
true  believers.  The  Mussulmen  pay  so  great  a 
veneration  to  it,  that  they  believe  a  single  sight 
of  its  sacred  walls,  without  any  particular  act  of 
devotion,  is  as  meritorious  in  the  sight  of  God  as 
the  most  careful  discharge  of  one's  duty  for  the 
space  of  a  whole  year,  in  any  other  temple. 

To  this  temple  every  Mahometan  who  has 
health  and  means  sufficient,  ought  once,  at  least, 
in  his  life,  to  go  on  pilgrimage ;  nor  are  women 
excused  from  the  performance  of  this  duty.  The 
pilgrims  meet  at  dillorent  places  near  Mecca,  ac- 
cording to  the  different  parts  from  whence  they 
come,  during  the  months  of  Shawal  ana  Dhu'l- 
kaada,  being  obliged  to  be  there  by  the  beginning 
of  Dhu'lhajja  ;  which  month,  as  its  name  imports, 
is  peculiarly  set  apart  lor  the  celebration  of  this 
solemnity. 

The  men  put  on  the  Ihram,  or  sacred  habit, 
which  consists  only  of  two  woollen  wrappers,  one 
wrapped  about  the  middle,  and  the  other  thrown 
over  the  shoulders,  having  their  heads  bare,  and 
a  kind  of  slippers  which  cover  neither  the  heel 
nor  the  instep,  and  so  enter  the  sacred  territory 
in  their  way  to  Mecca.  While  they  have  this 
habit    on,    they   must   neither    hunt   nor  fowl, 


PILGRIMAGE 

(though  they  are  allowed  to  fish  ;)  which  precept 
is  so  punctually  observed,  that  they  will  not  kill 
vermin  it'  they  find  them  on  their  bodies  :  there 
are  sonic  noxious  animals,  however,  which  they 
have  permission  to  kill  during  the  pilgrimage;  as 
kites,  ravens,  scorpions,  mice,  and  dogs  given  to 
bite.  During  the  pilgrimage,  it  behoves  a  man 
to  have  a  constant  guard  over  his  words  and  ac- 
tions ;  to  avoid  all  quarrelling  or  ill  language,  all 
converse  with  women,  and  all  obscene  discourse ; 
and  to  apply  his  whole  attention  to  the  good  work 
he  is  engaged  in. 

The  pilgrims  being  arrived  at  Mecca,  imme- 
diately visit  the  temple,  and  then  enter  on  the 
performance  of  the  prescribed  ceremonies,  which 
consist  chiefly  in  going  in  procession  round  the 
Caaba,  in  running  between  the  mounts  Safa  and 
Meriva,  in  making  the  station  on  mount  Arafat, 
and  slaying  the  victims,  and  shaving  their  heads 
in  the  valley  of  Mina. 

In  compassing  the  Caaba,  which  they  do  seven 
times,  beginning  at  the  corner  where  the  black 
stone  is.  fixed,  they  use  a  short  quick  pace  the 
first  three  times  thev  go  round  it,  and  a  grave 
ordinary  pace  the  four  last ;  which,  it  is  said,  is 
ordered  by  Mahomet,  that  his  followers  might 
show  themselves  strong  and  active,  to  cut  off  the 
hopes  of  the  infidels,  who  gave  out  that  the  im- 
moderate heats  of  Medina  had  rendered  them 
weak.  But  the  aforesaid  quick  pace  they  are  not 
obliged  to  use  every  time  they  perform  this  piece 
of  devotion,  but  only  at  some  particular  times. 
So  often  as  they  yjass  by  the  black  stone,  they 
either  kiss  it,  or  touch  it  with  their  hand,  and  kiss 
that. 

The  running  hetween  Safa  and  Meriva  is  also 
performed  seven  times,  partly  with  a  slow  pace, 
and  partly  running:  for  they  walk  gravely  till 
they  come  to  a  place  between  two  pillars;  and 
there  they  run,  and  afterwards  walk  again,  some- 
times looking  buck,  and  sometimes  stopping,  like 
one  who  had  lost  something,  to  represent  Hagar 
seeking  water  for  her  son ;  for  the  ceremony  is 
said  to  be  as  ancient  as  her  time. 

On  the  ninth  of  Dhu'lhajja,  after  morning 
pravor,  the  pilgrims  leave  the  valley  of  Mina, 
whither  they  come  the  day  before,  and  pro- 
ceed in  a  tumultuous  and  rushing  manner  to 
mount  Arafat,  where  they  stay  to  perform  their 
devotions  till  sunset ;  then  they  go  to  Mozdalifa, 
an  oratory  between  Arafat  and  Mina,  and  there 
spend  the  night  in  prayer  and  reading  the  Koran. 
The  next  morning  by  day-break  the}'  visit  Al 
Masher  al  Karam,  or  the  sacred  monument ;  and, 
departing  thence  before  sun-rise,  haste  by  Batn 
Mohasser  to  the  valley  of  Mina,  where  they  throw 
seven  stones  at  three  marks  or  pillars,  in  imi- 
tation of  Abraham,  who,  meeting  the  devil  in  that 
place,  and  being  by  him  disturbed  in  his  devo- 
tions, or  tempted  to  disobedience  when  he  was 
going  to  sacrifice  ins  son,  was  commanded  by 
God  to  drive  him  away  by  throwing  stones  at 
him  ;  though  others  pretend  this  rite  to  be  as  old 
as  Adam,  who  also  put  the  devil  to  flight  in  the 
same  place,  and  by  the  same  means. 

The  ceremony  being  over,  on  the  same  day, 
the  tenth  of  Dhu'lhajja,  the  pilgrims  slay  their 
victims  in  the  said  valley  of  Mina,  of  which  they 
and  their  friends  eat  part,  and  the  rest  is  given  to 
the  poor.  These  victims  must  be  either  sheep, 
goats,  kine,  or  camels  ;  males,  if  of  either  of  the 
two  former  kinds,  and  females  if  of  either  of  the 
315  S  T 


PLASTIC 
latter,  and  of  &  lit  age.  The  sacrifices  being  over, 
fltey  shave  their  heads  and  cut  their  nails,  bury- 
ing them  in  the  same  place;  after  which  the  pil- 
grimage is  looked  on  as  completed,  though  they 
again  visit  the  Caaba,  to  take  their  leave  of  that 
sacred  building. 

Dr.  Johnson  gives  us  some  observations  en 
pilgrimage,  which  are  so  much  to  the  purpose, 
that  we  shall  here  present  them  to  the  reader. 
"  Pilgrimage,  like  man)'  other  acts  of  piety,  may 
be  reasonable  or  superstitious  according  to  the 
principles  upon  which  it  is  performed.  Long 
journeys  in  search  of  truth  arc  not  commanded : 
truth,  such  as  is  necessary  to  the  regulation  of 
life,  is  always  found  where  it  is  honestly  sought : 
change  of  place  is  no  natural  cause  of  the  in- 
crease of  piety,  for  it  inevitably  produces  dissipa- 
tion of  mind.  Yet,  since  men  go  every  day  to 
view  the  fields  where  great  actions  have  been  per- 
formed, and  return  with  stronger  impressions  of 
the  event,  curiosity  of  the  same  kind  may  na- 
turally dispose  us  to  view  that  country  whence 
our  religion  had  its  beginning.  That  the  Su- 
preme Being  may  be  more  easily  propitiated  in 
one  place  than  in  another,  is  the  dream  of  idle 
superstition ;  but  that  some  places  may  operate 
upon  our  own  minds  in  an  uncommon  manner, 
is  an  opinion  which  hourly  experience  w  ill  justify. 
He  who  supposes  that  his  vices  may  be  more  suc- 
cessfully combated  in  Palestine,  will,  perhaps,  find 
himself  mistaken ;  yet  he  may  go  thither  without 
folly  :  he  who  thinks  they  will  be  more  freely  par- 
doned, dishonours  at  once  his  reason  and  his  re- 
ligion." Johnson's  Rasselas;  Enc.  Brit.;  Hume's 
History  of  England.     See  Chisade. 

Poor  Pilgrims,  an  order  that  started  up  in  the 
year  1500.  They  came  out  of  Italy  into  Ger- 
many bare-footed  and  bare-headed,  feeding  all 
the  week,  except  on  Sundays,  upon  herbs  and 
roots  sprinkled  with  salt.  They  stayed  not  above 
twenty-four  hours  in  a  pl&ce.  They  went  by 
couples  begging  from  dcor  to  door.  This  penance 
they  undertook  voluntarily,  some  for  three,  others 
lor  five  or  seven  years,  as  they  pleased,  and  then 
returned  home  to  their  callings. 

PIOUS  FRAUDS  are  those  artifices  and 
falsehoods  made  use  of  in  propagating  the  truth, 
and  endeavouring  to  promote  the  spiritual  inte- 
rests of  mankind.  These  have  been  more  par- 
ticularly practised  in  the  church  of  Rome,  and 
considered  not  only  as  innocent,  but  commend- 
able. Neither  the  term  nor  the  thing  signified, 
however,  can  he  justified.  The  terms  piovs  and 
fraud  form  a  solecism;  and  the  practice  of  doing 
evil  that  good  may  come,  is  directly  opposite  to 
the  injunction  of  the  sacred  Scriptures,  Rum.  iii.  8. 

PITY  is  generally  defined  to  be  the  uneasi- 
ness we  feel  at  the  unhappiness  of  another, 
prompting  us  to  compassionate  them,  with  a  de- 
sire of  their  relief. 

Gcd  is  said  to  pihj  them  that  fear  him,  as  a  fa- 
ther pitieth  his  children.  The  father,  says  Mr. 
Henry,  pities  his  children  that  are  weak  in  know- 
ledge, and  instructs  tin  in ;  pities  them  when  they 
are  froward,  and  bears  with  them ;  pities  them 
when  they  are  sick,  and  comforts  them,  Is.  lxvi. 
\\\;  when  they  arc  fallen,  and  helps  them  up 
again;  when  they  have  offended,  and  forgives 
them;  when  they  are  wronged,  and  rights  them. 
Thus  the  Lord  pitieth  them  that  fear  him,  Pa. 
ciii.  lii.     See  Compassion  up  God. 

PLASTIC  NATURE,  an  absurd  doctrine, 


POLYGAMY 
whirl)  some  have  thus  described:— *' It  is  an  in- 
corporeal created  substance  endued  with  a  vege- 
tative life,  but  not  wilh  sensation  or  thought; 
penetrating  the  whole  created  universe,  being 
co-extended  with  it;  ami,  under  God,  moving  mat- 
ter, so  as  to  produce  the  phenomena  which  can- 
net  be  solved  by  mechanical  laws :  active  for  ends 
unknown  to  itself,  not  being  expressly  conscious 
of  its  actions,  and  yet  having  an  obscure  idea  of 
the  action  to  be  entered  upon."  To  this  it  has 
been  answered,  that,  as  the  idea  itself  is  most  ob- 
scure, and  indeed,  inconsistent,  so  the  foundation 
of  it  is  evidently  weak.  It  is  intended  by  this  to 
avoid  the  inconveniency  of  subjecting  God  to  the 
trouble  of  some  changes  in  the  created  world,  and 
the  meanness  of  others.  But  it  appears,  that, 
even  upon  this  hypothesis,  he  would  still  be  the 
author  of  them ;  besides,  that  to  Omnipoten.ee 
nothing  is  troublesome,  nor  those  things  mean, 
when  considered  as  part  of  a  system,  which  alone 
might  appear  to  be  so.  Doddridge's  Led.  lect. 
37;  CudwortlVs  Intellectual  System,  p.  149,  172; 
Mare's  Immor.  of  the  Soul,  1.  iii.  c.  12;  Ray's 
Wisdom  of  God,  p.  51,  52;  Lord  Monboddo's 
Ancient  .Metaphysics ;  Young's  Essay  on  the 
Powers  and  .Mechanism  of  Nature. 

PLATONICS,  NEW.  Sec  New  Platonics. 

PLEASURE,  the  delight  which  arises  in  the 
mind  from  contemplation  or  enjoyment  of  some- 
thing agreeable.     See  Happiness. 

PLENARY  INSPIRATION.  See  Inspi- 
ration'. 

PLURALIST,  one  that  holds  more  than  one 
ecclesiastical  benefice  with  sure  of  souls.  Epis- 
copalians contend  there  is  no  impropriety  in  a 
presbyter  holding  more  than  one  ecclesiastical 
benefice.  Others,  on  the  contrary,  affirm  that 
t!iis  practice  is  exactly  the  reverse  of  the  primi- 
tive churches,  as  well  as  the  instructions  of  the. 
apostle,  Tit.  i.  5.  Instead  of  a  plurality  of 
churches  to  one  paster,  they  say  we  ought  to 
have  a  plurality  of  pastors  to  one  church,  Acts 
xiv.  23. 

PNEUMATOLOGY,  the  doctrine  of  spi- 
ritual existence.     See  Soin.. 

POLONES  FRATRES.    See Socinuss. 

POLYGAMY,  the  state  of  having  more  wives 
than  one  at  once.  Though  this  article  (like  some 
others  we  have  inserted)  cannot  be  considered  as 
strictly  theological,  yet,  as  it  is  a  subject  of  im- 
portance to  society,  we  shall  here  introduce  it. 
The  circumstances  of  the  patriarchs  living  in 
polygamy,  and  their  not  being  reproved  for  it, 
ins  given  occasion  for  some  modern  writers  to 
suppose  that  it  is  not  unlawful;  but  it  is  answer- 
ed that  the  equality  in  the  number  of  males  and 
females  born  into  the  world  intimates  the  inten- 
tion ol  God  that  one  woman  should  be  assigned 
to  one  man:  "for,"  (says  Dr.  Paley,)  "if  to 
one  man  be  allowed  an  exclusive  right  to  five  or 
more  women,  four  or  more  men  must  be  deprived 
of  the  exclusive  possession  of  any;  which  would 
never  be  the  order  intended.  This  equality,  in- 
deed, is  not  quite  exact.  The  number  of  mate 
infants  exceeds  that  of  females  in  the  proportion 
Of  19  to  18,  or  thereabouts  ;  but  this  excess  pro- 
vides fur  the  greater  consumption  of  males  by 
war,  seafaring,  and  other  dangerous  or  unhealthy 
occupations.  It  seems  also  a  significant  indica- 
tion of  the  divine  will,  that  he  at  first  created  only 
one  woman  to  one  man.  Had  God  intended 
polygamy  for  the  species  it  is  probable  he  would 
34G 


POLYGAMY 

have  begun  with  it;  especially  as  by  giving  to 
Adam  more  wives  than  one,  the  multiplication 
of  the  human  race  would  have  proceeded  with  a 
quicker  progress.  Polygamy  not  only  violates 
the  constitution  of  nature,  and  the  apparent  de- 
sign of  the  Deity,  but  produces  to  the  parties 
themselves,  and  to  the  public,  the  following  bad 
effects :  contests  and  jealousies  amongst  the  wives 
of  the  same  husband;  distracted  affections,  or  the 
loss  of  all  affection  in  the  husband  himself;  a 
voluptuousness  in  the  rich  which  dissolves  the 
vigour  of  their  intellectual  as  well  as  active  fa- 
culties, producing  that  indoience  and  imbecility, 
both  of  mind  and  body,  which  have  long  charac- 
terized the  nations  of  the  East ;  the  abatement  of 
one-half  of  the  human  species,  who,  in  countries 
where  polygamy  obtains,  are  degraded  into  in- 
struments of  physical  pleasure  to  the  other  half; 
neglect  of  children  ;  and  the  manifold  and  some- 
times unnatural  mischiefs  which  arise  from  a 
scarcity  of  women.  To  compensate  for  these 
evils,  polygamy  does  not  offer  a  single  advantage. 
In  the  article  of  population,  which  it  has  been 
thought  to  promote,  the  community  gain  nothing 
(nothing,  I  mean,  compared  with  a  state  in  which 
marriage  is  nearly  universal;)  for  the  question  is 
not,  whether  one  man  will  have  more  children  by 
five  or  more  wives  than  by  one ;  but  whether  these 
five  wives  would  not  bear  the  same  or  a  greater 
number  of  children  to  five  separate  husbands. 
And  as  to  the  care  of  children  when  produced, 
and  the  sending  of  them  into  the  world  in  situ- 
ations in  which  they  may  be  likely  to  form  and 
bring  up  families  of  their  own,  upon  which  tho 
increase  and  succession  of  the  human  species  in 
a  great  degree  depend,  this  is  less  provided  for 
and  less  practicable,  where  twenty  or  thirty  chil- 
dren are  to  be  supported  by  the  attention  and 
fortunes  of  one  father,  than  if  they  were  divided 
into  five  or  six  families,  to  each  of  which  were 
assigned  the  industry  and  inheritance  of  two  pa- 
rents. Whether  simultaneous  polygamy  was 
permitted  by  the  law  of  Moses,  seems  doubtful, 
Deut.  xvii.  16 ;  xxi.  15 ;  but  whether  permitted 
or  not,  it  was  certainly  practised  by  the  Jewish 
patriarchs  both  before  that  law  and  under  it, 
The  permission,  if  there  were  any,  might  be  like 
that  of  divorce,  "  for  the  hardness  of  their  heart," 
in  condescension  to  their  established  indulgences, 
rather  than  from  the  general  rectitude  or  pro- 
priety of  the  thing  itselE 

"  The  state  of  manners  in  Judea  had  probably 
undergone  a  reformation  in  this  respect  before 
the  time  of  Christ ;  for  in  the  New  Testament 
we  meet  with  no  trace  or  mention  of  any  such 
practice  being  tolerated.  For  which  reason,  and 
because  it  was  likewise  forbidden  amongst  the 
Greeks  and  Romans,  we  cannot  expect  to  find 
any  express  law  upon  the  subject  in  the  Chris- 
tian code.  The  words  of  Christ,  Matt,  xix.  9, 
may  be  construed  by  an  easy  application  to  pro- 
hibit polygamy  :  for,  if  "  whoever  putteth  away 
his  wife,  and  marrieth  another,  committeth  adul 
tery,"  he  who  marrieth  another  without  putting 
away  the  first  is  no  less  guilty  of  adultery;  be- 
cause the  adultery  does  not  consist  in  the  repu- 
diation of  the  first  wife  (for  however  unjust  or 
cruel  that  may  be,  it  is  not  adultery,)  but  enter- 
ing into  a  second  marriage  during  tin-  legal  exist- 
ence and  obligation  of  the  first.  The  several 
passages  in  St.  Paul's  writings  which  speak  of 
marriage,  always  suppose  it  to  signify  the  uniou 


POLYGAMY 
of  one  man  with  one  woman,  Rom.  vii.  2,  3 ; 
I  Cor.  vii.  12,  14,  16.  The  manners  of  different 
countries  have  varied  in  nothing  more  than  in 
their  domestic  constitutions.  Less  polished  and 
more  luxurious  nations  have  either  not  perceived 
the  bad  effects  of  polygamy,  or,  if  they  did  per- 
ceive them,  they  who  in  such  countries  possessed 
the  power  of  reforming  the  laws,  have  been  un- 
willing to  resign  their  own  gratifications.  Poly- 
gamy is  retained  at  this  day  among  the  Turks, 
and  throughout  every  part  of  Asia  in  which 
Christianity  is  not  professed.  In  Christian  coun- 
tries it  is  universally  prohibited.  In  Sweden  it 
is  punished  with  death.  In  England,  besides  the 
nullity  of  the  second  marriage,  it  subjects  the  of- 
fender to  transportation  or  imprisonment  and 
branding  for  the  first  offence,  and  to  capital 
punishment  for  the  second.  And  whatever  may 
be  said  in  behalf  of  polygamy,  when  it  is  autho- 
rized by  the  law  of  the  land,  the  marriage  of  a 
second  wife,  during  the  lifetime  of  the  first,  in  coun- 
tries where  such  a  second  marriage  is  void,  must 
be  ranked  witli  the  most  dangerous  and  cruel  of 
those  frauds,  by  which  a  woman  is  cheated  out 
of  her  fortune,  her  person,  and  her  happiness." 
Thus  far  Dr.  Paley.  We  shall  close  this  article 
with  the  words  of  an  excellent  writer  on  the  same 
side  of  the  subject : — 

"When  we  reflect,"  says  he,  "that  the  primi- 
tive institution  of  marriage  limited  it  to  one  man 
ami  one  woman ;  that  this  institution  was  ad- 
hered to  by  Noah  and  his  sons,  amidst  the  de- 
generacy of  the  age  in  which  they  lived,  and  in 
spite  of  the  examples  of  polygamy  which  the  ac- 
cursed r.ice  of  Cain  had  introduced :  when  we 
consider  how  very  few  (comparatively  speaking) 
the  examples  of  this  practice  were  among  the 
faithful;  how  much  it  brought  its  own  punish- 
ment with  it ;  and  how  dubious  and  equivocal 
those  passages  are  in  which  it  appears  to  have  the 
sanction  of  the  divine  approbation :  when  to  these 
reflections  we  add  another,  respecling  the  limited 
views  and  temporary  nature  of  the  more  ancient 
dispensations  and  institutions  of  religion — how 
often  the  imperfections  and  even  vices  of  the  pa- 
triarchs and  people  of  God  in  old  time  are  re- 
corded, without  any  express  notification  of  their 
criminality — how  much  is  said  to  be  command- 
ed, which  our  reverence  for  the  holiness  of  God 
and  his  law  will  only  suffer  us  to  suppose  were 
for  wise  ends  permitted;  how  frequently  the 
messengers  of  God  adapted  themselves  to  the 
genius  of  the  people  to  whom  they  were  sent,  and 
the  circumstances  of  the  times  in  which  they 
lived ;  above  all,  when  we  consider  the  purity, 
equity,  and  benevolence  of  the  Christian  law,  the 
explicit  declarations  of  our  Lord  and  his  apostle 
Paul  respecting  the  institution  of  marriage,  its 
design  and  limitation;  when  we  reflect,  too,  on 
the  testimony  of  the  most  ancient  fathers,  who 
could  not  possibly  be  ignorant  of  the  general  and 
common  practice  of  the  apostolic  church ;  and, 
finally,  when  to  these  considerations  we  add  those 
which  are  founded  on  justice  to  the  female  sex, 
and  all  the  regulations  of  domestic  economy  and 
national  policy,  we  must  wholly  condemn  the 
revival  of  polygamy."  Paley's  Alor.  Phil.  vol. 
i.  p.  31!)  to  325;  MadarCs  Thelyphthoia;  Tow- 
crs'n,  Wills's,  Penn's,  R.  Hill's,  Palmer's,  and 
Haweis's  Answers  to  Madan;  Mon.  Rev.  vol. 
lxiii  p.  338,  and  also  vol.  Ixix.  Seattle's  El.  of 
Mar.  Science,  vol.  ii.  p.  127 — 12!). 
317 


POLYTHEISM 

POLYGLOT  O^ywro;,)  having  many 
languages.  For  the  more  commodious  compari- 
son of  different  versions  of  the  Scriptures,  they 
have  been  sometimes  joined  together,  and  called 
Polyglot  Bibles.  Origen  arranged  in  different 
columns  a  Hebrew  copy,  both  m  Hebrew  and 
Greek  characters,  with  six  different  Greek  ver- 
sions. Elias  Hutter,  a  German,  about  the  end  of 
the  sixteenth  century,  published  the  New  Testa- 
ment in  twelve  languages,  viz.  Greek,  Hebrew, 
Syriac,  Latin,  Italian,  Spanish,  French,  German, 
Bohemian,  English,  Danish,  Polish;  and  the 
whole  Bible  in  Hebrew,  Chaldaic,  Greek,  Latin 
German,  and  a  varied  version.  But  the  most 
esteemed  collections  are  those  in  which  the  ori 
ginals  and  ancient  translations  are  conjoined 
such  as  the  Complutcnsian  Bible,  by  cardinal 
Ximenes,  a  Spaniard  ;  the  king  of  Spain's  Bible, 
directed  by  Montanus,  &c. ;  the  Paris  Bible  of 
Michael  Jay,  a  French  gentleman,  in  ten  huge 
volumes,  folio,  copies  of  which  were  published  in 
Holland  under  the  name  of  pope  Alexander  the 
Seventh  ;  and  that  of  Brian  Walton,  afterwards 
bishop  of  Chester.  The  last  is  the  most  regular 
and  valuable.  It  contains  the  Hebrew  and  Greek 
originals,  with  Montanus's  interlineary  version  ; 
the  Chaldee  paraphrases,  the  Septuagint,  the 
Samaritan  Pentateuch,  the  Syrian  and  Arabic 
Bibles,  the  Persian  Pentateuch,  and  Gospels,  the 
Ethiopian  Psalms,  Song  of  Solomon,  and  New 
Testament,  with  their  respective  Latin  transla- 
tions; together  with  the  Latin  Vulgate,  and  a 
large  volume  of  various  readings,  to  which  is  or- 
dinarily joined  Castel's  Heptaglot  Lexicon.  See 
Bible  No.  29  30. 

POLYTHEISM,  the  doctrine  of  a  plurality 
of  gods,  or  invisible  powers  superior  to  man. 

"That  there  exist  beings,  one  or  many,  power- 
ful above  the  human  race,  is  a  proposition,"  says 
lord  Kaimes,  "  universally  admitted  as  true  in  all 
ages  and  among  all  nations.  I  boldly  call  it 
universal,  notwithstanding  what  is  reported  of 
some  gross  savages;  for  reports  that  contradict 
what  i3  acknowledged  to  be  general  among  men, 
require  more  able  vouchers  than  a  few  illiterate 
voyagers.  Among  many  savage  tribes  there  are 
no  words  but  for  objects  of  external  sense  :  is  it 
surprising  that  such  people  are  incapable  of  ex- 
pressing their  religious  perceptions,  or  any  per- 
ception of  internal  sense'?  The  conviction  that 
men  have  of  superior  powers,  in  every  country 
where  there  are  words  to  express  it,  is  so  well 
vouched,  that,  in  fair  reasoning,  it  ought  to  !>e 
taken  for  granted,  among  the  few  tribes  where 
language  is  deficient."  The  same  ingenious 
author  shows,  with  great  strength  of  reasoning, 
that  the  operations  of  nature,  and  the  government 
of  this  world,  which  to  us  loudly  proclaim  the 
existence  of  a  Deity,  are  not  sufficient  to  account 
for  the  universal  belief  of  superior  beings  among 
savage  tribes.  He  is  therefore  of  opinion  that 
this  universality  of  conviction  can  spring  only 
from  the  image  of  Deity  stamped  upon  the  mind 
of  every  human  being,  the  ignorant  equal  with 
the  learned.  This,  he  thinks,  may  be  termed  the 
sense  of  Deity. 

This  sense  of  Deity,  however,  is  objected  to  by 
others,  who  thus  reason :  all  nations,  except  the 
Jews,  were  once  polytheists  and  idolaters.  If, 
therefore,  his  lordship's  hypothesis  be  admitted, 
either  the  doctrine  of  polytheism  must  be  true 
theology,  or  this  instinct  or  sense  is  of  such  ti 


POLYTHEISM 
nature  as  to  have,  at  different  periods  of  the 
World)  misled  all  mankind.  All  savage  tribes  are 
at  present  poly t heists  and  idolaters;  but  among 
savages  everv  instinct  appears  in  greater  purity 
arid  vigour  than  among  people  polished  by  arts 
and  sciences ;  and  instinct  never  mistakes  its 
objects.  The  instinct,  or  primary  impression  of 
nature  which  gives  rise  to  self-love,  affection  be- 
tween the  saxes,  &c.  has,  in  all  nations  and  in 
every  period  of  time,  a  precise  and  determinate 
object  which  it  inflexibly  pursues.  How,  then, 
comes  it  to  pass  that  this  particular  instinct, 
which,  if  real,  is  surely  of  as  much  importance  as 
any  other,  should  have  uniformly  led  those  who 
hail  no  other  guide,  to  pursue  improper  objects, 
to  fall  into  the  grossest  errors,  and  the  most  per- 
nicious practices '? 

For  these  and  other  reasons,  which  might 
easily  be  assigned,  they  suppose  that  the  first  re- 
ligious principles  must  have  been  derived  from 
a  source  different  as  well  from  internal  s?nse  as 
from  the  deductions  of  reason ;  from  a  source 
which  the  majority  of  mankind  had  early  forgot- 
ten ;  and  which,  when  it  was  banished  from  their 
minds,  left  nothing  behind  it  to  prevent  the  very 
first  principle  of  religion  from  being  perverted  by 
various  accidents  or  causes  ;  or,  in  some  extraordi- 
nary concurrence  of  circumstances,  from  being, 
perhaps,  entirely  obliterated.  This  source  of 
religion  every  consistent  theist  must  believe  to  be 
revelation.  Reason  could  not  have  introduced 
savages  to  the  knowledge  of  God,  and  we  have 
i-'sl  seen  that  a  sense  of  Deify  is  clogged  with 
insuperable  difliculties.  Yet  it  is  undeniable  that 
all  mankind  have  believed  in  superior  invisible 
powers;  and,  if  reason  and  instinct  be  set  aside, 
there  remains  no  other  origin  of  this  universal 
belief  than  primeval  revelation,  corrupted,  indeed, 
as  it  passed  from  father  to  son  in  the  course  of 
many  generations.  It  is  no  slight  support  to  this 
doctrine,  that,  if  there  really  be  a  Deity,  it  is 
highly  presumable  that  he  would  reveal  himself 
to  the  first  men  ;  creatures  whom  he  had  formed 
with  faculties  to  adore  and  to  worship  him.  To 
other  animals  the  knowledge  of  the  Deity  is  of 
no  importance ;  to  man  it  is  of  the  first  impor- 
tance. Were  we  totally  ignorant  of  a  Deity, 
this  world  would  appear  to  us  a  mere  chaos. 
Under  the  government  of  a  wise  and  benevolent 
Deity,  chance  is  excluded,  and  every  event  ap- 
pears to  be  the  result  of  established  laws.  Good 
men   submit  to  whatever   happens  without   re- 

fining,  knowing  that  every  event  is  ordered  by 
>ivine  Providence :  they  submit  with  entire  re- 
signation ;  and  such  resignation  is  a  sovereign 
balsam  for  every  misfortune  or  evil  in  life. 

As  to  the  circumstances  which  led  to  poly- 
theism, it  has  been  observed,  that,  taking  it  for 
granted  that  our  original  progenitors  were  in- 
structed by  their  Creator  in  the^truths  of  genuine 
theism,  there  is  no  room  to  doubt  but  that  those 
truths  would  be  conveyed  pure  from  father  to  son 
as  long  as  the  race  lived  in  one  family,  and  were 
lift  spread  over  a  large  extent  of  country.  If 
any  credit  be  due  to  the  records  of  antiquity,  the 
primeval  inhabitants  of  this  globe  lived  to  so-great 
an  age,  that  they  must  have  increased  to  a  very 
large  number  long  before  the  death  of  the  com- 
mon parent,  who  would,  of  course,  be  the  bond 
of  union  to  the  whole  society ;  anil  whose  dictates, 
especially  in  what  related  to  the  origin  of  his 
being,  and  the  existence  of  his  Creator,  would  be 
318 


POLYTHEISM 

listened  to  with  the  utmost  respect  by  every  indi- 
vidual of  his  numerous  progeny.  Many  causes, 
however,  would  conspire  to  dissolve  this  family, 
after  the  death  of  its  ancestor,  into  separate  and 
independent  tribes,  of  which  some  would  be 
driven  by  violence,  or  would  voluntarily  wander 
to  a  distance  from  the  rest.  From  this  disper- 
sion great  changes  would  take  place  in  the 
opinions  of  some  of  the  tribes  respecting  the  object 
of  their  religious  worship.  A  single  family,  or  a 
small  tribe,  banished  into  a  desert  wilderness, 
(such  as  the  whole  earth  must  then  have  been,) 
would  find  employment  for  all  their  time  in  pro- 
viding the  means  of  subsistence,  and  in  defending 
themselves  from  beasts  of  prey.  In  such  circum- 
stances they  would  have  little  leisure  for  medi- 
tation ;  and,  being  constantly  conversant  with 
objects  of  sense,  they  would  gradually  lose  the 
piower  of  meditating  upon  the  spiritual  nature  of 
that  Being  by  whom  their  ancestors  had  taught 
them  that  all  things  were  created.  The  first 
wanderers  would,  no  doubt,  retain  in  tolerable 
purity  their  original  notions  of  Deity,  and  they 
would  certainly  endeavour  to  impress  those  no- 
tions upon  their  children  ;  but  in  circumstances 
infinitely  more  favourable  to  speculation  than 
theirs  could  have  been,  the  human  mind  dwells 
not  long  upon  notions  purely  intellectual.  We 
are  so  accustomed  to  sensible  objects,  and  to  the 
ideas  of  space,  extension,  and  figure,  which  they 
are  perpetually  impressing  upon  the  imagina- 
tion, that  we  find  it  extremely  difficult  to  con- 
ceive any  being  without  assigning  to  him  a  form 
and  a  place.  Hence  bishop  Law  supposes  that 
the  earliest  generations  of  men  (even  those  to 
whom  he  contends  that  frequent  revelations  were 
vouchsafed)  may  have  been  no  better  than 
Anthropomorphites,  in  their  conceptions  of  the 
Divine  Being.  Be  this  as  it  may,  it  is  easy  to 
conceive  that  the  members  of  the  first  colonies 
would  quickly  lose  many  of  the  arts,  and  much  of 
the  science  whkh  perhaps  prevailed  in  the  parent 
state  ;  and  that,  fatigued  with  the  contemplation  of 
intellectual  objects,  they  would  relieve  their  over- 
strained faculties  by  attributing  to  the  Deity  a 
place  of  abode,  if  not  a  human  form.  To  men 
totally  illiterate,  the  place  fittest  for  the  habitation 
of  the  Deity  would  undoubtedly  appear  to  be  the 
sun,  the  most  beautiful  and  glorious  object  of 
which  they  could  form  any  idea;  an  object  from 
which  they  could  not  but  be  sensible  that  they 
received  the  benefits  of  light  and  heat,  and  which 
experience  must  soon  have  taught  them  to  be  in 
a  great  measure  the  source  of  vegetation.  From 
looking  upon  the  sun  as  the  habitation  of  their 
God,  they  would  soon  proceed  to  consider  it  as 
his  body.  Experiencing  the  effects  of  power  in 
the  sun,  they  would  naturally  conceive  that  lu- 
minary to  be  animated  as  their  bodies  were  ani- 
mated ;  they  would  feel  his  influence  when  above 
the  horizon ;  they  would  see  him  moving  from 
east  to  west ;  they  would  consider  him,  when  set, 
as  gone  to  take  his  repose;  and  those  exertions 
and  intermissions  of  power  being  analogous  to 
what  they  experienced  in  themselves,  they  would 
look  upon  the  sun  as  a  real  animal.  Thus  would 
the  Divinity  appear  to  their  untutored  minds  to 
be  a  compound  being  like  a  man,  partly  corporeal 
and  partly  spiritual ;  and  as  soon  as  they  imbibed 
such  notions,  though  perhaps  not  before,  they 
may  be  pronounced  to  have  been  absolute  idola- 
ters.    When  men  had  once  got  into  this  train 


POPE 

their  gods  would  multiply  upon  them  with  won- 
derful rapidity.  The  moon,  the  planets,  the  fixed 
stars,  &c.  would  become  objects  of  veneration. 
Hence  we  find  Moses  cautioning  the  people  of 
Israel  against  worshipping  the  hosts  of  heaven, 
Deut.  iv.  19.  Other  objects,  however,  from 
which  benefits  were  received  or  dangers  feared, 
would  likewise  be  deified :  such  as  demons,  de- 
parted heroes,  &c.    See  Idolatry. 

From  the  accounts  given  us  by  the  best  writers 
of  antiquity,  it  seems  that  though  the  polytheists 
believed  heaven,  earth,  and  hell,  were  all  filled 
with  divinities,  yet  there  was  One  who  was  con- 
sidered as  supreme  over  all  the  rest,  or,  at  most, 
that  there  were  but  two  self-existent  gods,  from 
whom  they  conceived  all  the  other  divinities  to 
have  descended  in  a  manner  analogous  to  human 
generation.  It  appears,  however,  that  the  vul- 
gar Pagans  considered  each  divinity  as  supreme, 
and  unaccountable  within  his  own  province,  and 
therefore  entitled  to  worship,  which  rested  ulti- 
mately in  himself.  The  philosophers,  on  the 
other  hand,  seem  to  have  viewed  the  inferior  gods 
as  accountable  for  every  part  of  their  conduct  to 
him  who  was  their  sire  and  sovereign,  and  to 
have  paid  to  them  only  that  inferior  kind  of  de- 
votion which  the  church  of  Rome  pays  to  de- 
parted saints.  The  vulgar  Pagans  were  sunk  in 
the  grossest  ignorance,  from  which  statesmen, 
priests,  and  poets,  exerted  their  utmost  influence 
to  keep  them  from  emerging  ;  for  it  was  a  maxim, 
which,  however  absurd,  wa3  universally  received, 
''that  there  were  many  things  true  in  religion 
which  it  was  not  convenient  for  the  vulgar  to 
know;  and  some  things,  which,  though  false,  it 
was  expedient  that  they  should  believe."  It  was 
no  wonder,  therefore,  that  the  vulgar  should  be 
idolaters  and  polytheists.  The  philosophers,  how- 
ever, were  still  worse;  they  were  wholly  "without 
excuse,  because  that,  when  they  knew  God,  they 
glorified  him  not  as  God ;  neither  were  thankful, 
but  became  vain  in  their  imaginations,  and  their 
foolish  heart  was  darkened.  Professing  them- 
selves wise,  they  became  fools,  and  worshipped 
and  served  the  creature  more  than  the  Creator, 
who  is  God,  blessed  for  ever."  Rom.  i.  20,  21,  22, 
25.  See  list  of  books  under  article  Idolatry  ; 
Prideaux's  Con.  vol.  i.  p.  177,  179  ;  Kaimes's 
Sketches  of  the  History  of  Afan;  Bishop  Law's 
Theory  of  Religion,  p.  58,  65,  to  68,  91,  296  ; 
article  Polytheism  in  Enc.  Brit.;  Parmer  on 
the  Worship  nf  Human  Spirits. 

PONTIFF,  or  High  Priest,  a  person  who 
has  the  supcrintendance  and  direction  of  divine 
Worship,  as  the  offering  of  sacrifices  and  other 
religious  solemnities.  The  Romans  had  a  col- 
lege of  pontiffs,  and  over  these  a  sovereign  pon- 
tiff, instituted  by  Numa,  whose  function  it  was  to 
prescribe  the  ceremonies  each  god  was  to  be 
worshipped  withal,  compose  the  rituals,  direct  the 
vestals,  and  for  a  good  while  to  perform  the  busi- 
ness of  augury,  till,  on  some  superstitious  occasion, 
he  was  prohibited  intermeddling  therewith.  The 
Jews,  too,  had  their  pontiffs ;  and  among  the 
Romanists  the  pope  is  styled  the  sovereign 
pontif. 

PONTIFICATE  is  used  for  the  state  or  dig- 
nity of  a  pontiff,  or  high  priest ;  but  more  par- 
ticularly, in  modern  writers,  for  the  reign  of  a 
pope. 

POPE,  a  name  which  comes  from  the  Greek 
word  n**-*,  and  signifies  Father.  In  the  East, 
349 


POPE 

this  appellation  is  given  to  all  Christian  priest!*; 
and  in  the  West,  bishops  were  called  by  it  in 
ancient  times  ;  but  now  for  many  centuries  it  has 
been  appropriated  to  the  bishop  of  Rome,  whom 
the  Roman  Catholics  look  upon  as  the  common 
father  of  all  Christians.  All  in  communion  with 
the  see  of  Rome  unanimously  hold  that  our  Sa- 
viour Jesus  Christ  constituted  St.  Peter  the 
apostle  chief  pastor  under  himself,  to  watch  ovei 
his  whole  flock  here  on  earth,  and  to  preserve  the 
unity  of  it,  giving  him  the  power  requisite  for 
these  ends.  They  also  believe  that  our  Saviour 
ordained  that  St.  Peter  should  have  successors, 
with  the  like  charge  and  power  to  the  end  of 
time.  Now,  as  St.  Peter  resided  at  Rome  for 
manv  years,  and  suffered  martyrdom  there,  they 
consider  the  bishops  of  Rome  as  his  successors  in 
the  dignity  and  office  of  the  universal  pastor  of 
the  whole  Catholic  church. 

The  cardinals  have  for  several  ages  been  the 
sole  electors  of  the  pope.  These  are  seventy  in 
number,  when  the  sacred  college,  as  it  is  called, 
is  complete.  Of  these,  six  are  cardinal  bishops 
of  the  six  suburbicarian  churches ;  fifty  are  car- 
dinal priests,  who  have  all  titles  from  parish 
churches  in  Rome;  and  fourteen  are  cardinal 
deacons,  who  have  their  titles  from  churches  in 
Rome  of  less  note,  called  diaconias  or  deaconries. 
These  cardinals  are  created  by  the  pope  when 
there  happen  to  be  vacancies,  and  sometimes  he 
names  one  or  two  only  at  a  time ;  but  commonly 
he  defers  the  promotion  until  there  be  ten  or 
twelve  vacancies,  or  more;  and  then  at  every 
second  such  promotion,  the  emperor,  the  kings  of 
Spain  and  France,  and  of  Britain,  when  Catholic, 
are  allowed  to  present  one  each,  to  be  made  car- 
dinal, whom  the  pope  always  admits,  if  there  be 
not  some  very  great  objection.  These  cardinals 
are  commonly  promoted  from  among  such  cler- 
gymen as  have  borne  offices  in  the  Roman  court ; 
some  are  assumed  from  religious  orders;  eminent 
ecclesiastics  of  other  countries  are  likewise  often 
honoured  with  this  dignity.  Sons  of  sovereign 
princes  have  frequently  been  members  of  the 
sacred  college.  Their  distinctive  dress  is  scarlet, 
to  signify  that  they  ought  to  be  ready  to  shed 
their  blood  for  the  faith  and  church,  when  the  de- 
fence and  honour  of  either  require  it.  They 
wear  a  scarlet  cap  and  hat :  the  cap  is  given  to 
them  by  the  pope  if  they  are  at  Rome,  and  is 
sent  to  them  if  they  are  absent ;  but  the  hat  is 
never  given  but  by  the  pope's  own  hand.  These 
cardinals  form  the  pope's  standing  council,  or 
consistory,  for  the  management  of  the  public 
affairs  of  church  and  state.  They  are  divided 
into  different  congregations  for  the  more  easy  dis- 
patch of  business ;  and  some  of  them  have  the  prin- 
cipal offices  in  the  pontifical  court;  as  that  of  car- 
dinal, vicar,  penitentiary,  chancellor,  chamberlain, 
prefect  of  the  signature  of  justice,  prefect  of  memo- 
rials, and  secretary  of  state.  They  have  the  title 
given  them  of  eminence  and  most  eminent. 

On  the  demise  of  a  pope  his  pontifical  seal  is 
immediately  broken  by  the  chamberlain,  and  all 
public  business  is  interrupted  that  can  be  delayed  ; 
messengers  are  dispatched  to  all  the  Catholic  so- 
vereigns to  acquaint  them  of  the  event,  that  they 
may  take  what  measures  they  think  proper;  and 
that  the  cardinals  in  their. dominions,  if  any  thera 
be,  may  hasten  to  the  future  election,  if  they 
choose  to  attend;  whilst  the  whole  attention  of 
the  sacred  college  is  turnnt  to  the  preservation  of 
2E 


POPE 
tranquillity  in  the  city  ami  state,  and  to  the  neces- 
sary preparations  for  the  future  election.  The 
cardinal-chamberlain  has,  daring  the  vacancy  of 
the  holy  see,  great  authority;  he  coins  money 
with  his  own  arms  on  it.  lodges  in  the  pope's 
apartments,  and  is  attended  by  the  body  guards. 
lie,  and  the  first  cardinal-priest,  and  the  first  car- 
dinal-deacon, have,  during  that  lime,  the  govern- 
ment almost  entirely  in  tfieir  hands.  The  body 
of  the  deceased  pope  is  carried  to  St.  Peter's, 
where  funeral  service  is  performed  for  him  with 
great  pomp  for  nine  days,  and  the  cardinals  attend 
there  every  morning.  In  the  mean  time,  all  ne- 
cessary preparations  [\k  the  election  are  made; 
and  the  place  where  they  assemble  for  that  pur- 
pose, which  is  called  the  Conclave,  is  fitted  up  in 
that  part  of  the  Vatican  palace  which  is  nearest 
to  St.  Peter's  church,  as  this  has  long  been 
thought  the  most  convenient  situation.  Here  are 
formed,  by  partitions  of  wood,  a  number  of  cells, 
or  chambers,  equal  to  the  number  of  cardinals, 
with  a  small  distance  between  every  two,  and  a 
broad  gallery  before  them.  A  number  is  put  on 
every  cell,  and  small  papers,  with  corresponding 
numbers,  are  put  in  a  box;  every  cardinal,  or 
some  one  for  him,  draws  out  one  of  these  papers, 
which  determines  in  what  cell  he  is  to  lodge.  The 
cells  are  lined  with  cloth  ;  and  there  is  a  part  of 
each  one  separated  for  the  conclavists,  or  attend- 
ants, of  whom  two  are  allowed  to  each  cardinal, 
and  three  to  cardinal-princes.  They  are  persons 
of  some  rank,  and  generally  of  great  confidence; 
but  they  must  carry  in  their  master's  meals,  serve 
him  at  table,  and  perform  all  the  offices  of  a  me- 
nial servant.  Two  physicians,  two  surgeons,  an 
apothecary,  and  some  other  necessary  officers,  are 
chosen  for  the  conclave  by  the  cardinals. 

On  the  tenth  day  after  the  pope's  death,  the 
cardinals  who  are  then  at  Rome,  and  in  a  com- 
petent state  of  health,  meet  in  the  chapel  of  St. 
Peter's,  which  is  called  the  Gregorian  chapel, 
where  a  sermon  on  the  choice  of  a  pope  is  preach- 
ed to  them,  and  m ass  is  said  for  invoking  the  grace 
of  the  Holy  Ghost.  Then  the  cardinals  proceed 
to  the  conclave  in  procession,  two  by  two,  and 
take  up  their  abode.  When  all  is  properly  set- 
tled, the  conclave  is  shut  up,  having  boxed  wheels, 
or  places  of  cr mmiinication,  in  convenient  quar- 
ters; there  are,  also,  strong  guards  placed  all 
around.  When  any  foreign  cardinal  arrives  after 
the  inelosure,  the  conclave  is  opened  for  his  ad- 
mission. In  the  beginning  every  cardinal  signs 
a  paper,  containing  an  obligation,  that,  if  he  shall 
be  raised  to  the  papal  chair,  he  will  not  alienate 
any  part  of  the  pontLfieal  dominion;  that  he  will 
not  be  prodigal  to  his  relations;  and  any  other 
such  stipulations  as  may  have  been  settled  in  for* 
mi  r  times,  or  framed  fir  that  occasion. 

We  now  come  to  the  election  itself;  and  that 
this  may  be  effectual,  two  thirds  of  the  cardinals 
present  must  vote  for  the  same  person.  As  tbis 
is  often  not  easily  obtained,  they  sometimes  re- 
main whole  months  in  the  conclave.  They  meet 
in  the  chapel  twice  everyday  for  giving  their  votes; 
und  the  election  may  be  effectuated  by  scrutiny, 
aaaeaaiaa  or  acclamation.  Scrutiny  is  the  ordi- 
nary  Method, and  consists  in  this:  every  cardinal 
ivrites  his  own  name  on  the  inner  part  of  a  piece 
■>['  paper,  and  this  is  .folded  up  and  settled;  on  a 
jecond  told  of  the  same  paper,  a  conciavist  writes 

the  name  of  the  person  for  whom  his  master  votes. 

Phis  according  to  agreements  observed  for  some 
350 


POPE 

centuries,  must  be  one  of  the  sacred  college.  On 
the  outer  side  of  the  paper  is  Written  a  sentence 
at  random,  which  the  voter  must  well  remember. 
Every  cardinal,  on  entering  into  the  chapel,  goes 
to  the  altar,  and  puts  his  paper  into  a  large 
chalice. 

When  all  are  convened,  two  cardinals  numl>cr 
the  votes ;  and  if  there  be  more  or  less  than  t  he 
Dumber  of  cardinals  present,  the  voting  must  be 
related.  "When  this  is  not  the  case,  the  cardi- 
nal appointed  for  the  purpose  reads  the  outer  sen- 
tence, and  the  name  of  the  cardinal  under  it;  so 
that  each  voter,  hearing  his  own  sentence,  and 
the  name  joined  with  it,  knows  that  there  is  no 
mistake.  The  names  of  all  the  cardinals  that 
are  voted  for  are  taken  down  in  writing,  with  the 
number  of  votes  for  each ;  and  when  it  appears 
that  anv  one  has  two-thirds  of  the  number  pre- 
sent in  his  favour,  the  election  is  over;  but  when 
this  does  not  happen,  the  voting  papers  are  all  im- 
mediately burnt,  without  opening  up  the  inner 
part.  When  several  trials  of  coming  to  a  con- 
clusion by  this  method  of  scrutiny  have  been  made 
in  vain,  recourse  is  sometimes  had  to  what  is  call- 
ed accession.  By  it,  when  a  cardinal  perceives 
that  when  one  or  very  few  votes  are  wanting  to 
any  one  for  whom  he  has  not  voted  at  that  time, 
he  must  say  that  he  accedes  to  the  one  who  has 
near  the  number  of  votes  requisite;  and  if  his 
one  vote  suffices  to  make  up  the  two-thirds,  or  if 
he  is  followed  by  a  sufficient  number  of  acceders, 
or  new  voters,  for  the  said  cardinal,  the  election  is 
accomplished. — Lastly,  a  pope  is  sometimes  elected  ^ 
by  acclamation ;  and  that  is,  when  a  cardinal  being 
pretty  sure  that  he  will  be  joined  by  a  number  suf- 
ficient cries  out  in  the  open  chapel  that  such  an  one 
shall  be  pope.  If  he  is  properly  supported,  the 
election  becomes  unanimous ;  those  who  would, 
perhaps,  oppose  it,  foreseeing  that  their  opposition 
would  be  fruitless,  and  rather  hurtful  to  them- 
selves. When  a  pope  is  chosen  in  any  of  the 
three  above-mentioned  ways,  the  election  is  im- 
mediately announced  from  the  balcony  in  the 
front  of  St.  Peter's,  homage  is  paid  to  the  new 
pontiff,  and  couriers  are  sent  off  with  the  news  to 
all  parts  of  Christendom.  The  pope  appoints  a 
day  for  his  coronation  at  St.  Peter's,  and  for  his 
taking  possession  of  the  patriarchal  church  of  St. 
John  Lateran  ;  all  which  is  perforn  ed  with  great 
solemnity.  He  is  addressed  by  the  expression  of 
holiness,  and  most  holy  father. 

The  Roman  Catholics  believe  that  the  bishop 
of  Rome  is,  under  Christ,  supreme  pastor  of  the 
whole  church,  and  as  such  is  not  only  the  first 
bishop  in  order  and  dignity,  but  has  also  a  power 
and  jurisdiction  over  all  Christians,  in  order  to 
preserve  unity  and  purity  of  faith  and  moral  doc- 
trine, and  to  maintain  order  and  regularity  in  all 
churches.  See  StJPRF.KUC7.  Some  Catholic  di- 
vines are  of  opinion  that  the  pope  cannot  err  when 
he  addresses  himself  to  all  the  faithful  on  mat- 
ters of  doctrine.  They  well  know  that,  as  pri- 
vate doctor,  he  may  fall  into  mistakes  as  well  as 
any  other  man;  but  they  think  that,  when  be 
teaches  the  whole  church,  Providence  must  pre- 
serve him  from  error.  We  have,  however,  already 
examined  this  sentiment  under  the  article  Inka:.- 
uim.rrv,  to  which  the  reader  may  refer. 

The  see  of  Rome,  aceordinir  to  Roman  Catho- 
lics, is  the  centre  of  catholic"  unity.  All  their 
bishops  communicate  with  the  pope,  and  by  his 
means  with  one  another,  OIK!  m>  form  one  body 


POPERY 
However  distant  their  churches  may  be,  they  all 
meet  at  Rome  either  in  person  or  by  their  dele- 
gates, or  at  least  by  their  letters.  And  according 
lo  the  discipline  of  the  later  ages,  though  they 
are  presented  to  the  pope  for  their  office  from 
their  respective  countries,  yet  from  him  they  must 
receive  their  bulls  of  consecration  before  they 
can  take  possession  of  their  sees.     See  Popkry. 

POPERY  comprehends  the  religious  doctrines 
and  practices  adopted  arid  maintained  by  the 
church  of  Rome.  The  following  summary,  ex- 
tracted chiefly  trom  the  decrees  of  the  council  of 
Trent,  continued  under  Paul  III.,  Julius  III., 
and  Pius  IV.,  from  the  year  1515  to  15'j3, 
by  successive  sessions,  and  the  creed  of  Pope 
Pius  IV.  subjoined  to  it,  and  bearing  date  No- 
vember 1564,  may  not  be  unacceptable  to  the 
reader.  One  of  the  fundamental  tenets  strenu- 
ously maintained  by  popish  writers,  is,  the  infal- 
libility of  the  church  of  Rome ;  though  they  are 
not  agreed  whether  this  privilege  belongs  to  the 
pope  or  a  general  council,  or  to  both  united ; 
but  they  pretend  that  an  infallible  living  judge 
is  absolutely  necessary  to  determine  controver- 
sies, and  to  secure  peace  in  the  Christian  church. 
However,  Protestants  allege,  that  the  claim  of  in- 
fallibility  in  any  church  is  not  justified  by  the 
authority  of  Scripture,  much  less  does  it  pertain 
to  the  church  of  Rome ;  and  that  it  is  incon- 
sistent with  the  nature  of  religion,  and  the  per- 
sonal obligations  of  its  professors;  and  that  it  has 
proved  ineffectual  to  the  end  for  which  it  is  sup- 
posed to  be  granted,  since  popes  and  councils  have 
disagreed  in  matters  of  importance,  and  they 
have  been  incapable,  with  the  advantage  of  this 
pretended  infallibility,  of  maintaining  union  and 
peace. 

Another  essential  article  of  the  popish  creed 
is  the  supremacy  of  the  pope,  or  his  sovereign 
power  over  the  universal  church.  See  Su- 
premacy. 

Further;  the  doctrine  of  the  seven  sacraments 
is  a  peculiar  and  distinguishing  doctrine  of  the 
church  of  Rome ;  these  are  baptism,  confirma- 
tion, the  eucharist,  penance,  extreme  unction, 
orders,  and  matrimony. 

The  council  of  Trent  (sess.  7,  can.  1,)  pro- 
nounces an  anathema  on  those  who  say  that  the 
sacraments  are  more  or  fewer  than  seven,  or  that 
any  one  of  the  above  number  is  not  truly  and 
properly  a  sacrament.  And  yet  it  does  not  ap- 
pear that  they  amounted  to  this  number  before 
the  twelfth  century,  when  Hugo  de  St.  Victoire 
and  Peter  Lombard,  about  the  year  1144,  taught 
that  there  were  seven  sacraments.  The  council 
of  Florence,  held  in  1438,  was  the  first  council 
that  determined  this  number.  These  sacraments 
confer  grace,  according  to  the  decree  of  the  coun- 
cil of  Trent,  (sess.  7,  can.  8,)  ex  opere  operato, 
by  the  mere  administration  of  them ;  three  of 
them,  viz.  baptism,  confirmation,  and  orders,  are 
said  (c.  1),)  to  impress  an  indelible  character,  so 
that  they  cannot  be  repeated  without  sacrilege; 
and  the  efficacy  of  every  sacrament  depends  on 
the  intention  of  the  priest  by  whom  it  is  adminis- 
tered, (can.  11.)  Pope  Pius  expressly  enjoins 
that  all  these  sacraments  should  be  administered 
according  to  the  received  and  approved  rites 
of  the  Cathclic  church.  With  regard  to  the 
eucharist,  in  particular,  we  may  here  observe, 
that  the  church  of  Rome  holds  the  doctrine  of 
transubstantiation ;  the  necessity  of  paying  di- 
351 


POPERY 

vine  worship  to  Christ  under  the  form  ot  the 
consecrated  bread  or  host ;  the  propitiatory  sacri- 
fice of  the  mass,  according  to  their  ideas  of  which, 
Christ  is  truly  and  properly  offered  as  a  sacrifice 
as  often  as  the  priest  says  mass;  it  practises, 
likewise,  solitary  mass,  in  which  the  priest  alonp, 
who  consecrates,  communicates,  and  allows  com- 
munion only  in  one  kind,  viz.  the  bread,  to  the 
laity.     (Sess.  14.) 

The  doctrine  of  merits  is  another  distinguish- 
ing tenet  of  popery ;  with  regard  to  which  the 
council  of  Trent  has  expressly  decreed  (sess.  0, 
can.  32,)  that  the  good  works  of  justified  persons 
are  truly  meritorious ;  deserving  not  only  an  in- 
crease of  grace,  but  eternal  life,  and  an  increase 
of  glory ;  and  it  has  anathematized  all  who  deny 
this  doctrine.  Of  the  same  kind  is  the  doctrine 
of  satisfactions  ;  which  supposes  that  penitents 
may  truly  satisfy,  by  the  afflictions  they  endure 
under  the  dispensations  of  Providence,  or  by 
voluntary7  penances  to  which  they  submit,  for  the 
temporal  penalties  of  sin  to  which  they  are  sub- 
ject, even  after  the  remission  of  their  eternal 
punishment.  (Sess.  6,  can.  30;  and  sess.  14,  can. 
3  and  9.)  In  this  connexion  we  may  mention 
the  popish  distinction  of  venial  and  mortal  sins  : 
the  greatest  evils  arising  from  the  former  are  the 
temporary  pains  of  purgatory  ;  but  no  man,  it  is 
said,  can  obtain  the  pardon  of  the  latter,  with- 
out confessing  to  a  priest,  and  performing  the 
penances  which  he  imposes. 

The  council  of  Trent  (sess.  14,  can.  1,)  has 
expressly  decreed,  that  every  one  is  accursed  who 
shall  affirm  that  penance  is  not  truly  and  pro- 
perly a  sacrament  instituted  by  Christ  in  the 
universal  church,  for  reconciling  those  Christians 
to  the  Divine  Majesty,  who  have  fallen  into  sin 
after  baptism ;  and  this  sacrament,  it  is  declared, 
consists  of  two  parts,  the  matter  and  the  form  . 
the  matter  is  the  act  of  the  penitent,  including 
contrition,  confession,  and  satisfaction ;  the  form 
of  it  is  the  act  of  absolution  on  the  part  of  the 
priest.  Accordingly,  it  is  enjoined,  that  it  is  the 
duty  of  every  man  who  hath  fallen  after  bap- 
tism, to  confess  his  sins  once  a  year,  at  least,  to  a 
priest ;  that  this  confession  is  to  be  secret ;  for 
public  confession  is  neither  commanded  nor  ex- 
pedient ;  and  that  it  must  be  exact  and  particu- 
lar, including  every  kind  and  act  of  sin,  with  all 
the  circumstances  attending  it.  When  the  peni- 
tent has  so  done,  the  priest  pronounces  an  abso- 
lution, which  is  not  conditional  or  declarative 
only,  but  absolute  and  judicial.  This  secret  or 
auricular  confession  was  first  decreed  and  esta- 
blished in  the  fourth  council  of  Lateran,  under 
Innocent  III.  in  1215.  (Cap.  21.)  And  the  de- 
cree of  this  council  was  afterwards  confirmed  and 
enlarged  in  the  council  of  Florence  and  in  that 
of  Trent,  which  ordains,  that  confession  was  in- 
stituted by  Christ;  that  by  the  law  of  God  it  is 
necessary  to  salvation,  and  that  it  has  alwaya 
been  practised  in  the  Christian  church.  As  foi 
the  penances  imposed  on  the  penitent  by  way  of 
satisfaction,  they  have  been  commonly  the  repe- 
tition of  certain  forms  of  devotion,  as  paternos- 
ters, or  ave-marias,  the  payment  of  stipulated 
sums,  pilgrimages,  fasts,  or  various  species  of 
corporeal  discipline.  But  the  most  formidable 
penance,  in  the  estimation  of  many  who  have 
belonged  to  the  Roman  communion,  has  been 
the  temporary  pains  of  purgatory.  But  under  all 
the  penalties  which  are  inflicted  or  threatened  in 


POPERY 
the  Romish  church,  it  has  provided  relief  by  its 
indulgences,  and  by  its  prayers  or  masses  for  the 
dead,  performed  professedly  for  relieving  and  res- 
cuing the  souls  that  are  detained  in  purgatory. 

Another  article  that  has  been  long  authorita- 
tively enjoined  and  observed  in  the  church  of 
Rome,  is  the  celibacy  of  her  clergy.  This  was 
first  enjoined  at  Rome  by  Gregory  VII.  about 
the  year  107!,  and  established  in  England  by 
Ansclm,  archbishop  of  Canterbury,  about  the 
year  1175;  though  his  predecessor  Lanfranc  had 
imposed  it  upon  the  prebendaries  and  clergy  that 
lived  in  towns.  And  though  the  council  of 
Trent  was  repeatedly  petitioned  by  several 
princes  and  states  to  abolish  this  restraint,  the 
obligation  of  celibacy  was  rather  established  than 
relaxed  by  this  council ;  for  they  decreed,  that 
marriage  contracted  alter  a  vow  of  continence  is 
neither  lawful  nor  valid;  and  thus  deprived  the 
church  of  the  possibility  of  ever  restoring  mar- 
riage to  the  clergy.  For  if  marriage,  after  a  vow, 
be  in  itself  unlawful,  the  greatest  authority  upon 
earth  cannot  dispense  with  it,  nor  permit  mar- 
riage to  the  clergy  who  have  already  vowed  con- 
tinence.   See  Celibacy. 

To  the  doctrines  and  practices  above  recited, 
may  be  further  added,  the  worship  of  images,  of 
which  Protestants  accuse  the  Papists.  But  to 
this  accusation  the  Papist  replies,  that  he  keeps 
images  by  him  to  preserve  in  his  mind  the  me- 
mory of  the  persons  represented  by  them;  as 
people  are  wont  to  preserve  the  memory  of  their 
deceased  friends  by  keeping  their  pictures.  He 
is  taught  (he  says)  to  use  them  so  as  to  cast  his 
eyes  upon  the  pictures  or  images,  and  thence  to 
raise  his  heart  to  the  things  represented ;  and 
there  to  employ  it  in  meditation,  love,  and  thanks- 
giving, desire  of  imitation,  &c.  as  the  object  re- 
quires. 

These  pictures  or  images  have  this  advantage, 
that  they  inform  the  mind  by  one  glance  of  what 
in  reading  might  require  a  whole  chapter ;  there 
being  no  other  difference  between  them  than  that 
reading  represents  leisurely  and  by  degrees,  and 
a  picture  all  at  once.  Hence  he  finds  a  conve- 
nience in  saying  his  prayers  with  some  devout 
pictures  before  him,  he  being  no  sooner  distracted, 
but  the  sight  of  these  recals  his  wandering 
thoughts  to  the  right  object;  and  as  certainly 
brings  something  good  into  his  mind,  as  an  im- 
modest picture  disturbs  his  heart  with  filthy 
thoughts.  And  because  he  is  sensible  that  these 
holy  pictures  and  images  represent  and  bring  to 
Ids  mind  such  objects  as  in  his  heart  he  loves, 
honours,  and  venerates,  he  cannot  but  upon  that 
account  love,  honour,  and  respect  the  images 
themselves. 

The  council  of  Trent  likewise  decreed,  that  all 
bishops  and  pastors  who  have  the  care  of  souls  do 
diligently  instruct  their  (locks  that  it  isgood  and 
profitable  to  desire  the  intercession  of  saints 
reigning  unth  Christ  in  heaven.  And  this  de- 
cree the  Papists  endeavour  to  defend  by  the  fol- 
lowing observations.  They  confess  that  we  have 
but  one  Mediator  of  redemption  ;  but  affirm  that 
it  is  acceptable  to  God  that  we  should  have  many 
mediators  of  intercession.  Moses  (say  they)  was 
puch  a  mediator  for  the  Israelites ;  Job  for  his 
three  friends;  Stephen  for  his  persecutors.  The 
Romans  were  thus  desired  by  St.  Paul  to  be  his 
mediators;  so  were  the  Corinthians;  so  the 
Ephesians.  (Ep.  ad  Rom.  Cor.  Eph. ;)  so  al- 
352 


POSITIVE 

most  every  sick  man  desires  the  congregation  to 
!>e  his  mediators  by  remembering  him  in  their 
prayers.  And  so  the  Papist  desires  the  Messed 
in  heaven  to  be  his  mediators ;  that  is,  that  they 
would  pray  to  God  for  him.  But  between  these 
living  and  dead  mediators  there  is  no  similarity : 
the  living  mediator  is  present,  and  certainly  hears 
the  request  of  those  who  desire  him  to  intercede 
for  them;  the  dead  mediator  is  as  certainly  ab- 
sent, and  cannot  possibly  hear  the  requestsof  all 
those  who  at  the  same  instant  may  be  begoin<r 
him  to  intercede  for  them,  unless  he  lie  possessed 
of  the  divine  attribute  of  omnipresence;  and  he 
who  gives  that  attribute  to  any  creature,  is  un- 
questionably guilty  of  idolatry.  And  as  this  de- 
cree is  contrary  to  one  of  the  first  principles  of 
natural  religion,  so  does  it  receive  no  countenance 
from  Scripture,  or  any  Christian  writer  of  the 
three  first  centuries.  Other  practices  peculiar  to 
the  Papists  are,  the  religious  honour  and  respect 
that  they  pay  to  sacred  relics;  by  which  they 
understand  not  only  the  bodies  and  parts  of  the 
bodies  of  the  saints,  but  any  of  those  things  that 
appertained  to  them,  and  which  they  touched; 
and  the  celebration  of  divine  service  in  an  un- 
known tongue  :  to  which  purpose  the  council  of 
Trent  hath  denounced  an  anathema  on  any  one 
who  shall  say  that  mass  ought  to  be  celebrated 
only  in  the  vulgar  tongue.  (Sess.  25,  and  sess. 
22,  can.  9.)  Though  the  council  of  Lateran, 
under  Innocent  III.  in  1215,  (can.  9,)  had  ex- 
pressly decreed,  that,  because  in  many  parts 
within  the  same  city  and  diocese,  there  are  many 
people  of  different  manners  and  rites  mixed  to- 
gether, but  of  one  faith,  the  bishops  of  such  cities 
or  dioceses  should  provide  fit  men  for  celebrating 
divine  offices,  according  to  the  diversity  of  tongues 
and  rites,  and  for  administering  the  sacraments. 

We  shall  only  add,  that  the  church  of  Rome 
maintains,  that  unwritten  traditions  ought  to  be 
added  to  the  Holy  Scriptures,  in  order  to  supply 
their  defect,  and  to  be  regarded  as  of  equal  au- 
thority; that  the  books  of  the  Apocrypha  are 
canonical  Scripture ;  that  the  Vulgate  edition  of 
the  Bible  is  to  be  deemed  authentic ;  and  that  the 
Scriptures  are  to  be  received  and  interpreted  ac- 
cording to  that  sense  which  the  holy  mother 
church,  to  whom  it  belongs  to  judge  of  the  true 
sense,  hath  held,  and  doth  hold,  and  according  to 
the  unanimous  consent  of  the  fathers. 

Such  are  the  principal  and  distinguishing  doc- 
trines of  popery,  most  of  which  have  received  the 
sanction  of  the  council  of  Trent,  and  that  of 
the  creed  of  pope  Pius  IV.,  which  is  received, 
professed,  and  sworn  to,  by  every  one  who  enters 
into  holy  orders  in  the  church  of  Rome;  and  at 
the  close  of  this  creed  we  are  told,  that  the  faith 
contained  in  it  is  so  absolutely  and  indispensably 
necessary,  that  no  man  can  be  saved  without  it. 
See  Antichrist;  Boiccr's  History  of  the  Popes  ; 
Sm  ith's  Errors  of  Ike  Church,  of  Rome  detected  ; 
Sennet's  Confutation  of  Popery;  Sermons  at 
Salttrs'  Hall  against  Popery  ;  Bishop  Burnet's 
Travels,  q*c. ;  Moore' s  View  of  Society  end 
Manners  in  llaly ;  Dr.  Middlclon's  Letters 
from  Rome  ;  Sterenson's  Historical  and  Critical 
View  of  some  of  tlie  Doctrines  of  the  Church  cf 
Home. 

POPERY  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
See  Roman  Catholics. 

POSITIVE  INSTITUTES.  See  Insti- 
tutions. 


PRAISE 
POSSESSION  OF   THE   DEVIL.     See 

DEMONIACS. 

POVERTY  is  that  state  or  situation  opposed 
to  riches,  in  which  we  are  deprived  of  the  con- 
veniences of  life.  Indigence  is  a  degree  lower, 
where  we  want  the  necessaries,  and  is  opposed  to 
superfluity.  Want  seems  rather  to  arrive  by 
accident,  implies  a  scarcity  of  provision,  rather 
than  a  lack  of  money,  and  is  opposed  to  abun- 
dance. Need  and  necessity  relate  less  to  the 
situation  of  life  than  the  other  three  words,  but 
more  to  the  relief  we  expect,  or  the  remedy  we 
seek;  with  this  difference  between  the  two,  that 
veed  seems  less  pressing  than  necessity. — 2.  Po- 
verty of  mind  is  a  state  of  ignorance,  or  a  mind 
void  of  religious  principle,  Rev.  iii.  17. — 3.  Po- 
verty of  spirit,  consists  in  an  inward  sense  and 
feeling  of  our  wants  and  defects ;  a  conviction  of 
our  wretched  and  forlorn  condition  by  nature : 
with  a  dependence  on  divine  grace  and  mercy  for 
pardon  and  acceptance,  Matt.  v.  3.  It  must  be 
distinguished  from  a  poor-spiritedness,  a  sneaking 
tearfulness,  which  bringeth  a  snare.  It  is  the 
e"ffect  of  the  operation  of  the  Divine  Spirit  on  the 
heart,  John  xvi.  8 ;  is  attended  with  submission 
to  the  divine  will ;  contentment  in  our  situation  ; 
meekness  and  forbearance  as  to  others,  and 
genuine  humility  as  to  ourselves.  It  is  a  spirit 
approved  of  by  God,  Isa.  lxvi.  2,  evidential  of 
true  religion,  Luke  xviii.  13;  and  terminates  in 
endless  felicity,  Matt.  v.  3.  Isa.  lvii.  15 ;  Psal. 
xxxiv.  18.  Dunlop's  Ser.  lee.  1,  vol.  ii. ;  Bar- 
clay's Diet. ;  South's  Serm.  vol.  x.  ser.  1 ;  No. 
4(34,  Spec.  vol.  vi. ;  Robert  Harris's  Sermons, 
ser.  3,  part  3. 

POWER,  ability,  force,  strength.  Power  in- 
cludes a  particular  relation  to  the  subordinate 
execution  of  superior  orders.  In  the  word  autho- 
rity we  find  a  sufficient  energy  to  make  us  per- 
ceive a  right.  Dominion  carries  with  it  an  idea 
of  empire. 

POWER  OF  GOD.     See  Omnipotence. 

POWERS  OF  THE  MIND  are  those  fa- 
culties by  which  we  think,  reason,  judge,  &c. 
"  They  are  so  various,"  says  Dr.  Reid,  "  so 
many,  so  connected,  and  complicated  in  most  of 
their  operations,  that  there  never  has  been  any 
division  of  them  proposed  which  is  not  liable  to 
considerable  objections.  The  most  common  divi- 
sion is  that  of  understanding  and  will.  Under 
the  will  we  comprehend  our  active  powers,  and 
all  that  lead  to  action,  or  influence  the  mind  to 
act ;  such  as  appetites,  passions,  affections.  The 
understanding  comprehends  our  contemplative 
powers,  by  which  we  perceive  objects  ;  by  which 
we  conceive  or  remember  them ;  by  which  we 
analyze  or  compound  them  ;  and  by  which  we 
judge  and  reason  concerning  them.  Or  the  in- 
tellectual powers  are  commonly  divided  into  sim- 
ple apprehension,  judgment,  and  reasoning."  See 
Reid  on  the  Active  Powers,  also  on  the  Human 
Mind,  and  the  Intellectual  Powers;  Locke  on 
the  Understanding.  For  the  influence  Chris- 
tianity has  had  on  the  moral  and  intellectual 
[lowers,  see  White's  admirable  Sermons,  ser.  f. 

PRAISE,  an  acknowledgment  made  of  the 
excellency  or  perfection  of  any  person  or  action, 
with  a  commendation  of  the  same.  "  The  desire 
of  praise,"  says  an  elegant  writer,  "is  generally 
connected  with  all  the  finer  sensibilities  of  human 
nature.  It  affords  a  ground  on  which  exhorta- 
tion, counsel,  and  reproof  j  can  work  a  proper 
353  2  U 


PRAYER 

effect.  To  be  entirely  destitute  of  ttiis  passion 
betokens  an  ignoble  mind,  on  which  no  moral 
impression  is  easily  made;  for  where  there  is  no 
desire  of  praise,  there  will  also  be  no  sense  of  re- 
proach :  but  while  it  is  admitted  to  be  a  natural 
and  in  many  respects  an  useful  principle  of 
action,  we  are  to  observe  that  it  is  entitled  to  no 
more  than  our  secondary  regard.  It  has  its 
boundary  set,  by  transgressing  which,  it  is  at 
once  transformed  from  an  innocent  into  a  most 
dangerous  passion.  When  passing  its  natural 
line,  it  becomes  the  ruling  spring  of  conduct ; 
when  the  regard  which  we  pay  to  the  opinions 
of  men  encroaches  on  that  reverence  which  we 
owe  to  the  voice  of  conscience  and  the  sense  of 
duty  ;  the  love  of  praise,  having  then  gone  out  of 
its  proper  place,  instead  of  improving,  corrupts ; 
and  instead  of  elevating,  debases  our  nature." 
Young's  Love-  of  Fame  ;  Blair's  Sermons,  ser. 
&,  vol.  ii.;  Jortin's  Diss.  diss.  4,  passim  ;  Wilbcr- 
force's  Pract.  View,  ch.  iv.  sec.  3 ;  Smith's 
Theory  of  Moral  Sent.  vol.  i.  p.  233;  Fitzos- 
borne's  Letters,  let.  18. 

PRAISE  OF  GOD,  the  acknowledging  his 
perfections,  works,  and  benefits.  Praise  and 
thanksgiving  are  generally  considered  as  synony- 
mous, yet  some  distinguish  them  thus.  Praise 
properly  terminates  in  God,  on  account  of  his 
natural  excellencies  and  perfections,  and  is  that 
act  of  devotion  by  which  we  confess  and  admire 
his  several  attributes;  but  thanksgiving  is  a 
more  contracted  duty,  and  imports  only  a  grate- 
ful sense  and  acknowledgment  of  past  mercies. 
We  praise  God  for  all  his  glorious  acts  of  every 
kind,  that  regard  either  us  or  other  men ;  for  his 
very  vengeance,  and  those  judgments  which  he 
sometimes  sends  abroad  in  the  earth;  but  we 
thank  him,  properly  speaking,  for  the  instances 
of  his  goodness  alone,  and  for  such  only  of  these 
as  we  ourselves  are  some  way  concerned  in.  See 
Thanksgiving  ;  Bishop  Atterbury's  Sermon  on 
Psalm  1.  14  ;  Saurin's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  ser.  14  ; 
Tillotson's  Sermons,  ser.  14(1,  concl. 

PRAYER,  a  request  or  petition  for  mercies ; 
or  it  is  "an  offering  up  our  desires  to  God,  for 
things  agreeable  to  his  will,  in  the  name  of  Christ, 
by  the  help  of  his  Spirit,  with  confession  of  our 
sins,  and  thankful  acknowledgment  of  his  mer- 
cies." Nothing  can  be  more  rational  or  con- 
sistent than  the  exercise  of  this  duty.  It  is  a 
divine  injunction  that  men  should  always  pray, 
and  not  flint,  Luke  xviii.  1.  It  is  highly  proper 
we  should  acknowledge  the  obligations  we  are 
under  to  the  Divine  Being,  and  supplicate  his 
throne  for  the  blessings  we  stand  in  need  of.  It 
is  essential  to  our  peace  and  felicity,  and  is  the 
happy  mean  of  our  carrying  on  and  enjoying  fel- 
lowship with  God.  It  has  an  influence  on  our 
tempers  and  conduct,  and  evidences  our  subjection 
and  obedience  to  God.  We  shall  here  consider 
the  object,  nature,  kinds,  matter,  mannei,  and 
forms  of  prayer,  together  with  its  efficacy,  and 
the  objections  made  against  it. 

I.  The  object  of  prayer  is  God  alone,  through 
Jesus  Christ,  as  the  Mediator.  All  supplications, 
therefore,  to  saints  or  angels,  are  not  only  use- 
less, but  blasphemous.  All  worship  of  the  crea- 
ture, however  exalted  that  creature  is,  is  idolatry, 
and  strictly  prohibited  in  the  sacred  law  of  God. 
Nor  are  we  to  pray  to  the  Trinity,  as  three  dis- 
tinct Gods :  for  though  the  Father,  Son,  and 
Holv  Ghost  be  addressed  in  various  parts  of  the 
2  e2 


PRAYER 
Scriptur",  2  Cor.  xiii.  14 ;  2  Then.  ii.  16,  17, 
yet  never  as  three  Gods,  for  that  would  lead  us 
directly  to  the  doctrine  of  polytheism:  the  more 
ordinary  mode  the  Scripture  points  out,  is,  to 
address  the  Father  through  the  Sun,  depending 
on  the  Spirit  to  help  our  infirmities,  Eph.  ii.  18: 
Rom.  viii.  20. 

II.  Af  to  the  nature  of  this  duty  ;  it  must  be 
observed,  that  it  does  not  consist  in  the  elevation 
of  the  voice,  the  posture  of  the  body,  the  use  of  a 
form,  or  the  mere  extemporary  use  of  words,  nor, 
properly  speaking,  in  any  thing  of  an  exterior 
nature  ;  but  simply  the  offering  up  of  our  desires 
to  God,  Matt.  xv.  8.  (Seethe  definition  above.) 
It  has  been  generally  divided  into  adoration,  by 
which  we  exp-ess  our  sense  of  the  goodness  and 
greatness  of  God,  Dan,  iv.  34,  35;  crnfession,  hy 
which  we  acknowledge  our  unworthiness,  1  John 
i.  9 ;  supplication,  by  which  we  pray  for  pardon, 
grace,  or  any  blessing  we  want,  Matt.  vii.  7; 
intercession,  by  which  we  pray  for  others,  James 
v.  Id;  and  thanksgiving,  by  which  we  express 
our  gratitude  to  God,  Phil.  iv.  6.  To  which  some 
add  invocation,  a  making  mention  of  one  or  more 
of  the  names  of  God;  pleading,  arguing  our  case 
with  God  in  an  humble  and  fervent  manner; 
dedication,  or  surrendering  ourselves  to  God : 
deprecation,  by  which  we  desire  that  evils  may- 
be averted;  blessing,  in  which  we  express  our 
joy  in  God,  and  gratitude  for  his  mercies:  but 
as  all  these  appear  to  me  to  be  included  in  the 
first  five  parts  of  prayer,  I  think  they  need  not  be 
insisted  on. 

III.  The  different  kinds  of  prayer  are,  1.  Eja- 
culatory,  by  which  the  mind  is  directed  to  God  on 
any  emergency.  It  is  derived  from  the  word  eja- 
culor,  to  dart  or  shoot  out  suddenly,  and  is  there- 
fore appropriate  to  describe  this  kind  of  prayer 
winch  is  made  up  of  short  sentences,  spontane- 
ously springing  from  the  mind.  The  Scriptures 
afford  us  many  instances  of  ejaculatory  praver, 
Exod.  xiv.  15 ;  1  Sam.  i.  13 ;  Rom.  vii.  24,  "25 ; 
Gen.  xliii.  29 ;  Jud^.  xvi.  23 ;  Luke  xxiii.  42, 43. 
It  is  one  of  the  principal  excellencies  of  this  kind 
of  prayer,  that  it  can  be  practised  at  all  times,  and 
in  all  places ;  in  the  public  ordinances  of  religion ; 
in  all  our  ordmary  and  extraordinary  undertak- 
ings; in  times  of  aliliction,  temptation,  and  dan- 
ger ;  in  seasons  of  social  intercourse,  in  worldly 
business,  in  travelling,  in  sickness,  and  pain.  In 
fact,  every  thing  around  us,  and  every  event  that 
transpires,  may  afford  us  matter  for  ejaculation. 
It  is  worthy,  therefore,  of  our  practice,  especially 
when  we  consider  that  it  is  a  species  of  devotion 
that  can  receive  no  impediment  from  any  exter- 
nal circumstances  ;  that  it  has  a  tendency  to  sup- 
port the  mind,  and  keep  it  in  a  happy  frame  ;  for- 
tifies us  against  the  temptations  of  the  world; 
elevates  our  atl'ections  to  God ;  directs  the  mind 
into  a  spiritual  channel ;  and  has  a  tendency  to 
excite  trust  and  dependence  on  Divine  Provi- 
dence.— 2.  Secret  or  closet  prayer  is  another  kind 
af  prayer  to  which  wc  should'  attend.  It  has  its 
name  from  the  manner  in  which  Christ  recom- 
mended it.  Matt.  vi.  (J.  He  himself  set  us  an 
example  of  it,  Luke  vi.  12;  and  it  has  been  the 
practice  of  the  saints  in  every  age,  Gen.  xxviti. 
xxxii. ;  Dan.  vi.  10;  Acta  x,  9.  There  are  some 
particular  occasions  when  this  duty  may  lie  prac- 
tised to  advantage,  as  when  we  are  entering  into 
any  important  situation  ;  undertaking  any  thing 

it' consequence;   before  we  go  into  the  world: 
354 


PRAYER 
when  calainitirs  surround  us,  Isa.  xxvi.  20:  cr 
when  ease  and  prosperity  attend  us.  As  cle*»-t 
prayer  is  calculated  to  inspire  us  with  peace,  de- 
fend us  from  our  spiritual  enemies,  excite  us  to 
obedience,  and  promote  our  real  happiness,  we 
should  be  watchful  lest  the  stupidity  of  our  frame, 
the  intrusion  of  company,  the  cares  of  the  world, 
the  insinuations  of  Satan,  or  the  indulgence  of 
sensual  objects,  prevent  us  from  the  constant  ex- 
ercise of  this  necessary  and  important  duty. — 
3.  Family  Prayer  is  also  another  part  not  to  be 
neglected.  It  is  true  there  is  no  absolute  com- 
mand for  this  in  God's  word;  yet  from  hints,  al- 
lusions, and  examples,  we  may  learn  that  it  was 
the  practice  of  our  forefathers :  Abraham,  Gen. 
xviii.  19;  David,  2  Sam.  vi.  20;  Solomon,  Prov. 
xxii.  G;  Job  i.  4,  5 ;  Joshua  xxiv.  15.  See  also 
Eph.  vi.  4;  Prov.  vi.  20;  Jer.  x.  25;  Acts  x. 
2,  30;  xvi.  15.  Family  prayer,  indeed,  may 
not  be  essential  to  the  character  of  a  true  Chris- 
tian, but  it  is  surely  no  honour  to  heads  of  fa- 
milies to  have  it  said  that  they  have  no  religion  in 
their  houses.  If  we  consider  what  a  blessing  it 
is  likely  to  prove  to  our  children  and  our  domes- 
tics ;  what  comfort  it  must  afford  to  ourselves ; 
what  utility  it  may  prove  to  the  community  at 
large;  how  it  sanctifies  domestic  comforts  and 
crosses ;  and  what  a  tendency  it  has  to  promote 
order,  decency,  sobriety,  and  religion  in  general, 
we  must  at  once  see  the  propriety  of  attending  to 
it.  The  objection,  often  made  to  family  prayer  is, 
want  of  time  ;  but  this  is  a  very  frivolous  excuse, 
since  the  time  allotted  for  this  purpose  need  be  but 
short,  and  may  easily  be  redeemed  from  sleep  or 
business.  Others  say,  they  have  no  gifts :  where 
this  is  the  case,  a  form  may  soon  be  procured  and 
used,  but  it  should  be  remembered  that  gifts  in- 
crease by  exercise,  and  no  man  can  properly  de- 
cide, unless  he  make  repeated  trials.  Jthers  are 
deterred  through  shame,  or  the  fear  of  man  :  in 
answer  to  such  we  shall  refer  them  to  the  decla- 
rations of  our  Lord,  Matt.  x.  37,  38 ;  Mark  viii. 
38.  As  to  the  season  for  family  prayer,  every  fa- 
mily must  determine  for  itself;  but  before  break- 
fast every  morning,  and  before  supper  at  night, 
seems  most  proper  :  perhaps  a  quarter  of  an  hour 
or  twenty  minutes  may  be  sufficient  as  to  the 
time. — 4.  Social  prayer  is  another  kind  Chris- 
tians arc  called  upon  to  attend  to.  It  is  denomi- 
nated social,  because  it  is  offered  by  a  society  of 
Christians  in  their  collective  capacity,  convened 
for  that  particular  purpose,  either  on  some  pecu- 
liar and  extraordinary  occasions,  or  at  stated  and 
regular  seasons.  Special  prayer-meetings  are 
such  as  are  held  at  the  meeting  and  parting  of 
intimate  friends,  especially  churches  and  minis- 
ters ;  when  the  church  is  in  a  state  of  unusual 
deadness  and  barrenness ;  when  ministers  are 
sick,  or  taken  away  by  death  ;  in  times  of  public 
calamity  and  distress,  &c.  Stated  meetings  for 
social  prayer  are  such  as  are  held  weekly  in  some 
places  which  have  a  special  regard  to  the  state 
of  the  nation  and  churches :  missionary  prayer- 
meetings  for  the  spread  of  the  Gospel :  weekly 
meetings  held  in  most  of  the  congregations  which 
have  a  more  particular  reference  to  their  own 
churches,  ministers,  the  sick,  feeble,  and  weak  of 
the  flock.  Christians  are  greatly  encouraged  to 
this  kind  of  prayeY  from  the  consideration  of  the 
promise.  Matt,  xviii.  20;  the  benefit  of  mutual 
supplications ;  from  the  example  of  the  most  emi- 
nent primitive  saints.  Mai.  iii.  1G  ;  Acts  xii.  12 


PRAYER 
the  answers  given  to  prayer,  Acts  xii.  1 — 12 ; 
Josh.  x. ;  Isa.  xxxvii.  &c.  and  the  signal  blessing 
they  arc  to  the  churches,  Phil.  i.  19  ;  2  Cor.  i.  11. 
These  meetings  should  be  attended  with  regu- 
larity ;  those  who  engage  should  study  simplicity, 
brevity,  Scripture  language,  seriousness  of  spirit, 
and  every  thing  that  has  a  tendency  to  edifica- 
tion. We  now  come,  lastly,  to  take  notice  of 
public  prayer,  or  that  in  which  the  whole  congre- 
gation is  engaged,  either  in  repeating  a  set  form, 
or  acquiescing  with  the  prayer  of  the  minister 
who  leads  their  devotions.  This  is  both  an  an- 
cient and  important  part  of  religious  exercise ;  it 
was  a  part  of  the  patriarchal  worship,  Gen.  iv. 
5!) ;  it  was  also  carried  on  by  the  Jews,  Exod. 
xxix.  43 ;  Luke  i.  10.  It  was  a  part  of  the  tem- 
ple service,  Isa.  Ivi.  7 ;  1  Kings  viii.  59.  Jesus 
Christ  recommended  it  both  by  his  example  and 
instruction,  Matt,  xviii,  20;  Luke  iv.  16.  The 
disciples  also  attended  to  it,  Acts  ii.  41,  42;  and 
the  Scriptures  in  many  places  countenance  it, 
Exod.  xx.  24;  Psal.  lxiii.  1,  2;  lxxxiv.  11 ;  xxvii. 
4.  For  the  nature,  necessity,  place,  time,  and 
attendance  on  public  worship,  see  Worship. 

IV.  Of  the  matter  of  prayer. — "  It  is  neces- 
sary," says  Dr.  Watts,  "to  furnish  ourselves  with 
proper  matter,  that  we  may  be  able  to  hold  much 
converse  with  God ;  to  entertain  ourselves  and 
others  agreeably  and  devoutly  in  worship ;  to  as- 
sist the  exercise  of  our  own  grace  and  others,  by 
a  rich  supply  of  divine  thoughts  and  desires  in 
prayer,  that  we  may  not  be  forced  to  make  too 
long  and  indecent  pauses  whilst  we  are  per- 
forming that  duty;  nor  break  off  abruptly  as 
soon  as  we  have  begun  for  want  of  matter ; 
nor  pour  out  abundance  of  words  to  dress  up 
narrow  and  scanty  sense,  for  want  of  variety 
of  devout  thoughts. — I.  We  should  labour  after 
a  large  acquaintance  with  all  things  that  be- 
long to  religion ;  for  there  is  nothing  that  relates 
to  religion  but  may  properly  make  some  part  of 
the  matter  of  our  prayer.  A  great  acquaintance 
with  God  in  his  nature,  perfections,  works,  and 
word  ;  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  ourselves, 
and  a  lively  sense  of  our  own  frames,  wants,  sor- 
rows, and  joys,  will  supply  us  with  abundant  fur- 
niture. We  should  also  be  watchful  observers 
oi'  the  dealings  of  God  with  us  in  every  ordi- 
nance, and  in  every  providence.  We  should 
observe  the  working  of  our  heart  towards  God, 
or  towards  the  creature,  and  often  examine  our 
temper  and  our  life,  both  in  our  natural,  our  civil, 
and  religious  actions.  For  this  purpose,  as  well 
as  upon  many  other  accounts,  it  will  be  of  great 
advantage  to  keep  by  us  in  writing  some  ot  the 
most  remarkable  providences  of  God,  and  in- 
stances of  his  mercy  or  anger  towards  us,  and 
Home  of  our  most  remarkable  carriages  towards 
him,  whether  sins,  or  duties,  or  the  exercises  of 
grace. — 2.  We  should  not  content  ourselves 
merely  with  generals;  but  if  we  wish  to  be  fur- 
nished with  larger  supplies  of  matter,  we  must 
descend  to  particulars  in  our  confessions,  peti- 
tions, and  thanksgivings.  '  We  should  enter  into 
a  particular  consideration  of  the  attributes,  the 
glories,  the  graces,  and  the  relations  of  Cod.  We 
should  express  our  sins,  our  wants,  and  our  sor- 
rows, with  a  particular  sense  of  the  mournful  cir- 
cumstances that  attend  them :  it.  will  enlarge  our 
hearts  with  prayer  and  humiliation,  if  we  con  loss 
the  aggravations  that  increase  the  guilt  of  our 
sins,  viz.,  whether  U'ey  have  been  committed 
35.') 


PRAYER 

against  knowledge,  against  the  warnings  of  con- 
science, &c.  It  will  furnish  us  with  large  mat- 
ter, if  we  run  over  the  exalting  and  heightening 
circumstances  of  our  mercies  and  comforts,  viz., 
that  they  are  great,  and  spiritual,  and  eternal,  as 
well  as  temporal.  .Our  petitions  and  thanksgiv- 
ings, in  a  special  manner,  should  be  suited  to  the 
place  and  circumstances  of  ourselves,  and  those 
that  we  pray  with,  and  those  that  we  pray  for. — 
3.  It  is  very  proper,  at  solemn  seasons  of  worship, 
to  read  some  part  of  the  word  of  God,  or  some 
spiritual  treatise  written  by  holy  men  ;  or  to  con- 
verse with  fellow  Christians  about  divine  things, 
or  to  spend  some  time  in  recollection  or  medita- 
tion of  things  that  belong  to  religion :  this  will 
not  only  supply  us  with  divine  matter,  but  will 
compose  our  thoughts  to  a  solemnity.  Just  before 
we  engage  in  that  work,  we  should  be  absent  a 
little  from  the  world,  that  our  spirits  may  be  freer 
for  converse  with  God. — 4.  If  we  find  our  hearts, 
after  all,  very  barren,  and  hardly  know  how  to 
frame  a  prayer  before  God  of  ourselves,  it  has 
been  often  times  useful  to  take  a  book  in  our  hand, 
wherein  are  contained  some  spiritual  meditations 
in  a  petitionary  form,  some  devout  reflections,  or 
excellent  patterns  of  prayer;  and,  above  all,  the 
Psalms  of  David,  some  of  the  prophecies  of  Isaiah, 
some  chapters  in  the  Gospels,  or  any  of  the  Epis- 
tles. Thus  we  may  lift  up  our  hearts  to  God  in  se- 
cret, according  as  the  verses  or  paragraphs  we  read 
are  suited  to  the  case  of  our  own  souls.  This  many 
Christians  have  experienced  as  a  very  agreeable 
help,  and  of  great  advantage  in  their  secret  re- 
tirement.— 5.  We  must  not  think  it  absolutely 
necessary  to  insist  upon  all  the  parts  of  prayer  in 
every  address  to  God ;  though  in  our  stated  and 
solemn  prayers  there  are  but  few  of  them  that 
can  be  well  left.  out.  What  we  omit  at  one  time, 
we  may,  perhaps,  pursue  at  another  with  more 
lively  affection.  But  let  us  be  sure  to  insist  most 
upon  those  things  which  are  warmest  jn  our 
hearts,  especially  in  secret.  We  should  let  those 
parts  of  prayer  have  the  largest  share  in  the  per- 
formance for  which  our  spirit  is  best  prepared, 
whether  it  lie  adoration,  petition,  confession,  or 
thanksgiving. — 6.  We  should  suit  the  matter  of 
our  prayers  to  the  special  occasion  of  each  parti- 
cular duty,  to  the  circumstances  of  the  time,  place, 
and  persons  with  and  for  whom  we  pray.  This 
will  direct  us  to  the  choice  of  proper  thoughts  and 
language  for  every  part  of  prayer. — 7.  We  should 
not  affect  to  pray  long  for  the  sake  of  length,  or 
to  stretch  out  our  matter  by  labour  and  toil  of 
thought,  beyond  the  furniture  of  our  own  spirit. 
Sometimes  a  person  is  betrayed  by  an  affectation 
of  long  prayers  into  crude,  rash,  and  unseemly 
expressions :  we  are  tempted  hereby  to  tautolo- 
gies, to  say  the  same  thing  over  and  over  again. 
We  are  in  danger  of  tiring  those  that  join  with 
us.  We  exceed  the  season  that  is  alloted  for  us 
in  prayer,  especially  when  others  are  to  succeed 
in  the  same  work." 

V.  Of  the  method  of  prayer. — "  Method," 
corrinues  Dr.  Watts,  "is  necessary  to  guide  our 
thoughts,  to  regulate  our  expressions,  and  disposo 
of  the  several  parts  of  prayer  in  such  an  order, 
as  is  most  easy  to  be  understood  by  those  thai 
join  with  us,  and  most  proper  to  excite  and  main 
tain  our  own  devotion  and  theirs.  This  will  bf 
of  use  to  secure  us  from  confusion,  prevent  repe- 
titions, and  guard  us  against  roving  digressions. 
The  general  rules  of  metlunl  in  prayer  are  these 


PRAYER 
three  :— 1.  Let  tlio  general  an.]  the  particular 
heads  in  prayer  be  well  distinguished,  and  usu- 
ally let  generals  be  mentioned  first,  and  particu- 
lars follow. — '2.  Let  things  of  the  same  kind,  for 
the  most  part,  be  put  together  in  prayer.  We 
should  not  run  from  our  part  to  another  hy  starts, 
and  sudden  wild  thoughts,  and  then  return  often 
to  the  same  part  again,  going  backward  and  for- 
ward in  confusion:  this  bewilders  the  mind  of 
him  that  prays,  disgusts  our  fellow-worshippers, 
and  injures  their  devotion. — 3.  Let  those  things, 
in  every  part  of  prayer,  which  are  the  proper  ob- 
jects of  our  judgment,  be  first  mentioned,  and 
then  those  that  influence  and  move  our  affections; 
not  that  we  should  follow  such  a  manner  of  prayer 
as  is  more  like  preaching,  as  some  imprudently 
have  done,  speaking  many  divine  truths  without 
the  form  or  air  of  prayer.  Yet  it  must  be  granted 
that  there  is  no  necessity  of  always  confining  our- 
selves to  this,  or  any  other  set  method,  no  more 
than  there  is  of  confining  ourselves  to  a  form  in 
prayer.  Sometimes  the  mind  is  so  divinely  full 
of  one  particular  part  of  prayer,  that  high  ex- 
pressions of  gratitude,  and  of  devoting  ourselves 
to  God,  break  out  first.  I  am  persuaded,  how- 
ever, that  if  young  Christians  did  not  give  them- 
selves up  to  a  loose  and  negligent  hahit  of  speak- 
ing every  thing  that  comes  uppermost,  but 
attempted  to  learn  this  holy  skill  by  a  recollec- 
tion of  the  several  parts  of  prayer,  and  properly 
disposing  their  thoughts,  there  would  be  great 
numbers  in  our  churches  that  would  arrive  at  a 
good  degree  of  the  gift  of  prayer,  and  that  to  the 
great  edification  of  our  churches,  as  well  as  of 
their  own  families." 

As  to  expression  in  prayer,  it  may  be  observed, 
that  though  prayer  be  the  proper"  work  of  the 
heart,  yet  in  this  present  state,  in  secret  as  well 
as  in  social  prayer,  the  language  of  the  lips  is  an 
excellent  aid  in  this  part  of  worship.  Expres- 
sions are  useful  not  only  to  dress  our  thoughts, 
but  sometimes  to  form,  and  shape,  and  perfect  the 
ideas  and  affections  of  our  minds.  They  serve 
to  awaken  the  holy  passions  of  the  soul,  as  well 
as  to  express  them.  They  fix  and  engage  all  our 
powers  in  religion  and  worship;  and  they  serve 
to  regulate  as  well  as  to  increase  our  devotion. 
The  directions  to  attain  a  treasure  of  expressions 
are  these: — 1.  We  should  labour  after  a  fresh, 
[-articular,  and  lively  sense  of  the  greatness  and 
grace  Df  God,  and  of  our  own  wants,  and  sins, 
and  mercies.  The  passions  of  the  mind,  when 
they  are  moved,  do  mightily  help  tiie  tongue; 
they  give  a  natural  eloquence  to  those  who  know 
net  any  rules  of  art,  and  they  almost  constrain 
the  dumb  to  speak.  There  is  a  remarkable  in- 
stance of  this  in  ancient  history.  When  Atys, 
the  son  of  Crcesus  the  kins,  who  was  dumb  from 
his  childhood,  saw  his  father  ready  to  be  slain, 
the  violence  of  his  passion  broke  the' bonds  where- 
with his  tongue  was  tied,  and  he  cried  out  to  save 
him.  Let  our  spiritual  senses  be  alwavs  awake 
and  lively,  then  words  will  follow  in  a  greater  or 
less  degree.— 2.  We  should  treasure  up  such  ex- 
pressions, especially  as  we  read  in  Scripture,  and 
such  as  we  have  found  in  other  books  of  devo- 
tion, or  such  BS  We  have  heard  fellow-Christians 
make  use  of,  whereby  our  own  hearts  have  been 
sensibly  moved  ami  wanned. — 3.  We  should  be 
always  ready  to  engage  in  holy  conference,  and 
divine  discourse.  This  will  teach  us  to  speak  of 
Ihe  things  of  God.  It  should  be  our  practice  to 
35G 


PRAYER 
recollect  and  talk  over  with  one  another  the  ser- 
mons we  have  heard,  the  books  of  divinity  we 
have  been  conversant  with,  those  parts  of"  the 
word  of  God  we  have  lately  read,  and  especially 
our  own  experiences  of  divine  things.  Heieby 
we  shall  gain  a  large  treasure  of  language  to 
clothe  our  thoughts  and  affections. — 4.  We  should 
pray  for  the  gift  of  utterance,  and  seek  the  bless- 
ing of  the  Spirit  of  God  upon  the  use  of  proper 
means  to  obtain  a  treasure  of  expressions  for 
prayer;  for  the  wise  man  tells  us,  that  "the  pre- 
paration of  the  heart,  in  man,  and  the  answer  of 
the  tongue,  is  from  the  Lord,"  Prov.  xvi.  1.  The 
rules  about  the  choice  and  use  of  proper  expres- 
sions are  these :  1.  We  should  choose  those  ex- 
pressions that  best  suit  our  meaning,  that  most 
exactly  answer  the  ideas  of  our  mind,  and  that 
are  fitted  to  our  sense  and  apprehension  of 
things. — 2.  We  should  use  such  a  way  of  speak- 
ing as  may  be  most  natural  and  easy  to  be  under- 
stood, and  most  agreeable  to  those  that  join  with 
us.  We  should  avoid  all  foreign  and  uncommon 
words :  all  those  expressions  which  are  too  phi- 
losophical, and  those  which  savour  too  much  of 
mystical  divinity ;  all  dark  metaphors,  or  expres- 
sions that  are  used  only  by  some  particular  violent 
party-men.  We  should  likewise  avoid  length  and 
obscurity  in  our  sentences,  and  in  the  placing  of 
our  words ;  and  not  interline  our  expressions  with 
too  many  parentheses,  which  cloud  and  entanglo 
the  sense. — 3.  Our  language  should  be  grave  and 
decent,  which  is  a  medium  between  magnificence 
and  meanness :  we  should  avoid  all  glittering  lan- 
guage and  affected  style.  An  excessive  fondness 
of  elegance  and  finery  of  style  in  prayer  discovers 
the  same  pride  and  vanity  of  mind,  as  an  affec- 
tion to  many  jewels  and  fine  apparel  in  the  house 
of  God  :  it  betrays  us  into  a  neglect  of  our  hearts, 
and  of  experimental  religion,  by  an  affectation  tc 
make  the  nicest  speech,  and  say  the  finest  things 
we  can,  instead  of  sincere  devotion,  and  praying 
in  the  spirit.  On  the  other  hand,  we  should 
avoid  mean  and  coarse,  and  too  familiar  expres- 
sions :  such  as  excite  any  contemptible  or  ridicu- 
lous ideas ;  such  as  raise  any  improper  or  irreverent 
thoughts  in  the  mind,  or  base  and  impure  images, 
for  these  much  injure  the  devotion  of  our  fellow- 
worshippers. — 4.  We  should  seek  after  those  ways 
of  expression  that  are  pathetical ;  such  as  denote 
the  fervency  of  affection,  and  carry  life  and  spirit 
with  them ;  such  as  may  awaken  and  exercise  our 
love,  our  hope,  our  holy  joy,  our  sorrow,  our  fear, 
and  our  faith,  as  well  as  express  the  activity  of 
those  graces.  This  is  the  way  to  raise,  assist,  and 
maintain  devotion.  We  should,  therefore,  avoid 
such  a  sort  of  style  as  looks  more  like  preaching, 
which  some  persons  that  affect  long  prayers  have 
been  guilty  of  to  a  great  degree :  they  have  been 
speaking  to  the  people  rather  than  speaking  to  God: 
they  have  wandered  away  from  God  to  speak  to 
men  ;  but  this  is  quite  contrary  to  the  nature  of 
prayer,  for  prayer  is  our  own  address  to  God,  and 
pouring  out  our  hearts  before  him  with  warm  and 
proper  affections. — 5.  We  should  not  alwavs  con- 
fine ourselves  to  one  set  form  of  words  to  express 
any  particular  request ;  nor  take  too  much  pains 
to  avoid  an  expression  merely  because  we  used 
it  in  prayer  heretofore.  Wc  need  not  be  over 
fond  of  a  nice  uniformity  of  words,  nor  of  per- 
petual diversity  of  expression  in  every  prayer :  it 
is  best  to  keep  the  middle  between  these  two  ex- 
tremes.    The  imitation  of  those  Christians  and 


PRAYER 
ministers  that  have  the  best  gifts,  will  be  an  ex- 
cellent direction  in  this  as  well  as  in  the  former 
cases. 

As  to  the  voice  in  prayer :  in  the  first  place, 
our  words  should  he  all  pronounced  distinct,  and 
ought  not  to  be  made  shorter  by  cutting  off  the 
last  syllable,  nor  longer  by  the  addition  of  hems 
and  o's,  of  long  breaths,  affected  groanings,  and 
useless  counds,  &c. — 2.  Every  sentence  should 
be  spoken  loud  enough  to  be  heard,  yet  none  so 
loud  as  to  affright  or  offend  the  ear.  Some  per- 
sons have  got  a  habit  of  beginning  their  prayers, 
and  even  upon  the  most  common  family  occa- 
sions, so  loud  as  to  startle  the  company ;  others 
begin  so  low  in  a  large  assembly,  that  it  looks 
like  secret  worship,  and  as  though  they  forbid 
those  that  are  present  to  join  with  them.  Both 
these  extremes  are  to  be  avoided  by  prudence  and 
moderation. — 3.  We  should  observe  a  due  me- 
dium between  excessive  swiftness  and  slowness 
of  speech,  for  both  are  faulty  in  their  kind.  If  we 
are  too  swift,  our  words  will  be  hurried  on,  and 
be  mingled  in  confusion ;  if  we  are  too  slow,  this 
will  be  tiresome  to  the  hearers,  and  will  make  the 
worship  appear  heavy  and  dull. 

"  As  to  gesture  in  prayer:  all  indecencies  should 
be  avoided.  Prostration  may  be  sometimes  used 
in  secret  prayer,  under  a  deep  and  uncommon 
sense  of  sin ;  but  kneeling  is  the  most  frequent 
posture ;  and  nature  seems  to  dictate  and  lead  us 
to  it  as  an  expression  of  humility,  of  a  sense  of 
our  wants,  a  supplication  for  mercy,  and  adora- 
tion of  and  dependence  on  Him  before  whom  we 
kneel. 

"Standing  is  a  posture  not  unfit  for  this  wor- 
ship, especially  in  places  where  we  have  not  con- 
veniency  for  the  humbler  gestures  r  but  sitting, 
or  other  postures  of  rest  and  laziness,  ought  not 
to  be  indulged,  unless  persons  are  aged  or  infirm. 
or  the  work  of  prayer  he  drawn  out  so  long  as  to 
make  it  troublesome  to  human  nature  to  maintain 
itself  always  in  one  posture.  The  head  should 
be  kept  for  the  most  part  without  motion :  the 
whole  visage  should  he  composed  to  gravity  and 
solemnity.  The  eye  should  be  kept  from  roving, 
and  some  think  it  best  to  keep  the  eyes  closed. 
The  lifting  up  of  the  hands  is  a  very  natural 
expression  of  our  seeking  help  from  God.  As  to 
other  parts  of  the  body,  there  is  little  need  of  di- 
rection. In  secret  devotion,  sighs  and  groans  may 
be  allowed ;  but  in  public  these  things  should  be 
less  indulged.  If  we  use  ourselves  to  various 
motions,  or  noise  made  by  the  hands  or  feet,  or 
any  other  parts,  it  will  tempt  others  to  think  that 
our  minds  are  not  very  intensely  engaged  ;  or,  at 
least,  it  will  appear  so  familiar  and  irreverent,  as 
we  would  not  willingly  be  guilty  of  in  the  pre- 
sence of  our  superiors  "here  on  earth. 

VI.  As  to  forms  of  prayer.  We  find  this  has 
been  a  matter  of  controversy  among  divines  and 
Christians,  whether  such  ought  to  be  used,  or 
whether  extempore  prayers  are  not  to  be  prefer- 
red. We  shall  state  the  arguments  on  both 
sides.  Those  who  are  advocates  for  forms, 
observe,  that  it  prevents  absurd,  extravagant,  or 
impious  addresses  to  God,  as  well  as  the  confu- 
sion of  extemporary  prayer;  that  forms  were 
used  under  the  Old  Testament  dispensation ; 
and,  in  proof  thereof,  cite  Numb.  vi.  24,  20 ;  x. 
35,  36.  On  the  other  side,  it  is  answered,  that 
it  is  neither  reasonable  nor  scriptural  to  look  for 
the  pattern  of  Christian  worship  in  the  Mosaic 
357 


PRAYER 
dispensation,  which,  with  all  its  rites  and  cere- 
monies, is  abrogated  and  done  away;  that, 
though  forms  may  be  of  use  to  children,  and 
such  as  are  very  ignorant,  yet  restriction  to 
forms,  either  in  public  or  private,  does  not  seem 
scriptural  or  lawful.  If  we  look  to  the  authority 
and  example  of  Christ  and  his  apostles,  every 
thing  is  in  favour  of  extempore  prayer.  The 
Lord's  prayer,  it  is  observed,  was  not  given  to  be 
a  set  form,  exclusive  of  extemporary  prayer.  See 
Lord's  Prater.  It  is  further  argued,  that  a 
form  cramps  the  desires ;  inverts  the  true  order 
of  prayer,  making  our  words  to  regulate  our 
desires,  instead  of  our  desires  regulating  our 
words ;  has  a  tendency  to  make  us  formal ;  can- 
not be  suited  to  every  one's  case ;  that  it  looks  as 
if  we  were  not  in  reality  convinced  of  our  wants, 
when  we  want  a  form  to  express  them;  and, 
finally,  in  answer  to  the  two  first  arguments,  that 
it  is  seldom  the  case  that  those  who  are  truly 
sensible  of  their  condition,  and  pray  extempore, 
do  it  in  an  impious  and  extravagant  manner; 
and  if  any  who  have  the  gift  of  prayer  really 
do  so,  and  run  into  the  extreme  of  enthusiasm, 
yet  this  is  not  the  case  with  the  generality,  since 
an  unprejudiced  attention  to  those  who  pray  ex- 
tempore must  convince  us,  that,  if  their  prayers 
be  not  so  elegantly  composed  as  that  of  a  set 
form,  they  are  more  appropriate,  and  delivered 
with  more  energy  and  feeling. 

VII.  The  efficacy  of  prayer.  It  has  been  ob- 
jected, that,  "  if  what  we  request  be  fit  for  us,  we- 
shall  have  it  without  praying ;  if  it  be  not  fit  for 
us,  we  cannot  obtain  it  by  praying."  But  it  is 
answered,  that  it  may  be  agreeable  to  perfeit  wis- 
dom to  grant  that  to  our  prayers  which  it  would 
not  have  been  agreeable  to  the  same  wisdom  to 
have  given  us  without  praying  for.  But  what 
virtue,  you  will  ask,  is  there  in  praye^r,  which 
should  make  a  favour  consistent  with  wisdom, 
which  would  not  have  been  so  without  it?  To 
this  question,  which  contains  the  whole  difficulty 
attending  the  subject,  the  following  possibilities 
are  offered  in  reply :  1.  A  favour  granted  to 
prayer,  may  be  more  apt  on  that  very  account  to 
produce  a  good  effect  upon  the  person  obliged. — 
It  may  hold  in  the  divine  bounty,  what  experi- 
ence has  raised  into  a  proverb  in  the  collation  of 
human  benefits,  that  what  is  obtained  without 
asking,  is  oftentimes  received  without  gratitude. 
2.  It  may  be  consistent  with  the  wisdom  of  the 
Deity  to  withhold  his  favours  till  they  bt  asked 
for,  as  an  expedient  to  encourage  devotion  in  his 
rational  creation,  in  order  thereby  to  keep  up  and 
circulate  a  knowledge  and  sense  of  their  depen- 
dency on  him. — 3.  Prayer  has  a  natural  tendency 
to  amend  the  petitioner  himself;  it  composes  the 
mind,  humbles  us  under  a  conviction  of  what  we 
are.  and  under  the  gracious  influence  of  the 
Divine  Spirit  assimilates  us  into  the  divine  image. 
Let  it  suffice,  therefore,  to  say,  that,  though  we 
are  certain  that  God  cannot  be  operated  on,  or 
moved,  as  a  fellow-creature  may,  that  though  we 
cannot  inform  him  of  any  thing  he  does  not 
know,  nor  add  any  thing  to  his  essential  ana 
glorious  perfections,  by  any  services  of  ours  ;  yet 
we  should  remember  that  he  has  appointed  this 
as  a  mean  to  accomplish  an  end ;  that  he  has 
commanded  us  to  engage  in  this  important  duty, 
1  Thcss.  v.  17;  that  he  has  promised  his  Spirit 
to  assist  us  in  it,  Rom.  viii.  26 ;  that  the  Bible 
abounds  with  numerous  answers  to  prayer;  an  1 


PREACHING 
that  the  promise  still  relates  to  all  who  pray,  that 
answers  shall  be  given,  Matt,  vii.  7;  Psal.  1.  1">  j 
Luke  xviii.  1,  &e. ;  Phil.  iv.  6,  7;  James  v.  16. 
WUkins,  Henry,  Waits  on  Prayer ;  Townsend's 
Nine  Sermons  on  Prayer;  Palsy's  Moral  Phil. 
vol.  ii.  p.  31 ;  Mason's  Student  and  Pastor, 
p.  87;  Wollaston's  Bel.  of  Sat.  p.  122,  124  ;  //. 
More  on  Education,  ch.  i.  vol.  ii.;  Barrow^s 
Works,  vol.  i.  ser.  (J;  Smith's  System  of  Prayer; 
Scamp's  Sermon  on  Family  Religion. 

PREACHER,  one  who  discourses  publicly 
on  religious  subjects.  See  articles  Declamation, 
Eloquence,  Minister,  and  Sermon*. 

PREACHING  is  the  discoursing  publicly  on 
any  religious  subject.  It  is  impossible,  in  the 
compass  of  this  work,  to  give  a  complete  history 
of  this  article  from  the  beginning  down  to  the 
present  day.  This  must  be  considered  as  a 
desideratum  in  theological  learning.  Mr.  Robin- 
son, in  his  second  volume  of  Claude's  Essay,  has 
prefixed  a  brief  dissertation  on  this  subject,  an 
abridgement  of  which  we  shall  here  insert  with 
a  few  occasional  alterations. 

From  the  sacred  records  we  learn,  that,  when 
men  began  to  associate  for  the  purpose  of  wor- 
shipping the  Deity,  Enoch  prophesied,  Jude  14, 
15.  We  have  a  very  short  account  of  this  pro- 
phet and  his  doctrine  ;  enough,  however,  to  con- 
vince ns  that  he.  taught  the  principal  truths  of 
natural  and  repealed  religion.  Conviction  of  sin 
was  in  his  doctrine,  and  communion  with  God 
was  exemplified  in  his  conduct,  Gen.  v.  24; 
Hcb.  xi.  5,  6.  From  the  days  of  Enoch  to  the 
time  of  Moses,  each  patriarch  worshipped  God 
with  his  family  ;  probably  several  assembled  at 
new  moons,  and  alternately  instructed  the  whole 
company. — Noah,  it  is  said,  was  a  preacher  of 
righteousness,  2  Pet.  ii.  5;  1  Pet.  iii.  19,  20. 
Abraham  commanded  his  household  after  him 
to  keep  the  way  of  the  Lord,  and  to  do  justice 
and  judgment,  Gen.  xviii.  19  ;  and  Jacob,  when 
bis  bouse  lapsed  to  idolatry,  remonstrated  against 
it,  and  exhorted  them  and  all  that  were  with  him 
to  put  away  strange  gods,  and  to  go  up  with 
him  to  Bethel,  Gen.  x. ;  xxv.  2,  3.  Melchizedee 
also,  we  may  consider  as  the  father,  the  prince, 
and  the  priest  of  his  people,  publishing  the  glad 
tidings  of  peace  and  salvation,  Gen.  xviii.; 
Heb.  vii. 

Moses  was  a  most  eminent  prophet  and 
preacher,  raised  up  by  the  authority  of  God,  and 
by  whom,  it  is  said,  came  the  law,  John  i.  17. — 
This  great  man  had  much  at  heart  the  promul- 
gation of  his  doctrine;  he  directed  it  to  be  in- 
scribed on  pillars,  to  be  transcribed  in  books, 
and  to  be  taught  both  in  public  and  private  by 
word  of  mouth,  Deut.  xxviii.  8 ;  vi.  9 ;  xxxi.  19 ; 
xvii.  18 j  Numb.  v.  23;  Deut.  iv.  9.  Himself 
set  the  example  of  each ;  and  how  he  and  Aaron 
sermonized,  we  may  see  by  several  parts  of  his 
writings.  The  first  discourse  was  heard  with 
profound  reverence  and  attention  ;  the  last  was 
both  uttered  and  received  in  raptures,  Exod.  iv. 
31;  Deut.  xxxiii.  7,  8.  Public  preaching  does  not 
appeal  under  his  economy  to  have  been  attached 
to  the  priesthood :  priests  were  not  officially 
preachers ;  and  we  have  innumerable  instances 
of  discourses  delivered  in  religious  assemblies  by 
men  of  other  tribes  besides  that  of  Levi;  Psal. 
I  wiii.  11.  Joshua  was  an  Ephrahnite;  but  being 
full  of  the  spirit  of  wisdom,  he  gathered  the 
tribes  to  Shechem,  and  harangued  the  people  of 
356 


PREACHING 
God,  Deut.  xxxiv.  9;  Josh,  xxxiv.  Solomotl 
was  a  prince  of  the  house  of  Judah,  Amos,  a 
herdsman  of  Tekoa ;  yet  both  were  preachers, 
and  one  at  least  was  a  prophet,  1  Kings  ii. ; 
Amos  vii.  14,  15.  When  the  ignorant  notions 
of  Pagans,  the  vices  of  their  practice,  and  the 
idolatry  of  their  pretended  worship,  were  in  some 
sad  periods  incorporated  into  the  Jewish  religion 
by  the  princes  of  that  nation,  the  prophets  and 
all  the  seers  protested  against  this  apostacy,  and 
they  were  persecuted  for  so  doing.  Shemaiali 
preached  to  Rehoboam,  the  princes,  and  all  the 
j  people,  at  Jerusalem,  2  Chron.  xii.  5.  Azariah 
I  and  Hanani  preached  to  Asa  and  his  army, 
2  Chron.  xv.  1,  &c;  xvi.  7.  Micaiah  to  Ahab. 
Some  of  them  opened  schools,  or  houses  of  in- 
struction, and  there  to  their  disciples  they  taught 
the  pure  religion  of  Moses.  At  Naioth,  in  the 
suburlis  of  Ramah,  there  was  one,  where  Samuel 
dwelt ;  there  was  another  at  Jericho,  and  a  third 
at  Bethel,  to  which  Elijah  and  Elisha  often  re- 
sorted. Thither  the  people  went  on  sabbath 
days  and  at  new  moons,  and  received  public  les- 
sons of  piety  and  morality,  1  Sam.  xix.  18 ; 
2  Kings  ii.  3,  5 ;  iv.  2,  3.  Through  all  this 
period  there  was  a  dismal  confusion  of  the  useful 
ordinance  of  public  preaching.  Sometimes  they 
had  no  open  vision,  and  the  word  of  the  Lord 
was  precious  or  scarce :  the  people  heard  it  only 
now  and  then.  At  other  times  they  were  left 
without  a  teaching  priest;  and  without  law. — 
And,  at  other  seasons  again,  itinerants,  both 
princes,  priests,  and  Levites,  were  sent  through 
all  the  country  to  carry  the  book  of  the  law,  and 
to  teach  in  the  cities.  In  a  word,  preaching 
flourished  when  pure  religion  grew  ;  and  when 
the  last  decayed,  the  first  was  suppressed.  Moses 
had  not  appropriated  preaching  to  any  order  of 
men :  persons,  places,  times,  and  manners,  were 
all  left  open  and  discretional.  Many  of  the  dis- 
courses were  preached  in  camps  and  courts,  in 
streets,  schools,  cities,  and  villages,  sometimes 
with  great  composure  and  coolness,  at  other  times 
with  vehement  action  and  rapturous  energy ; 
sometimes  in  a  plain  blunt  style,  at  other  times 
in  all  the  magnificent  pomp  of  Eastern  allegory. 
On  some  occasions,  the  preachers  appeared  in 
public  with  visible  signs,  with  implements  of 
war,  yokes  of  slavery,  or  something  adapted  to 
their  subject.  They  gave  lectures  on  these,  held 
them  up  to  view,  girded  them  on,  broke  them  in 
pieces,  rent  their  garments,  rolled  in  the  dust, 
and  endeavoured,  by  all  the  methods  they  could 
devise  agreeably  to  the  customs  of  their  country, 
to  impress  the  minds  of  their  auditors  with  the 
nature  and  importance  of  their  doctrines.  These 
men  were  highly  esteemed  by  the  pious  part  of 
the  nation  ;  and  princes  thought  proper  to  keep 
seers  and  others,  who  were  scribes,  who  read  and 
expounded  the  law,  2  Chron.  xxxiv.  29,  30; 
xxxv.  15.  Hence  false  prophets,  bad  men  who 
found  it  worth  while  to  affect  to  be  good,  crowd- 
ed the  courts  of  princes.  Jezebel,  an  idolatress, 
had  four  hundred  prophets  of  Baal;  and  Ahab, 
a  pretended  worshipper  of  Jehovah,  had  as  many 
pretended  prophets  of  his  own  profession,  2  Chr 
xviii.  5. 

When  the  Jews  were  carried  captive  inU 
Babylon,  the  prophets  who  were  with  them  incul- 
cated the  principles  of  religion,  and  endeavoured 
to  possess  their  minds  with  an  aversion  to  idola- 
try :  and  to  the  success  of  preaching  we  may 


PREACHING 

attribute  the  re-conversion  of  the  Jews  to  the  be- 
lief and  worship  of  one  God :  a  conversion  that 
remains  to  this  day.  The  Jews  have  since  fallen 
into  horrid  crimes ;  but  they  have  never  since 
this  period  lapsed  into  idolatry.  Hosea,  2d  and  3d 
chapter,  Ezekiel,  "2d,  3d,  and  4th  chapter.  There 
were  not  wanting,  however,  multitudes  of  false 
prophets  among  them,  whose  characters  are  strik- 
ingly delineated  by  the  true  prophets,  and  which 
the  reader  may  see  in  the  13th  chapter  of  Eze- 
kiel, 5Gth  Isaiah,  23d  Jeremiah.  When  the 
seventy  years  of  the  captivity  were  expired,  the 
good  prophets  and  preachers,  Zerubbal>el,  Joshua, 
Haggai,  and  others,  having  confidence  in  the 
word  of  God,  and  aspiring  after  their  natural, 
civil,  and  religious  rights,  endeavoured  by  all 
means  to  extricate  themselves  and  their  country- 
men from  that  mortifying  state  into  which  the 
crimes  of  their  ancestors  had  brought  them. 
They  wept,  fasted,  prayed,  preached,  prophesied, 
and  at  length  prevailed.  The  chief  instruments 
were  Nehemiah  an.  1  Ezra :  the  first  was  governor, 
and  reformed  their  civil  state ;  the  last  was  a 
scribe  of  the  law  of  the  God  of  heaven,  and  ad- 
dressed himself  to  ecclesiastical  matters,  in  which 
he  rendered  the  noblest  service  to  his  country,  and 
to  all  posterity.  He  collected  and  collated  manu- 
scripts of  the  sacred  writings,  and  arranged  and 
published  the  holy  canon  in  its  present  form.  To 
this  he  added  a  second  work  as  necessary  as  the 
former :  he  revived  and  new  modelled  public 
preaching,  and  exemplified  his  plan  in  his  own 
person.  The  Jews  had  almost  lost  in  the  seventy 
years'  captivity  their  original  language:  that  was 
now  become  dead ;  and  they  spoke  a  jargon  made 
up  of  their  own  language  and  that  of  the  Chal- 
deans and  other  nations  with  whom  they  had 
been  confounded.  Formerly  preachers  had  only 
explained  subjects ;  now  they  were  obliged  to 
explain  words  ;  words  which,  in  the  sacred  code, 
were  become  obsolete,  equivocal,  or  dead.  Houses 
were  now  opened,  not  for  ocremonial  worship,  as 
sacrificing,  for  this  was  confined  to  the  temple ; 
but  for  moral  obedience,  as  praying,  preaching, 
reading  the  law,  divine  worship,  and  social  duties. 
These  houses  were  called  synagogues  :  the  people 
repaired  thither  morning  and  evening  for  prayer; 
and  on  sabbaths  and  festivals  the  law  was  read 
and  expounded  to  them.  We  have  a  short  but 
beautiful  description  of  the  manner  of  Ezra's  first 
preaching,  Nehem.  viii.  Upwards  of  fifty  thou- 
sand people  assembled  in  a  street,  or  large  square, 
near  the  Watergate.  It  was  early  in  the  morn- 
ing of  a  sabbath  day.  A  pulpit  of  wood,  in  the 
fashion  of  a  small  tower,  was  placed  there  on 
purpose  for  the  preacher;  and  this  turret  was 
supported  by  a  scaffold,  or  temporary  gallery, 
where,  in  a  wing  on  the  right  hand  of  the  pulpit, 
sat  six  of  the  principal  preachers ;  and  in  another, 
on  the  left,  seven.  Thirteen  other  principal 
teachers,  and  many  Levites,  were  present  also  on 
scaffolds  erected  for  the  purpose,  alternately  to 
officiate.  When  Ezra  ascended  the  pulpit,  he 
produced  and  opened  the  book  of  the  law,  and 
the  whole  congregation  instantly  rose  up  from 
their  seats,  and  stood.  Then  he  offered  up 
prayer  and  praise  to  God,  the  people  bowing 
their  heads,  and  worshipping  the  Lord  with  their 
faces  to  the  ground ;  and,  at  the  close  of  the 
prayer,  with  uplifted  hands,  they  solemnly  pro- 
nounced, Amen,  Amen.  Then,  all  standing, 
Ezra,  assisted  at  times  by  the  Levites,  read  the 
3j9 


PREACHING 
law  distinctly,  gave  the  sense,  and  caused  them 
to  understand  the  reading.  The  sermons  deli- 
vered so  affected  the  hearers,  that  they  wept  ex- 
cessively ;  and  about  noon  the  sorrow  became  so 
exuberant  and  immeasurable,  that  it  was  thought 
necessary  by  the  governor,  the  preacher,  and  the 
Levites,  to  restrain  it.  Go  your  way,  said  they ; 
eat  the  fat,  drink  the  sweet,  send  portions  unto 
them  for  whom  nothing  is  prepared.  The  wise 
and  benevolent  sentiments  of  these  noble  souls 
were  imbibed  by  the  whole  congregation,  and 
fifty  thousand  troubled  hearts  were  calmed  in  a 
moment.  Home  they  returned,  to  eat,  to  drink, 
to  send  portions  and  to  make  mirth,  because  they 
had  understood  the  words  that  were  declared 
unto  them.  Plato  was  alive  at  this  time,  teach- 
ing dull  philosophy  to  cold  academics  •  but  whai 
was  he,  and  what  was  Xenophon  or  Demos 
thenes,  or  any  of  the  Pagan  orators,  in  comparisor 
with  these  men  ?  From  this  period  to  that  ol 
the  appearance  of  Jesus  Christ,  public  preach 
ing  was  universal ;  synagogues  were  multiplied, 
vast  numbers  attended,  and  elders  and  rulers 
were  appointed  for  the  purpose  of  order  and  in 
strustion. 

The  most  celebrated  preacher  that  arose  before 
the  appearance  of  Jesus  Christ,  was  John  the 
Baptist.  He  was  commissioned  from  heaven  to 
be  the  harbinger  of  the  Messiah.  He  took  Eli- 
jah for  his  model ;  and  as  the  times  were  very 
much  like  those  in  which  that  prophet  lived,  he 
chose  a  doctrine  and  a  method  very  much  resem- 
bling those  of  that  venerable  man.  His  subjects 
were  few,  plain,  and  important.  His  style  was 
vehement,  images  bold,  his  deportment  solemn, 
his  actions  eager,  and  his  morals  strict ;  but  this 
bright  morning  star  gave  way  to  the  illustrious 
Sun  of  Righteousness,  who  now  arose  on  a  be- 
nighted world.  Jesus  Christ  certamly  was  the 
prince  of  preachers.  Who  but  can  admire  the 
simplicity  and  majesty  of  his  style,  the  beavty  of 
his  images,  the  alternate  softness  and  severity  of 
his  addresses,  the  choice  of  his  subjects,  the  grace- 
fulness of  his  deportment,  and  the  indefatigable- 
ness  of  his  zeal  1  Let  the  reader  charm  and  solace 
himself  in  the  study  and  contemplation,  of  the 
character,  excellency  and  dignity  of  this  best  of 
preachers,  as  he  will  find  them  delineated  by  the 
evangelists. 

The  apostles  exactly  copied  their  divine  Mas- 
ter. They  formed  multitudes  of  religious  socie- 
ties, and  were  abundantly  successful  in  their 
labours.  They  confined  their  attention  to  reli- 
gion, and  left  the  schools  to  dispute,  and  politi- 
cians to  intrigue.  The  doctrines  they  preached, 
they  supported  entirely  by  evidence ;  and  neither 
had  nor  required  such  assistance  as  human  laws 
or  worldly  policy,  the  eloquence  of  the  schools,  or 
the  terror  of  arms,  the  charms  of  money,  or  the 
tricks  of  tradesmen,  could  afford  them. 

The  apostles  being  dead,  every  tiling  came  to 
pass  as  they  had  foretold.  The  whole  Christian 
system  underwent  a  miserable  change ;  preaching 
shared  the  fate  of  other  institutions,  and  this 
glory  of  the  primitive  church  was  now  generally 
degenerated.  Those  writers  whom  we  call  tls 
Fathers,  however  held  up  to  view  by  some  as 
models  of  imitation,  do  not  deserve  that  indis- 
criminate praise  ascribed  to  them.  Christianity, 
it  is  true,  is  found  in  their  writings;  but  how 
sadly  incorporated  with  Pagan  philosophy,  and 
Jewish  allegory !  It  must,  indeed,  be  allowed,  that. 


PREACHING 
in  geueral,  the  simplicity  of  Christianity  was 
maintained,  though  under  gradual  decay,  during 
the  first  three  centuries.  The  next  five  centuries 
produced  many  pious  and  excellent  preachers 
both  in  the  Latin  and  Greek  churches,  though 
the  doctrine  continued  to  degenerate.  The  Greek 

Jiulpit  was  adorned  with  some  eloquent  orators. 
iasil,  bishop  of  Crcsarea,  John  Chrysostom, 
preacher  at  Antioch,  and  afterwards  patriarch 
(as  he  was  called)  of  Constantinople,  and  Gre- 
gory Nazianzen,  whs  all  flourished  in  the  fourth 
century,  seem  to  have  led  the  fashion  of  preach- 
ing in  the  Greek  church :  Jerom  and  Augustin 
did  the  same  in  the  Latin  church.  For  some 
time,  preaching  was  common  to  bishops,  elders, 
deacons,  and  private  brethren,  in  the  primitive 
church ;  in  process,  it  was  restrained  to  the  bishop, 
and  to  such  as  he  should  appoint.  They  called 
the  appointment  ordination  :  and  at  last  attached 
1  know  not  what  ideas  of  mystery  and  influence 
to  the  word,  and  of  dominion  to  the  bishop  who 
pronounced  it.  When  a  bishop  or  preacher  tra- 
velled, he  claimed  no  authority  to  exercise  the 
duties  of  his  function,  unless  he  were  invited  by 
the  churches  where  he  attended  public  worship. 
The  first  preachers  differed  much  in  pulpit  action : 
the  greater  part  used  very  moderate  and  sober 
gesture.  They  delivered  their  sermons  all  ex- 
tempore, while  there  were  notaries  who  took 
down  what  they  said.  Sermons  in  those  days 
were  all  in  the  vulgar  tongue.  The  Greeks 
preached  in  Greek,  the  Latins  in  Latin.  They 
did  not  preach  by  the  clock,  (so  to  speak)  but 
were  short  or  long  as  they  saw  occasion,  though 
an  hour  was  about  the  usual  time.  Sermons 
were  generally  both  preached  and  heard  standing ; 
but  sometimes  both  speaker  and  auditors  sat,  es- 
pecially the  aged  and  the  infirm.  The  fathers 
were  fond  of  allegory ;  for  Origen,  that  everlast- 
ing allegorizer,  had  set  them  the  example.  Be- 
fore preaching  the  preacher  usually  went  into  a 
vestry  to  pray,  and  afterwards  to  speak  to  such 
as  came  to  salute  him.  He  prayed  with  his  eyes 
shut  in  the  pulpit.  The  first  word  the  preacher 
uttered  to  the  people,  when  he  ascended  the  pul- 
pit, was,  "Peace  be  with  you,"  or  "The  grace 
of  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  the  love  of  Cod,  and 
the  fellowship  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  be  with  you  all ;" 
to  which  the  assembly  at  first  added,  "  Amen  :" 
and,  in  after  times  they  answered,  "And  with 
thy  spirit."  Degenerate,  however,  as  these  days 
were  in  comparison  with  those  of  the  apostles, 
yet  they  were  golden  ages  in  comparison  with 
the  times  that  followed,  when  metaphysical 
reasonings,  mystical  divinity,  yea,  Aristotelian 
categories,  and  reading  the' lives  of  the  saints, 
were  substituted  in  the  place  of  sermons.  The 
pulpit  became  a  stage,  where  ludicrous  priests  ob- 
tained the  vulgar  laugh  by  the  lowest  kind  of  wit, 
especially  at  the  festivals  of  Christmas  and  Easter. 
But  the  glorious  Reformation  was  the  offspring 
of  preaching,  by  which  mankind  were  informed  : 
there  was  a  standard,  and  the  religion  of  the 
limes  was  put  to  trial  by  it.  The  avidity  of  the 
jommon  people  to  read  Scripture,  and  to  hear  it 
expounded,  was  wonderful;  and  the  Papists  were 

so  folly  convinced  of  the  benefit  of  frequent  pub- 
lic instruction,  th.it  they  who  were  justly  called 
unpreaching  prelates,  and  whose  pulpits,  to  use 
an  expression  of  Latimer,  had  been  bells  without, 
clappers  for  many  a  long  year,  were  obliged  for 
phonic  to  set  Uj>  regular  preaching  again. 
%0 


PREACHING 

The  church  of  Rome  has  produced  some  great 
preachers  since  the  Reformation,  but  not  equal 
to  the  reformed  preachers:  and  a  question  natu- 
rally arises  here,  which  it  would  be  unpardonable 
to  pass  over  in  silence,  concerning  the  singular 
effect  of  the  preaching  of  the  reformed,  which  was 
general,  national,  universal  reformation. 

In  the  darkest* times  of  popery  there  had  arisen 
now  and  then  some  famous  popular  preachers, 
who  had  zealously  inveighed  against  the  vices  of 
their  times,  and  "whose  sermons  had  produced 
sudden  and  amazing  effects  on  their  auditors: 
but  all  these  effects  had  died  away  with  the 
preachers  who  produced  them,  and  all  things  had 
gone  back  into  the  old  state.  Law,  learning, 
commerce,  society  at  large,  had  not  been  im- 
proved.— Here  a  new  scene  opens ;  preachers 
arise  less  popular,  perhaps  less  indefatigable  and 
exemplary;  their  sermons  produce  less  striking 
immediate  effects;  and  yet  their  auditors  go 
away,  and  agree  by  whole  nations  to  reform. 

Jerome  Savonarola,  Jerome  Narni,  Capistran, 
Connecte,  and  many  others,  had  produced  by 
their  sermons  great  immediate  effects.  W  hen 
Connecte  preached,  the  ladies  lowered  their  head- 
dresses, and  committed  quilled  caps  by  hundreds 
to  the  flames.  "When  Narni  taught  the  populace 
in  Lent,  from  the  purpits  of  Rome,  half  the  city 
went  from  his  sermons,  crying  along  the  streets, 
Lord  hare  mercy  upon  us  ;  Christ  hare  mercy 
upon  us ;  so  that  in  only  one  passion  week,  two 
thousand  crowns'  worth  of  ropes  were  sold  to 
make  scourges  with  ;  and  when  he  preached  be- 
fore the  pope  to  cardinals  and  bishops,  and  paint- 
ed the  crime  of  non-residence  in  its  own  colours, 
he  frightened  thirty  or  forty  bishops  who  heard 
him,  instantly  home  to  their  dioceses.  '  In  the 
pulpit  of  the  university  of  Salamanca  he  induced 
eight  hundred  students  to  quit  all  worldly  pros- 
pects of  honour,  riches,  and  pleasures,  and  to 
become  penitents  in  divers  monasteries.  Some 
of  this  class  were  martyrs  too.  We  know  the 
fate  of  Savonarola,  and  more  might  be  added  : 
but  all  lamented  the  momentary  duration  of  the 
effects  produced  by  their  labours.  Narni  himself 
was  so  disgusted  with  his  office,  that  he  renounced 
preaching,  and  shut  himself  up  in  his  cell  to 
mourn  over  his  irreclaimable  contemporaries;  for 
bishops  went  back  to  court,  and  rope-makers  lay 
idle  again. 

Our  reformers  taught  all  the  good  doctrines 
which  had  been  taught  by  these  men,  and  they 
added  two  or  three  more,  by  which  they  laid  the 
axe  to  the  root  of  apostaey,  and  produced  general 
information.  Instead  of  appealing  to  popes,  and 
canons,  and  founders,  and  fathers,  they  only 
quoted  them,  and  referred  their  auditors  to  the 
Holy  Scriptures  for  law.  Pope  Leo  X.  did  not 
know  this  when  he  told  Prierio,  who  complained 
of  Luther's  heresy,  Friar  Martin  had  a  Jine  ge- 
nius! They  also  taught  the  people  what  little 
they  knew  of  Christian  liberty  ;  and  so  led  them 
into  a  belief  that  they  might  follow  their  own 
ideas  in  religion,  without  the  consent  of  a  con- 
fessor, a  diocesan,  a  pope,  or  a  council.  They 
went  further,  and  laid  the  stress  of  all  religion  on 
justifying  faith.  This  obliged  the  people  to  get 
acquainted  with  Christ,  the  object  of  their  faith  ; 
and  thus  they  were  led  into  the  knowledge  of  a 
character  altogether  different  from  what  they  saw 
in  their  old  guides;  a  character  which  it  is  im- 
possible to  know,  and  not  to  admire  and  imitate 


PREACHING 

The  old  papal  popular  sermons  had  gone  offlikc 
a  charge  of  gunpowder,  producing  only  a  fright, 
a  bustle,  and  a  black  face ;  but  those  of  the  neipe 
learninge,  as  the  monks  called  them,  were  small 
hearty  seeds,  which,  being  sown  in  the  honest 
hearts  of  the  multitude,  and  watered  with  the 
dew  of  heaven,  softly  vegetated,  and  imperceptibly 
unfolded  blossoms  and  fruits  of  inestimable  value. 

These  eminent  servants  of  Christ  excelled  in 
various  talents,  both  in  the  pulpit  and  in  private. 
Knox  came  down  like  a  thunder-storm ;  Calvin 
resembled  a  whole  day's  set  rain;  Beza  was  a 
shower  of  the  softest  dew.  Old  Latimer,  in  a 
coarse  frieze  gown,  trudged  afoot,  his  Testament 
hanging  at  one  end  of  his  leathern  girdle,  and 
his  spectacles  at  the  other,  and  without  ceremony 
instructed  the  people  in  rustic  style  from  a  hollow 
tree;  while  the  courtly  Ridley  in  satin  and  fur 
taught  the  same  principles  in  the  cathedral  of  the 
metropolis.  Cranmer,  though  a  timorous  man, 
ventured  to  give  King  Henry  the  Eighth  a  New 
Testament,  with  the  label,  Whoremongers  and 
adulterers  God  will  judge ;  while  Knox,  who 
said,  there  was  notliing  in  the  pleasant  face  of  a 
lady  to  affray  him,  assured  the  queen  of  Scots, 
that,  "  If  there  were  any  spark  of  the  Spirit  of 
God,  yea,  of  honesty  and  wisdom  in  her,  she 
would  not  be  offended  with  his  affirming  in  his 
sermons,  that  the  diversions  of  her  court  were 
diabolical  crimes, — evidences  of  impiety  or  in- 
sanity." These  men  were  not  all  accomplished 
scholars;  but  they  all  gave  proof  enough  that 
they  were  honest,  hearty,  and  disinterested  in  the 
cause  of  religion. 

All  Europe  produced  great  and  excellent 
preachers,  and  some  of  the  more  studious  and 
sedate  reduced  their  art  of  public  preaching  to  a 
system,  and  taught  rules  of  a  good  sermon. 
Bishop  Wilkins  enumerated,  in  1646,  upwards 
of  sixty  who  had  written  on  the  subject.  Several 
of  these  are  valuable  treatises,  full  of  edifying  in- 
structions; but  all  are  on  a  scale  too  large,  and, 
by  affecting  to  treat  of  the  whole  office  of  a  minis- 
ter, leave  that  capital  branch,  public  preaching, 
unfinished  and  vague. 

One  of  the  most  important  articles  of  pulpit 
science,  that  which  gives  life  and  energy  to  all 
the  rest,  and  without  which  all  the  rest  are  no- 
thing but  a  vain  parade,  is  either  neglected  or  ex- 
ploded in  all  these  treatises.  It  is  essential  to  the 
ministration  of  the  divine  word  by  public  preach- 
ing, that  preachers  be  allowed  to  form  principles 
of  their  own,  and  that  their  sermons  contain  their 
real  sentiments,  the  fruits  of  their  own  intense 
thought  and  meditation.  Preaching  cannot  be 
in  a  good  state  in  those  communities,  where  the 
shameful  practice  of  buying  and  selling  manu- 
script sermons  is  carried  on.  Moreover,  all  the 
animating  encouragements  that  arise  from  a  free, 
unbiassed  choice  of  the  people,  and  from  their  un- 
contaminated,  disinterested  applause,  should  be 
left  open  to  stimulate  a  generous  youth  to  excel. 
Command  a  man  to  utter  what  he  has  no  incli- 
nation to  propagate,  and  what  he  does  not  even 
believe;  threaten  him,  at  the  same  time,  with  all 
the  miseries  of  life,  if  he  dare  to  follow  his  own 
ideas,  and  to  promulge  his  own  sentiments,  and 
you  pass  a  sentence  of  death  on  all  he  says.  He 
does  declaim;  but  all  is  languid  and  cold,  and  he 
lays  his  system  out  as  an  undertaker  does  the 
dead. 

Since  the  reformers,  we  have  had  multitudes 
361  2  V 


PREDESTINATION 
who  have  entered  into  their  views  with  disinter- 
estedness and  success:  and,  in  the  present  times, 
both  in  the  church  and  among  dissenters,  names 
could  be  mentioned  which  Would  do  honour  to 
any  nation  ;  for  though  there  are  too  many  who 
do  not  fill  up  that  important  station  with  propor- 
tionate piety  and  talents,  yet  we  have  men  who 
are  conspicuous  for  their  extent  of  knowledge, 
depth  of  experience,  originality  of  thought,  fer- 
vency of  zeal,  consistency  of  deportment,  and 
great  usefulness  in  the  Christian  church.  May 
their  numbers-still  be  increased,  and  their  exer- 
tions in  the  cause  of  truth  be  eminently  crowned 
with  the  divine  blessing !  See  Robinson's  Claude, 
vol.  ii.  preface;  and  books  recommended  under 
article  Minister. 

PREADAMITE,  a  denomination  given  to 
the  inhabitants  of  the  earth,  conceived  by  some 
people  to  have  lived  before  Adam. 

Isaac  de  la  Pcreyra,  in  1655,  published  a  book 
to  evince  the  reality  of  Preadamites,  by  which  he 
gained  a  considerable  number  of  proselytes  to  the 
opinion;  but  the  answer  of  Demarets,  professor 
of  theology  at  Groningen,  published  the  year  fol- 
lowing put  a  stop  to  its  progress,  though  Pe- 
reyra  made  a  reply, 

His  system  was  this.  The  Jews  he  calls 
Adamites,  and  supposes  them  to  have  issued 
from  Adam  ;  and  gives  the  title  Preadamites  to 
the  Gentiles,  whom  he  supposes  to  have  been  a 
long  time  before  Adam.  But  this  being  expressly 
contrary  to  the  first  words  of  Genesis,  Pereyra 
had  recourse  to  the  fabulous  antiquities  of  the 
Egyptians  and  Chaldeans,  and  to  some  idle  rab- 
bins, who  imagined  that  there  had  been  another 
world  before  that  described  by  Moses.  He  was 
apprehended  by  the  inquisition  in  Flanders, 
and  very  roughly  used,  though  in  the  service  of 
the  dauphin.  But  he  appealed  from  their  sen- 
tence to  Rome,  whither  he  went  in  the  time  of 
Alexander  VII.  and  where  he  printed  a  retrac- 
tion of  his  book  of  Preadamites. 

The  arguments  against  the  Preadamites  are 
these.  The  sacred  history  of  Moses  assures  us 
that  Adam  and  Eve  were  the  first  persons  that 
were  created  on  the  earth,  Gen.  i.  2b' ;  ii.  7.  Our 
Saviour  confirmed  this  when  he  said,  "From  the 
beginning  of  the  creation  God  made  them,  male 
and  female."  Mark x.  6.  It  is  undeniable  that  he 
speaks  this  of  Adam  and  Eve,  becaust.  in  the 
next  verse  he  uses  the  same  words  as  those  in 
Gen  ii.  4.  "Therefore  shall  a  man  leave  his 
father  and  mother,  and  cleave  unto  his  wife." 
It  is  also  clear  from  Gen.  hi.  "20,  where  it  is  said, 
that  "  Adam  called  his  wile's  name  Eve.  because 
she  was  the  mother  of  all  living;"  that  is,  she 
was  the  source  and  root  of  all  men  and  women 
in  the  world :  which  plainly  intimates  that  there 
was  no  other  woman  that  was  such  a  mother 
Finally,  Adam  is  expressly  called  twice,  by  the 
apostle  Paul,  ihejirst  man,  1  Cor.  xv.  45,  47. 

PRECEPT,  a  rule  given  by  a  superior:  a  di- 
rection or  command.  The  precepts  of  religion, 
says  Saurin,  are  as  essential  as  the  doctrines; 
and  religion  will  as  certainly,  sink,  if  the  morality 
be  subverted,  as  if  the  theology  be  undermined. 
The  doctrines  are  only  proposed  to  us  as  th6 
ground  of  our  duty.     See  Doctrine. 

PREDEST1NAR1ANS,  those  who  believe 
in  predestination.     See  Predestination. 

PREDESTINATION  is  the  decree  of  God, 
whereby  he  hath  for  his  own  glory  fore-ordained 
2F 


PREDESTINATION 

whatever  comes  to  pass.     The  verb  predestinate 
is  of  Latin  original  (prccdcstiuo,)  and  signifies 
in  that  tongue  to  deliberate  beforehand  with  one's 
self  how  one  shall  act,  and,  in  consequence  of 
such  deliberation,  to  constitute,  fore-ordain,  and 
predetermine,  where,  when,  how,  and  by  whom 
any  thing  shall  be  done,  and  to  what  end  it  shall 
be  done.     So  the  Greek  word  7rpoopi£«>,  which 
exactly  answers  to  the  English  word  predestinate, 
and  is  rendered  bv  it,  signifies  to  resolve  before- 
hand with  one's-self  what  shall  be  done,  and  be- 
fore the  thing  resolved  on  is  actually  effected ;  to 
appoint  it  to  some  certain  use,  and  direct  it  to 
eonie  determinate  end.     This  doctrine  has  been 
the  occasion  of  considerable  disputes  and  contro- 
versies among  divines.     On  the  one  side  it  has 
been  observed,  that  it  is  impossible  to  reconcile  it 
with  our  ideas  of  the  justice   and   goodness  of 
God,  that  it  makes  God  to  be  the  author  of  sin, 
destroys  moral  distinction,  and  renders  all  our 
efforts  useless.     Predestinarians  deny  these  con- 
sequences, and  endeavour  to  prove  this  doctrine 
from  the  consideration  of  the  perfections  of  the 
divine  nature,  and  from  Scripture  testimony.     If 
his  knowledge,    say  they,  be   infinite  and   un- 
changeable, he   must  have   known  every  thing 
from  eternity.     If  we  allow  the  attribute  of  pre- 
science, the  idea  of  a  decree  must  certainly  be  be- 
lieved also ;  for  how  can  an  action  that  is  really 
to  come  to  pass  be  foreseen,  if  it  be  not  deter- 
mined?    God  knew  every  thing  from  the  begin- 
ning ;  but  this  he  could  not  have  known  if  he  had 
not  so  determined  it.     If,  also,  God  be  infinitely 
wise,  it  cannot  be  conceived  that  he  would  leave 
things  at  random,  and  have  no  plan.     He  is  a 
God  of  order,  and  this  order  he  observes  as  strictly 
in  the  moral  as  in  the  natural  world,  however 
contused  things  may  appear  to  us.     To  conceive 
otherwise  of  God,  is  to  degrade  him,  and  is  an 
insult  to  his  perfections.  If  he,  then,  be  wise  and 
unchangeable,  no  new  idea  or  purpose  can  arise 
in  his  mind ;  no  alteration  of  his  plan  can  take 
place,  upon  condition  of  his  creatures  acting  in 
this  or  that  way.  To  say  that  this  doctrine  makes 
him  the  author  of  sin  is  not  justifiable.     We  all 
allow  omnipotence  to  be  an  attribute  of  Deity, 
and  that  by  this  attribute  he  could  have  prevented 
sin  from  entering  into  the  world,  had  he  chosen 
it ;  yet  we  see  he  did  not.     Now  he  is  no  more 
the  author  of  sin  in  one  case  than  the  other. 
May  wc  not  ask,  Why  does  he  suffer  those  in- 
equalities of  Providence?     Why  permit  whole 
nations  to  lie  in  idolatry  for  ages  ?    Why  leave 
men  to  the  most  cruel  barbarities  ?   Why  punish 
the  sins  of  the  fathers  in  the  children  ?    In  a 
word,  Why  permit  the  world  at  large  to  be  sub- 
ject to  pains,  crosses,  losses,  evils  of  every  kind, 
and  that  for  so  many  thousands  of  years'?     And 
yet,  will  any  dare  call  the  Deity  unjust  ?     The 
fact  is,  our  finite  minds  know  but  little  of  the  na- 
ture of  divine  justice,  or  any  other  of  its  attri- 
butes.    But,  supposing  there  are  difficulties  in 
this  subject,  (and  what  subject  is  without?)  the 
Scripture  abounds  with  passages  which  at  once 
move  the  doctrine,  Matt.  xxv.  34;  Rom.  viii.  29, 
.ill;   Eph.  i.  3,  6,  11  ;  9  Tim.  i.  <J;  2  Thess.  ii. 
13,    1  Pet.  i.   1,  2;  John  vi.  37;  xvii.  2  to  24; 
Rev.  xiii.  8 ;  xvii.  8;  Dun.  iv.  35 ;  1  Thess.  v.  19 ; 
Matt.  xi.  2G;  Exod.  iv.  21;  Prov.  xvi.  4;  Acts 
xiii.  48.     The  moral  uses  of  this  doctrine  are 
these. 
1.  It  hides  pride  from  man. 
302 


PRE-EXISTENCE 

2.  Excludes  the  idea  of  chance. 

3.  Exalts  the  grace  of  God. 

4.  Renders  salvation  certain. 

5.  Affords  believers  great  consolation.  See 
Decrees  of  God;  Necessity;  King,  Toplady 
Cooper,  and  Tucker,  on  Predestination;  Bur- 
net on  17  Art.;  Whitby  and  Gill  on  the  Five 
Points;  Wesley's  Pred.  considered ;  Hill's  Lo- 
gica  Wesleiensis;  Edwards  on  the  Will;  Pol- 
hill  on  the  Decrees;  Edwards's  Veritas  Redux  ; 
Saurin's  Serm.  vol.  v.  ser.  13;  Dr.  Williams's 
Sermon  on  Predestination. 

PRE-EXISTENCE  OF  JESUS  CHRIST, 
is  his  existence  before  he  was  born  of  the  Virgin 
Mary.  That  he  really  did  exist  before  is  plain 
from  John  iii.  13  ;  vi.  50,  &c. ;  xvii. ;  viii.  58 
1  John  i.  4 ;  but  there  are  various  opinions  re- 
specting this  existence.  Some  acknowledge,  that 
in  Jesus  Christ  there  is  a  divine  nature,  a  rational 
soul,  and  a  human  body.  His  body,  they  think, 
was  formed  in  the  Virgin's  womb;  his  human 
soul,  they  suppose,  was  the  first  and  most  excel- 
lent of  all  the  works  of  God ;  was  brought  into 
existence  before  the  creation  of  the  world,  and 
subsisted  in  happy  union  in  heaven  with  the  se- 
cond person  in  the  Godhead,  till  his  incarnation. 
These  divines  differ  from  those  called  Arians,  for 
the  latter  ascribe  to  Christ  only  a  created  deity, 
whereas  the  former  hold  his  true  and  proper  di- 
vinity ;  they  differ  from  the  Socinians,  who  be- 
lieve no  existence  of  Christ  before  his  incarnation; 
they  differ  from  the  Sahellians,  who  only  own  a 
trinity  of  names :  they  differ,  also,  from  the  gene- 
rally received  opinion,  which  is,  that  the  human 
soul  began  to  exist  in  his  mother's  womb,  in  ex- 
act conformity  to  that  likeness  unto  his  brethren, 
of  which  St.  Paul  speaks,  Heb.  ii.  17.  The 
writers  in  favour  of  the  pre-existence  of  Jesus 
Christ's  human  soul  recommend  their  thesis  by 
these  arguments. 

1.  Christ  is  represented  as  his  Father's  mes- 
senger, or  angel,  being  distinct  from  Ins  Father, 
sent  by  his  Father  long  before  his  incarnation,  to 
perform  actions  which  seem  to  be  too  low  for  the 
dignity  of  pure  Godhead.  The  appearances  of 
Christ  to  the  patriarchs  are  described  like  the  ap- 
pearances of  an  angel,  or  man  really  distinct  from 
God ;  yet  such  a  one,  in  whom  God,  or  Jehovah, 
had  a  peculiar  indwelling,  or  with  whom  the  di 
vine  nature  had  a  personal  union. 

2.  Christ,  when  he  came  into  the  world,  is 
said,  in  several  passages  of  Scripture,  to  have 
divested  himself  of  some  glory  which  he  had  be- 
fore his  incarnation.  Now  if  there  had  existed 
before  this  time  nothing  but  his  divine  nature, 
this  divine  nature  could  not  properly  divest  itself 
of  any  glory.  /  have  glorified  thee  on  earth  ;  I 
have  finished  the  work  thou  garest  me  to  do. 
And  now,  O  Father,  glorify  thou  me  with  thine 
own  self,  with  the  glory  which  1  had  with  thee 
before  the  world  was. —  Ye  know  the  grace  of 
our  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  that  though  he  was  rich, 
yet  for  our  sakeshe  became  poor,  that  ye  through 
his  poverty  might  be  rich,  John  xvii.  4,  5 ;  2 
Cor.  viii.  9.  It  cannot  be  said  of  God  that  he 
became  poor:  he  is  infinitely  self-sufficient;  he 
is  necessarily  and  eternally  rich  in  perfections  and 
glories.  Nor  can  it  be  said  of  Cnrist  as  man, 
that  he  was  rich,  if  he  were  never  in  a  richer 
state  before,  than  while  he  was  on  earth. 

It  seems  needful  that  the  soul  of  Christ  should 
pre-exist,  that  it  might  have  an  opportunity  to 


PRE-EXISTENCE 

■  give  its  previous  actual  consent  to  the  great  and 
painful  undertaking  of  atonement  for  our  sins. 
It  was  the  human  soul  of  Christ  that  endured 
the  weakness  and  pain  of  his  infant  state,  all  the 
labours  and  fatigues  of  life,  the  reproaches  of 
men,  and  the  sufferings  of  death.  The  divine 
nature  is  incapable  of  suffering  The  covenant 
of  redemption  between  the  Father  and  the  Son 
is  therefore  represented  as  being  made  before  the 
foundation  of  the  world.  To  suppose  that  sim- 
ple deity  or  the  divine  essence,  which  is  the  same 
in  all  the  three  personalities,  should  make  a  cove- 
nant with  itself,  is  inconsistent. 

Christ  is  the  angel  to  whom  God  was  in  a 
peculiar  manner  united,  and  who  in  this  union 
made  all  the  divine  appearances  related  in  the 
Old  Testament. 

God  is  often  represented  in  Scripture  as  ap- 
pearing in  a  visible  manner,  and  assuming  a 
human  form.  See  Gen.  iii.  8;  xvii.  1;  xxviii. 
12 ;  xxxii.  12;  Exod.  ii.  2 ;  and  a  variety  of  other 
passages. 

The  Lord  Jehovah,  when  he  came  down  to 
visit  men,  carried  some  ensign  of  divine  majesty : 
he  was  surrounded  with  some  splendid  appear- 
ance. Such  a  light  often  appeared  at  the  door  of 
the  tabernacle,  and  fixed  its  abode  on  the  ark, 
between  the,  cherubims.  It  was  by  the  Jews 
called  the  Shekinah,  i.  e.  the  habitation  of  God. 
Hence  he  is  described  as  dwelling  in  light,  and 
clothed  with  light  as  with  a  garment.  In  the 
midst  of  this  brightness  there  seems  to  have  been 
sometimes  a  human  shape  and  figure.  It  was 
probably  of  this  heavenly  light  that  Christ  di- 
vested himself  when  he  was  made  flesh.  With 
this  he  was  covered  at  his  transfiguration  in  the 
Mount,  when  his  garments  were  white  as  the 
light ;  and  at  his  ascension  'nto  heaven,  when  a 
bright  cloud  received,  or  invested  him ;  and 
when  he  appeared  to  John,  Rev.  i.  13  :  and  it 
was  with  this  he  prayed  his  Father  would  glorify 
him. 

Sometimes  the  great  and  blessed  God  appeared 
in  the  form  of  a  man  or  angel.  I|t  is  evident  that 
the  true  God  resided  in  this  man  or  angel ;  be- 
cause, on  account  of  this  union  to  proper  deity, 
the  angel  calls  himself  God,  the  Lord  God.  He 
assumes  the  most  exalted  names  and  characters 
of  Godhead.  And  the  spectators,  and  sacred  his- 
torians, it  is  evident,  considered  him  as  true  and 
proper  God  :  they  paid  him  the  highest  worship 
and  obedience.  He  is  properly  styled  the  angel 
of  God's  -presence. —  The  (messenger  or)  angel 
of  the  covenant,  Isa.  lxiii.  9;  Mai.  iii.  1. 

The  same  angel  of  the  Lord  was  the  parti- 
cular God  and  King  of  the  Israelites.  It  was 
he  who  made  a  covenant  with  the  patriarchs, 
who  appeared  to  Moses  in  the  burning  bush, 
who  redeemed  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  who 
conducted  them  through  the  wilderness,  who 
gave  the  law  at  Sinai,  and  transacted  the  affairs 
of  the  ancient  church. 

The  angels  who  have  appeared  since  our 
blessed  Saviour  became  incarnate,  have  never 
assumed  the  names,  titles,  characters,  or  worship, 
belonging  to  God.  Hence  we  may  infer  that  the 
angel  who,  under  the  Old  Testament,  assumed 
divine  titles,  and  accepted  religious  worship,  was 
that  peculiar  anrt?l  of  God's  presence,  in  whom 
God  resided,  or  who  was  united  to  the  Godhead 
in  a  peculiar  manner ;  even  the  pre-existent 
soul  of  Christ,  who  afterwards  took  flesh  and 
363 


PRE-EXISTENCE 
blood  upon  him,  and  was  called  Jesus  Christ  on 
earth. 

Christ  represents  himself  as  one  with  the 
Father  :  I  and  the  Father  are  one,  John  x.  30.; 
xiv.  10,  II.  There  is,  we  may  hence  infer,  such 
a  peculiar  union  between  God  and  the  man 
Christ  Jesus,  both  in  his  pre-existent  and  incar- 
nate state,  that  he  may  be  properly  called  God- 
man  in  one  complex  person. 

Among  those  expressions  of  Scripture  which 
discover  the  pre-existence  of  Christ,  there  are 
several  from  which  we  may  derive  a  certain 
proof  of  his  divinity.  Such  are  those  places  ir 
the  Old  Testament,  where  the  angel  who  appear- 
ed to  the  ancients  is  called  God,  the  Almighty 
God,  Jehovah,  the  Lord  of  Hosts,  I  am  that  I 
am,  &c. 

Dr.  Watts  supposes,  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
pre-existence  of  the  soul  of  Christ  explains  dark 
and  difficult  scriptures,  and  discovers  many  beau- 
ties and  proprieties  of  expression  in  the  word  of 
God,  which  on  any  other  plan  lie  unobserved. — 
For  instance,  in  Col.  i.  15,  &c,  Christ  is  de- 
scribed as  the  image  of  the  invisible  God,  the 
first-born  of  every  creature.  His  being  the  image 
of  the  invisible  God  cannot  refer  merely  to  his 
divine  nature  ;  for  that  is  as  invisible  in  the  Sou 
as  in  the  Father  :  therefore  it  seems  to  refer  to 
his  pre-existent  soul  in  union  with  the  Godhead. 
Again :  when  man  is  said  to  be  created  in  the 
image  of  God,  Gen.  i.  2,  it  may  refer  to  the 
Gocf-man,  to  Christ  in  his  pre-existent  state.  God 
says,  Let  us  make  man  in  our  image,  after  our 
likeness.  The  word  is  redoubled,  perhaps  to  in 
timate  that  Adam  was  made  in  the  likeness  of 
the  human  soul  of  Christ,  as  well  as  that  he  bore 
something  of  the  image  and  resemblance  of  the 
divine  nature. 

On  the  other  side  it  is  affirmed,  that  this  doc- 
trine of  the  pre-existence  of  the  human  soul  of 
Christ  weakens  and  subverts  that  of  his  per- 
sonality.—1.  A  pure  intelligent  spirit,  say  they 
the  first,  the  most  ancient,  and  the  most_  excellent 
of  creatures,  created  before  the  foundation  of  the 
world,  so  exactly  resembles  the  second  person  of 
the  Arian  trinity,  that  it  is  impossible  to  show 
the  least  difference,  except  in  name. — 2.  The 
pre-existent  intelligence  supposed  in  this  doc- 
trine is  so  confounded  with  those  other  intelli- 
gences called  angels,  that  there  is  great  danger 
of  mistaking  this  human  soul  for  an  angel,  and 
so  of  making  the  person  of  Christ  to  consist  of 
three  natures. — 3.  If  Jesus  Christ  had  nothing 
in  common  like  the  rest  of  mankind,  except  a 
body,  how  could  this  semi-conformity  make  him 
a  real  man? — i.  The  passages  quoted  in  proof 
of  the  pre-existence  of  the  human  soul  of  Jesus 
Christ  are  of  the  same  sort  with  those  which 
others  allege  in  proof  of  the  pre-existence  of  all 
human  souls. — 5.  This  opinion,  by  ascribing  the 
dignity  of  the  work  of  redemption  to  this  sublime 
human  soul,  detracts  from  the  deity  of  Christ, 
and  renders  the  last  as  passive  as  the  first  active. 
6.  This  notion  is  contrary  to  Scripture.  St. 
Paul  says,  in  all  things  it  behoved  him  to  be 
made  like  his  brethren  :  he  partook  of  all  our  in- 
firmities, except  sin.  St.  Luke  says,  he  increased 
in  stature  and  in  wisdom,  Heb.  ii.  17 ;  Luke  ii. 
52.  See  articles  Jesi's  Christ,  and  Indvyku.- 
ing  Scheme  :  Robinson's  Claude,  vol.  i.  p.  21  J, 
311  ;  Watts's  Works,  vol.  v.  p.  274,  3S5  ;  GUPs 
Body  of  Div.  vol.  ii.  p.  51 ;   Robinson's  Pita,  p, 


PRESBYTERIANS 
140;   Flemings' 8  Christology  ;   Simpson's  Apo- 
logy for  the  Trin.  p.  190;  Hawker's  Scrm.  on 
the  Divinity  of  Christ,  p.  44,  45. 

PREMONSTRANTES,  or  Prjemonstra- 
TENSES,  a  religious  order  of  regular  canons,  insti- 
tuted in  1120  by  S.  Norbert,  and  thence  called 
Norbeitines.  The  rule  they  followed  was  that 
of  St.  Augustine,  with  some  slight  alterations, 
and  an  addition  of  certain  severe  laws,  whose 
authority  did  not  long  survive  their  founder. 

They  first  came  into  England  A.  D.  1,146. 
Their  first  monastery,  called  Xeio-honse,  was 
erected  in  Lincolnshire,  by  Peter  de  Saulia,  and 
dedicated  to  St.  Martial.  In  the  reign  of  Edward 
I.  this  order  had  twenty-seven  monasteries  in 
England. 

PRESBYTER.  See  next  article;  and  arti- 
cles Deacon,  Elder. 

PRESBYTERIANS.  The  title  Presbyte- 
rian conies  from  the  Greek  word  nfirfinrifos, 
which  signifies  senior  or  elder,  intimating  that 
the  government  of  the  church  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment was  by  presbyteries,  that  is,  by  association 
of  ministers  and  ruling  elders,  possessed  all  of 
equal  powers,  without  any  superiority  among 
them,  either  in  office  or  order.  The  Presbyte- 
rians believe,  that  the  authority  of  their  ministers 
to  preach  the  Gospel,  to  administer  the  sacra- 
ments of  baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  and  to 
feed  the  flock  of  Christ,  is  derived  from  the  Holy 
Ghost  by  the  imposition  of  the  hands  of  the  pres- 
bytery ;  and  they  oppose  the  Independent  scheme 
of  the  common  rights  of  Christians  by  the  same 
arguments  which  are  used  for  that  purpose  by 
the  Episcopalians,  They  affirm,  however,  that, 
there  is  no  order  in  the  church  as  established  by 
Christ  and  his  apostles,  superior  to  that  of  pres- 
byters; that  all  ministers,  being  ambassadors  of 
Christ,  are  equal  by  their  commission  ;  that  pres- 
byter and  bishop,  though  different  words,  arc  of 
the  same  import ;  and  that  prelacy  was  gradually 
established  upon  the  primitive  practice  of  making 
the  moderator,  or  speaker  of  the  presbytery,  a 
permanent  officer. 

These  positions  they  maintain  against  the 
Episcopalians  by  the  following  Scriptural  argu- 
ments.— They  observe,  that  the  apostles  planted 
churches  by  ordaining  bishops  and  deacons  in 
every  city;  that  the  ministers  which  in  one  verse 
are  called  bishops,  are  in  the  next  perhaps  de- 
nominated presbyters;  that  we  no  where  read  in 
the  New  Testament  of  bishops,  presbyters,  and 
deacons,  in  any  one  church  ;  and  that,  therefore, 
we  are  under  "the  necessity  of  concluding  bishop 
and  presbyter  to  be  two  names  for  the  same 
church  officer.  This  is  apparent  from  Peter's 
exhortation  to  the  elders  or  presbyters  who  were 
among  the  Jewish  Christians.  "The  ciders 
(presbyters)  which  are  among  you  I  exhort,  who 
am  also  an  elder,  and  a  witness  of  the  sufferings 
of  Christ,  and  also  a  partaker  of  the  glorv  that 
shall  be  revealed  :  iWA  the  flock  of  God  which  is 
among  you,  taking  the  oversight  thereof,  (^,;xo- 
rreuvTi;,  acting  as  bishops  thereof,)  not  by  con- 
straint, but  willingly;  not  for  fifthy  lucre,  but  of 
a  ready  mind;  neither  as  being  lords  over 
God!*  heritage,  but  being  ensamples  to  the  flock," 
1  Pet.  v.  2,  '.'>.  Prom  tins  passage  it  is  evident 
that  the  presbyters  not  only  fed  the  flock  of  God, 
but  also  governed  that  flock  with  episcopal 
powers,  and  that  the  apostle  himself,  as  a  church 
olucer,  was  nothing  more  than  a  presbyter  or 
36-1 


PRESBYTERIANS 
elder.  The  identity  of  the  office  of  bishop  or 
presbyter  is  still  more  apparent  from  Heb.  xiii.  7, 
17;  and  1  Thess.  v.  12;  for  the  bishops  are 
there  represented  as  governing  the  flock,  speaking 
to  them  the  word  of  God,  watching  for  their  souls_ 
and  discharging  various  offices,  which  it  is  im- 
possible for  any  man  to  perform  to  more  than  one 
congregation. 

"From  the  last  cited  text  it  is  evident  that 
the  bishops  (VfoilrT«/«£i'ou;)  of  the  Thessalonian 
churches  had  the  pastoral  care  of  no  more  souls 
than  they  could  hold  personal  communion  with 
in  God's  worship ;  for  they  were  such  as  all  the 
people  were  to  know,  esteem,,  and  love,  as  those 
that  not  only  were  over  them,  but  also  'closely 
laboured  among  them,  and  admonished  them.' 
But  diocesan  bishops,  whom  ordinarily  the  hun- 
dredth part  of  their  flock  never  hear  nor  see,  can- 
not be  those  bishops  by  whom  that  flock  is 
admonished ;  nor  can  they  be  what  Peter  requires 
the  bishops  of  the  Jewish  converts  to  be,  ensam- 
ples to  thejlock.  It  is  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Ham- 
mond, who  was  a  very  learned  divine,  and  a 
zealot  for  episcopacy,  that  the  ciders  whom  the 
apostle  James  desires  (Jas.  v.  14)  the  sick  to  call 
for,  were  of  the  highest  permanent  order  of  ec- 
clesiastical officers;  but  it  is  self-evident  that 
those  elders  cannot  have  been  diocesan  bishops, 
otherwise  the  sick  must  have  been  often  without 
the  reach  of  the  remedy  proposed  to  them. 

"  There  is  nothing  in  Scripture  upon  which 
the  Episcopalian  is  more  ready  to  rest  his  cause 
than  the  alleged  episcopacy  of  Timothy  and 
Titus,  of  whom  the  former  is  said  to  have  been 
bishop  of  Ephesus,  and  the  latter  bishop  of  Crete , 
yet  the  Presbyterian  thinks  it  is  clear  as  the  noon- 
day sun,  that  the  presbyters  of  Ephesus  were 
supreme  governors,  under  Christ,  of  the  Ephe- 
sian  churches,  at  the  very  time  that  Timothy  is 
pretended  to  have  been  their  proper  diocesan. 

"In  Acts  xx.  17,  &c.  we  read,  that  'from 
Miletus  Paul  sent  to  Ephesus,  and  called  the 
elders  (presbyters)  of  the  church.  And  when 
they  were  come  to  him,  he  said  unto  them,  Ye 
know,  from  the  first  day  that  I  came  into  Asia, 
after  what  manner  I  have  been  with  you  at  all 
seasons.  And  now,  I  know  that  ye  all,  among 
whom  I  have  gone  preaching  the  kingdom  ot 
God,  shall  sec  my  face  no  more.  Wherefore  I 
take  you  to  record  this  day,  that  I  am  pure  from 
the  blood  of  all  men.  For  I  have  not  shunned 
to  declare  unto  you  all  the  counsel  of  God.  Take 
heed,  therefore,  unto  yourselves,  and  to  all  the 
flock  over  which  the  Holy  Ghost  hath  made  you 
overseers  (•:*•. o-x:™-./;,  bishopsA  to  feed  the  church 
of  God,  which  he  hath  purchased  with  his  own 
blood.  For  1  know  this,  that  after  my  departure 
shall  grievous  wolves  enter  in  among  you,  not 
sparing  the  flock.  Also  of  yourown  selves  shall 
men  arise,  speaking  perverse  things,  to  draw 
away  disciples  after  them.  Therefore  watch, 
and  remember  that,  by  the  space  of  three  years, 
I  ceased  not  to  warn  every  one  night  and  day 
with  tears.  And  now,  brethren,  I  commend  you 
to  God,  and  to  the  word  of  his  grace,'  &c. 

"  From  this  passage  it  is  evident  that  there  was 
in  the  city  of  Ephesus  a  plurality  of  pastors  of 
equal  authority,  without  any  superior  pastor  or 
bishop  over  them  ;  for  the  apostle  directs  his  dis- 
course to  them  all  in  common,  and  gives  them 
equal  power  over  the  whole  flock.  Dr.  Ham- 
mond, indeed,  imagines,  that  the  elders  whom 


PRESBYTERIANS 

Paul  called  to  Miletus,  were  the  bishops  of  Asiaf 
and  that  he  sent  for  them  to  Ephesus,  because 
that  city  was  the  metropolis  of  this  province. 
But,  were  this  opinion  well  founded,  it  is  not 
conceivable  that  the  sacred  writer  would  have 
called  them  the  elders  of  the  church  of  Ephesus, 
but  the  elders  of  the  church  in  general,  or  the 
elders  of  the  churches  in  Asia.  Besides,  it  is  to 
be  remembered,  that  the  apostle  was  in  such 
haste  to  be  at  Jerusalem,  that  the  sacred  histo- 
rian measures  his  time  by  days;  whereas  it  must 
have  required  several  months  to  call  together  the 
bishops  or  elders  of  all  the  cities  of  Asia ;  and  he 
might  certainly  have  gone  to  meet  them  at  Ephe- 
sus in  less  time  than  would  be  requisite  for  their 
meeting  in  that  city,  and  proceeding  thence  ta 
him  at  Miletus.  They  must  therefore  have  been 
either  the  joint  pastors  of  one  congregation,  or  the 
pastors  of  different  congregations  in  one  city ; 
and  as  it  was  thus  in  Ephesus,  so  it  was  in  Phi- 
lippi; for  we  find  the  apostle  addressing  his  epis- 
tle 'to  all  the  saints  in  Jesus  Christ  which  are  at 
Philippi,  with  the  bishops  and  deacons.'  From 
the  passage  before  us  it  is  likewise  plain,  that  the 
presbyters  of  Ephesus  had  not  only  the  name, 
but  the  whole  power  of  bishops  given  to  them  by 
the  Holy  Ghost ;  for  they  are  enjoined  to  do  the 

whole  work  Of  bishops jroijuaivsiv  t>|V  «x).i|iru»  tou 

6fou — which  signifies  to  ride  as  well  as  feed  the 
church  of  God.  Whence  we  see  that  the  apostle 
makes  the  power  of  governing' inseparable  from 
that  of  preaching  and  thatching;  and  that,  ac- 
cording to  him,  all  who  are  preachers  of  God's 
word,  and  watchmen  of  souls,  are  necessarily 
rulers  or  governors  of  the  church,  without  being 
accountable  for  their  management  to  any  prelate, 
but  only  to  their  Lord  Christ,  from  whom  their 
power  is  derived. 

"  It  appears,  therefore,  that  the  apostle  Paul 
left  in  the  church  of  Ephesus,  which  he  had 
planted,  no  other  successors  to  himself  than  pres- 
byter-bishops, or  Presbyterian  ministers,  and  that 
he,  did  not  devolve  his  powp"  upon  any  prelate. 
Timothy,  whom  the  Episcopalians  allege  to  have 
been  the  first  bishop  of  EpheSus,  was  present 
when  this  settlement  was  made,  Acts  xx.  5;  and 
it  is  surely  not  to  be  supposed  that,  had  he  been 
their  bishop,  the  apostle  would  have  devolved  the 
whole  episcopal  power  upon  the  presbyters  before 
his  face.  If  ever  there  were  a  season  fitter  than 
another  for  pointing  out  the  duty  of  this  supposed 
bishop  to  his  diocese,  and  his  presbyters'  duty  to 
him,  it  was  surely  when  Paul  was  taking  his  final 
leave  of  them,  and  discoursing  so  pathetically  con- 
cerning the  duty  of  overseers,  the  coming  of  ra- 
venous wolves,  and  the  consequent  hazard  of  the 
flock.  In  this  farewell  discourse  he  tells  them, 
that  'he  had  not  shunned  to  declare  unto  them 
til  the  counsel  of  God.'  But  with  what  truth 
Cv.uld  this  have  been  said,  if  obedience  to  a  dio- 
r".an  bishop  had  been  any  part  of  their  duty, 
either  at  the  time  cf  the  apostle's  speaking,  or  at 
any  future  period '?  He  foresaw  that  ravenous 
wolves  would  enter  in  among  them,  and  that  even 
some  of  themselves  should  arise  speaking  perverse 
things;  and  if,  as  the  Episcopalians  allege,  dioce- 
san episcopacy  was  the  remedy  provided  for  these 
evils,  is  it  not  strange,  passing  strange,  that  the 
inspired  preacher  did  not  foresee  that  Timothy, 
who  was  then  standing  beside  him,  was  destined 
to  fill  that  important  office;  or,  if  he  did  foresee 
it,  that  he-  omitted  to  recommend  him  to  his  fu- 
365 


PRESBYTERIANS 
ture  charge,  and  to  give  him  proper  instructions 
for  the  discharge  of  his  duty  1 

"  But  if  Timothy  was  not  bishop  of  Ephesus, 
what,  it  may  be  asked,  was  his  office  in  that 
city  1  for  that  he  resided  there  for  some  time,  and 
was  by  the  apostle  invested  with  authority  to  or- 
dain and  rebuke  presbyters,  are  facts  about  which 
all  parties  arc  agreed,  and  which,  indeed,  cannot 
be  controverted  by  any  reader  of  Paul's  epistles. 
To  this  the  Presbyterian  replies,  with  confidence, 
that  the  power  which  Timothy  exercised  in  the 
church  of  Ephesus  was  that  of  an  evangelist, 
Tim.  ii.  4,  5,  and  not  a  fixed  prelate.  But,  ac- 
cording to  Eusebius,  the  work  of  an  evangelist 
was,  '  to  lay  the  foundations  of  the  faith  in  bar- 
barous nations,  and  to  constitute  among  them  pas- 
tors, after  which  he  passed  on  to  other  countries.' 
Accordingly,  we  find  that  Timothy  was  resident 
for  a  time  at  Philippi  and  Corinth  (Phil.  ii.  19  ; 
1  Cor.  iv.  17;  xvi.  10,  11),  as  well  as  Ephesus, 
and  that  he  had  as  much  authority  over  those 
churches  as  over  that  of  which  he  is  said  to  have 
been  the  fixed  bishop.  'Now,  if  Timotheus 
come,  see  that  he  may  be  with  you  without  fear, 
for  he  worketh  the  work  of  the  Lord,  as  I  also  do. 
Let  no  man,  therefore,  despise  him.'  This  text 
might  lead  us  to  suppose  that  Timothy  wad 
bishop  of  Corinth  as  well  as  of  Ephesus;  for  it 
is  stronger  than  that  upon  which  his  episcopacy 
of  the  latter  church  is  chiefly  built.  The  apostle 
says,  1  Tim.  i.  3,  'I  besought  thee  to  abide  still 
at  Ephesus,  when  I  went  into  Macedonia,  that 
thou  mightest  charge  some  that  they  teach  no 
other  doctrine.'  But,  had  Timothy  been  the  fixed 
bishop  of  that  city,  there  would  surely  have  been 
no  necessity  for  beseeching  him  to  abide  with  his 
flock.  It  is  to  be  observed,  too,  that  the  first  epis- 
tle to  Timothy,  which  alone  was  written  to  him 
during  his  residence  at  Ephesus,  was  of  a  date 
prior  to  Paul's  meeting  with  the  elders  of  that 
church  at  Mile  »js  ;  for  in  the  epistle  he  hopes 
to  come  to  him  shortly ;  whereas  he  tells  the  elders 
at  Miletus  that  they  should  see  his  face  no  more. 
This  being  the  case,  it  is  evident  that  Timothy 
was  left  by  the  apostle  at  Ephesus  only  to  supply 
his  place  during  his  temporary  absence  in  Mace- 
donia ;  and  that  he  could  not  possibly  have  been 
constituted  fixed  bishop  of  that  church  ;  since  the 
episcopal  powers  were  afterwards  committed  to 
the  presbyters  by  the  Holy  Ghost  in  his  presence. 

"  The  identity  of  the  office  of  bishop  and  pres- 
byter being  thus  clearly  established,  it  follows, 
that  the  presbyterate  is  the  highest  permanent 
office  in  the  church,  and  that  every  faithful  pas- 
tor of  a  flock  is  successor  to  the  apostles  in  every 
thing  in  which  they  were  to  have  any  successors. 
In  the  apostolic  office  there  were  indeed  some 
things  peculiar  and  extraordinary,  such  as  their 
immediate  call  by  Christ,  their  infallibility,  their 
being  witnesses  of  our  Lord's  resurrection,  and 
their  unlimited  jurisdiction  over  the  whole  world. 
These  powers  and  privileges  could  not  be  con- 
veyed by  imposition  of  hands  to  any  successors, 
whether  called  presbyters  or  bishops  ;  but  as  rulers 
or  office-bearers  in  particular  churches,  we  have 
the  confession  of  'the  very  chiefest  apostles,' 
Peter  and  John,  that  they  were  nothing  more 
than  presbyters,  or  parish  ministers.  This  being 
the  case,  the  dispute  which  has  been  so  warmly 
agitated  concerning  the  validity  of  Presbyterian 
ordination  may  be  soon  decided  ;  for  if  the  cere- 
mony of  ordination  be  at  all  essential,  it  is  obvio'js 

2p2 


PRESBYTERIANS 
that  such  a  ceremony  performed  by  presbyters 
must  be  valid,  as  there  is  no  higher  order  of  eccle- 
siastics in  the  church  by  whom  it  can  be  perform- 
ed. Accordingly  we  find,  that  Timothy  himself, 
though  said  to  be  a  bishop,  was  ordained  by  the 
laying  on  of  the  hands  of  a  presbytery.  At  that 
ordination,  indeed,  St.  Paul  presided,  but  he  could 
preside  only  as  primus  in  paribus;  for  we  have 
seen  that,  as  permanent  officers  in  the  church  of 
Christ,  the  apostles  themselves  were  no  more  than 
presbyters.  If  the  apostles'  hands  were  imposed 
for  any  other  purpose,  it  must  have  been  to  com- 
municate those  charismata,  or  miraculous  gifts 
of  the  Holy  Spirit,  which  were  then  so  frequent ; 
but  which  no  modern  presbyter  or  bishop  will 
pretend  to  give,  unless  his  understanding  he 
clouded  by  the  grossest  ignorance,  or  perverted 
by  the  most  frantic  enthusiasm." 

The  members  of  the  church  of  Scotland  are 
strict  Presbyterians.  Their  mode  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal government  was  brought  thither  from  Geneva 
by  John  Knox,  the  famous  Scotch  reformer,  and 
who  has  been  styled  the  apostle  of  Scotland. 

Their  doctrines  are  Calvinistic,  as  may  be  seen 
in  the  confession  of  faith,  and  the  larger  and 
shorter  catechisms ;  though  it  is  supposed  that 
the  clergy,  when  composing  instructions,  either 
for  their  respective  parishes,  or  the  public  at  large, 
are  no  more  fettered  by  the  confession,  than  the 
clergy  of  the  church  of  England  are  by  the 
thirty-nine  articles.  Many  in  both  communities, 
it  seems,  take  a  more  extensive  latitude  than  then- 
formulas  allow  them. 

As  to  the  church  government  among  the 
Scotch  Presbyterians,  no  one  is  ignorant,  that, 
from  the  first  dawn  of  the  Reformation  among  us 
till  the  ffira  of  the  revolution,  there  was  a  perpetual 
struggle  between  the  court  and  the  people,  for 
the  establishment  of  an  episcopal  or  a  presbyte- 
rian  form :  the  former  model  of  ecclesiastical 
polity  was  patronized  by*  the  house  of  Stuart  on 
account  of  the  support  which  it  gave  to  the  pre- 
rogatives of  the  crown ;  the  latter  was  the  favourite 
of  the  majority  of  the  people,  perhaps  not  so  much 
on  account  of  its  superior  claim  to  apostolical  in- 
stitution, as  because  the  laity  are  mixed  with  the 
clergy  in  church  judicatories,  and  the  two  orders, 
which  under  episcopacy  are  kept  so  distinct,  in- 
corporated, as  it  were,  into  one  body.  In  the 
Scottish  church,  every  regulation  of  public  wor- 
ship, every  act  of  discipline,  and  every  ecclesias- 
tical censure,  which,  in  other  churches,  flows 
from  the  authority  of  a  diocesan  bishop,  or  from 
a  convocation  of  the  clergy,  is  the  joint  work  of  a 
certain  number  of  clergymen  and  laymen  acting 
together  with  equal  authority,  and  deciding  every 
question  by  a  plurality  of  voices.  The  laymen 
who  thus  form  an  essential  part  of  the  ecclesias- 
tical courts  of  Scotland  are  called  ruling  elders, 
and  hold  the  same  office,  as  well  as  the  same 
name,  with  those  brethren  (Acts  xv.)  who  joined 
with  the  apostles  and  elders  at  Jerusalem  in  de- 
termining the  important  question  concerning  the 
necessity  of  imposing  upon  the  Gentile  converts 
the  ritual  observances  of  the  law  of  Moses. 
These  lay-elders  Paul  enjoined  Timothy  (1  Tim. 
v.  17)  to  account  worthy  of  double  honour,  if 
they  should  rule  well,  and  discharge  the  duties 
for  which  they  were  separated  from  the  multitude 
of  their  brethren.  In  the  church  of  Scotland 
every  parish  has  two  or  three  of  those  lay-elders, 
who  arc  grave  and  serious  persons,  chosen  from 
3G6 


PRESBYTERIANS 
among  the  heads  of  families,  of  known  orthodoxy, 
and  steady  adherence  to  the  worship,  discipline, 
and  government  of  the  church.  Being  solemnly 
engaged  to  use  their  utmost  endeavours  for  the 
suppression  of  vice  and  the  cherishing  of  piety 
and  virtue,  and  to  exercise  discipline  faithfully 
and  diligently,  the  minister,  in  the  presence  of 
the  congregation,  sets  them  apart  to  their  office 
by  solemn  prayer ;  and  concludes  the  ceremony, 
which  is  sometimes  called  ordination,  with  ex- 
horting both  elders  and  people  to  their  resjiective 
duties. 

The  kirk  session,  which  is  the  lowest  ecclesi- 
astical judicatory,  consists  of  the  minister  and 
those  elders  of  the  congregation.  The  minister 
is  ex  officio  moderator,  but  has  no  negative  voice 
over  the  decision  of  the  session  ;  nor,  indeed,  has 
he  a  right  to  vote  at  all,  unless  when  the  voice  of 
the  ciders  arc  equal  and  opposite.  He  mav,  in- 
deed, enter  his  protest  against  their  sentence,  if 
he  think  it  improper,  and  appeal  to  the  judgment 
of  the  presbytery ;  but  this  privilege  belongs 
equally  to  every  elder,  as  well  as  to  every  person 
who  may  believe  himself  aggrieved  by  the  pro- 
ceedings of  the  session.  The  deacons,  whose 
proper  office  is  to  take  care  of  the  poor,  may  be 
present  in  every  session,  and  offer  their  counsel 
on  all  questions  that  come  before  it ;  but,  except 
in  what  relates  to  the  distribution  of  alms,  they 
have  no  decisive  vote  with  the  minister  and  elders. 

The  next  judicatory  is  the  ■presbytery,  which 
consists  of  all  the  pastors  within  a  certain  district 
and  one  ruling  elder  from  each  parish,  commis- 
sioned by  his  brethren  to  represent,  in  conjuno 
tion  with  the  minister,  the  session  of  that  parish. 
The  presbytery  treats  of  such  matters  as  concern 
the  particular  churches  within  its  limits ;  as  the 
examination,  admission,  ordination,  and  censuring 
of  ministers ;  the  licensing  of  probationers,  re- 
buking the  gross  or  contumacious  sinners,  the 
directing  the  sentence  of  excommunication,  the 
deciding  upon  references  and  appeals  from  kirk 
sessions,  resolving  cases  of  conscience,  explain- 
ing difficulties  in  coctrine  or  discipline ;  and  cen- 
suring, according  to  the  word  of  God,  any  heresy 
or  erroneous  doctrine  which  hath  either  been 
publicly  or  privately  maintained  within  the  bounds 
of  its  jurisdiction.  Some  of  them  have  frankly 
acKnowledged  that  they  cannot  altogether  ap- 
prove of  that  part  of  her  constitution  wfiich  gives 
an  equal  vote,  in  questions  of  heresy,  to  an  illiter- 
ate mechanic  and  his  enlightened  pastor.  We 
are  persuaded  (say  they)  that  it  has  been  the 
source  of  much  trouble  to  many  a  pious  clergy- 
man, who  from  the  laudable  desire  of  explaining 
the  Scriptures,  and  declaring  to  his  flock  all  the 
counsel  of  God,  has  employed  a  variety  of  expres- 
sions of  the  same  import  to  illustrate  those  articles 
of  faith,  which  may  be  obscurely  expressed  in 
the  established  standards.  The  fact,  however,  is 
that  in  presbyteries  the  only  prerogatives  which 
the  pastors  have  over  the  ruling  elders  are,  the 
power  of  ordination  by  imposition  of  hands,  and 
the  privilege  of  having  the  moderator  chosen  from 
their  body. 

From  the  judgment  of  the  presbytery  there  lies 
an  appeal  to  the  provincial  synod,  which  ordina- 
rily meets  twice  in  the  year,  and  exercises  over 
the  presbyteries  within  the  province  a  jurisdiction 
similar  to*  that  which  is  vested  in  each  presbytery 
over  the  several  kirk  sessions  within  its  bounds 
Of  these  synods  there  arc  in  the  church  of  Scot- 


PRESBYTERIANS 

{and  fifteen,  which  are  composed  of  the  members 
of  the  several  presbyteries  within  the  respective 
provinces  which  give  names  to  the  synods. 

The  highest  authority  in  the  church  of  Scot- 
land is  the  general  assembly,  which  consists  of  a 
certain  number  of  ministers  and  ruling  elders 
delegated  from  each  presbytery,  and  of  commis- 
sioners from  the  universities  and  royal  boroughs. 
A  presbytery  in  which  there  are  fewer  than 
twelve  parishes  sends  to  the  general  assembly 
two  ministers  and  one  ruling  elder:  if  it  contain 
between  twelve  and  eighteen  ministers,  it  sends 
'hree  of  these,  and  one  ruling  elder:  if  it  contain 
between  eighteen  and  twenty-four  ministers,  it 
sends  four  ministers,  and  two  ruling  elders ;  and 
of  twenty-four  ministers,  when  it  contains  so 
many,  it  sends  five,  with  two  ruling  elders. 
Every  royal  borough  sends  one  ruling  elder,  and 
Edinburgh  two,  whose  election  must  be  attested 
by  the  kirk  sessions  of  their  respective  boroughs. 
Every  university  sends  one  commissioner  from  its 
Dwn  body.  The  commissioners  are  chosen  an- 
nually six  weeks  before  the  meeting  of  the  as- 
sembly ;  and  the  ruling  ciders  are  often  men  of 
the  first  eminence  in  the  kingdom  for  rank  and 
talents.  In  this  assembly,  which  meets  once  a 
year,  the  king  presides  by  his  commissioner,  who 
is  always  a  nobleman,  but  he  has  no  voice  in 
their  deliberations.  The  order  of  their  proceed- 
ings is  regular,  though  sometimes  the  number  of 
members  creates  a  confusion  ;  which  the  mode- 
rator, who  is  chosen  from  among  the  ministers  to 
be,  as  it  were,  the  speaker  of  the  house,  has  not 
sufficient  authority  to  prevent.  Appeals  are 
brought  from  all  the  other  ecclesiastical  courts  in 
Scotland  to  the  general  assembly ;  and  in  ques- 
tions purely  religious,  no  appeal  lies  from  its  de- 
termination. See  Hall's  View  of  a  Gospel  Church; 
Encyd.  Brit.  art.  Presbyterians  ;  Brown's  Vin- 
dication of  the  Presbyterian  Form  of  Church 
Government ;  Scotch  Confession  and  Directory. 
For  the  other  side  of  the  question,  and  against 
Presbyterian  church  government,  see  articles 
Brownists,  Church,  Congregationalists, 
Episcopacy,  and  Independents. 

PRESBYTERIANS,  ENGLISH.  The 
appellation  Presbyterian  is  in  England  appropri- 
ated to  a  body  of  dissenters,  who  have  not  any 
attachment  to  the  Scotch  mode  of  church  go- 
vernment any  more  than  to  episcopacy  among 
us ;  and  therefore  the  term  Presbyterian  is  here 
improperly  applied.  How  this  misapplication 
came  to  pass  cannot  be  easily  determined ;  but  it 
has  occasioned  many  wrong  notions,  and  should 
therefore  be  rectified.  English  Presbyterians,  as 
they  are  called,  adopt  nearly  the  same  mode  of 
church  government  with  the  Independents.  Their 
chief  difference  from  the  Independents  is,  that 
they  are  less  attached  to  Calvinism. 

PRESBYTERIANS  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES.  The  first  Presbyterians  in  America 
came  from  England,  Scotland,  and  Ireland,  about 
the  year  1700.  They  settled  in  what  is  now  a 
part  of  New  Jersey  and  Delaware.  The  first 
Presbyterian  church  formed  in  the  United  States 
was  in  Philadelphia,  now  known  as  the  "  First 
Presbyterian  church"  in  that  city,  and  recently 
under  the  care  of  Ihe  Rev.  James  P.  Wilson, 
D.  D.  Its  first  pastor  was  the  Rev.  Jedediah 
Andrews,  a  graduate  of  the  University  of  Cam- 
bridge, Massachusetts.  The  first  Presbyterian 
:hurch  in  the  city  or  state  of  New  York  was  that 
367 


PRESBYTERIANS 

in  Wall  street,  founded  in  171G.  The  churches 
of  Newark,  New  Jersey,  and  of  Jamaica,  New- 
ton, South  Hampton,  East  Hampton,  &c.  which 
are  now  Presbyterian,  were  founded  several  years 
prior  to  the  above-mentioned,  but  were  originally 
Congregational,  and  so  remained  till  about  the 
year  1716.  The  first  presbytery  was  organized 
in  1704  ;  the  first  synod  in  171G.  This  was 
then  composed  of  four  presbyteries,  viz.  those  of 
Philadelphia,  Long  Island,  New  Castle,  and 
Snowhill,  and  was  called  the  synod  of  Philadel- 
phia. A  division  took  place  in  this  synod  in  1741, 
which  gave  rise  to  the  synod  of  New  York. 
These  two  were  again  united  in  1758,  under  the 
title  of  the  synod  of  New  York  and  Philadelphia. 
This  synod,  socn  after  its  formation,  founded  the 
college  of  New  Jersey,  now  located  at  Princeton, 
and  originally  denominated  Nassau  Hall.  The 
general  assembly  was  formed  in  1788,  at  which 
time  the  body  had  so  far  increased  as  to  admit  of 
a  farther  multiplication  of  synods,  and  accordingly 
the  whole  church  was  arranged  into  the  four  sy- 
nods of  Philadelphia,  Virginia,  the  Carolinas, 
and  that  already  existing,  the  synod  of  New  York 
and  Philadelphia.  The  first  meeting  of  the  gene- 
ral assembly  was  held  in  1789.  Subsequent  to 
that  period  the  Presbyterian  church  has  continued 
to  increase  by  a  steady  accession  of  numbers, 
influence,  and  respectability,  till  it  ranks  among 
the  most  prominent  ecclesiastical  bodies  in  our 
country.  Its  ministers  and  members  are  distin- 
guished for  their  active  zeal  and  their  munificent 
liberality  in  the  promotion  of  the  great  objects  of 
Christian  benevolence  of  the  present  day.  The 
general  assembly,  the  highest  judicature  of  the 
church,  has  under  its  special  care  and  supervision 
two  flourishing  theological  seminaries:  one  located 
at  Princeton,  N.  J.,  the  other  at  Alleghany-town, 
Penn.  There  are  also  several  others  under  the 
care  of  particular  synods  and  presbyteries,  as 
Auburn,  N.  Y. ;  Hampden  Sydney,  Vir. ;  Lane 
Seminary,  Ohio ;  and  Hanover  in  Indiana.  In 
connexion  with  the  general  assembly,  there  were, 
by  the  last  statistical  reports,  28  synods,  118  pres- 
byteries, 2648  congregations,  1914  bishops,  236 
licentiates,  and  247,964  communicants.* 

PRESBYTERIANS,  CUMBERLAND, 
the  name  given  to  a  body  of  Presbyterians  who 
seceded  from  the  general  Presbyterian  church  in 
the  United  States  in  February,  1810.  They  re- 
side principally  in  the  states  of  Kentucky  and 
Tennessee,  but  have  a  number  of  churches  in 
some  of  the  states  north  of  the  Ohio  river.  Their 
secession  was  owing  to  a  difference  of  opinion 
with  the  synod  of  Kentucky,  on  the  subject  of 
licensing  ministers  to  preach  the  gospel  who  had 
not  enjoyed  the  benefit  of  a  classical  education. 
At  a  period  of  considerable  religious  excitement, 
when  the  labours  of  clergymen  were  in  great 
demand,  it  was  proposed  by  some  of  the  ministers 
who  then  belonged  to  that  synod,  to  choose  froir. 
among  the  laity  certain  persons  whose  talents 
gifts,  piety,  &c.  would  justify  the  step,  and  en- 
courage them  to  prepare  for  the  work  of  the  mi- 
nistry, even  though  they  had  not  gone  through 
the  ordinary  routine  of  classical  studies  required 
by  the  standards  of  the  church.  Several  indi- 
viduals accordingly  complied  with  these  sugges- 
tions, and  after  due  preparation  were  examined 
and  licensed  to  preach  by  a  presbytery,  the  ma- 


♦For  a  more  detailed  history  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church  in  the  United  States,  see  Appendix,  No.  3 


PRESCRIPTION 
tnrity  of  wIwjsp  members  were  favourable  to  the 
measure.  The  synod,  however,  were  unfriendly 
In  the  innovation.  The  general  assembly  re- 
fused to  sanction  it.  The  result  was,  that  a  new 
presbytery,  called  the  Cumberland  Presbytery, 
was  tunned,  disclaiming  all  connexion  with  the 
general  assembly's  body,  except  that  they  still 
retained  the  bulk  of  the  Presbyterian  confession 
as  the  confession  of  their  faith,  and  still  deter- 
mined to  adhere  to  the  presbyterian  form  of 
church  government.  The  part  of  the  confession 
to  which  they  principally  object  is,  "the  idea  of 
fatality  that  seems  to  be  taught  under  the  myste- 
rious doctrine  of  predestination."  Their  points 
of  dissent  from  the  doctrines  supposed  to  he  in- 
culcated in  the  confession  are  the  following: — 
1.  That  there  are  no  eternal  reprobates.  2.  That 
Christ  died  not  for  a  pari  only,  hut  fore///  mankind. 

3.  That  all  infants,  dying  in  infancy,  are  saved 
through  Christ  and  sanctification  of  the  Spirit. 

4.  That  the  Spirit  of  God  operates  on  the  world, 
or  as  co-extcnsively  as  Christ  has  made  the  atone- 
ment, in  such  a  manner  as  to  leave  all  men  inex- 
cusable. 

At  first  there  were  but  nine  preachers  in  the 
connexion,  only  four  of  whom  were  ordained. 
They  have  now  a  synod  consisting  of  several 
presbyteries.  The  ministers  in  their  connexion 
are  not  far  from  700.  The  additions  to  the 
churches  during  the  year  1829,  were  nearly  3,500. 
For  a  well  written  article,  (to  1844,)  by  a  lead- 
ing member  of  this  church.— See  APPENDIX, 
No.  IV. 

PRESBYTERY,  REFORMED.  The  Re- 
formed Presbytery  in  Scotland  trace  their  origin 
as  far  back  as  the  Reformation,  and  consider 
themselves  as  the  only  pure  Presbyterians  since 
the  revolution.  They  profess  to  adhere  to  the 
solemn  league  and  covenant  agreed  to  by  the  na- 
tion before  the  restoration,  in  which  they  abjure 
popery  and  prelacy,  and  resolve  to  maintain  and 
defend  the  doctrines,  worship,  discipline,  and  go- 
vernment of  the  church,  as  approved  by  the  par- 
liament and  assembly  at  Westminster,  and  by 
the  general  assembly  of  the  church  and  parlia- 
ment of  Scotland,  1645-9.  It  seems,  they  ob- 
ject not  so  much  to  a  religious  establishment,  but 
to  the  religious  establishment  as  it  exists  :  they 
object  not  to  an  alliance  of  the  church  with  the 
state,  but  to  the  alliance  of  the  church  with  an 
uncovenanted  king  and  government.  Their  num- 
ber, it  is  said,  amounts  to  about  four  thousand 
persons. 

PRESCIENCE  OF  GOD  is  foreknowledge, 
or  that  knowledge  which  God  has  of  things°to 
come.  The  doctrine  of  predestination  is  founded 
on  the  prescience  of  God,  and  on  the  supposition 
of  all  futurity  being  present  to  him.  Properly 
speaking,  indeed,  prescience  supposes  that  of  pre- 
destination; for  if  we  allow  that  God  from  all 
eternity  foresaw  all  things,  he  must  thus  have 
foreseen  them  in  consequence  of  his  permitting 
or  fore-appointing  them.  Hence,  events  are  not 
certain  merely  because  foreknown;  but  fore- 
known because  antecedently  certain  on  account 
of  predetermining  reasons.  See  Foreknow- 
ledge.  Predestination. 

PR  ESC  R 1  FT  1  ON,  in  theology,  was  a  kind  of 
argument  pleaded  by  Tertullian  and  others  in  the 
third  century  against  erroneous  doctors.  This 
mode  of  arguing  has  been  despised  by  some,  both 
because  it  has  been  used  by  Papists,  and  because 
368 


PRESUMPTION 

they  think  that  truth  has  no  need  of  such  a  sup- 
port. Others,  however,  think  that  if  it  can  he 
shown  that  any  particular  doctrine  of  Christianity 
was  held  in  the  earliest  ages,  even  approaching  the 
apostolic,  it  must  have  very  considerable  weight  ; 
and,  indeed,  that  it  has  so,  appears  from  the  uni- 
versal appeals  of  all  parties  to  those  early  times 
in  support  of  their  particular  opinions.  Besides, 
the  thing  is  in  itself  natural ;  for  if  a  man  finds  a 
variety  of  opinions  in  the  world  upon  important 
passages  in  Scripture,  where  shall  he  be  so  apt 
to  get  the  true  sense  as  from  contemporary  wri- 
ters or  others  who  lived  very  near  the  apostolic 
age?  And  if  such  a  man  shall  find  any  doctrine 
or  interpretation  to  have  been  universally  believed 
in  the  first  ages,  or,  as  Vicentius  Lirinensis  words 
it,  semper  ubique  et  ab  omnibus,  he  will  unques- 
tionably be  disposed  to  think  such  early  and  uni- 
versal consent,  or  such  prescription,  of  very  con- 
siderable weight  in  determining  his  opinion. 

PRESUMPTION,  as  it  relates  to  the  mind, 
is  a  supposition  formed  before  examination.  As 
it  relates  to  the  conduct  or  moral  action,  it  implies 
arrogance  and  irreverence.  As  it  relates  to  reli- 
gion in  general,  it  is  a  bold  and  daring  confidence 
in  the  goodness  of  God,  without  obedience  to  his 
will.  Presumptuous  sins  must  be  distinguished 
from  sins  of  infirmity,  or  those,  failings  peculiar 
to  human  nature,  Ecc.  vii.  20;  lJohn  i.  8,  9 
from  sins  done  through  ignorance,  Luke  xii.  48, 
and  from  sins  into  which  men  are  hurried  by 
sudden  and  violent  temptation,  Gal.  vi.  1.  The 
ingredients  which  render  sin  presumptuous  are, 
knowledge,  John  xv.  22;  deliberation  and  con- 
trivance, Prov.  vi.  14 ;  Ps.  xxxvi.  4 ;  obstinacy, 
Jer.  xliv.  16;  Deut.  i.  13;  inattention  to  the  re- 
monstrances of  conscience,  Acts  vii.  51 ;  oppo- 
sition to  the  dispensations  of  Providence,  2  Chr. 
xxviii.  22 ;  and  repeated  commission  of  the  same 
sin,  Ps.  lxxviii.  17.  Presumptuous  sins  are  nu- 
merous ;  such  as  profane  swearing,  perjury,  theft, 
adultery,  drunkenness,  sabbath-breaking,  &c. — 
These  may  be  more  particularly  considered  as 
presumptuous  sins,  because  they  are  generally 
committed  against  a  known  law,  and  so  often  re- 
peated. Such  sins  are  most  heinous  in  their  na- 
ture, and  most  pernicious  in  their  effects.  They 
are  said  to  be  a  reproach  to  the  Lord,  Num.  xv. 
3;  they  harden  the  heart,  1  Tim.  iv.  2;  draw 
down  judgments  from  heaven,  Num.  xv.  31 ; 
even  wnen  repented  of  are  seldom  pardoned  with- 
out some  visible  testimony  of  God's  displeasure, 
2  Sam.  xii.  10. — As  it  respects  professors  of  re- 
ligion, as  one  observes,  they  sin  presumptuously, 
1.  When  they  take  up  a  profession  of  religion 
without  principle  :  2.  When  they  profess  to  ask 
the  blessing  of  God,  and  yet  go  on  in  forbidden 
courses  :  3.  When  thev  do  not  take  religion  as 
they  find  it  in  the  Scriptures:  4.  When  they 
make  their  feelings  the  test  of  their  religion,  with- 
out considering  the  difference  between  animal 
passion  and  the  operations  of  the  Spirit  of  God  : 
5.  When  they  run  into  temptation:  6.  When 
they  indulge  in  self-confidence  and  self-compla- 
cency :  7.  When  they  bring  the  spirit  of  the 
world  into  the  church  :  8.  When  they  form  apo- 
logies for  that  in  some  which  they  condemn  in 
others:  9.  When,  professing  to  believe  in  the 
doctrines  of  the  Gospel,  they  live  licentiously: 
10.  When  they  create,  magnify,  and  pervert 
their  troubles:  11.  When  they  arraign  the  con- 
duct  of  God   as   unkind   and  unjust.     See  It. 


PRIEST 
Walkers  Ser.  vol.  i.  srr.  3;  SovtlVs  Ser.  vol.  vii. 
ser.  10,  11.  and  1-2;  Tillotsoris  Ser.  ser.  147; 
Sauna's  Ser.  ser.  11.  vol.  i.  Robinson's  transla- 
tion ;  Bp.  Hopkins  on  the  Nature,  Danger,  and 
Cure  of  Presumptuous  Sins.     Sec  his  works. 

Pride  is  inordinate  and  unreasonable  self- 
esteem,  attended  with  insolence,  and  rude  treat- 
ment of  others.  "  It  is  sometimes,"  says  a  good 
writer,  "  confounded  with  vanity,  and  sometimes 
with  dignity ;  but  to  the  former  passion  it  has  no 
resemblance,  and  in  many  circumstances  it  differs 
from  the  latter.  Vanity  is  the  parent  of  loqua- 
cious boasting ;  and  the  person  subject  to  it,  if 
his  pretences  be  admitted,  has  no  inclination  to 
insult  the  company.  The  proud  man,  on  the 
pthcr  hand,  is  naturally  silent,  and,  wrapt  up  in 
his  own  importance,  seldom  speaks  but  to  make 
his  audience  feel  their  inferiority."  Pride  is  the 
high  opinion  that  a  poor  little  contracted  soul  en- 
tertains of  itself.  Dignity  consists  in  just,  great, 
and  uniform  actions,  and  is  the  opposite  to  mean- 
ness.— 2.  Pride  manifests  itself  by  praising  our- 
selves, adorning  our  persons,  attempting  to  ap- 
pear before  others  in  a  superior  light  to  what  we 
are:  contempt  and  slander  of  others;  envy  at 
the  excellencies  others  possess ;  anxiety  to  gain 
applause ;  distress  and  rage  when  slighted  ;  im- 
patience of  contradiction,  and  opposition  to  God 
himself. — 3.  The  evil  effects  of  pride  are  beyond 
computation.  It  has  spread  itself  universally  in 
all  nations,  among  all  characters ;  and  as  it  was 
the  first  sin,  as  some  suppose,  that  entered  into 
the  world,  so  it  seems  the  last  to  be  conquered.  It 
may  be  considered  as  the  parent  of  discontent, 
ingratitude,  covetousness,  poverty,  presumption, 
passion,  extravagance,  bigotry,  war,  and  persecu- 
tion. In  fact,  there  is  hardly  an  evil  perpetrated 
but  what  pride  is  connected  with  it  in  a  proximate 
or  remote  sense. — 4.  To  suppress  this  evil,  we 
should  consider  what  we  are.  "  If  we  could  trace 
our  descents,"  says  Seneca,  "  we  should  find  all 
slaves  to  come  from  princes,  and  all  princes 
from  slaves.  To  be  proud  of  knowledge,  is  to  be 
blind  in  the  light ;  to  be  proud  of  virtue,  is  to  poi- 
son ourselves  with  the  antidote ;  to  be  proud  of 
authority  is  to  make  our  rise  our  downfall."  The 
imperfection  of  our  nature,  our  scanty  knowledge, 
contracted  powers,  narrow  conceptions,  and  mo- 
ral inability,  are  strong  motives  to  excite  us  to 
humility.  We  should  consider,  also,  what  punish- 
ments this  sin  has  brought  on  mankind.  See 
the  cases  of  Pharaoh,  Hainan,  Nebuchadnezzar, 
Herod,  and  others.  How  particularly  it  is  pro- 
hibited, Prov.  xvi.  18;  1  Pet.  v.  5;  James  iv.  G; 
Prov.  xxix.  23  ;  what  a  torment  it  is  to  its  pos- 
sessor, Esther  v.  13 ;  how  soon  all  things  of  a 
sublunary  nature  will  end ;  how  disgraceful  it 
renders  us  in  the  sight  of  God,  angels,  and 
men ;  what  a  barrier  it  is  to  our  felicity  and  com- 
ir»union  with  God;  how  fruitful  it  is  of  discord  ; 
now  it  precludes  our  usefulness,  and  renders  us 
really  contemptible.     See  Humility. 

PRIEST,  a  person  set  apart  for  the  perform- 
ance of  sacrifice,  and  other  offices  and  ceremonies 
*of  religion.  Before  the  promulgation  of  the  law 
of  Moses,  the  first-born  of  every  family,  the 
fathers,  the  princes,  and  the  kings,  were  priests. 
Thus  Cain  and  Abel,  Noah,  Abraham,  Mel- 
chizedec,  Job,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  offered  them- 
selves their  own  sacrifices.  Among  the  Israel- 
ii es  after  their  departure  from  Egypt,  the 
priesthood  was  confined  to  one  tribe,  and  it  con- 
36")  2  W 


PRIEST 
sisted  of  three  orders,  the  high  priests,  priests, 
and  hevit.es.  The  priesthood  was  made  heredi- 
tary in  the  family  of  Aaron  ;  and  the  first-born  of 
the  oldest  branch  of  that  family,  if  he  had  no  legal 
blemish,  was  always  the  high-priest.  This  divine 
appointment  was  observed  with  considerable  ac- 
curacy till  the  Jews  fell  under  the  dominion  of 
the  Romans,  and  had  their  faith  corrupted  by  a 
false  philosophy.  Then,  indeed,  the  high-priest- 
hood was  sometimes  set  up  to  sale,  and,  instead 
of  continuing  for  life,  as  it  ought  to  have  done,  it 
seems  from  some  passages  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, to  have  been  nothing  more  than  an  annual 
office.  There  is  sufficient  reason,  however,  to 
believe,  that  it  was  never  disposed  of  but  to  some 
descendant  of  Aaron  capable  of  filling  it,  had  the 
older  branches  been  extinct.  [For  the  consecra- 
tion and  offices  of  the  Jewish  priesthood,  we 
refer  our  readers  to  the  book  of  Moses.]  In  the 
time  of  David,  the  inferior  priests  were  divided 
into  twenty-four  companies,  who  were  to  serve 
in  rotation,  each  company  by  itself  for  a  week. — 
The  order  in  which  the  several  courses  were  to 
serve  was  determined  by  lot ;  and  each  course 
was,  in  all  succeeding  ages,  called  by  the  name 
of  its  original  chief. 

It  has  been  much  disputed,  whether  in  the 
Christian  church,  there  be  any  such  officer  as  a 
priest,  in  the  proper  sense  of  the  word.  If  the 
word  priest  be  taken  to  denote  a  person  com- 
missioned by  divine  authority  to  offer  up  a  real 
sacrifice  to  God,  we  may  justly  deny  that  there 
is  a  priest  upon  earth.  Under  the  Gospel,  there 
is  but  one  priest,  which  is  Christ :  and  but 
one  sacrifice,  that  of  the  cross.  The  church  of 
Rome,  however,  erroneously  believe  their  priests 
to  be  empowered  to  offer  up  to  the  Divine  Majesty 
real  proper  sacrifice,  as  were  the  priests  under 
the  Old  Testament.  Ecclesiastical  history  in- 
forms us  that,  in  the  second  century,  some  time 
after  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Adrian,  when  the 
Jews,  by  the  second  destruction  of  Jerusalem, 
were  bereaved  of  all  hopes  of  the  restoration  of 
their  government  to  its  former  lustre,  the  notion 
that  the  ministers  of  the  Christian  church  suc- 
ceeded to  the  character  and  prerogatives  of  the 
Jewish  priesthood  was  industriously  propagated 
by  the  Christian  doctors ;  and  that,  in  conse- 
quence, the  bishops  claimed  a  rank  and  charac- 
ter similar  to  that  of  the  Jewish  high-priest ;  the 
presbyters  to  that  of  the  priests;  and  the  dea- 
cons to  that  of  the  Levites.  One  of  the  perni- 
cious effects  of  this  groundless  comparison  and 
pretension  seems  to  have  been,  the  inlroduetion 
of  the  idea  of  a  real  sacrifice  in  the  Christian 
church,  and  of  sacrificing  priests. 

In  the  church  of  England,  the  word  priest  is 
retained  to  denote  the  second  order  in  her  hierar- 
chy, but  we  believe  with  very  different  significa- 
tions, according  to  the  different  opinions  enter- 
tained of  the  Lord's  Supper.  Some  few  of  her 
divines,  of  great  learning,  and  of  undoubted  Pro- 
testantism, maintain  that  the  Lord's  Supper  ia 
a  commemorative  and  eiicharistical  sacrifice. — 
These  consider  all  who  are  authorized  to  admi- 
nister that  sacrament  as  in  the  strictest  sense 
priests.  Others  hold  the  Lord's  Supper  to  be  a 
feast  upon  the  one  sacrifice,  once  offered  on  the 
cross;  and  these,  too,  must  consider  themselves 
as  clothed  with  some  kind  of  priesthood.  Great 
numbers,  however,  of  the  English  clergy,  per- 
haps the  majority,  agree  with  the  church  of  Scot- 


PRIMACY 

land,  in  maintaining  thai  the  Lord's  Supper  is  a 
rite  of  no  other  moral  import  than  the  mere  com- 
memoration of  the  death  of  Christ.  These  can- 
not consider  themselves  as  priests  in  the  rigid 
sense  of  the  word,  hut  only  as  presbyters,  of 
which  the  word  priest  is  a  contraction,  of  the 
same  import  with  elder.     See  Lord's  Supper. 

PRIMACY,  the  highest  post  in  the  church. 
The  Romanists  contend  that  St.  Peter,  hy  our 
Lord's  appointment,  had  a  primacy  or  sovereign 
authority  and  jurisdiction  over  thy  apostles. — 
This,  however,  is  denied  by  the  Protestants,  and 
that  upon  just  grounds.  Dr.  Barrow  observes 
(Works,  vol.  i.  p.  557,)  that  there  are  several 
sorts  of  primacy  which  may  belong  to  a  person 
in  respect  of  others.  1.  A  primacy  of  worth  or 
personal  excellence. — 2.  A  primacy  of  reputa- 
tion and  esteem. — 3.  A  primacy  of  osder  or  bare 
dignity  and  precedence. — 4.  A  primacy  of  power 
and  jurisdiction.  As  for  the  first  of  these,  a  pri- 
macy of  worth,  we  may  well  grant  it  to  Peter, 
admitting  that  probably  he  did  exceed  the  rest 
of  his  brethren  in  personal  endowments  and 
capacities;  particularly  in  quickness  of  appre- 
hension, boldness  of  spirit,  readiness  of  speech, 
charity  to  our  Lord,  and  zeal  for  his  service. — 

2.  As  to  a  primacy  of  repute,  which  St.  Paul 
means  when  he  speaks  of  those  who  had  a  spe- 
cial reputation,  of  those  who  seemed  to  be  pil- 
lars, of  the  super-eminent  apostles,  Gal.  ii.  G,  !) ; 
2  Cor.  xi.  5;  xii.  11,  this  advantage  cannot  be 
refused  him,  being  a  necessary  consequence  of 
those  eminent  qualities  resplendent  in  him,  and 
of  the  illustrious  performances  achieved  by  him 
beyond  the  rest.  This  may  be  inferred  from  that 
renown  which  he  hath  had  from  the  beginning; 
and  likewise  from  his  being  so  constantly  ranked 
in  the  first  place  before  the  rest  of  his  brethren. — 

3.  As  to  a  primacy  of  order  or  bare  dignity,  im- 
porting that  commonly,  in  all  meetings  and  pro- 
ceedings, the  other  apostles  did  yield  him  the 
precedence,  there  may  be  some  question  ;  for  this 
does  not  seem  suitable  to  the  gravity  of  such  per- 
sons, or  their  condition  and  circumstances,  to 
stand  upon  ceremonies  of  respect ;  for  our  Lord's 
rules  seem  to  exclude  all  semblance  of  ambition, 
all  kind  of  inequality  and  distance  between  his 
apostles.  But  yet  this  primacy  may  be  granted 
as  probable  upon  divers  accounts  of  use  and  con- 
venience ;  it  might  be  useful  to  preserve  order, 
and  to  promote  expedition,  or  to  prevent  con- 
fusion, distraction,  and  dilatory  obstruction  in 
the  management  of  things. — 4.  As  to  a  primacy 
importing  a  superiority  in  command,  power, 
or  jurisdiction,  this  we  have  great  Teason  to 
deny  upon  the  following  considerations.  1.  For 
such  a  power  it  was  needful  that  a  commission 
from  God,  its  founder,  should  be  granted  in  abso- 
lute and  perspicuous  terms ;  but  no  such  com- 
mission is  extant  in  Scripture.— 2.  If  so  illustri- 
ous an  office  was  instituted  by  our  Saviour,  it  is 
strange,  that  no  where  in  the  evangelical  or  apos- 
tolical history  there  should  be  any  express  men- 
tion of  that  institution.— 3.  If  St.  Peter  had  been 
instituted  Boverejgn  of  the  apostolical  senate,  his 
office  and  state  had  been  in  nature  and  kind  very 
distinct  from  the  common  office  of  the  other 
apostles,  as  the  oilier  of  a  king  from  the  office  of 
any  subject;  and  probably  would  have  been  sig- 
nified by  some  distinct  name,  as  that  of  arcri- 
apostle,  arch-pastor,  the  vicar  of  Christ,  or  the 
hke;  but  no  such  name  or  title  was  assumed 

370 


PRIOR 

by  him,  or  was  by  the  rest  attributed  to  him.- 
4.  There  was  no  office  above  that  of  an  apostle, 
known  to  the  apostles  or  primitive  church,  Eph. 
iv.  11  ;  1  Cor.  xii.  28. — 5.  Our  Lord  himself  de- 
clared against  this  kind  of  primacy,  prohibiting 
his  apostles  to  affect,  to  seek,  to  assume,  or  admit 
a  superiority  of  power,  one  above  another,  Luke 
xxii.  11,  24 ;  Mark  ix.  35. — 6.  We  do  not  find 
any  peculiar  administration  committed  to  St. 
Peter,  nor  any  privilege  conferred  on  him  which 
was  not  also  granted  to  the  other  aportles,  John 
xx.  23  ;  Mark  xvi.  15. — 7.  In  neither  of  Peter's 
two  catholic  epistles,  does  there  appear  any  inti- 
mation or  any  pretence  to  this  arch-apostolical 
power. — 8.  In  all  relations  which  occur  in  Scrip- 
ture about  controversies  of  doctrine  or  practice, 
there  is  no  appeal  made  to  St.  Peter's  judgment, 
or  allegation  of  it  as  decisive,  and  no  argument  is 
built  on  his  authority. — 9.  St.  Peter  no  where 
appears  intermeddling  as  a  judge  or  governor 
paramount  in  such  cases ;  yet  where  he  does 
himself  deal  with  heretics  and  disorderly  persons, 
he  proceeds  not  as  a  pope  decreeing ;  but  as  an 
apostle,  warning,  arguing,  and  persuading  againsi 
them. — 10.  The  consideration  of  the  apostles 
proceeding  in  the  conversion  of  people,  in  the 
foundation  of  churches,  and  in  administration  of 
their  spiritual  affairs,  will  exclude  any  proba- 
bility of  St.  Peter's  jurisdiction  over  them.  They 
went  about  their  business,  not  by  order  or  license 
from  St.  Peter,  but,  according  to  special  direction 
of  God's  spirit. — 11.  The  nature  of  the  apos- 
tolical ministry,  the  apostles  not  being  fixed  in 
one  place  of  residence,  but  continually  moving 
about  the  world ;  the  slate  of  things  at  that  time, 
and  the  manner  of  St.  Peter's  life,  render  it  un- 
likely that  he  had  such  a  jurisdiction  over  the 
apostles  as  some  assign  him. — 12.  It  was  indeed 
most  requisite  that  every  apostle  should  have 
a  complete,  absolute,  independent  authority  in 
managing  the  duties  and  concerns  of  the  office, 
that  he  might  not  any  wise  be  obstructed  in  the 
discharge  of  them,  not  clogged  with  a  need  to 
consult  others,  not  hampered  with  orders  from 
those  who  were  at  a  distance. — 13.  The  dis- 
course and  behaviour  of  St.  Paul  towards  St 
Peter,  doth  evidence  that  he  did  not  acknow- 
ledge any  dependence  on  him,  or  anv  subjection 
to  him,  Gal.  ii.  11—14.  If  St.  Peter  had  been 
appointed  sovereign  of  the  church,  it  seems  that 
it  should  have  been  requisite  that  he  should  have 
outlived  all  the  apostles  ;  for  otherwise,  the  church 
would  have  wanted  a  head,  or  there  must  have 
been  an  inextricable  controversy  who  that  head 
was.  But  St.  Peter  died  long  before  St.  John,  as 
all  agree,  and  perhaps  before  divers  others  of  the 
apostles. 

From  these  arguments  we  must  evidently  see 
what  little  ground  the  church  of  Rome  hath  to 
derive  the  supremacy  of  the  pope  from  the  sup- 
posed primacy  of  St.  Peter. 

PRIMATE,  an  archbishop  who  is  invested 
with  a  jurisdiction  over  other  bishops.  See  Arch- 
bishop. 

PRIMITIVE  CHRISTIANS,  those  who 
lived  in  the  first  ages  of  Christianity,  especially 
the  apostles  and  immediate  followers  of  our  Lord. 

PRINCIPLE,  an  essential  truth  from  which 
others  are  derived ;  the  ground  or  motive  of  ac- 
tion.    See  Disposition  and  Doctrine. 

PRIOR,  the  head  of  a  convent ;  next  in  dig- 
nity to  an  abbot. 


PROCESSION 
PRISCILL1ANISTS,  the  followers  of  Tris- 
rillian,  in  the  fourth  century.  It  appears  from 
authentic  records,  that  the  difference  between 
their  doctrine  and  that  of  the  Manieheans  was  not 
very  considerable ;  for  they  denied  the  reality  of 
Christ's  birth  and  incarnation;  maintained  that 
the  visible  universe  was  not  the  production  of 
the  Supreme  Deity,  but  of  some  daemon  or  ma- 
lignant principle;  adopted  the  doctrine  of  seons, 
or  emanations  from  the  divine  nature  ;  consider- 
ed human  bodies  as  prisons  formed  by  the  author 
of  evil  to  enslave  celestial  minds  ;  condemned 
marriage,  and  disbelieved  the  resurrection  of  the 
body.  Their  rule  of  life  and  manners  was  rigid 
and  severe  ;  the  accounts,  therefore,  which  many 
have  given  of  their  lasciviousness  and  intemper- 
ance deserve  not  the  least  credit,  as  they  are  totally 
destitute  of  evidence  and  authority.  That  the 
Priscillianists  were  guilty  of  dissimulation  upon 
some  occasions,  and  deceived  their  adversaries  by 
cunning  stratagems,  is  true ;  but  that  they  held 
it  as  a  maxim,  that  lying  and  perjury  were  law- 
ful, is  a  most  notorious  falsehood,  without  even 
the  least  shadow  of  probability. 

PROBITY,  honesty,  sincerity,  or  veracity. — 
"  It  consists  in  the  habit  of  actions  useful  to  so- 
ciety, and  in  the  constant  observance  cf  the  laws 
which  justice  and  conscience  impose  upon  us. 
The  man  who  obeys  all  the  laws  of  society  with  an 
exact  punctuality  is  not,  therefore,  a  man  of  pro- 
bity; laws  can  only  respect  the  external  and  defi- 
nite parts  of  human  conduct :  but  probity  re- 
spects our  more  private  actions,  and  such  as  it  is 
impossible  in  all  cases  to  define ;  and  it  appears 
to  be  in  morals  what  charity  is  in  religion.  Pro- 
bity teaches  us  to  perform  in  society  those  actions 
which  no  external  power  can  oblige  us  to  per- 
form, and  is  that  quality  in  the  human  mind 
from  which  we  claim  the  performance  of  the 
rights  commonly  called  imperfect." 

PROCESSION,  a  ceremony  in  the  Romish 
church,  consisting  of  a  formal  march  of  the  clergy 
and  people,  putting  up  prayers,  &c.,  and  in  this 
manner  visiting  some  church,  &c.  They  have 
processions  of  the  host  or  sacrament ;  of  oar  Sa- 
viour to  mount  Calvary ;  of  the  Rosary,  &c. 

Processions  are  said  to  be  of  pagan  original. 
The  R.omans,  when  the  empire  was  distressed, 
or  after  some  victory,  used  constantly  to  order 
processions,  for  several  days  together,  to  fie  made 
to  the  temples,  to  beg  the  assistance  of  the  gods, 
or  to  return  them  thanks. 

The  first  processions  mentioned  in  ecclesiastical 
history  are  those  set  on  foot  at  Constantinople,  by 
St.  Chrysostom.  The  Arians  of  that  city,  being 
forced  to  hold  their  meetings  without  the  town, 
went  thither  night  and  morning,  singing  anthems. 
Chrysostom,  to  prevent  their  perverting  the  Ca- 
tholics, set  up  counter-processions,  in  which  the 
clergy  and  people  marched  by  night,  singing 
prayers  and  hymns,  and  carrying  crosses  and 
flambeaux.  From  this  period  the  custom  of  pro- 
cessions was  introduced  among  the  Greeks,  and 
afterwards  among  the  Latins;  but  they  have  sub- 
sisted longer,  and  been  more  frequently  used  in 
the  Western  than  in  the  Eastern  church. 

PROCESSION  of  THE  HOLY  GHOST 
a  term  made  use  of  in  reference,  to  the  Holy 
Ghost,  as  proceeding  from  the  Father,  or  from  the 
Father  and  the  Son.  It  seems  to  be  founded  on 
that  passage  in  John  xv.  26"  :  "  When  the.  Com- 
forter is  come,  whom  I  will  send  unto  you  from 
371 


PROFESSOR 
the  Father,  even  the  Spirit  of  Truth  which  pro- 
ccedeth  from  the  Father,  He  shall  testify  of  me." 
The  procession  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  it  is  said,  is 
expressly  taught  by  Christ,  in  very  strong  terms, 
in  this  text.  This  procession,  it  is  alleged,  is  here 
evidently  distinguished  from  his  mission ;  for  it  is 
said,  "  Whom  I  will  send  to  you  from  the  Father, 
even  the  Spirit  of  Truth,  which  proceeds  from 
the  Father."  If  his  mission  and  proceeding  were 
the  same  thing,  there  would  be  a  tautology  in  the 
words,  his  mission,  according  to  that  interpreta- 
tion, being  mentioned  twice  in  the  same  verse. 
Dr.  Watts,  however,  observes,  that  the  proces- 
sion of  the  Holy  Ghost  from  the  Father,  respects 
not  his  nature  or  substance,  but  his  mission  only ; 
and  that  no  distinct  and  clear  ideas  can  be  formed 
of  this  procession ;  consequently  it  must  be  given 
up  as  popish,  scholastic,  inconceivable,  and  inde- 
fensible. But,  it  is  answered,  what  clear  idea  can 
be  given  us  of  the  originate,  self-existent,  eternal 
being  of  the  Father?  Shall  we,  therefore,  deny 
him  to  be  without  beginning  or  end,  and  to  be 
self-existent,  because  we  know  not  how  he  is  so? 
If  not,  why  must  we  give  up  the  procession  of 
the  Spirit,  because  we  know  not  the  mode  of  it? 
We  can  no  more  explain  the  manner  how  the 
Spirit,  proceeds  from  the  Father,  than  we  can 
explain  the  eternal  generation  and  hypostatics! 
union  of  the  two  natures  of  the  Son.  We  may  say 
to  the  objector,  as  Gregory  Nazianzen  formerly 
did  to  his  adversary,  "  Do  you  tell  me  how  the 
Father  is  unbegotten,  and  I  will  attempt  to  tell  you 
how  the  Son  is  begotten,  and  the  Spirit  proceeds." 

The  clearest  and  fullest  account  ot  this  pro- 
cession, next  to  that  in  the  above-mentioned  text, 
is  that  in  1  Cor.  ii.  12.  "  The  Spirit  which  is  of 
God ;"  that  is  (say  the  advocates  for  this  doctrine, ) 
the  Spirit  which  is  the  same  in  nature  and  es- 
sence with  the  Father,  and  so  is  said  to  be  of  him, 
or  out  of  him,  not  as  to  local  separation,  but  with 
respect  to  identity  of  nature. 

About  the  eighth  and  ninth  centuries  there 
was  a  very  warm  dispute  between  the  Greek  and 
Latin  churches,  whether  the  Spirit  proceeded 
from  the  Father  only,  or  from  the  Father  and  the 
Son  ;  and  the  controversy  arose  to  such  a  height, 
that  they  charged  one  another  with  heresy  and 
schism,  when  neither  side  well  understood  what 
they  contended  for.  The  Latin  church,  however, 
has  not  scrupled  to  say  that  the  Spirit  proceeds 
from  the  Father  and  the  Son;  but  the  Greek 
church  chooses  to  express  it  thus :  the  Spirit 
proceeds  from  the  Father  by  or  through  the  Son, 
or  he  receives  of  the  Son,  Gal.  iv.  (5.  See  Holy 
Ghost  ;  Bishop  Pearson  on  the  Creed,  p.  321 ; 
Watts's  Work's^  8vo.  ed.vol.  v.  p.  191);  Hurrion 
on  the  Holy  Spirit,  p.  204 ;  Ridgley's  Div.  qu. 
11 ;   Dr.  Lightfoot's  Works,  vol.  i.  p.  482. 

PROFANE,  a  term  used  in  opposition  to  holy ; 
and  in  general  is  applied  to  all  persons  who  have 
not  the  sacred  character,  and  to  things  which  do 
not  belong  to  the  service  of  religion. 

PROFESSION,  among  the  Romanists,  de- 
notes the  entering  into  a  religious  order,  whereby 
a  person  oilers  himself  to  God  by  a  vow  of  invio- 
lably observing  obedience,  chastity,  and  poverty. 

Christians  are  required  to  make  a  profession 
of  their  faith,  1.  Boldlv,  Rom.  i.  10.— 2.  Expli- 
citly, Matt.  v.  16.— 3.  Constantly,  Heb.  x.  23.— 
4.  Yet  not  ostentatiously,  but  with  humility  ami 
meekness. 

PROFESSOR,  a  term  commonly  used  in  tlw 


prophecy" 

religious  world,  to  denote  any  person  who  makes 
zn  open  acknowledgment  of  the  religion  of  Christ, 
or  who  outwardly  manifests  his  attachment  to 
Christianity.  All  real  ( 'hristians  are  professors, 
Dut  all  professors  are  not  real  Christians.  In  this, 
as  in  all  other  things  of  worth  ami  importance, 
we  find  counterfeits.  There  are  many  who  he- 
come  professors,  not  from  principle,  from  investi- 
gation, from  love  to  the  truth ;  but  from  interested 
motives,  prejudice  of  education,  custom,  influence 
of  connexions,  novelty,  &c.  as  Saul,  Jehu,  Judas, 
Demas,  the  foolish  virgins,  &c.  See  article 
Christian.  Jay's  Sermons,  ser.  9;  Mead's 
Almost  Christian ;  Bellamy's  True  Religion 
delineated;  Shepherd's  Sincere  Convert,  and 
on  the  Parable  of  the  Ten  Virgins  ;  Seeker's 
Nonsuch  Professor. 

PROMISE  is  a  solemn  asseveration,  by  which 
one  pledges  his  veracity  that  he  shall  perform,  or 
cause  to  he  performed,  the  thing  which  he  men- 
tions. 

The  obligation  of  promises  arises  from  the  ne- 
cessity of  the  well-being  and  existence  of  society. 
"Virtue  requires,"  as  Dr.  Doddridge  observes, 
"that  promises  be  fulfilled.  The  promisee,  i.  e. 
the  person  to  whom  the  promise  is  made,  ac- 
quires a  property  in  virtue  of  the  promise.  The 
uncertainty  of  property  would  evidently  be  at- 
tended with  great  inconvenience.  By  failing  to 
fulfil  my  promise,  I  either  show  that  I  was  not 
sincere  in  making  it,  or  that  I  have  little  con- 
stancy or  resolution,  and  either  way  injure  my 
character,  and  consequently  my  usefulness  in 
life.  Promises,  hoicever,  are  not  binding,  1.  If 
they  were  made  by  us  before  we  came  to  such 
exercise  of  reason  as  to  be  fit  to  transact  affairs 
of  moment ;  or  if,  by  any  distemper  or  sudden 
surprise,  we  are  deprived  of  the  exercise  of  our 
reason  at  the  time  when  the  promise  is  made. — 

2.  If  the  promise  was  made  on  a  false  presump- 
tion, in  which  the  promiser,  after  the  most  dili- 

Sent  inquiry,    was  imposed  upon,  especially  if 
e  wer  •  deceived  by  the  fraud  of  the  promisee  — 

3.  If  the  thing  itself  be  vicious ;  for  \irtue  can- 
not require  that  vice  should  be  committed. — 4.  If 
the  accomplishment  of  the  promise  be  so  hard  and 
intolerable,  that  there  is  reason  to  believe  that, 
had  it  been  foreseen,  it  would  have  been  an  ex- 
cepted ease. — .").  If  the  promise  be  not  accepted, 
or  if  it  depend  on  conditions  not  performed." 
See  Doddridge's  heel.  lee.  69;  Grot,  ac  Jure, 
lib.  ii.  cap.  1 1  ;  Paley's  Mor.  Phil.  ch.  5,  vol.  i. ; 
Grove's  Mor.  Phil.  vol.  ii.  p.  2,  c.  12;  Walts's 
Scrm.  ser.  20. 

PROMISES  OP  GOD  are  the  kind  decla- 
rations of  his  word,  in  which  he  hath  assured  us 
he  will  bestow  blessings  upon  his  people.  The 
promises  contained  in  the  sacred  Scriptures  may 
be  considered,  1.  Divine  as  to  their  origin. — 
2.  Suitable  as  t.,  their  nature. — 3.  Abundant  as  to 
their  number. — I.  Clear  as  to  their  expression. — 
5.  Certain  as  to  their  accomplishment.  The  con- 
sider ition  of  them  should,  1.  Prove  an  antidote 
to  despair.— 2.  A  motive  to  patience.— 3.  A  call 
for  prayer. — 1.  A  spur  to  perseverance.  See 
Clark  on  the  Promises,  a  hook  that  Dr.  Watts 
says,  "  he  could  dare  put  into  the  hands  of  every 
Christian,  among  all  their  divided  seels  and  par- 
ties in  the  world."     Buck's  Serm,.  ser.  xi. 

I'll:  >PHECY.  a  word  derived  from  r*o?»r.i«, 
\w\  in  its  original  import  signifies  the  prediction 
of  future  events.  It  is  thus  defined  by  Wi'.sius  : 
372 


PROPHECY 

"  A  knowledge  and  manifestation  of  secret  things, 
which  a  man  knows  not  from  his  own  sagacity, 
nor  from  the  relation  of  others,  but  by  an  extra- 
ordinary revelation  of  God  from  heaven."  In  the 
Old  and  New  Testaments  the  word  is  not  always 
confined  to  the  foretelling  of  future  events.  In 
several  instances  it  is  of  the  same  import  with 
preaching,  and  denotes  the  faculty  of  illustrating 
and  applying  to  present  practical  purposes  the 
doctrines  of  prior  revelation.  Thus,  in  N'ehemiah 
it  is  said,  "  Thou  hast  appointed  prophets  to 
preach,"  ch.  vi.  ver.  7;  and  whoever  speaketh 
unto  men  to  edification,  and  exhortation,  and 
comfort,  is  by  St.  Paul  called  a  prophet,  1  Cor. 
xiv.  3.  Hence  it  was  that  there  were  schools  of 
prophets  in  Israel,  where  young  men  were  in- 
structed in  the  truths  of  religion,  and  fitted  to  ex- 
hort and  comfort  the  people.  It  is  prophecy, 
however,  according  to  the  first  definition  given 
above,  we  shall  here  consider. 

Prophecy  (with  the  power  of  working  mira- 
cles) may  be  considered  as  the  highest  evidence 
that  can  be  given  of  a  supernatural  communion 
with  the  Deity.  Hence,  among  the  professors  of 
almost  every  religious  system,  there  have  been 
numberless  pretenders  to  the  gift  of  prophecy. — 
Pagans  had  their  oracles,  augurs,  and  soothsayers; 
modern  idolaters  their  necromancers  and  diviners; 
and  the  Jews,  Christians,  and  Mahometans,  their 
prophets.  The  pretensions  of  Pagans  and  impos- 
tors, have,  however,  been  justly  exposed ;  while 
the  Jewish  and  Christian  prophecies  carry  with 
them  evident  marks  of  their  validity.  Hence  St. 
Peter  observes,  "We  have  a  more  sure  word  of 
prophecy,  whereunto  we  do  well  to  take  heed,  as 
unto  a  light  that  shineth  in  a  dark  place  ;  for  the 
prophecy  came  not  in  old  time  by  the  will  of  man, 
but  holy  men  of  God  spake  as  thev  were  moved 
by  the  Holy  Ghost,"  2  Pet.  ii.  19,  21.  Scripture 
prophecy,  therefore,  hath  God  for  its  origin.  It 
did  not  arise  from  the  genius  of  the  mind,  the 
temperament  of  the  body,  the  influence  of  the 
stars,  &c.  but  from  the  sovereign  will  of  God. 
The  ways  by  which  the  Deity  made  known  his 
mind  were  various ;  such  as  by  dreams,  visions, 
angels,  symbolic  representations,  impulses  on  the 
mind,  Numb.  xii.  6  ;  Jer.  xxxi.  20  ;  Dan.  viii. 
16,  17. 

As  to  the  language  of  prophecy ;  "  It  is,"  says 
Mr.  Gray,  "  remarkable  for  its  magnificence. — 
Each  prophetic  writer  is  distinguished  for  pecu- 
liar beauties ;  but  their  style  in  general  may  be 
characterized  as  strong,  animated,  and  impressive. 
Its  ornaments  are  derived  not  from  accumulation 
of  epithet,  or  laboured  harmony;  but  from  the 
real  grandeur  of  its  images,  and  the  majestic  force 
of  its  expressions.  It  is  varied  with  striking  pro- 
priety, and  enlivened  with  quick  but  easy  transi- 
tions. Its  sudden  bursts  of  eloquence,  its  earnest 
warmth,  its  affecting  exhortations  and  appeals, 
afford  very  interesting  proofs  of  that  lively  im- 
pression, and  of  that  inspired  conviction,  under 
which  the  prophets  wrote;  and  which  enabled 
them,  among  a  people  not  distinguished  for  ge- 
nius, to  surpass,  in  every  variety  of  composition, 
the  most  admired  productions  of  Pagan  antiquity. 
If  the  imagery  employed  by  the  sacred  writers 
appear  sometimes  to  partake  of  a  coarse  and  inde- 
licate cast,  it  must  be  recollected  that  the  Eastern 
manners  and  languages  required  the  most  forcible 
representations;  and  that  the  masculine  and  in- 
dignant spirit  of  the  prophets  led  them  to  adop- 


PROPHECY 

ihe  most  energetic  and  descriptive  expressions. 
No  style  is,  perhaps,  so  highly  figurative  as  that 
of  the  prophets.     Every  object  of  nature  and  of 
art  which  could  furnish  allusions  is  explored  with 
industry  ;  every  scene  of  creation,  and  every  page 
of  science,  seems  to  have  unfolded  its  rich  varie- 
ties to  the  sacred  writers,  who,  in  the  spirit  of 
Eastern  poetry,  delight  in  every  kind  of  metapho- 
rical embellishment.     Thus,  by  way  of  illustra- 
tion, it  is  obvious  to  remark,  that  earthly  dignities 
and  powers  are  symbolized  by  the  celestial  bodies ; 
the  effects  of  moral  evil  are  shown  under  the 
storms  and  convulsions  of  nature  ;  the  pollutions 
of  sin  are  represented  by  external  impurities ; 
and  the  beneficial  influence  of  righteousness  is 
depicted  by  the  serenity  and  confidence  of  peace- 
ful life.    This  allegorical  language,  being  founded 
in  ideas  universally  prevalent,  and  adhered  to 
with  invariable  relation  and  regular  analogy,  has 
furnished  great  ornament  and  elegance  to  the  sa- 
cred writings.    Sometimes,  however,  the  inspired 
penmen  drew  their  allusions  from  local  and  tem- 
porary sources  of  metaphor ;  from  the  peculiar 
scenery  of  their  country ;    from  the  idolatries  of 
heathen  nations ;  from  their  own  history  and  cir-r 
cumstances;    from  the  service  of  their  temple, 
and  the  ceremonies  of  their  religion ;  from  man- 
ners that  have  faded,   and    customs  that  have 
elapsed.    Hence  many  appropriate  beauties  have 
vanished.  Many  descriptions  and  many  represen- 
tations, that  must  have  had  a  solemn  importance 
among  the  Jews,  are  now   considered,   from  a 
change  of  circumstances,  in  a  degraded  point  of 
view.     Hence,  likewise,  here  and  there  a  shade 
of  obscurity.    In  general,  however,  the  language 
of  Scripture,  though  highly  sublime  and  beauti- 
ful, is  easy  and  intelligible  to  all  capacities." 
2.  Of  the  use  and  intent  of  prophecy. 
As  prophecy  is  so  striking  a  proof  of  a  super- 
natural communion  with  the  Deity,  and  is  or  so 
early  a  date,  we  may  rest  assured  it  was  given 
for  wise  and  important  ends.    "  It  cannot  be  sup- 
posed," says  bishop  Sherlock,  "  that  God  deliver- 
ed prophecies  only  to  satisfy  or  employ  the  curi- 
osity of"  the  inquisitive,  or  that  he  gave  his  Spirit 
to  men  merely  to  enable  them  to  give  forth  pre- 
dictions for  the  amusement  and  entertainment 
of  the  world  :  there  must  be  some  end  worthy  of 
the  author."     Now,  what  end  could  this  be,  but 
to  keep  alive  in  the  minds  of  those  to  whom  it 
was  given,  a  sense  of  religion,  and  a  hope  of  fu- 
ture deliverance  from  the  curse  of  the  fall  through 
Jesus  Christ?     "  The  uses  of  prophecy,"  says 
Dr.  Jortin,  "besides  gradually  opening  and  un- 
folding the  things  relating  to  the  Messiah,  and 
the  blessings  which  by  him  should  be  conferred 
upon  mankind,  are  many,  great,  and  manifest. 

"  1.  It  served  to  secure  the  belief  of  a  God,  and 
of  a  providence. 

"  As  God  is  invisible  and  spiritual,  there  was 
cause  to  fear,  that,  in  the  first  and  ruder  ages  of 
the  world,  when  men  were  busier  in  cultivating  the 
earth  than  in  cultivating  arts  and  sciences,  and 
in  seeking  the  necessaries  of  life  than  in  the 
study  of  morality,  they  might  forget  their  Creator, 
and  Governor  ;  and,  therefore,  God  maintained 
amongst  them  the  great  article  of  faith  in  hiin,  by 
manifestations  of  himself;  by  sending  angels  to 
declare  his  will ;  by  miracles,  and  by  prophecies. 
"2.  It  was  intended  to  give  men  the  profound- 
est  veneration  for  that  amazing  knowledge  from 
wluch  nothinrr  was  concealed,  not  even  the  future 


PROPHECY 

actions  of  creatures,  and  the  things  which  as  yet 
were  not.  How  could  a  man  hope  to  hide  any 
counsel,  any  design  or  thought  from  such  a 
Being? 

"  3.  It  contributed  to  keep  up  devotion  and 
true  religion,  the  religion  of  the  heart,  which  con 
sists  partly  in  entertaining  just  and  honourable 
notions  of  God,  and  of  his  perfections,  and  which 
is  a  more  rational  and  a  more  acceptable  service 
than  rites  and  ceremonies. 

"  4.  It  excited  men  to  rely  upon  God,  and  to 
love  him  who  condescended  to  hold  this  mutual 
intercourse  with  his  creatures,  and  to  permit  them 
to  consult  him,  as  one  friend  asks  advice  of  an- 
other. 

"It  was  intended  to  keep  the  people,  to  whom 
God  revealed  himself,  from  idolatry;^  sin  to 
which  the  Jews  would  be  inclined,  both  trom  the 
disposition  to  it  which  they  had  acquired  in 
Egypt,  and  from  the  contagion  of  bad  example. 

"  The  people  of  Israel  were  strictly  forbidden 
to  consult  the  diviners  and  the  gods  of  other  na- 
tions, and  to  use  any  enchantments  and  wicked 
arts  ;  and  that  they  might  have  no  temptation  to 
it,  God  permitted  them  to  apply  to  him  and  to 
his  prophets,  even  upon  small  occasions ;  and  he 
raised  up  amongst  them  a  succession  of  prophets, 
to  whom  they  might  have  recourse  for  advice  and 
direction.  These  prophets  were  reverenced  abroad 
as  well  as  at  home,  and  consulted  by  foreign 
princes ;  and,  in  times  of  the  captivity,  they  were 
honoured  by  great  kings,  and  advanced  to  high 
stations." 

As  it  respects  us,  prophecy  connected  with 
miracles  affords  a  considerable  evidence  of  the 
truth  of  revelation,  as  well  as  of  a  superintend- 
ing Providence.  This  evidence,  too,  is  a  grow- 
ing evidence.  "The  divine  design,  uniformly- 
pursued  through  a  series  of  successive  genera- 
tions, opens  with  a  greater  degree  of  clearness,  in 
proportion  to  the  lapse  of  time  and  the  number  of 
events.  An  increase  of  age  is  addition  to  its 
strength  ;  and  the  nearer  we  approach  the  point 
towards  which  the  dispensations  of  God  unvary- 
ingly tend,  the  more  clearly  shall  we  discern  the 
wonderful  regularity,  consistency,  and  beauty  o 
this  stupendous  plan  for  universal  good.  Of  the 
great  use  of  prophecies  which  have  been  fulfilled, 
as  a  direct  and  strong  argument  to  convert  unbe- 
lievers to  Christianity,  and  to  establish  Christians 
in  the  faith,  we  have' the  most  ample  proofs.  Our 
Lord  himself  made  very  frequent  appeals  to  pro- 
phecy, as  evidence  of  his  divine  mission  :  he  re- 
ferred the  Jews  to  their  own  Scriptures,  as  most 
fully  and  clearly  bearing  witness  of  himself. 
Upon  them  he  grounded  the  necessity  of  his  suf- 
ferings; upon  them  he  settled  the  faith  of  the 
disciples  at  Emmaus,  and  of  the  apostles  at  Jeru- 
salem. The  same  source  supplied  the  eloquence 
of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  and  the  means  with 
which  Apollos  'mightily  convinced  the  Jews.' 
This  was  a  powerful  instrument  of  persuasion  in 
the  succeeding  ages  of  the  church,  when  used  by 
the  primitive  apologists.  Upon  this  topic  were 
employed  the  zeal  and  diligence,  not  only  of  Jus- 
tin Martyr,  but  Tertullian,  Cyprian,  and  Au- 
gustus It  would  never  have  been  so  frequently 
employed,  if  it  had  not  been  well  adapted  to  the 
desired  end;  and  that  it  did  most  completely  an- 
swer this  end,  by  the  conversion  of  unbelievers,  is 
evident  from  the  accounts  of  Scripture,  and  the 
I  records  of  the  primitive  church. 
2G 


PROPHECY 
"Prophecy  keeps  the  attention  of  Christians 
alive  to  the  truth,  and  importance  of  their  holy 
religion :  to  its  truth  because  prophecy  and 
Christianity  had  one  and  the  same  origin,  both 
being  derived  from  the  same  fountain  of  perfec- 
tion ;  it  keeps  them  alive  to  its  importance,  he- 
cause  prophecy  shows  that  the  Supreme  Being 
lias  vouchsafed,  through  a  long  succession  of 
ages,  to  prepare  mankind,  by  gradual  revelations 
of  hi.s  will,  for  future  blessings  ;  and  has  proved, 
by  sending  chosen  messengers  to  usher  in  this 
final  dispensation,  that  '  the  testimony  of  Jesus  is 
the  spirit  of  prophecy,'  It  confirms  the  general 
belief  of  a  God,  and  points  out  to  a  careless  world 
the  plain  traces  of  his  watchful  providence.  It 
displays  the  counsels  of  inspiration  incessantly 
directing  the  course  of  events,  without  violating 
the  order  of  reason  and  of  human  action.  Such 
knowledge  is  too  wonderful  for  us  :  such  power 
is  above  our  comprehension!  But  the  fact  is 
placed  before  our  eyes.  We  see,  or  may  see,  a 
regular  train  of  prophecies  tending  towards  one 
declared  end,  accurately  fulfilled  and  fulfilling 
amidst  all  the  confusion  and  opposition  of  this 
tumultuous  world  ;  and  we  see  that  these  pro- 
phecies are  clear,  both  in  prediction  and  accom- 
plishment, in  proportion  to  their  importance,  in 
fixing  our  belief  in  the  providence  of  God,  and  in 
the  great  truths  of  divine  revelation.  Thus  it 
appears  that  the  chief  design  of  prophecy  is  to 
bear  constant  witness  to  religious  truth;  but 
though  to  convince  gainsayers  of  this  truth  is 
justly  considered  as  its  principal  use,  it  has 
another  very  important  object,  to  which  it  well  be- 
comes us  to  pay  attention,  from  motives  of  grati- 
tude, as  well  as  from  fear  of  incurring  the  blame 
which  Scripture  invariably  imputes  to  those  who 
neglect  to  take  advantage  of  the.  light  afforded 
them.  It  is  designed  to  protect  believers  in  the 
word  of  God  from  the  dangers  arising  from  the 
prevalent  corruptions,  errors,  and  vices  of  tbe  age 
in  which  they  live.  The  due  consideration  of 
prophecy  will  administer  consolation  amidst  pre- 
sent distress,  and  enliven  faith  and  elevate  hope, 
whilst  passing  through  those  dark,  depressing 
scenes,  which,  without  this  gracious  aid,  might 
lead  through  the  intricacies  of  doubt  to  the  gloom 
of  despair." 

Objections,  however,  have  been  raised  against 
the  prophecies  from  their  obscurity.  But  to  this 
it  is  answered,  that  they  have  often  a  first  or  par- 
tial, and  an  ultimate  completion,  of  which  the 
former  may  be  generally  considered  as  an  earnest 
of  the  latter.  It  is  principally  this  double  sense 
of  prophecy  which  renders  it  obscure :  for  though 
the  predictions  of  the  prophets  were  sometimes 
positive  and  exactly  descriptive,  and  delivered  with 
an  accurate  and  definite  designation  of  names 
and  times,  prophecy  was  not  generally  designed  to 
be  clear  before  its  accomphshment  It  is,  how- 
ever, always  sufficiently  exact  in  its  descriptions 
to  authenticate  its  pretensions  to  a  divine  autho- 
rity; to  produce,  when  it  comes  to  pass,  an 
acknowledgment  of  its  unerring  certainty ;  and  to 
demonstrate  the  wisdom  and  power  of  God.  As 
Biah  >,i  Newton  observes,  prophecies  are  the  only 
species  of  writing  which  are  designed  more  for 
the  instruction  of  future  ages  than  of  the  times 
win  rein  they  are  written.  In  Ibis  respect,  as 
the  world  groweth  older,  it  groweth  wiser.  Trine, 
that  detracts  something  from  the  evidence  of 
other  writers,  is  still  adding  something  to  the 
374 


PROPHECY 

credit  and  authority  of  the  prophets.  Future 
aires  will  comprehend  more  than  the  present,  as 
the  present  understands  more  than  the  past;  and 
the  perfect  accomplishment  will  produce  a  perfect 
knowledge  of  all  the  prophecies. 

3.  Of  the  fulfilment  of  prophecy. 
Our  limits  will  not  permit  us  to  give  a  copious 
account  of  the  various  prophecies  which  have 
been  remarkably  fulfilled  ;  but  whoever  has  ex- 
amined profane  history  with  any  degree  of  atten- 
tion, and  compared  it  v.ith  the  predictions  of 
Scripture,  must,  if  he  l>e  not  blinded  by  preju- 
dice, and  hardened  by  infidelity,  be  convinced  of 
the  truth  of  prophecy  by  its  exact  accomplish- 
ment. It  is  in  vain  to  say  that  these  prophecies 
were  delivered  since  the  events  have  taken  place ; 
for  we  see  the  prophecies,  the  latest  whereof  was 
delivered  about  1700  years  ago,  and  some  of  them 
about  3000  years  ago.  fulfilling  at  this  very  time; 
and  cities,  and  countries,  and  kingdoms,  in  the 
very  same  condition,  and  all  brought  about  in  the 
very  same  manner,  and  with  the  very  same  cir- 
cumstances, as  the  prophets  had  foretold.  "  Wo 
see,"  says  Bishop  Newton,  "  the  descendants  of 
Shem  and  Japheth,  ruling  and  enlarged  in  Asia 
and  Europe,  and  perhaps  in  America,  and  'the 
curse  of  servitude,'  still  attending  the  wretched 
descendants  of  Ham  in  Africa.  We  see  the 
posterity  of  Ishmael,  'multiplied  exceedingly,' 
and  become  '  a  great  nation'  in  the  Arabians  ;  yet 
living  like  '  wild  men,'  and  shifting  from  place  to 
place  in  the  wilderness  ;  their  hand  against  every 
man,  and  every  man's  hand  against  them;  and 
still  dwelling  an  independent  and  free  people,  'in 
the  presence  of  all  their  brethren,'  and  in  the  pre- 
sence of  all  their  enemies.  We  see  the  family  of 
Esau  totally  extinct,  and  that  of  Jacob  subsisting 
at  this  day ;  '  the  sceptre  departed  from  Judah,' 
and  the  people  living  no  where  in  authority,  every 
where  in  subjection;  the  Jews  still  dwelling  alone 
among  the  nations,  while  'the  remembrance  of 
Amalek  is  utterly  put  out  from  under  heaven.' 
We  see  the  Jews  severely  punished  for  their  infi- 
delity and  disobedience  to  theirgrcat  prophet  like 
unto  Moses;  '  plucked  from  off  their  own  land, 
and  removed  into  all  the  kingdoms  of  the  earth  ; 
oppressed  and  spoiled  evermore;'  and  made  a 
'  proverb  and  a  bve-word  among  all  nations.'  We 
see  '  Ephraim  so  broken  as  to  be  no  more  a  peo- 
ple,' while  the  whole  nation  is  comprehended 
under  the  name  of  Judah  ;  the  Jews  wonderfully 
preserved  as  a  distinct  people,  while  their  great 
conquerors  are  every  where  destroyed  ;  their  land 
lying  desolate,  and  themselves  cut  off  from  being 
the  people  of  God,  while,  the  Gentiles  are  ad- 
vanced in  their  room.  We  see  Nineveh  so  com- 
pletely destroyed,  that  the  place  thereof  is  not 
and  cannot  be  known;  Babylon  made  'desolation 
for  ever  a  possession  for  the  bittern,  and  pools  of 
water ;'  Tyre  become  '  like  the  top  of  a  rock,  a 
place  for  fishers  to  spread  their  nets  upon;'  and 
Egypt,  '  a  base  kingdom,  the  basest  of  the  king- 
doms,' and  still  tributary  and  subject  to  strangers. 
We  see,  of  the  four  great  empires  of  the  world, 
the  fourth  and  last,  which  was  greater  and  more 
powerful  than  any  of  the  former,  divided  in  the 
western  part  thereof  into  ten  lesser  kingdoms; 
and  among  them  a  power  'with  a  triple  crown 
differs  from  the  first,'  with  'a  mouth  speaking 
very  great  things,'  and  with  'a  look  more  stout 
than  his  fellows,  speaking  great  words  against  the 
Most  High,  wearing  out  the  saints  of  the  Most 


PROPHECY 
High,  and  changing  times  and  laws.'  We  see  a 
power  'cast  down  the  truth  to  the  ground,  and 
piosper,  and  practise,  and  destroy  the  holy  peo- 
ple, not  regarding  the  God  of  his  fathers,  nor  the 
clesire  of  wives,  but  honouring  Mahuzzim,'  gods- 
protectors,  or  saints-protectors,  '  and  causing'  the 
priests  of  Mahuzzim  'to  rule  over  many,  and  to  di- 
vide the  land  for  gain.'  We  see  the  Turks  '  stretch- 
ing forth  their  hand  over  the  countries,'  and  par- 
ticularly '  over  the  land  of  Egypt,  the  Libyans  at 
their  steps,'  and  the  Arabians  still  '  escaping  out 
of  their  hand.'  We  see  the  Jews  '  led  away 
captive  into  all  nations,  and  Jerusalem  trodden 
down  of  the  Gentiles,'  and  likely  to  continue  so 
'  until  the  times  of  the  Gentiles  be  fulfilled,'  as 
the  Jews  are  by  a  constant  miracle  preserved  a 
distinct  people  for  the  completion  of  other  pro- 
phecies relating  to  them.  We  see  one  '  who  op- 
poseth  and  cxalteth  himself  above  all  laws, 
divine  and  human,  'sitting  as  God  in  the  church 
of  God,  and  showing  himself  that  he  is  God, 
whose  coming  is  after  the  working  of  Satan,  with 
all  power,  and  signs,  and  lying  wonders,  and 
with  all  deceivableness  of  unrighteousness.'  We 
see  a  great  apostacy  in  the  Christian  church, 
which  consists  chiefly  in  the  worship  of  demons, 
angels,  or  departed  saints,  and  is  promoted 
'through  the  hypocrisy  of  liars,  forbidding  to 
marry,  and  commanding  to  abstain  from  meats.' 
We  see  the  seven  churches  of  Asia  lying  in  the 
same  forlorn  and  desolate  condition  that  the  angel 
had  signified  to  St.  John,  their  'candlestick  re- 
moved out  of  its  place,'  their  churches  turned  into 
mosques,  their  worship  into  superstition.  In 
short,  we  see  the  characters  of  '  the  beast  and  the 
false  prophet,'  and  'the  whore  of  Babylon,'  now 
exemplified  in  every  particular,  and  in  a  city  that 
is  seated  'upon  seven  mountains  ;'  so  that,  if  the 
bishop  of  Rome  had  sat  for  his  picture,  a  greater 
resemblance  and  likeness  could  not  have  been 
drawn. 

"  For  these  things  we  have  the  attestation  of 
past,  and  the  experience  of  present  times;  and 
we  cannot  well  be  deceived,  if  we  will  only  be- 
lieve our  own  eyes  and  observation.  We  actu- 
ally see  the  completion  of  many  of  the  prophecies 
in  the  state  of  men  and  things  around  us;  and 
we  have  the  prophecies  themselves  recorded  in 
books,  which  books  have  been  read  in  public,  as- 
semblies these  170  or  2000  years,  have  been  dis- 
persed into  several  countries,  have  been  translated 
into  several  languages,  and  quoted  and  comment- 
ed upon  by  different  nations ;  so  that  there  is  no 
room  to  suspect  so  much  as  a  possibility  of  for- 
gery or  illusion." 

4.  Rules  for  understanding  the  prophecies. 

In  order  to  understand  the  prophecies,  and  to 
form  a  right  judgment  of  the  arguments  for  the 
truth  of  Christianity,  wc  must  not  consider  them 
singly  and  apart,  but  as  a  grand  whole,  or  a  chain 
reaching  through  several  thousand  years,  yet 
manifestly  subservient  to  one  and  the  same  end. 
This  end  is  no  other  than  the  establishment  of 
the  universal  empire  of  truth  and  righteousness 
under  the  dominion  of  Jesus  Christ.  We  are 
not,  indeed,  to  suppose  that  each  of  the  prophe- 
cies recorded  in  the  Old  Testament  expressly 
points  out,  and  clearly  characterizes  Jesus  Christ; 
yet,  taken  as  a  whole,  this  grand  system  refers  to 
liim ;  for  the  testimony  of  Jesus  is  the  spirit  of 
prophecy.  "  All  the  revolutions  of  divine  provi- 
dence have  him  for  their  scope  and  end.  Is  an 
375 


PROPHESYINGS 
empire,  or  kingdom,  erected'?  that  empire  oi 
kingdom  is  erected  with  a  view,  directly  or  indi- 
rectly, to  the  kingdom  of  Messiah.  Is  an  em- 
pire, or  kingdom,  subverted  or  overthrown  1  that 
empire,  or  kingdom,  is  overthrown  in  subservi- 
ency to  the  glory  of  his  kingdom  and  empire, 
which  shall  know  neither  bounds  nor  end,  but 
whose  limits  shall  be  no  other  than  the  limits  of 
the  universe,  and  whose  end  no  other  than  the 
days  of  eternity.  Jesus  Christ,  then,  is  the  only 
person  that  ever  existed  in  whom  jdl  the  prophe- 
cies meet  as  in  a  centre."  In  order,  therefore, 
to  oppose  error,  and  confront  the  infidel,  we  must 
study  the  prophecies,  not  as  independent  of  each 
other,  but  as  connected ;  for  "  the  argument  from 
prophecy,"  says  Bishop  Hurd,  "is  not  to  be 
formed  from  the  consideration  of  single  prophe- 
cies, but  from  all  the  prophecies  taken  together, 
and  considered  as  making  one  system ;  in  which, 
from  the  mutual  dependence  and  connexion  of  its 
parts,  preceding  prophecies  prepare  and  .llustrate 
those  which  follow ;  and  these,  again,  reflect  light 
on  the  foregoing :  just  as  in  any  philosophical 
system,  that  which  shows  the  solidity  of  it  is  the 
harmony  and  correspondence  of  the  whole,  not 
the  application  of  it  in  particular  instances. 

"Hence,  though  the  evidence  be  but  small 
from  the  completion  of  any  one  prophecy  taken 
separately,  yet  that  evidence,  being  always  some- 
thing, the  amount  of  the  whole  evidence  resulting 
from  a  great  number  of  prophecies,  all  relative  to 
the  same  design,  may  be  considerable;  like  many 
scattered  rays,  which,  though  each  be  weak  in 
itself,  yet,  concentrated  into  one  point,  shall  form 
a  strong  light,  and  strike  the  sense  very  power- 
fully. Still  more;  this  evidence  is  not  merely  a 
growing  evidence,  but  is  indeed  multiplied  upon 
us,  from  the  number  of  reflected  lights  which  the 
several  component  parts  of  such  a  system  reci- 
procally throw  upon  each;  till,  at  length,  the 
conviction  rise  unto  a  high  degree  of  moral  cer- 
tainty." 

Farther,  in  order  to  understand  the  prophecies, 
we  must  endeavour  to  find  out  the  true  subject 
of  prophecy ;  that  is,  precisely  what  the  prophets 
speak  of,  and  the  characters  that  are  applied  to 
that  subject.  The  literal  sense  should  be  always 
kept  in  view,  and  a  knowledge  of  oriental  cus- 
toms attained.  The  beginning  and  end  of  the 
prophetic  sermons  must  be  carefully  observed. 
The  time,  as  near  as  possible,  of  the  predictions 
should  be  ascertained.  An  acquaintance  with 
the  method  of  salvation  by  Christ  will  greatly 
assist  us  in  this  work.  The  mind  must  be  un- 
prejudiced, and  we  should  be  well  acquainted 
with  the  Scriptures  at  large.  These  rules,  with 
dependence  on  the  divine  teaching,  will  assist  us  in 
understanding  the  prophecies.  See  Bishop  Neic- 
ton's  Dissertations  on  the  Prophecies;  Bishop 
Sherlock's  Use  and  Intent  of  Prophecy;  Bishop 
Hurd's  Sermons  on  the  Prophecies;  Sir  Isaac 
Newton's  Observations  on  the  Prophecies  of 
Daniel  and  on  the  Apocalypse;  Gray's  Key  to 
the  Old  Testament;  Simpson's  Key  to  the  Pro- 
phecies; Illustrations  of  Prophecy;  Vitringa's 
Typus  Doclrince  Prophetical;  GUI  on  the  Pro- 
phets; Eltrick's  Seco7id  Exodus  or  Remarks  on 
the  Prophecies  of  the  Last  Times;  Kett's  His- 
tory the  Interpreter  of  Prophecy.  See  also  the1 
works  of  Mede,  Smith,  Halifax,  Apthorp,  and 
Faber,  on  the  subject. 

PROPHESYINGS,  religious  exercises  of  the 


PROPITIATION 
clergy  in  the  reisrn  of  Queen  Elizabeth,  instituted 
for  the  purpose  of  promoting  knowledge  and  piety. 
The  ministers  of  a  particular  division  at  a  set 
time  met  together  in  some  church  of  a  market  or 
other  large  town,  and  there  each  in  their  order 
explained,  according  to  their  abilities,  some  por- 
tion of  Scripture  allotted  to  them  before.  This 
done,  a  moderator  made  his  observations  on  what 
had  been  said,  and  determined  the  true  sense  of 
the  place,  a  certain  space  of  time  being  fixed  for 
despatching  the  whole.  These  institutions,  like 
all  others,  however,  it  seems,  were  abused,  by 
irregularity,  disputations,  and  divisions.  Arch- 
bishop Grindal  endeavoured  to  regulate  the  pro- 
phesyings, and  cover  them  from  the  objections 
that  the  court  made  against  them,  by  enjoining 
the  ministers  to  observe  decency  and  order,  by 
forbidding  them  to  meddle  with  politics  and 
church  government,  and  by  prohibiting  all  non- 
conformist ministers  and  laymen  from  being 
speakers.  The  queen,  however,  was  resolved  to 
suppress  them;  and  having  sent  for  the  archbishop, 
told  him  she  was  informed  that  the  rites  and 
ceremonies  of  the  church  were  not  duly  observed 
in  these  prophesyings;  that  persons  not  lawfully 
called  to  be  ministers  exercised  in  them ;  that  the 
assemblies  themselves  were  illegal,  not  being  al- 
lowed by  public  authority;  that  the  laity  neglected 
their  secular  affairs  by  repairing  to  these  meet- 
ings, which  filled  their  heads  with  notions,  and 
might  occasion  disputes  and  sedition  in  the  state; 
that  it  was  good  for  tho  church  to  have  but  few 
preachers,  three  or  four  in  a  county  being  suffi- 
cient. She  further  declared  her  dislike  of  the 
number  of  these  exercises,  and  therefore  com- 
manded him  peremptorily  to  put  them  down. 
The  archbishop,  however,  instead  of  obeying  the 
commands  of  his  roval  mistress,  thought  that  she 
hud  made  some  infringement  upon  his  office,  and 
wrote  the  queen  a  long  and  earnest  letter,  de- 
claring that  his  conscience  would  not  sutler  him 
to  comply  wiili  her  commands.  The  queen  was 
so  inllamed  with  this  letter,  that  the  archbishop 
was  sequestered  from  his  offivc,  and  he  never  af- 
terwards recovered  the  queen's  favour.  Thus 
ended  the  prophesyings;  "an  useful  institution," 
says  Neale,  for  promoting  Christian  knowledge 
and  piety,  at  a  time  when  both  were  at  a  very 
low  ebb  in  the  nation.  The  queen  put  them  down 
for  no  other  reason,  but  because  they  enlightened 
the  people's  minds  in  the  Scriptures,  and  encou- 
raged their  inquiries  after  truth;  her  majesty  be- 
ing always  of  opinion  that  knowledge  and  learn- 
ing in  the  laity  would  only  endanger  their 
peaceable  submission  to  her  absolute  will  and 
pleasure.'' 

PROPHET,  a  person  who  foretels  future 
events.  It  is  particularly  applied  to  such  inspired 
persons  among  the  Jews  as  were  commissioned 
by  God  to  declare  his  will  and  purpose  to  that 
people.    See  Propb 

False  Prophets.  See  Impostors;  and  Jose- 
ph u  <'s  History  of  the  Jews. 

Sons  of  the  Prophets,  an  appellation  given  to 
younjt  men  who  were  educated  in  the  schools  or 
colleges  under  a  proper  master,  who  was  com- 
monly, if  not  always,  an  inspired  prophet,  in  the 
knowledge  of  religion,  and  in  Bacred  music,  anil 
thus  were  qualified  to  be  public  preachers,  1  Sam. 

X. ;  xi. ;  2  Sun.  \i\\  ;  '2  Kings  ii. 
PROPITIATION,  a  sacrifice  offered  toGod 

to  assuage  his  wrath,  and  render  him  propitious, 
376 


PROSPERITY 
Among  the  Jews,  there  were  both  ordinary  and 
public  sacrifices,  as  holocausts,  &c.  offered  by 
way  of  thanksgiving;  and  extraordinary  ones, 
offered  by  persons  guilty  of  any  crime,  by  way 
of  propitiation.  The  Romish  church  believe  the 
mass  to  be  a  sacrifice  of  propitiation  for  the.  liv- 
ing and  the  dead.  The  Reformed  churches  allow 
cf  no  propitiation,  but  that  one  offered  by  Jesus 
on  the  cross,  whereby  divine  justice  is  appeased, 
and  our  sins  forgiven,  Rom.  iii.  25 ;  1  John  ii.  2. 

As  it  respects  the  unbloody  propitiatory  sacri- 
fice of  the  mass  above  mentioned,  little  need  be 
said  to  confute  such  a  doctrine.  Indeed,  it  is 
owned  in  the  church  of  Rome,  that  there  is  no 
other  foundation  for  the  belief  of  it  than  an  un- 
written tradition.  There  is  no  hint  in  the  Scrip- 
ture of  Christ's  offering  his  body  and  blood  to  his 
Father  at  his  institution  of  the  eucharist.  It  is 
also  a  manifest  contradiction  to  St.  Paul's  doc- 
trine, who  teaches,  that,  without  shedding  of 
blood,  there  is  no  remission  ;  therefore  there  can 
be  no  remission  of  sins  in  the  mass.  The  sacri- 
fice of  Christ,  according  to  the  same  apostle,  is 
net  to  be  repeated.  A  second  oblation  would  be 
superfluous ;  consequently  the  pretended  true  and 
proper  sacrifice  of  the  mass  must  be  superfluous 
and  useless. 

The  propitiation  made  by  Jesus  Christ  is  that 
which  atones  for  and  covers  our  guilt,  as  the 
mercy-seat  did  the  tables  of  the  law ;  or  it  may 
be  defined  thus:  "It  is  the  averting  the  punish- 
ment due  to  any  one,  by  undergoing  the  penalty 
in  the  room  of  the  guilty."  Thus  Jesus  Christ 
is  called  the  propitiation  or  atonement,  as  his 
complete  righteousness  appeases  his  Father,  and 
satisfies  his  law  and  justice  for  all  our  trangres- 
sions.  See  Atonement,  and  books  under  that 
article. 

PROPORTION  OF  FAITH.  See  Ana- 
logy op  Faith. 

PROSELYTE,  a  new  convert  to  some  reli- 
gion or  religious  sect.  Among  the  Hebrews, 
proselytes  were  distinguished  into  two  sorts:  the 
first  called  proselytes  of  the  gate,  because  suffer- 
ed to  live  among  them,  and  were  those  who  ob- 
served the  moral  law  only,  and  the  rules  imposed 
on  the  children  of  Noah;  the  second  were  called 
proselytes  of  justice,  who  engaged  to  receive  cir- 
cumcision, and  the  whole  law  of  Moses,  and  en- 
joyed all  the  privileges  of  a  native  Hebrew. 

PROSEUCHE,  from  ^ao-suxn,  signifies  pray- 
er :  but  it  is  taken  for  the  places  of  prayer  of  the 
Jews,  and  was  pretty  near  the  same  as  their  sy- 
nagogues. But  the  synagogues  were  originally 
in  the  cities,  and  were  covered  places  ;  whereas, 
for  the  most  part,  the  proseuches  were  out  of  the 
cities,  and  on  the  banks  of  the  rivers,  having  no 
covering,  except,  perhaps,  the  shade  of  some  trees 
or  covered  galleries,  Acts  x\i.  13. 

PROSPERITY,  a  state  wherein  things  suc- 
ceed according  to  our  wishes,  and  are  productive 
of  affluence  and  ease.  However  desirable  pros- 
perity be,  it  has  its  manifest  disadvantages.  _  It 
too  often  alienates  the  soul  from  God;  excites 
pride  ;  exposes  to  temptation ;  hardens  the  heart  ; 
ions  idleness;  promotes  effeminacy;  damps 
zeal  and  energy ;  and,  too  often,  has  a  baneful  re- 
lative influence.  It  is  no  wonder,  therefore,  that 
i lie  Almighty  in  general  withholds  it  from  his 
children;  and  that  adversity  should  be  their  lot 
rather  Chan  prosperity.  Indeed  adversity  seems 
more  beneficial  on  the  whole,  although  it  be  so 


PROVIDENCE 

unpleasant  to  our  feelings.  "  The  advantages  of 
prosperity,"  says  Bacon,  "  are  to  be  wished ;  but 
the  advantages  of  adversity  are  to  be  admired. 
The  principal  virtue  of  prosperity  is  temperance; 
the  principal  virtue  of  adversity  is  fortitude,  which 
in  morality  is  allowed  to  be  the  most  heroical  vir- 
tue ;  prosperity  best  discovers  vice  ;  adversity  best 
discovers  virtue,  which  is  like  those  perfumes  that 
are  most  fragrant  when  burnt  or  bruised."  It  is 
not,  however,  to  be  understood,  that  prosperity  in 
itself  is  unlawful.  The  world  with  all  its  various 
productions  was  formed  by  the  Almighty  for  the 
happiness  of  man,  and  designed  to  endear  him- 
self to  us,  and  to  lead  our  minds  up  to  him. — 
What  however  God  often  gives  us  as  a  blessing,  by 
our  own  folly  we  pervert  and  turn  into  a  curse. 
Where  prosperity  is  given,  there  religion  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  enable  us  to  act  under  it  as 
we  ought.  Where  this  divine  principle  influ- 
ences the  mind,  prosperity  may  be  enjoyed  and 
become  a  blessing ;  for  "while  bad  men  snatch 
the  pleasures  of  the  world  as  by  stealth,  without 
countenance  from  God,  the  proprietor  of  the 
world ;  the  righteous  sit  openly  down  to  the  feast 
of  life,  under  the  smile  of  heaven.  No  guilty 
fears  damp  their  joys.  The  blessing  of  God  rests 
upon  all  they  possess.  Their  piety  reflects  sun- 
shine from  heaven  upon  the  prosperity  of  the 
world ;  unites  in  one  point  of  view  the  smiling 
aspect,  both  of  the  powers  above,  and  of  the  ob- 
jects below.  Not  only  have  they  as  full  a  relish 
as  others  of  the  innocent  pleasures  of  life,  but 
moreover,  in  them  they  hold  communion  with 
God.  In  all  that  is  good  or  fair,  they  trace  his 
hand.  From  the  beauties  of  nature,  from  the  im- 
provements of  art,  from  the  enjoyments  of  social 
life,  they  raise  their  affections  to  the  source  of  all 
the  happiness  which  surrounds  them,  and  thus 
wi  fen  the  sphere  of  their  pleasures,  by  adding  in- 
tellectual and  spiritual  to  earthly  joys."  Blair's 
Sermons,  vol.  i.  scr.  3;  Bates' a  Works,  p.  21 '7. 

Spiritual  prosperity  consists  in  the  continual 
progress  of  the  mind  in  knowledge,  purity,  and 
joy.  It  arises  from  the  participation  of  the  di- 
vine, blessing  ;  and  evidences  itself  by  frequency 
in  prayer ;  love  to  God's  word ;  delight  in  his  peo- 
ple ;  attendance  on  his  ordinances ;  zeal  in  his 
cause  ;  submission  to  his  will ;  usefulness  in  his 
church ;  and  increasing  abhorrence  of  every  thing 
that  is  derogatory  to  his  <dorv. 

PROTESTANT,  a  name  first  given  in  Ger- 
many to  those  who  adhered  to  the  doctrine  <r f  Lu- 
ther, because,  in  1539,  they  protested  against  a 
decree  of  the  emperor  Charles  V.  and  the  diet  of 
Spires ;  declaring  that  they  appealed  to  a  general 
council.  The  name  has  also  been  given  to  those 
of  the  sentiments  of  Calvin  ;  and  is  now  become 
a  common  denomination  for  all  those  of  the  re- 
formed churches.  See  article  Reformation; 
Fell's  Four  Letters  on  genuine  Protestantism  ; 
Chillingicorth's  Religion  of  the  Protestants ; 
Robertson' s  History  of  Charles  V.,  vol.  ii.  p.  219, 
250. 

PROVIDENCE,  the  superintendence  and 
care  which  God  exercises  over  creation.  The  ar- 
guments for  the  providence  of  God  are  generally 
drawn  from  the  light  of  nature  ;  the  being  of  a 
God;  the  creation  of  the  world  ;  the  wonderfully 
disposing  and  controlling  the  all'airs  and  actions 
of  men  ;  from  the  absolute  necessity  of  it ;  from 
the  various  blessings  enjoyed  by  his  creatures ; 
the  awful  judgments  that  have  been  inflicted; 
377  2  A" 


PROVIDENCE 

and  from  the  astonishing  preservation  of  the  Bible 
and  the  church  through  every  age,  notwithstand- 
ing the  attempts  of  earth  and  hell  against  them. 
Providence  has  been  divided  into  immediate  and 
mediate,  ordinary  and  extraordinary,  common  and 
special,  universal  and  particular.  Ln  mediate  pro- 
vidence is  what  is  exercised  by  God  himself,  with- 
out the  use  of  any  instrument  or  second  cause; 
mediate  providence  is  what  is  exercised  in  tho 
use  of  means ;  ordinary  providence  is  what  is 
exercised  in  the  common  course  of  means,  and 
by  the  chain  of  second  causes ;  extraordinary  is 
what  is  out  of  the  common  way,  as  miraculous 
operations;  common  providence  is  what  belongs 
to  the  whole  world  ;  special,  what  relates  to  the 
church  ;  universal  relates  to  the  general  uphold- 
ing and  preserving  all  things;  particular  relates 
to  individuals  in  every  action  and  circumstance. 
This  last,  however,  is  denied  by  some.  But,  as  a 
good  writer  observes,  "The  opinion  entertained 
by  some  that  the  providence  of  God  extends  no 
farther  than  to  a  general  superintendence  of  the 
laws  of  nature,  without  interposing  in  the  parti- 
cular concerns  of  individuals,  is  contrary  both  to 
reason  and  to  Scripture.  It  renders  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Almighty  altogether  loose  and  con- 
tingent, and  would  leave  no  ground  for  reposing 
any  trust  under  its  protection:  for  the  majority 
of  human  affairs  would  then  be  allowed  to  fluc- 
tuate in  a  fortuitous  course,  without  moving  in 
any  regular  direction,  and  without  tending  to  any 
one  scope.  The  uniform  doctrine  of  the  sacred 
writings  is,  that  throughout  the  universe  nothing 
happens  without  God  ;  that  his  hand  is  ever  ac- 
tive, and  his  decree  or  permission  intervenes  with 
all ;  that  nothing  is  too  great  or  unwieldy  for  his 
management,  and  nothing  so  minute  and  incon- 
siderable as  to  be  below  his  inspection  and  care. 
While  he  is  guiding  the  sun  and  moon  in  their 
course  through  the  heavens ;  while  in  this  inferior 
world  he  is  ruling  among  empires,  stilling  the 
raging  of  the  waters,  and  the  tumults  of  the 
people,  he  is  at  the  same  time  watching  over  the 
humble  good  man,  who,  in  the  obscurity  of  his  cot- 
tage, is  serving  and  worshipping  him." 

"In  what  manner,  indeed,  Providence  inter 
poses  in  human  affairs;  by  what  means  it  in- 
fluences the  thoughts  and  counsels  of  men,  and, 
notwithstanding  the  influence  it  exerts,  leaves  to 
them  the  freedom  of  choice,  are  subjects  of  dark 
and  mysterious  nature,  and  which  have  given 
occasion  to  many  an  intricate  controversy.  Let 
us  remember  that  the  manner  in  which  God  in- 
fluences the  motion  of  all  the  heavenly  bodies,  the 
nature  of  that  secret  power  by  which  he  is  ever 
directing  the  sun  and  the  moon,  the  planets,  stars, 
anil  comets,  in  their  course  through  the  heavens, 
while  they  appear  to  move  themselves  in  a  free 
course,  are  matters  no  less  inexplicable  to  us  than 
the  manner  in  which  he  influences  the  councils 
of  men.  But  though  the  mode  of  divine  operation 
remains  unknown,  the  fact  of  an  overruling  in- 
fluence is  equally  certain  in  the  moral  as  it  is 
in  the  natural  world.  In  cases  where  the  fact 
is  clearly  authenticated,  we  are  not  at  liberty  to 
call  its  truth  in  question,  merely  because  we  un- 
derstand not  the  manner  in  which  it  is  brought 
about.  Nothing  can  be  more  clear,  from  the  tes- 
timony of  Scripture,  than  that  God  takes  part  in 
all  that  happens  among  mankind;  directing  and 
over-ruling  the  whole  course  of  events  so  as  to 
make  every  one  of  them  answer  the  designs  of 
2g'J 


PROVIDENCE 
his  wise  ami  righteous  government.  We  cannot, 
indeed,  conceive  God  acting  as  the  governor  of 
the  world  at  all,  unless  his  government  were  to 
extend  to  all  the  events  that  happen.  It  is  upon 
the  supposition  of  a  particular  providence  that  our 
worship  and  prayers  to  him  are  founded.  All 
his  perfections  would  be  utterly  insignificant  to 
Vis,  if  they  were  not  exercised,  on  every  occasion, 
according  as  the  circumstances  of  his  creatures 
required.  The  Almighty  would  then  be  no  more 
than  an  unconcerned  spectator  of  the  behaviour 
of  his  subjects,  regarding  the  obedient  and  the 
rebellious  with  an  equal  eye. 

"  The  experience  of  every  one  also,  must,  more 
or  less,  bear  testimony  to  it.  We  need  not  for 
this  purpose  have  recourse  to  those  sudden  and 
unexpected  vicissitudes  which  have  sometimes 
astonished  whole  nations,  and  drawn  their  atten- 
tion to  the  conspicuous  hand  of  heaven.  We 
need  not  appeal  to  the  history  of  the  statesman 
and  the  warrior ;  of  the  ambitious  and  the  enter- 
prising. We  confine  our  observation  to  those 
whose  lives  have  been  most  plain  and  simple,  and 
who  had  no  desire  to  depart  from  the  ordinary 
train  of  conduct.  In  how  many  instances  have 
we  found,  that  we  are  held  in  subjection  to  a 
higher  Power,  on  whom  depends  the  accomplish- 
ment of  our  wishes  and  designs !  Fondly  we  had 
projected  some  favourite  plan  :  we  thought  that 
we  had  forecast  and  provided  for  all  that  might 
happen ;  we  had  taken  our  measures  with  such 
vigilant  prudence,  that  on  every  side  we  seemed 
to  ourselves  perfectly  guarded  and  secure ;  but, 
lo !  some  little  event  hath  come  about,  unforeseen 
by  us,  and  in  its  consequences  at  the  first  seem- 
ingly inconsiderable,  which  yet  hath  turned  the 
whole  course  of  things  into  a  new  direction,  and 
blasted  all  our  hopes.  At  other  times  our  coun- 
sels and  plans  have  been  permitted  to  succeed  : 
we  then  applauded  our  own  wisdom,  and  sat  down 
to  feast  on  the  happiness  we  had  attained.  To 
our  surprise  we  found  that  happiness  was  not 
there,  and  that  God's  decree  had  appointed  it  to 
be  only  vanity.  We  labour  for  prosperity,  and 
obtain  it  not.  Unexpected,  it  is  sometimes  made 
to  drop  upon  us  as  of  its  own  accord.  The  hap- 
piness of  man  depends  on  secret  springs  too  nice 
and  delicate  to  be  adjusted  by  human  art :  it  re- 
quires a  favourable  combination  of  external  cir- 
cumstances with  the  state,  of  his  own  mind.  To 
accomplish  on  every  occasion  such  a  combination 
is  far  beyond  his  power ;  but  it  is  what  God  can 
at  all  times  effect ;  as  the  whole  series  of  external 
causes  are  arranged  according  to  his  pleasure,  and 
the  hearts  of  all  men  arc  in  his  hands,  to  turn 
them  whcrcsoccer  he  -will,  as  Titers  of  water. 
From  the  imperfection  of  our  knowledge  to  as- 
certain what  is  good  for  us,  and  from  the  defect 
of  our  power  to  bring  about  that  good  when  known, 
arise  all  those  disappointments  which  continually 
testify  that  the  way  of  man  is  not  in  himself; 
that  he  is  not  the  master  of  his  own  lot;  that, 
though  he  may  devise,  it  is  God  who  directs; 
God,  who  can  make  the  smallest  incident  an 
effectual  instrument  of  his  providence  for  over- 
turning the  most  laboured  plans  of  men. 

"  Accident,  and  chance,  and  fortune,  are  words 
which  we  often  hear  mentioned,  and  much  is  as- 
cribed to  them  in  the  life  of  man.  But  they  are 
words  without  meaning;  or,  as  far  as  thev  have 
any  signification,  they  are  no  other  than  names 
for  the  unknown  operations  of  Providence ;  for  it 
378 


PRUDENCE 
is  certain  that  in  God's  universe  nothing  coined 
to  pass  causelessly,  or  in  vain.  Every  event  has 
its  own  determined  direction.  That  chaos  of 
human  affairs  and  intrigues  where  we  can  see  no 
light,  that  mass  of  disorder  and  confusion  which 
they  often  present  to  our  view,  is  all  clearness 
and  order  in  the  sight  of  Him  who  is  governing 
and  directing  all,  and  bringing  forward  every 
event  in  its  due  time  and  place.  The  Lord  sit- 
tclh  on  the  flood.  The  Lordmakcth  the  wrath 
of  man  to -praise  him,  as  he  makcth  the  hail  and 
the  rain  obey  his  word.  He  hath  prepared  his 
throne  in  the  heavens ;  and  his  kingdom  ruleth 
over  all.  A  man's  heart  deviseth  his  way,  but 
the  Lord  direclcth  his  steps." 

"  To  follow  the  leadings  of  Providence,  means 
no  other  than  to  act  agreeably  to  the  law  of  duty, 
prudence,  and  safety,  or  any  particular  circum- 
stance, according  to  the  direction  or  determina- 
tion of  the  word  or  law  of  God.  He  follows  the 
dictates  of  Providence,  who  takes  a  due  survey 
of  the  situation  he  is  placed  in,  compares  it  with 
the  rules  of  the  word  which  reaches  his  case,  and 
acts  accordingly.  To  know  the  will  of  God  as  it 
respects  Providence,  there  must  be,  1.  Delibera- 
tion.— 2.  Consultation. — 3.  Supplication.  The 
tokens  of  the  divine  will  and  pleasure  in  any  par- 
ticular case  are  not  to  be  gathered  from  our  incli- 
nations, particular  frames,  the  form  of  Scripture 
phrases,  impulses,  nor  even  the  event,  as  that 
cannot  always  be  a  rule  of  judgment;  but  what- 
ever appears  to  be  proper  duty,  true  prudence, 
or  real  necessity,  that  we  should  esteem  to  be  his 
will."  See  Charnock,  Flavcl,  Hoakwell,  Hop- 
kins, Sherlock,  Collings,  and  Faucet  on  Provi- 
dence;  Gill's  Body  of  Divinity ;  Ridgley's  Body 
of  Divinity,  qu.  18;  Blair's  Ser.  ser.  18,  vol.  v. ; 
Forsyth's  Piece  on  Providence,  Enc.  Brit.  ; 
Wollaston's  Religion  of  Nature  delineated,  sec. 
5 ;   Thomson's  Seasons,  Winter,  conclusion. 

PRUDENCE  is  the  act  of  suiting  words  and 
actions  according  to  the  circumstances  of  things, 
or  rules  of  right  reason.  Cicero  thus  defines 
it :  "  Est  rerum  expetendarum  et  fugiendarum 
scientia :" — "  The  knowledge  of  what  is  to  be 
desired  cr  avoided."  Grove  thus :  "  Prudence  i? 
an  ability  of  judging  what  is  best  in  the  choice 
both  of  ends  and  means."  Mason  thus  :  "  Pru- 
dence is  a  conformity  to  the  rules  of  reason,  truth, 
and  decency,  at  all  times  and  in  all  circumstances. 
It  differs  from  wisdom  only  in  degree ;  w  isdom 
being  nothing  but  a  more  consummate  habit  of 
prudence ;  and  prudence  a  lower  degree  or  weaker 
habit  of  wisdom."  It  is  divided  into,  1.  Chris- 
tian prudence,  which  directs  to  the  pursuit  of 
that  blessedness  which  the  Gospel  discovers  by 
the  use  of  Gospel  means. — 2.  Moral  prudence 
has  for  its  end  peace  and  satisfaction  of  mind  in 
this  world,  and  the  greatest  happiness  after  death. 
— 3.  Civil  prudence  is  the  knowledge  of  what 
ought  to  be  done  in  order  to  secure  the  outward 
happiness  of  life,  consisting  in  prosperity,  liberty, 
&c. — 4.  Monastic,  relating  to  any  circumstances 
in  which  a  man  is  not  charged  with  the  care  of 
others. — 5.  (Economical  prudence  regards  the 
conduct  of  a  family. — 6,  Political  refers  to  the 
good  government  of  a  state. 

The  idea  of  prudence,  says  one,  includes 
fu,3cu;u*,  or  due  consultation  :  that  is,  concerning 
such  things  as  demand  consultation  in  a  right 
manner,  and  for  a  competent  time,  that  the  reso- 
lution taken  up  may  be  neither  too  precipitate 


/ 


•M* 


ii  xL 


PURGATORY 

nor  too  slow;  and  <ruv£<r.?,  or  a  faculty  of  discern- 
ing proper  means  when  they  occur.  To  the  per- 
fection of  prudence  these  three  things  are  fur- 
ther required,  viz.  Jmvotis,  or  a  natural  sagacity; 
ayxivatx,  presence  of  mind,  or  a  ready  turn  of 
thought ;  and  ipx-iya,  or  experience. 

Plato  styles  prudence  the  leading  virtue :  and 
Cicero  observes,  "  that  not  one  of  the  virtues  can 
want  prudence;"  which  is  certainly  most  true, 
since  without  prudence  to  guide  them,  piety 
would  degenerate  into  superstition,  zeal  into 
bigotry,  temperance  into  austerity,  courage  into 
rashness,  and  justice  itself  into  folly.  See  Watts's 
Ser.  ser.  28;  Grove's  Moral  Phil.  vol.  ii.  ch.  2; 
Mason's  Christian  Mor.  vol.  i.  ser.  4 ;  Evans's 
Christ.  Temper,  ser.  38. 

PSALMODY,  the  art  or  act  of  singing  psalms. 
Psalmody  was  always  esteemed  a  considerable 
part  of  devotion,  anil  usually  performed  in  the 
standing  posture  ;  and  as  to  the  manner  of  pro- 
nunciation, the  plain  song  was  sometimes  used, 
being  a  gentle  inflection  of  the  voice,  not  much 
different  from  reading,  like  the  chant  in  cathe- 
drals ;  at  other  times  more  artificial  compositions 
were  used,  like  our  anthems. 

As  to  the  persons  concerned  in  singing,  some- 
times a  single  person  sung  alone  ;  sometimes  the 
whole  assembly  joined  together,  which  was  the 
most  ancient  and  general  practice.  At  other 
times,  the  psalms  were  sung  alternately,  the  con- 
gregation dividing  themselves  into  two  parts,  and 
singing  verse  about,  in  their  turns.  There  was 
also  a  fourth  way  of  singing,  pretty  common  in 
the  fourth  century,  which  was,  when  a  single 
person  began  the  verse,  and  the  people  joined 
with  him  in  the  close ;  this  was  often  used  for 
variety  in  the  same  service  with  alternate  psal- 
mody. See  Singing. 

PSATYRIANS,  a  sect  of  Arians,  who,  in 
the  council  of  Antioch,  held  in  the  year  3G0, 
maintained  that  the  Son  was  not  like  the  Father 
as  to  will ;  that  he  was  taken  from  nothing,  or 
made  of  nothing ;  and  that  in  God  generation 
was  not  to  be  distinguished  from  creation. 

PURGATORY  is  a  place  in  which  the  just 
who  depart  out  of  this  life  are  supposed  to  expi- 
ate certain  offences  which  do  not  merit  eternal 
damnation.  Broughton  has  endeavoured  to  prove 
that  this  notion  has  been  held  by  Pagans,  Jews, 
and  Mahometans,  as  well  as  by  Christians;  and 
that,  in  the  days  of  the  Maccabees,  the  Jews  be- 
lieved that  sin  might  be  expiated  by  sacrifice  after 
the  death  of  the  sinner.  The  arguments  ad- 
vanced by  the  Papists  for  purgatory  are  these  : 
1.  Every  sin,  how  slight  soever,  though  no  more 
than  an  idle  word,  as  it  is  an  offence  to  God,  de- 
serves punishment  from  him,  and  will  be  punish- 
ed by  him  hereafter,  if  not  cancelled  by  repent- 
ance here. — 2.  Such  small  sins  do  not  deserve 
eternal  punishment. — 3.  Few  depart  this  life  so 
pure  as  to  be  totally  exempt  from  spots  of  this 
nature,  and  from  every  kind  of  debt  due  to  God's 
justice. — 1.  Therefore  few  will  escape  without 
suffering  something  from  his  justice  for  such 
debts  as  they  have  carried  with  them  out  of  this 
world,  according  to  that  rule  of  divine  justice  by 
which  he  treats  every  soul  hereafter  according  to 
its  works,  and  according  to  the  state  in  which  he 
finds  it  in  death.  From  these  propositions,  which 
the  Papist  considers  as  so  many  self-evident 
truths,  he  infers  that  there  must  be  some  third 
place  of  punishment ;  for  since  the  infinite  good- 
379 


PURITANS 

ness  of  God  can  admit  nothing  into  heaven  which 
is  not  clean  and  pure  from  all  sin,  both  great  and 
small,  and  his  infinite  justice  can  permit  none  to 
receive  the  reward  of  bliss  who  as  yet  are  not  out 
of  debt,  but  have  something  in  justice  to  suffer, 
there  must,  of  necessity,  be  some  place  or  state, 
where  souls  departing  this  life,  pardoned  as  to 
the  external  guilt  or  pain,  yet  obnoxious  to  some 
temporal  penalty,  or  with  the  guilt  of  some  venial 
faults,  are  purged  and  purified  before  their  admit- 
tance into  heaven.  And  this  is  what  he  is  taught 
concerning  purgatory,  which,  though  he  know 
not  where  it  is,  of  what  nature  the  pains  are,  or 
how  long  each  soul  is  detained  there,  yet  he  be- 
lieves that  those  who  are  in  this  place  are  relieved 
by  the  prayers  of  their  fellow  members  here  on 
earth,  as  also  by  alms  and  masses  offered  up  to 
God  for  their  souls.  And  as  for  such  as  have  no 
relations  or  friends  to  pray  for  them,  or  give  alms 
to  procure  masses  for  their  relief,  they  are  not 
neglected  by  the  church,  which  makes  a  general 
commemoration  of  all  the  faithful  departed  in 
every  mass,  and  in  every  one  of  the  canonical 
hours  of  the  divine  office.  Besides  the  above 
arguments,  the  following  passages  are  alleged  as 
proofs :  2  Maccabees  xii.  43,  44,  45 ;  Matt.  xii. 
31,  32;  1  Cor.  iii.  15;  1  Pet.  iii.  19.  But  it  may 
be  observed, — 1.  That  the  books  of  Maccabees 
have  no  evidence  of  inspiration,  therefore  quota- 
tions from  them  are  not  to  be  regarded. — 2.  If  they 
were,  the  texts  referred  to  would  rather  prove 
that  there  is  no  such  place  as  purgatory,  since 
Judas  did  not  expect  the  souls  departed  to  reap 
any  benefit  from  his  sin-offering  till  the  resurrec- 
tion. The  texts  quoted  from  the  Scriptures  have 
no  reference  to  this  doctrine,  as  may  be  seen  by 
consulting  the  context,  and  any  just  commenta- 
tor thereon. — 3.  Scripture,  in  general,  speaks  of 
departed  souls  going  immediately  at  death  to  a 
fixed  state  of  happiness  or  misery,  and  gives  us 
no  idea  of  purgatory,  Isa.  lvii.  2;  Rev.  xiv.  13; 
Luke  xvi.  22 ;  2  Cor.  v.  8. — 4.  It  is  derogatory 
from  the  doctrine  of  Christ's  satisfaction.  If 
Christ  died  for  us,  and  redeemed  us  from  sin  and 
hell,  as  the  Scripture  speaks,  then  the  idea  of 
further  meritorious  sufferings  detracts  from  the 
perfection  of  Christ's  work,  and  places  merit  still 
in  the  creature;  a  doctrine  exactly  opposite  to 
Scripture.  See  Doddridge's  Let:  lee.  270 ;  Lim- 
borch's  Theol.  1.  6,  ch.  10.  §  10.  22;  Earl's  Ser- 
mon, in  the  Sermons  against  Popery,  vol.  ii. 
No.  1  ;  Burnett  on  the  Art.  22;  Fleury's  Cate- 
chism, vol.  ii.  p.  250. 

PURIFICATION,  a  ceremony  which  con- 
sists in  cleansing  any  thing  from  pollution  or 
defilement.  Purifications  are  common  to  Jews. 
Pagans,  and  Mahometans.     See  Impurity-. 

PURITANS,  a  name  given  in  the  primitive 
church  to  the  Novatians,  because  they  would 
never  admit  to  communion  any  one  who,  from 
dread  of  death,  had  apostatised  from  the  faith ; 
but  the  word  has  been  chiefly  applied  to  those 
who  were  professed  favourers  of  a  further  degree 
of  reformation  and  purity  in  the  church  before 
the  Act  of  Uniformity,  in  1GG2.  After  this  period, 
the  term  Nonconformists  became  common,  to 
which  sHcceeds  the  appellation  Dissenter. 

"  During  the  reign  of  queen  Elizabeth,  in 
which  the  royal  prerogative  was  carried  to  ils 
utmost  limits,  there  were  found  many  daring 
spirits  who  questioned  the  right  of  the  sovereign 
to  iirescribe  and  dictate  to  her  subjects  what 


QUAKERS 

principles  of  religion  they  shouM  profess,  and 
what  forms  they  ought  to  adhere  to.  The  orna- 
ments and  habits  worn  by  the  clergy  in  the  pre- 
ceding reign,  when  the  Romish  religion  and  rite.-; 
were  triumphant,  Elizabeth  was  desirous  of  pre- 
serving in  the  Protestant  service.  This  was  the 
cause  of  great  discontent  among  a  large  body  of 
her  subjects;  multitudes  refused  to  attend  at  those 
churches  where  the  habits  and  ceremonies  were 
used;  the  conforming  clergy  they  treated  with 
contumely ;  and,  from  the  superior  purity  and 
simplicity  of  the  modes  of  worship  to  which  they 
adhered,  they  obtained  the  name  of  Puritans. 
The  queen  made  many  attempts  to  repress  every 
thing  that  appeared  to  her  as  an  innovation  in 
the  religion  established  by  her  authority,  but 
without  success:  by  her  almost  unlimited  autho- 
rity she  readily  checked  open  and  avowed  oppo- 
sition, but  she  could  not  extinguish  the  principles 
of  the  Puritans,  '  by  whom  alone,'  according  to 
Mr.  Hume,  'the  precious  spark  of  liberty  had 
been  kindled  and  was  preserved,  and  to  whom 
the  English  owe  the  whole  freedom  of  their  con- 
stitution.' Some  secret  attempts  that  had  been 
made  by  them  to  establish  a  separate  congrega- 
tion and  discipline,  had  been  carefully  repressed 
by  the  strict  hand  which  Elizabeth  held  over  all 
her  subjects.  The  most,  therefore,  that  they 
could  edict  was,  to  assemble  in  private  houses, 
lor  the  purpose  of  worshipping  God  according  to 
the  dictates  of  their  own  consciences.  These 
practices  were  at  first  connived  at,  but  afterwards 
every  mean  was  taken  to  suppress  them,  and  the 
most  cruel  met  hods  were  made  use  of  to  discover  per- 
sons who  were  disobedient  to  the  royal  pleasure." 
The  severe  'persecutions  carried  on  against  the 
Puritans  during  the  reigns  of  Elizabeth  and  the 
Stuarts,  served  to  lay  the  foundation  of  a  new 
empire  in  the  western  world.  Thither,  as  into  a 
wilderness,  they  tied  from  the  face  of  their  perse- 
cutors, and,  being  protected  in  the  free  exercise  of 
their  religion,  continued  to  increase,  till  in  about 
o.  century  and  a  half  they  became  an  independent 
nation.  The  different  principles,  however,  on 
which  they  originally  divided  from  the  church 
establishment  at  home,  operated  in  a  way  that 
might  have  been  expected  when  they  came  to  the 
possession  of  the  civil  power  abroad.  Those  who 
formed  the  colony  of  Massachussetfs  Bay,  having 
never  relinquished  the  principles  of  a  national 
church,  and  of  the  power  of  the  civil  magistrate 
in  matters  of  faith  and  worship,  were  less  tolerant 
than  those  wdio  settled  at  New  Plymouth,  at 
Rhode  Island,  and  at  Providence  Plantations. 
The  very  men  (and  they  were  good  men  too) 
who  had  just  escaped  the  persecutions  of  the 
English  prelates,  now  in  their  turn  persecuted 
Others  who  dissented  from  them,  till  at  length  the 
liberal  system  of  toleration  established  in  the  pa- 
rent country  at  the  revolution  extending  to  the 


QUAKERS 

colonies,  in  a  good  measure  put  an  end  to  these 
proceedings.  , 

Neither  the  Puritans  before  the  passing  of  the 
Bartholomew  act  in  lt)G-2,  nor  the  Nonconformists 
after  it,  appear  to  have  disapproved  of  the  articles 
of  the  established  church  in  matters  of  doctrine. 
The  number  of  them  who  did  so,  however,  was 
very  small.  While  the  great  body  of  the  bishops 
and  clergy  had  from  the  days  of  archbishop  Laud 
abandoned  their  own  articles  in  favour  of  Armi- 
nianism,  they  were  attached  to  the  principles  of 
the  lirst  reformers  ;  and  by  their  labours  and  suf- 
ferings the  spirit  of  the  Reformation  was  kept 
alive  in  the  land.  But  after  the  revolution,  one 
part  of  the  Protestant  Dissenters,  chiefly  Presby- 
terians, first  veered  towards  Arminianism,  then 
revived  the  Arian  controversy,  and  by  degrees 
many  of  them  settled  in  Socinianism.  At  the 
same  time  another  part  of  them,  chiefly  Inde- 
pendents and  Baptists,  earnestly  contending  for 
the  doctrines  of  grace,  and  conceiving,  as  it  would 
seem,  that  the  danger  of  erring  lay  entirely,  on 
one  side,  first  veered  towards  high  Calvinrem ; 
then  forbore  the  unregenerate  to  repent,  believe, 
or  do  any  thing  practically  good,  and  by  degrees, 
many  of  them,  it  is  said,  settled  in  Antino- 
mianism. 

Such  are  the  principles  which  have  found  place 
amongst  the  descendants  of  the  Puritans.  At 
the  same  time,  however,  it  must  be  acknowledged 
that  a  goodly  number  of  each  of  the  three  deno- 
minations have  adhered  to  the  doctrine  and  spirit 
of  their  forefathers;  and  have  proved  the  efficacy 
of  their  principles  by  their  concern  to  be  holy  in 
all  manner  of  conversation.  See  articles  Biiown- 
ists,  Independents,  and  Nonconformists,  in 
this  work.  See  also  list  of  books  under  the  last- 
mentioned  article. 

PURITY,  the  freedom  of  any  thing  from 
foreign  admixture ;  but  more  particularly  it  sig- 
nifies the  temper  directly  opposite  to  criminal 
sensualities,  or  the  ascendency  of  irregular  pas- 
sions. (See  Chastity.)  Purity  implies,  1.  A 
fixed  habitual  abhorrence  of  all  forbidden  indul- 
gences of  the  flesh. — "3.  All  past  impurities,  either 
of  heart  or  life,  will  be  reflected  on  with  shame 
and  sorrow. — 3.  The  heart  will  be  freed,  in  a 
great  measure,  from  impure  and  irregular  desires. 
— 4.  It  will  discover  itself  by  a  cautious  fear  of  the 
least  degree  of  impurity. — 5.  It  implies  a  careful 
and  habitual  guard  against  every  thing  which 
tends  to  pollute  the  mind.  See  Erans's  Sermons 
on  the  Christian  Temper,  ser.  23;  and  Walls's 
Sermons,  ser.  27. 

PURPOSE  OF  GOD.    See  Decree. 

PUSILLANIMITY  is  a  feebleness  of  mind, 
by  which  it  is  terrified  at  mere  trifles  or  imagi- 
nary dangers,  unauthorized  by  the  most  distant 
probability. 

PYRRHONTSTS.    Sec  Sceptics. 


QUAKERS,  a  sect  which  took  its  rise  in 
England  about  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, and  rapidly  found  its  way  into  other  coun- 
tries in  Europe,  and  into  the  English  settlements 
in  North  America.  The  members  of  this  society, 
we  believe,  called  themselves  at  first  Seekere,  from 
their  seeking  the  truth ;  but  alter  the  society  was 
330 


formed,  they  assumed  the  appellation  of  Friends. 
The  name  of  Uuakers  was  given  to  them  by 
their  enemies,  and  though  an  epithet  of  reproach, 
seems  to  be  stamped  upon  them  indelibly.  Georga 
Fox  is  supposed  to  be  their  first  founder;  but, 
alter  the  restoration,  Penn  and  Barclay  gave  to 
their  principles  a  more  regular  form. 


Q.UAKERS 

The  doctrines  of  their  society  have  heen  va- 
riously represented  ;  and  some  have  thought  and 
taken  pains  to  prove  them  favourable  to  Soci- 
nianism.  But,  according  to  Penn,  they  believe 
in  the  Holy  Three,  or  the  trinity  of  the  Father, 
Word,  and  Spirit,  agreeable  to  the  Scripture.  In 
reply  to  the  charge  that  they  deny  Christ  to  be 
God,  Penn  says,  "that  it  is  a  most  untrue  and 
uncharitable  censure — that  they  truly  and  ex- 
pressly own  him  to  be  so  according  to  the  Scrip- 
ture." To  the  objection  that  they  deny  the  human 
nature  of  Christ,  he  answers,  "  We  never  taught, 
said,  or  held  so  gross  a  thing,  but  believe  him  to 
be  truly  and  properly  man  like  us,  sin  only  ex- 
cepted." The  doctrines  of  the  fall,  and  the  re- 
demption by  Chnst,  are,  according  to  him,  believed 
firmly  by  them ;  and  he  declares,  "  that,  they  own 
Jesus  Christ  as  their  sacrifice,  atonement,  and 
propitiation." 

But  we  shall  here  state  a  further  account  of 
their  principles  and  discipline,  as  extracted  from 
a  summary  transmitted  to  me  from  one  of  their 
most* respectable  members. 

They  tell  us,  that,  about  the  beginning  of  the 
seventeenth  century,  a  number  of  men,  dissatis- 
fied with  all  the  modes  of  religious  worship  then 
known  in  the  world,  withdrew  from  the  commu- 
nion of  every  visible  church  to  seek  the  Lord  in 
retirement.  Among  these  was  their  honourable 
elder,  George  Fox,  who,  being  quickened  by  the 
immediate  touches  of  divine  love,  could  not  satisfy 
his  apprehensions  of  duty  to  God  without  direct- 
ing the  people  where  to  find  the  like  consolation 
and  instruction.  In  the  course  of  his  travels,  he 
met  with  many  seeking  persons  in  circumstances 
similar  to  his  own,  and  these  readily  received  his 
testimony.  They  then  give  us  a  short  account 
of  their  sufferings  and  different  settlements ;  they 
also  vindicate  Charles  II.  from  the  character  of  a 
persecutor;  acknowledging  that,  though  they  suf- 
fered much  during  his  reign,  he  gave  as  little 
countenance  as  he  could  to  the  severities  of  the 
legislature.  They  even  tell  us  that  he  exerted 
his  influence  to  rescue  their  friends  from  the  un- 
provoked and  cruel  persecutions  they  met  with 
in  New  England ;  and  they  speak  with  becoming 
gratitude  of  the  different  acts  passed  in  their  fa- 
our  during  the  reigns  of  William  and  Mary,  and 
George  I.  They  then  proceed  to  give  us  the  fol- 
lowing account  of  their  doctrine  : — 

"  We -agree  with  other  professors  of  the  Chris- 
tian name,  in  the  belief  of  one  eternal  God,  the 
Creator  and  Preserver  of  the  universe :  and  in 
Jesus  Christ  his  Son,  the  Messiah  and  mediator 
of  the  new  covenant,  Hcb.  xii.  24. 

"  When  we  speak  of  the  gracious  display  of 
the  love  of  God  to  mankind,  in  the  miraculous 
conception,  birth,  life,  miracles,  death,  resurrec- 
tion, and  ascension  of  our  Saviour,  we  prefer  the 
use  of  such  terms  as  we  find  in  Scripture ;  and, 
contented  with  that  knowledge  which  divine  wis- 
dom hath  seen  meet  to  reveal,  we  attempt  not  to 
explain  those  mysteries  which  remain  under  the 
veil ;  nevertheless  we  acknowledge  and  assert  the 
divinity  of  Christ,  who  is  the  wisdom  and  power 
of  God  unto  salvation,  1  Cor.  i.  24. 

"  To  Christ  alone  we  give  the  title  of  the  Word 
of  God,  John  i.  1,  and  not  to  the  Scriptures,  al- 
though we  highly  esteem  these  sacred  writings,  in 
subordination  to  the  Spirit,  (2  Pet.  i.  21)  from 
which  they  were  given  forth ;  and  we  hold,  with 
the  apostle  Paul,  that  tliev  are  able  to  make  wise 
381 


aUAKERS 

unto  salvation,  through  faith,  which  is  in  Christ 
Jesus,  2  Tim.  iii.  15. 

"We  reverence  those  most  excellent,  precepts 
which  are  recorded  in  Scripture  to  have  been  de- 
livered by  our  great  Lord  ;  and  we  firmly  believe 
that  they  are  practicable,  and  binding  on  every 
Christian ;  and  that  in  the  life  to  come  every  man 
will  lie  rewarded  according  to  his  works,  Matt, 
xvi.  27.  And,  further,  it  is  our  belief,  that,  in 
order  to  enable  mankind  to  put  in  practice  these 
sacred  precepts,  many  of  which  are  contradictory 
to  the  unregenerate  will  of  man,  Jehn  i.  'J,  every 
man  coming  into  the  world  is  endued  with  a 
measure  of  the  light,  grace,  or  good  Spirit  cf 
Christ ;  by  which,  as  it  is  attended  to,  he  is  ena- 
bled to  distinguish  good  from  evil,  and  to  correct 
the  disorderly  passions  and  corrupt  propensities 
of  his  nature,  which  mere  reason  is  altogetherin- 
sufficient  to  overcome.  For  all  that  belongs  to 
man  is  fallible,  and  within  the  reach  of  tempta- 
tion ;  but  this  divine  grace,  which  comes  by  him 
who  hath  overcome  the  world,  John  xvi.  33,  is,  to 
those  who  humbly  and  sincerely  seek  it,  an  all- 
sufficient  and  present  help  in  time  of  need.  By 
this  the  snares  of  the  enemy  are  detected,  his  al- 
lurements avoided,  and  deliverance  is  experienced 
through  faith  in  its  effectual  operation  ;  whereby 
the  soul  is  translated  out  of  the  kingdom  of  dark- 
ness, and  from  under  the  power  of  Satan,  unto 
the  marvellous  light  and  kingdom  of  the  Son  of 
God. 

"Being  thus  persuaded,  that  man,  without  the 
Spirit  of  Christ  inwardly  revealed,  can  do  nothing 
to  the  glory  of  God,  or  to  effect  his  own  salvation, 
we  think  this  influence  especially  necessary  to  the 
performance  of  the  highest  act  of  which  the  hu- 
man mind  is  capable ;  even  the  worship  of  the 
Father  of  light  and  of  spirits,  in  spirit  and  in 
truth :  therefore  we  consider,  as  obstructions  to 
pure  worship,  all  forms  which  divert  the  attention 
of  the  mind  from  the  secret  influence  of  this  unc- 
tion from  the  Holy  One,  1  John  ii.  20,  27.  Yet, 
although  true  worship  is  not  confined  to  time  and 
place,  we  think  it  incumbent  on  Christians  to 
meet  often  together,  Heb.  x.  25,  in  testimony  of 
their  dependence  on  the  heavenly  Father,  and  for 
a  renewal  of  their  spiritual  strength :  neverthe- 
less, in  the  performance  of  worship,  we  dare  not 
depend  for  our  acceptance  with  him  on  a  formal 
repetition  of  the  wo.ds  and  experiences  of  others ; 
but  we  believe  it  to  be  our  duty  to  lay  aside  the 
activity  of  the  imagination,  and  to  wait  in  silence 
to  have  a  true  sight  of  our  condition  bestowed 
upon  as ;  believing  even  a  single  sigh  (Rom.  vii. 
21)  arising  from  such  a  sense  of  our  infirmities, 
and  of  the  need  we  have  of  divine  help,  to  be 
more  acceptable  to  God  than  any  performances, 
however  specious,  which  originate  in  the  will  of 
man. 

"  From  what  has  been  said  respecting  worship, 
it  follows  that  the  ministry  we  approve  must  have 
its  origin  from  the  same  source ;  for  that  which 
I  is  needful  for  man's  own  direction,  and  for  his 
acceptance  with  God,  Jcr.  xxiii.  30  to  32,  must 
be  eminently  so  to  enable  him  to  be  helpful  to 
others.  Accordingly,  we  believe  that  the  re 
newed  assistance  of  the  light  and  power  of  Christ 
is  indispensably  necessary  for  all  true  ministry, 
and  that  this  holy  influence  is  not  ;:t  our  com- 
mand, or  to  be  procured  by  study,  but  in  the  fre« 
gift  of  God  to  chosen  and  devoted  servants. 
Hence  arises  our  testimony  against  preaching 


QUAKERS 
for  hire,  in  contradiction  to  Christ's  positive  com- 
mand, 'Freely  ye  have  received,  freely  give,' 
Matt.  x.  8 ;  and  hence  our  conscientious  refusal 
to  support  such  ministry  by  tithes,  or  other 
means. 

"  As  we  dare  not  encourage  any  ministry  but 
that  which  we  believe  to  spring  from  the  in- 
fluence of  the  Holy  Spirit,  so  neither  dare  we 
attempt  to  restrain  this  influence  to  persons  of 
any  condition  in  life,  or  to  the  male  sex  alone ; 
but,  as  male  and  female  are  one  in  Christ,  we 
allow  such  of  the  female  sex  as  we  believe  to  be 
endued  with  a  riirht  qualification  for  the  ministry, 
to  exercise  their  gifts  for  the  general  edification 
of  the  church ;  and  this  liberty  we  esteem  a  pe- 
culiar mark  of  the  Gospel  dispensation,  as  fore- 
told by  the  prophet  Joel,  Joel  ii.  38,  29;  and 
noticed  by  the  apostle  Peter,  Acts  ii.  10,  17. 

"  There  are  two  ceremonies  in  use  among 
most  professors  of  the  Christian  name, — water 
baptism,  and  what  is  termed  the  Lord's  Supper. 
The  first  of  these  is  generally  esteemed  the  essen- 
tial means  of  initiation  into  the  church  of  Christ ; 
and  the  latter  of  maintaining  communion  with 
him.  But  as  we  have  been  convinced  that  no- 
thing short  of  his  redeeming  power,  invariably 
revealed,  can  set  the  soul  free  from  the  thraldom 
of  sin,  by  this  power  alone  we  believe  salvation  to 
be  effected.  We  hold,  that  as  there  is  one  Lord 
and  one  faith,  Eph.  iv.  5,  so  his  baptism  is  one, 
in  nature  and  operation ;  that  nothing  short  of 
it  can  make  us  living  members  of  his  mystical 
body ;  and  that  the  baptism  with  water,  adminis- 
tered by  his  forerunner  John,  belonged,  as  the 
latter  confessed,  to  an  inferior  dispensation,  John 
lii.  30. 

"  With  respect  to  the  other  rite,  we  believe  that 
communion  between  Christ  and  his  church  is  not 
maintained  by  that,  nor  any  other  external  per- 
formance, but  only  by  a  real  participation  of  his 
divine  nature  (1  Pet.  ii.  4.)  through  faith;  that 
this  is  the  supper  alluded  to  in  the  Revelation, 
Rev.  vii.  20;  'Behold  I  stand  at  the  door  and 
knock:  if  any  man  hear  my  voice,  and  open  the 
door,  I  will  come  in  to  him,  and  will  sup  with 
him,  and  he  with  me  ;'  and  that  where  the  sub- 
stance is  attained,  it  is  unnecessary  to  attend  to 
the  shadow,  which  doth  not  confer  grace,  and 
concerning  which,  opinions  so  different,  and  ani- 
mosities so  violent,  have  arisen. 

"Now,  as  we  thus  believe  that  the  grace  of 
God,  which  comes  by  Jesus  Christ,  is  alone  suf- 
ficient for  salvation,  we  can  neither  admit  that  it 
is  conferred  on  a  few  only,  whilst  others  are  left 
without  it,  nor,  thus  asserting  its  universality,  can 
we  limit  its  operation  to  a  partial  cleansing  of  the 
soul  from  sin,  even  in  this  life.  We  entertain 
worthier  notions  both  of  the  power  and  goodness 
of  our  heavenly  Father,  and  believe  that  he  doth 
vouchsafe  to  asMst  the  obedient  to  experience  a 
total  surrender  of  the  natural  will  to  the  guidance 
of  his  pure,  unerring  Spirit ;  through  whose  re- 
newed assistance  they  are  enabled  to  bring  forth 
fruits  unto  holiness,  and  to  stand  perfect  in  their 
present  rank,  Matt.  v.  48;  Eph.  iv.  13;  Col.iv.  12. 

"  There  are  not  many  of  our  tenets  mere  gene- 
rally known  than  our  testimony  against  oaths, 
and  against  war.  With  respect  to  the  former  of 
these,  we  abide  literally  by  Christ's  positive  in- 
junction, delivered  in  his  sermon  on  the  mount, 
'Swear  not  at  all,'  Matt.  v.  34.  From  the  same 
sacred  collection  of  the  most  excellent  precepts 
382 


QUAKERS 

of  moral  and  religious  duty,  from  the  example  of 
our  Lord  himself,  Matt.  v.  39,  44,  &c. ;  xxvi. 
52,  53;  Luke  xxii.  51 ;  John  xviii.  11 ;  and  from 
the  correspondent  convictions  of  his  Spirit  in  our 
hearts,  we  are  confirmed  in  the  belief  that  wars 
and  fightings  are  m  their  origin  and  effects  utter- 
ly repugnant  to  the  Gospel,  which  still  breathes 
peace  and  good-will  to  men.  We  also  are  clearly 
of  the  judgment,  that  if  the  benevolence  of  the 
Gospel  were  generally  prevalent  in  the  minds  of 
men,  it  would  effectually  prevent  them  from  op- 
pressing, much  more  from  enslaving,  their  bre- 
thren (of  whatever  colour  or  complexion,)  for 
whom,  as  for  themselves,  Christ  died;  and  would 
even  influence  their  conduct  in  their  treatment 
of  the  brute  creation,  which  would  no  longer 
groan,  the  victims  of  their  avarice,  or  of  their 
false  ideas  of  pleasure. 

"Some  of  our  ideas  have  in  former  times, 
has  hath  been  shown,  subjected  our  friends  to 
much  suffering  from  government,  though  to  the 
salutary  purposes  of  government  our  principles 
are  a  security.  They  inculcate  submission  Jo  the 
laws  in  all  cases  wherein  conscience  is  not  vio- 
lated. But  we  hold  that,  as  Christ's  kingdom  is 
not  of  this  world,  it  is  not  the  business  of  the 
civil  magistrate  to  interlere  in  matters  of  religion, 
but  to  maintain  the  external  peace  and  good  or- 
der of  the  community.  We  therefore  think  per- 
secution, even  in  the  smallest  degree,  unwarrant- 
able. We  are  careful  in  requiring  our  members 
not  to  be  concerned  in  illicit  trade,  nor  in  any 
manner  to  defraud  the  revenue. 

"  It  is  well  known  that  the  society,  from  its 
.irst  appearance,  has  disused  those  names  of  the 
months  and  days,  which,  having  been  given  in 
honour  of  the  heroes  or  false  gods  of  the  heathen, 
originated  in  their  flattery  or  superstition ;  and 
the  custom  of  speaking  to  a  single  person  in  the 
plural  number,  as  having  arisen  also  from  motives 
of  adulation.  Compliments,  superfluity  of  ap- 
parel and  furniture,  outward  shows  of  rejoicing 
and  mourning,  and  the  observation  of  days  and 
times,  we  esteem  to  be  incompatible  with  the 
simplicity  and  sincerity  of  a  Christian  life;  and 
public  diversions,  gaming,  and  other  vain  amuse- 
ments of  the  wfcrld,  we  cannot  but  condemn. 
They  are  a  waste  of  that  time  which  is  given  us 
for  nobler  purposes ;  and  divert  the  attention  of 
the  mind  from  the  sober  duties  of  life,  and  from 
the  reproofs  of  instruction  by  which  we  are  guid- 
ed to  an  everlasting  inheritance. 

"To  conclude:  although  we  have  exhibited 
the  several  tenets  which  distinguish  our  religious 
society  as  objects  of  our  belief,  yet  we  are  sensi» 
ble  that  a  true  and  living  faith  is  not  produced  in 
the  mind  of  man  by  his  own  effort,  but  is  the  free 
gift  of  God  in  Christ  Jesus,  Eph.  ii.  8,  nourished 
and  increased  by  the  progressive  operation  of  his 
Spirit  in  our  hearts,  and  our  proportionate  obe- 
dience, John  vii.  17.  Therefore,  although  for 
the  preservation  of  the  testimonies  given  us  to 
bear,  and  for  the  peace  and  good  order  of  the  so- 
ciety, we  deem  it  necessary  that  those  who  are 
admitted  into  membership  with  us  should  be  pre- 
viously convinced  of  those  doctrines  which  we 
esteem  essential,  yet  we  require  no  formal  su!>- 
scription  to  any  articles,  either  as  a  condition  of 
membership,  or  a  qualification  for  the  service  of 
the  church.  We  prefer  the  judging  of  men  by 
their  fruits,  and  depending  on  the  aid  of  Him, 
who,  by  his  prophet,  hath  promised  to  be  '  a  spirit 


QUAKERS 

of  judgment  to  him  that  sitteth  in  judgment,' 
Is.  xxviii.  6.  Without  this,  there  is  a  danger 
of  receiving  numbers  into  outward  communion, 
without  any  addition  to  that  spiritual  sheep-fold, 
whereof  our  Messed  Lord  declared  himself  to  be 
both  the  door  and  the  shepherd,  John  x.  7,  11 ; 
that  is,  such  as  know  his  voice  and  follow  him  in 
the  paths  of  obedience. 

"  In  the  practice  of  discipline,  we  think  it  in- 
dispensable that  the  order  recommended  by  Christ 
himself  be  invariably  observed,  Matt,  xviii.  15, 17. 

"  To  effect  the  salutary  purposes  of  discipline, 
meetings  were  appointed  at  an  early  period  of 
the  society,  which,  from  the  times  of  their  being 
held,  we  e  called  quarterly  meetings.  It  was 
afterwards  found  expedient  to  divide  the  districts 
of  those  meetings,  and  to  meet  more  frequently : 
from  whence  arose  monthly  meetings,  subordinate 
to  those  held  quarterly.  At  length,  in  1669,  a 
yearly  meeting  was  established,  to  superintend, 
assist,  and  provide  rules  for  the  whole,  previously 
to  which  general  meetings  had  been  occasionally 
held. 

"  A  monthly  meeting  is  usually  composed  of 
several  particular  congregations,  situated  within 
a  convenient  distance  from  each  other.  Its  busi- 
ness is  to  provide  for  the  subsistence  of  the  poor, 
and  for  the  education  of  their  offspring ;  to  judge 
of  the  sincerity  and  fitness  of  persons  appearing 
to  be  convinced  of  the  religious  principles  of  the 
society,  and  desiring  to  be  admitted  into  member- 
ship ;  to  excite  due  attention  to  the  discharge  of 
religious  and  moral  duty ;  and  to  deal  with  disor- 
derly members.  Monthly  meetings  also  grant  to 
such  of  their  members  as  remove  into  other 
monthly  meetings  certificates  of  their  member- 
ship and  conduct;  without  which  they  cannot 
gain  membership  in  such  meetings.  Each  month- 
ly meeting  is  required  to  appoint  certain  persons, 
under  the  name  of  overseers,  who  are  to  take 
care  that  the  rules  of  our  discipline  be  put  in 
practice ;  and  when  any  case  of  complaint,  or 
disorderly  conduct  comes  to  their  knowledge,  to 
see  that  private  admonition,  agreeably  to  the 
Gospel  rule  before  mentioned,  be  given,  previously 
to  its  being  laid  before  the  monthly  meeting. 

"  When  a  case  is  introduced,  it  is  usual  for  a 
small  committee  to  be  appointed  to  visit  the  of- 
fender, to  endeavour  to  convince  him  of  his  error, 
and  to  induce  him  to  forsake  and  condemn  it.  If 
they  succeed,  the  person  is  by  minute  declared  to 
have  made  satisfaction  for  the  offence ;  if  not,  he 
is  disowned  as  a  member  of  the  society. 

"  In  disputes  between  individuals,  it  has  long 
been  the  decided  judgment  of  the  society,  that  its 
members  should  not  sue  each  other  at  law.  It 
therefore  enjoins  all  to  end  their  differences  by 
speedy  and  impartial  arbitration,  agreeably  to  rules 
laid  down.  If  any  refuse  to  adopt  this  mode,  or, 
having  adopted  it,  to  submit  to  the  award,  it  is 
the  direction  of  the  yearly  meeting  that  such  be 
disowned. 

"  To  monthly  meetings  also  belongs  the  allow- 
ing of  marriages ;  for  our  society  hath  always 
scrupled  to  acknowledge  the  exclusive  authority 
of  the  priests  in  the  solemnization  of  marriage. 
Those  who  intend  to  marry  appear  together,  and 
propose  their  intention  to  the  monthly  meeting ; 
and  if  not  attended  by  their  parents  and  guardians, 
produce  a  written  certificate  of  their  consent, 
signed  in  the  presence  of  witnesses.  The  meet- 
ing then  appoints  a  committee  to  inquire  whether 
383 


QUAKERS 

they  be  clear  of  other  engagements  respecting 
marriage;  and  if  at  a  subsequent  meeting,  towhicn 
the  parties  also  come  and  declare  the  continuanco 
of  their  intention,  no  objections  be  reported,  they 
have  the  meeting's  consent  to  solemnize  their  in 
tended  marriage.  This  is  done  in  a  public  meet- 
ing for  worship,  towards  the  close  whereof  the 
parties  stand  up,  and  solemnly  take  each  other  for 
husband  and  wife.  A  certificate  of  the  proceed- 
ings is  then  publicly  read,  and  signed  by  the  par- 
ties, and  afterwards  by  the  relations  and  others  as 
witnesses.  Of  such  marriage  the  monthly  meet- 
ing keeps  a  record ;  as  also  of  the  births  and  bu- 
rials of  its  members.  A  certificate  of  the  date, 
of  the  name  of  the  infant,  and  of  its  parents, 
signed  by  those  present  at  the  birth,  is  the  subject 
of  one  of  these  last-mentioned  records  ;  and  an 
order  for  the  interment,  countersigned  by  the 
grave-maker,  of  the  other.  The  naming  of  chil- 
dren is  without  ceremony.  Burials  are  also  con- 
ducted in  a  simple  manner.  The  body,  followed 
by  the  relations  and  friends,  is  sometimes,  pre- 
viously to  interment,  carried  to  a  meeting ;  and  at 
the  grave  a  pause  is  generally  made ;  on  both 
which  occasions  it  frequently  falls  out  that  one 
or  more  friends  present  have  somewhat  to  express 
for  the  edification  of  those  who  attend  ;  but  no  re- 
ligious rite  is  considered  as  an  essential  part  of 
burial. 

"  Several  monthly  meetings  compose  a  quarterly 
meeting.  At  the  quarterly  meeting  are  produced 
written  answers  from  the  monthly  meetings  to 
certain  queries  respecting  the  conduct  of  their 
members,  and  the  meeting's  care  over  them.  The 
accounts  thus  received  are  digested  into  one,  which 
is  sent,  also  in  the  form  of  answers  to  queries,  by 
representatives  to  the  yearly  meeting.  Appeals 
from  the  judgment  of  monthly  meetings  are 
brought  to  the  quarterly  meetings,  whose  business 
also  ft  is  to  assist  in  any  difficult  case,  or  where 
remissness  appears  in  the  care  of  the  monthly 
meetings  over  the  individuals  who  compose  them. 
There  are  seven  yearly  meetings,  viz. — 1.  Lon- 
don, to  which  come  representatives  from  Ireland ; 
2.  New  England  ;  3.  New  York ;  4.  Pennsylva- 
nia and  New  Jersey ;  5.  Maryland;  6.  Virginia; 
7.  The  Carolinas  and  Georgia. 

"  The  yearly  meeting  has  the  general  superin- 
tendence of  the  society  in  the  country  in  which 
it  is  established  jRmd,  therefore,  as  the  accounts 
which  it  receives  discover  the  state  of  inferior 
meetings,  as  particular  exigencies  require,  or  as 
the  meeting  is  impressed  with  a  sense  of  duty,  it 
gives  forth  its  advice,  making  such  regulations  as 
appear  to  be  requisite,  or  excites  to  the  observance 
of  those  already  made ;  and  sometimes  appoints 
committees  to  visit  those  quarterly  meetings  which 
appear  to  be  in  need  of  immediate  advice.  Ap- 
peals from  the  judgment  of  quarterly  meetings 
are  here  finally  determined  ;  and  a  brotherly  cor- 
respondence, by  epistles,  is  maintained  with  other 
yearly  meetings. 

"  In  this  place  it  is  proper  to  add,  that,  as  we 
believe  women  may  be  rightly  called  to  the  work 
of  the  ministry,  we  also  think  that  to  them  belongs 
a  share  in  the  support  of  our  Christian  discipline ; 
and  that  some  parts  of  it  wherein  their  own  sex 
is  concerned,  devolve  on  them  with  peculiar  pro- 
priety ;  accordingly  they  have  monthly,  quarterly, 
and  yearly  meetings  of  their  own  sex,  held  at  the 
same  time,  and  in  the  same  place  with  those  of 
the  men;  but  separately,  and  without  the  power 


QUAKERS 
of  making  rules  :  and  it  may  be  remarked,  that 
diirinir  the  persecutions  which  in  the  last  century 
occasioned  the  imprisonment  of  so  many  of  the 
men,  the  care  of  the  poor  often  fell  on  the  women, 
and  was  by  them  satisfactorily  administered. 

"  In  order  that  those  who  are  in  the  situation 
of  ministers  may  have  the  tender  sympathy  and 
counsel  of  those  of  either  sex.  who  by  their  ex- 
perience in  the  work  of  religion  are  qualified  for 
that  service,  the  monthly  meetings  are  advised  to 
select  such,  under  the  denomination  of  elders. — 
These  and  ministers  approved  by  their  monthly 
meetings,  have  meetings  peculiar  to  themselves, 
called  meetings  of  ministers  and  elders  ;  in  which 
they  have  an  opportunity  of  exciting  each  otter 
to  a  discharge  of  their  several  duties,  and  of  ex- 
tending advice  to  those  who  may  appear  to  be 
%veak,  without  any  needless  exposure.  Such 
meetings  are  generally  held  in  the  compass  of 
each  monthly,  quarterly,  and  yearly  meeting. — 
They  are  conducted  by  rules  prescribed  by  the 
yearly  meeting,  and  have  no  authority  to  make 
any  alteration  or  addition  to  them.  The  mem- 
bers of  them  unite  with  their  brethren  in  the 
meetings  for  discipline,  and  are  equally  account- 
able to  the  latter  for  their  conduct. 

"It  is  to  a  meeting  of  this  kind  in  London, 
called  the  second  day's  morning  meeting,  that  the 
revisal  of  manuscripts  concerning  our  principles, 
previously  to  publication,  is  intrusted  by  the  yearly 
meeting  held  in  London  ;  and  also  the  granting, 
in  the  intervals  of  the  yearly  meeting,  of  certifi- 
cates of  approbation  to  such  ministers  as  are  con- 
cerned to  travel  in  the  work  of  the  ministry  in  fo- 
reign parts,  in  addition  to  those  granted  by  their 
monthly  or  quarterly  meetings.  When  a  visit  of 
this  kind  doth  not  extend  beyond  Great  Britain, 
a  certificate  from  the  monthly  meeting  of  which 
the  minister  is  a  member,  is  sufficient;  if  to  Ire- 
land, the  concurrence  of  the  quarterly  meeting  is 
also  required.  Regulations  of  similar  tendency 
obtain  in  other  yearly  meetings. 

"  The  yearly  meeting  of  London,  in  the  year 
1675,  appointed  a  meeting  to  be  held  in  that  city, 
for  the  purpose  of  advising  and  assisting  incases 
of  suffering  for  conscience'  sake,  which  hath  con- 
tinued with  great  use  to  the  society  to  this  day. 
It  is  composed  of  friends,  under  the  name  of  cor- 
respondents, chosen  by  the  se^ral  quarterly  meet- 
ings, and  who  reside  in  or  near  the  society.  The 
same  meetings  also  appoint  members  of  their  own 
in  the  country  as  correspondents,  who  are  to  join 
their  brethren  in  London  on  emergency.  The 
names  of  all  these  correspondents,  previously  to 
their  being  recorded  as  such,  are  submitted  to  the 
approbation  of  the  yearly  meeting.  Those  of  the 
men  who  are  approved  ministers  are  also  mem- 
f  this  meeting,  which  is  called  the  meeting 
for  sufferings;  a  name  arising  from  its  original 
purpose,  which  is  not  yet  become  entirely  obso- 
lete. 

"  The  yearly  meeting  has  intrusted  the  meet- 
ing for  sufferings  with  the  care  of  printing  and 
distributing  books,  and  with  the  management  of 
its  stock  ;  and,  considered  as  a  standing  commit- 
tee of  the  yearly  meeting,  it  hath  a  general  care 
of  whatever  may  arise,  oaring  the  intervals  of 
that  meeting,  affecting  the  society,  and  requiring 
immediate  attention,  particularly  of  those  circum- 
stances which  may  occasion  an  application  to 
government. 

"  There  is  not,  in  any  of  the  meetings  which 
384 


QUIETISTS 
have  been  mentioned,  any  president,  as  we  be- 
lieve that  divine  wisdom  alone  ought  to  preside, 
nor  hath  any  member  a  right  to  claim  pre-emi« 
nence  over  the  rest.  The  office  of  clerk,  with  a 
few  exceptions,  is  undertaken  voluntarily  by 
some  member ;  as  is  also  the  keeping  of  the 
records.  When  these  are  very  voluminous,  and 
require  a  house  for  their  deposit,  (as  is  the  case 
in  London,  where  the  general  records  of  the 
society  in  Great  Britain  are  kept,)  a  clerk  is 
hired  to  have  the  care  of  them ;  but  except  a 
few  clerks  of  this  kind,  and  persons  who  have 
the  care  of  meeting-houses,  none  receive  any 
stipend  or  gratuity  for  their  services  in  our  reli- 
gious society."  See  a  pamphlet  entitled  A  Sum- 
mary of  the  History,  Doctrine,  and  Discipline 
of  the  Quakers ;  ScurclTs  and  Rutty's  Hist,  of 
the  Quakers;  Besse's  Sufferings  of 'the  Qua- 
kers; Pcnn's  Works;  Barclay's  Apology  for  the 
Quakers;  Ncale's  Hist,  of  the  Puritans  ;  Cla- 
ridge's  Life  and  Posthumous  Works;  Eeran's 
Defence  of  the  Doctrines  of the  Quakers  ;  Adam's 
View  of  Religions  ;  Tuke's  Principles  of  Reli- 
gion asprofessed  by  the  Quakers;  (Hough's  His- 
tory of  Quakers;  Clarkson's  Portraiture  of  Qua- 
kerism. 

QUAKERS  in  the  United  States. — 
George  Fox,  the  founder  of  this  sect,  was  brought 
before  two  justices  in  Derbyshire,  one  of  whom 
reviled  him  and  bade  him  tremble  at  the  word  of 
the  Lord.  From  this  circumstance  arose  the  ap- 
pellation Quakers,  usually  given  to  his  followers; 
they  call  themselves  Friends,  from  the  Scriptural 
salutation,  "  Our  friends  salute  thee."  In  1656, 
they  came  to  America,  and  settled  principally  in 
Pennsylvania.  They  arc  opposed  to  the  prac- 
tice of  ".aking  oaths,  and  to  war,  in  all  its  forms. 
They  r^ree  with  the.  Baptists  in  denying  the 
validity  of  infant  baptism.  They  extend  the  pri- 
vilege of  preaching  the  gospel  to  females  as  well 
as  to  males.  They  have  also  peculiar  notions  in 
regard  to  dress,  plainness  and  sroplicity  in  lan- 
guage, &c.     See  above. 

Within  a  few  years  past,  in  this  country,  there 
has  been  a  serious  schism  among  the  Quakers ; 
a  part  professing  the  doctrines  of  Unitarianism, 
and  called  Hicksites,  from  their  leader,  the  late 
Elias  Hicks ;  the  other  portion  adhering  to  the 
orthodox  doctrines.  It  having  been  made  a  ques- 
tion which  of  them  ought  to  be  considered  as  se- 
ceding from  the  doctrines  of  the  original  sect,  the 
yearly  meeting  of  the  Friends  in  London,  May 
20,  1820,  sent  forth  an  epistle  containing  a  state- 
ment of  their  belief;  from  which  it  appears  that 
they  fully  believe  in  the  inspiration  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, the  supreme  divinity  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  and  in  the  atonement  bv  his  sufferings 
and  death.  By  a  table  puri..siied  m  a  paper  at 
Wheeling,  Virginia,  in  1829,  it  appears  that  there 
are  in  the  United  States,  150,000  members  of 
this  Society;  of  whom  56,026  are  Hicksites; 
28,904  are  orthodox  ;  the  ethers  not  known. — B. 
QUIETJSTS,  a  sect  famous  towards  the 
close  of  the  seventeenth  century.  They  were 
so  called  from  a  kind  of  absolute  rest  and  inaction, 
which  they  supposed  the  soul  to  be  in  when 
arrived  at  that  state  of  perfection  which  they 
called  the  motive  life  ;  in  which  state  they  ima- 
gined the  soul  wholly  employed  in  contemplating 
its  God,  to  whose  influence  it  was  entirely  sul>- 
missive,  so  that  he  could  turn  and  drive  it  where 
and  how  he  would. 


REASON 

Molinos.  a  Spanish  priest,  is  the  reputed  au- 
thor of  Quietism;  though  the  Illuminati,  in 
Spain,  hail  certainly  taught  something  like  it 
before.  Molinos  hail  numerous  disciple*  in 
Italy,  Spain,  France,  and  the  Netherlands.  One 
of  the  principal  patrons  and  propagators  of  Qui- 
etism in  France  was  Marie  Bouveres  de  la  Motte 
Guvon,  a  woman  of  fashion,  and  remarkable  for 
her  piety.  Her  religious  sentiments  made  a 
great  noise  in  the  year  1687,  and  were  declared 
unsound  by  several  learned  men,  especially  Bos- 
suet,  who  opposed  them  in  the  year  1097.  Hence 
arose  a  controversy  between  the  prelate  last  men- 
tioned and  Fenelon,  archbishop  of  Cambray. 
who  seemed  disposed  to  favour  the  system  of 
Guvon,  and  who,  in  1097,  published  a  book  con- 
taining several  of  her  tenets.  Fenelon's  book, 
by  means  of  Bossuet,  was  condemned  in  the 
year  1099,  by  Innocent  XII.;  and  the  sentence 
of  condemnation  was  read  by  Fenelon  himself  at 
Cambray,  who  exhorted  the  people  to  respect 
and  obey  the  papal  decree.  Notwithstanding 
this  seeming  acquiescence,  the  archbishop  per- 
sisted to  the  end  of  his  days  in  the  senti- 
ments, which,  in  obedience  to  the  order  of  the 
pope,  he  retracted  and  condemned  in  a  public 
manner. 

A  sect  similar  to  this  appeared  at  Mount 
Athos,  in  Thessaly,  near  the  end  of  the  four- 
teenth century,  called  Hesychasts,  meaning  the 
same  with  Gluietists.  They  were  a  branch  of 
the  Mystics,  or  those  more  perfect  monks,  who 
by  long  and  intense  contemplation  endeavoured 
to  arrive  at  a  tranquillity  of  mind  free  from  every 
degree  of  tumult  and  perturbation. 

Q.UIETNESS,  in  a  moral  sense,  is  opposed 
to  disorderly  motion,  to  turbulency,  to  contention, 
to  pragmatical  curiosity,  to  all  such  exorbitant 
behaviour  whereby  the  right  of  others  is  in- 
fringed, their  peace,  disturbed,  their  just  interest 
or  welfare  any  ways  prejudiced.  It  is  a  calm, 
steady,  regular  way  of  proceeding   within   the 


REASON 
bounds  and  measures  prescribed  by  reason,  jus- 
tice, and  charity,  modesty  and  soLTiety.  It  is  of 
such  importance,  that  we  find  it  enjomeci  in  the 
sacred  Scripture ;  and  we  are  commanded  to 
study  and  pursue  it  with  the  greatest  diligence 
and  care,  1  Thess.  iv.  11.  The  great  Dr.  Bar- 
row has  two  admirable  sermons  on  this  subject  in 
the  first,  volume  of  his  Works.  He  justly  ob- 
serves,— 1.  That  quietness  is  just  and  equal. — 
2.  It  indicates  humility,  modesty,  and  sobriety  oi 
mind. — 3.  It  is  beneficial  to  the  world,  preserving 
the  general  order  of  things. — 4.  It  preserves  con- 
cord and  amity. — 5.  It  begets  tranquillity  and 
peace. — 6.  It  is  a  decent  and  lovely  thing,  indi- 
cating a  good  disposition,  and  producing  good 
effects. — 7.  It  adorncth  any  profession,  bringing 
credit  and  respect  thereto. — 8.  It.  is  a  safe  prac- 
tice, keeping  us  from  needless  encumbrances  and 
hazards;  whereas,  pragmaticalness,  interfering 
with  the  business  and  concern  of  others,  often 
raises  dissensions,  involves  in  guilt,  injures 
others,  shows  our  vanity  and  pride,  and  exposes 
to  continual  trouble  and  danger. 

Q.UINQ.UAGESIMA,  a  Sunday  so  called 
because  it  is  the  fiftieth  day  before  Easter,  reckon- 
ed in  whole  numbers.     Shrove  Sunday. 

Q.UINTILIANS,  a  sect  that  appeared  in 
Phrygia,  about  189 ;  thus  called  from  their  pro- 
phetess GLuintilia.  In  this  sect  the  women  were 
admitted  to  perform  the  sacerdotal  and  episcopal 
functions.  They  attributed  extraordinary  gifts 
to  Eve  for  having  first  eaten  of  the  tree  of  know- 
ledge ;  told  great  things  of  Mary,  the  sister  of 
Moses,  as  having  been  a  prophetess,  &c.  They 
added  that  Philip  the  deacon  had  four  daugh- 
ters, who  were  all  prophetesses,  and  were  of  their 
sect.  In  these  ■assemblies  it  was  usual  to  see 
the  virgins  entering  in  white  robes,  personating 
prophetesses.  The  errors  of  the  Cluintilians  were 
at  first  looked  upon  as  folly  and  madness  ;  but,  as 
they  appeared  to  gain  ground,  the  council  of 
Laodicea,  in  320,  condemned  it. 


R. 


RANTERS,  a  denomination  which  arose  in 
the  year  1615.  They  set  up  the  light  of  nature 
under  the  name  of  Christ  in  men.  With  regard 
to  the  church,  Scripture  ministry,  &c,  their 
sentiments  were  the  same  as  the  seekers.  See 
Seekers. 

RASHNESS  consists  in  undertaking  an  ac- 
tion, or  pronouncing  an  opinion,  without  a  due 
examination  of  the  grounds,  motives,  or  argu- 
ments, that  oucht  first  to  be  weighed. 

RASH  JUDGING.     See  Judging,  Rash. 

READING  (Public)  OF  THE  SCRIP- 
TURES.    See  Scriptures. 

REALISTS,  a  term  made  use  of  to  denote 
those  Trinitarians  who  are  the  most  orthodox,  in 
opposition  to  the  Socinian  and  Sabellian  schemes. 
It  was  also  the  name  of  a  sect  of  school  philoso- 
phers, formed  in  opposition  to  the  Nominalists. 
The  former  believed  that  universals  are  realities, 
and  have  an  actual  existence  out  of  the  mind ; 
while  the  latter  contended  that  they  exist  only  in 
the  mind,  and  are  only  ideas. 

REASON,  a  faculty  or  power  of  the  mind, 
whereby  it  draws  just  conclusions  from  true  and 
cltsar  principles.  Many  attempts  have  been  made 
383  2   Y 


to  prove  reason  inimical  to  revelation ;  hut  nothing 
can  be  more  evident  than  that  it  is  of  considerable 
use  in  knowing,  distinguishing,  proving,  and  de- 
fending the  mysteries  of  revelation  ;  although  it 
must  not  be  considered  as  a  perfect  standard  by 
which  all  the  mysteries  of  religion  must  be  mea- 
sured before  they  are  received  by  faith.  "  In 
things,"  says  Dr.  Watts.  "  which  are  plainly  and 
expressly  asserted  in  Scripture,  and  that  in  a 
sense  which  contradicts  not  other  parte  of  Scrip- 
ture, or  natural  light,  our  reason  must  submit 
and  believe  the  thing,  though  it  cannot  find  the 
modus  or  manner  of  its  being  :  so  in  the  doctrines 
of  the  Trinity  and  Incarnation,  which  are  above 
the  reach  of  our  reason  in  this  present  state.  But 
we  cannot,  nor  must  we,  be  led  to  take  the  words 
of  Scripture  in  such  a  sense  as  expressly  and-evi- 
dently  contradicts  all  sense  and  reason,  as  tran- 
substantiation ;  for  the  two  great  lights  of  God, 
reason  anil  revelation,  never  contradict  each 
other,  though  one  be  superior  to  the  other. 

"  Therefore  reason  has  a  great  deal  to  do  in 
religion,  viz.  to  find  out  the  rule  (of  faith,)  to  com- 
pare the  parts  of  this  rule  with  one  another,  W 
explain  the  cue  by  the  other,  to  give  the  gram- 
54  H 


RECONCILIATION 
matical  and  logical  sense  of  the  expressions)  and 
to  exclude  self-contradictory  interpretations,  as 
wi  II  as  interpretations  contrary  to  reason.  But 
it  is  not  to  set  itself  up  as  a  judge  ofthi  se  (ruths 
expressed  therein,  which  are  asserted  by  a  supe- 
rior and  infallible  dictator,  God  himself;  but 
reason  requires  and  commands  even  the  subjec- 
tion of  all  its  own  powers  to  a  truth  thus  divinely 
attested;  fur  it  is  as  possible  and  as  proper  that 
God  should  propose  doctrines  to  our  understand- 
ing which  it  cannot  comprehend,  as  duties  to 
our  practice  which  we  cannot  see  the  reason  of; 
for  he  is  equally  superior  to  our  understanding 
and  will,  and  he  puts  the  obedience  of  both  to  a 
trial."  Sec  Religion  and  Revelation,  and 
books  there  recommended ;  also,  Portens's  Ser- 
mons, ser.  :'),  vol.  i.;  Jcnyrts  Internal  Evidence, 
p.  122;  Ryland's  Contemplations,  vol.  i.  p.  83; 
Theological  Miscellany,  vol.  ii.  p.  533;  An  Es- 
say on  I'ic  Use  and  Abuse  of, Reason  in  Mat- 
ters of  Religion,  by  Wilsius,  and  translated  by 
Carter;  Dr.  Jl'atts's  Strength  and  Weakness 
of  Human  Reason. 

RECLUSE,  among  the  Papists,  a  person  shut 
up  in  a  small  cell  of  an  hermitage,  or  monastery, 
and  cut  off  not  only  from  all  conversation  with 
the  world,  but  even  with  the  house.  This  is  a 
kind  of  voluntary  imprisonment  from  a  motive 
either  of  devotion  or  penance. 

RECONCILIATION,  the  restoring  to  fa- 
vour or  friendship  those  who  were  at  variance. 
It  is  more  particularly  used  in  reference  to  the 
doctrine  of  the  atonement.  Thus  God  is  said  to 
reconcile  us  to  himself  by  Jesus  Christ,  2  Cor.  v. 
18.  Our  state  by  nature  is  that  of  enmity,  dis- 
satisfaction, and  disobedience.  But  by  the  suf- 
ferings and  merit  of  Christ,  we  are  reconciled  and 
brought  near  to  God.  The  blessings  of  recon- 
ciliation are  pardon,  peace,  friendship,  confidence, 
holiness,  and  eternal  life.  The  judicious  Guyse 
gives  us  an  admirable  note  on  this  doctrine, 
which  I  shall  here  transcribe.  "  When  the  Scrip- 
ture speaks  of  reconciliation  by  Christ,  or  by  his 
cross,  blood,  or  death,  it  is  commonly  expressed 
by  God's  reconciling  us  to  himself,  and  not  by 
his  being  reconciled  unto  us;  the  reason  of 
which  seems  to  be,  because  God  is  the  offended 
party,  and  we  are  the  offenders,  who,  as  such, 
have  need  to  be  reconciled  to  him;  and  the  price 
of  reconciliation,  by  the  blood  of  Christ,  is  paid  to 
him,  and  not  to  us.  Grotius  observes,  that,  in 
heat  lien  authors,  men's  being  reconciled  to  their 
gods  is  always  understood  to  signify  appeasing 
the  anger  of  their  gods.  Condemned  rebels  may 
be  said  to  be  reconciled  to  their  sovereign,  when 
he,  on  one  consideration  or  another,  pardons 
them ;  though,  perhaps,  they  still  remain  rebels 
in  their  hearts  against  him.  And  when  our  Lord 
ordered  the  offending  to  go  and  be  reconciled  to 
his  offended  brother,  Matt.  v.  23,  24,  the  plain 
meaning  is,  that  he  should  go  and  try  to  appease 
his  anger,  obtain  his  forgiveness,  and  regain  his 
favour  and  friendship,  by  humbling  himself  to 
him,  asking  his  pardon,  or  satisfying  him  for  any 
injury  that  he  might  have  done  him.  In  like 
manner,  God's  reconciling  us  to  himself  by  the 
cross  of  Christ  does  not  signify,  as  the  Socinians 
contend,  our  being  reconciled  by  conversion  to  a 
religious  turn  in  our  hearts  to  God,  but  is  a  re- 
conciliation that  results  from  God's  graciously 
providing  and  accepting  an  atonement  for  us, 
that  Iv.  might  not  inflict  the  punishment  ui>on 
3dij 


REDEMPTION 

us  which  we  deserved,  and  the  law  condemned 
us  to:  but  might  be  at  peace  with  us,  and  re- 
ceive us  into  favour  on  Christ's  account.  For 
this  reconciliation,  by  the  cross  of  Christ,  is  in  a 
way  of  atonement  or  satisfaction  to  divine  justice 
for  sin;  and  with  respect  hereunto,  we  are  said 
to  lie  reconciled  to  God  by  the  death  of  his  Son 
while  we  arc  enemies,  which  is  of  much  the 
same  import  with  Christ's  dying  for  the  ungodly, 
and  while  we  were  yet  sinners,  Rom.  v.  (5,  8,  10. 
And  our  being  reconciled  to  God,  by  approving  and 
accepting  of  his  method  of  reconciliation  by  Jesus 
Christ,  and,  on  that  encouragement,  turning  to 
him,  is  distinguished  from  his  reconciling  us  to 
himself  and  not  imputing  our  trespasses  to  i's, 
on  account  of  Christ's  having  been  made  sin 
for  us,  that  we  might  be  made  the  righteousness 
of  God  in  him,  2  Cor.  v.  IS,  21.  This  is  called 
Christ's  making  reconciliation  for  iniquity,  and 
making  reconciliation  for  the  sins  of  the  people, 
Dan.  ix.  24;  Heb.  ii.  17,  and  answers  to  the 
ceremonial  and  typical  reconciliation  which  was 
made  by  the  blood  of  the  sacrifices  under  the  law, 
to  make  atonement  and  reconciliation  for  Israel, 
2  Chron.  xxix.  21 ;  Ezek.  xlv.  15,  17,  and  which 
was  frequently  styled  making  atonement  for  sin. 
and  an  atonement  for  their  souls.  Now,' as  all 
the  legal  sacrifices  of  atonement,  and  the  truly 
expiatory  sacrifice  oi"  Christ,  were  offered  not  tc 
the  offenders,  but  to  God,  to  reconcile  him  tc 
them,  what  can  reconciliation  by  the  death,  blood, 
or  cross  of  Christ  mean,  but  that  the  law  and 
justice  of  God  were  thereby  satisfied,  and  all  ob- 
structions, on  his  part,  to  peace  and  friendship 
toward  sinners  are  removed,  that  he  might  not 
pursue  his  righteous  demands  upon  them,  ac- 
cording to  the  holy  resentments  of  his  nature  and 
will,  and  the  threatenings  of  his  law  for  their 
sins ;  but  might  mercifully  forgive  them,  and 
take  them  into  a  state  of  favour  with  himself,  upon 
their  receiving  the  atonement,  or  (xarxxxayvv) 
reconciliation,  (Rom.  v.  11.)  by  faith,  after  the 
offence  that  sin  had  given  him,  and  the  breach  it 
had  made  upon  theoriginal  friendship  between  him 
and  them?'  See  articles  Atonement,  Media- 
tor, and  Propitiation;  Grot,  de  Saluff.  cap. 
7;  Dr.  Owen's  Ansxccr  to  Biddle's  Catechism; 
Guyse' s  Note  on  Coloss.i.~'2Q;  Charnock's  Works, 
vol.  ii.  p.  241 ;  John  Reynolds  on  Reconciliation. 

RECTITUDE,  or  Uprightness,  is  the  choos- 
ing and  pursuing  those  things  which  the  mind, 
upon  due  inquiry  and  attention,  clearly  perceives 
to  he  good,  and  avoiding  those  that  are  evil. 

RECTOR,  a  term  applied  to  several  persons 
whose  offices  are  very  different,  as,  1.  The  rec- 
tor of  a  parish  is  a  clergyman  that  has  the  charge 
and  care  of  a  parish,  and  possesses  all  the  tithes, 
&C. — 2.  The  same  name  is  also  given  to  the 
chief  elective  officer  in  several  foreign  universi- 
ties, and  also  to  the  head  master  of  large  schools. 
3.  Rector  is  also  used  in  several  convents  for  the 
superior  officer  who  governs  the  house.  The 
Jesuits  gave  this  name  to  the  superiors  of  such 
of  their  houses  as  were  cither  seminaries  or  col- 
leges. 

RECUSANTS,  such  persons  as  acknow- 
ledge the  pope  to  be  the  supreme  head  of  the 
church,  and  refuse  to  acknowledge  the  king's  su- 
premacy; who  are  hence  called  popish  recusants. 

REDEMPTION,  in  theology,  denotes  our 
recovery  from  sin  and  death  by  the  obedience  and 
sacrifice  of  Christ,  who,  on  this  account  is  called 


REFORMATION 
The  Redeemer,  Ts.  lix.  20;  Job  xix.  25.  Our 
English  word  redemption,  says  Dr.  Gill,  is  from 
the  Latin  tongue,  and  signifies  buying  again; 
and  several  words,  in  the  Greek  language  of  the 
New  Testament,  are  used  in  the  affair  of  our  re- 
demption, which  signify  the  obtaining  of  some- 
thing hy  paying  a  proper  price  for  it :  sometimes 
the  simple  verb  *yipx'Cu>,  to  buy,  is  used :  so  the 
redeemed  are  said  to  be  bought  unto  God  by  the 
blood  of  Christ,  and  to  be  bought  from  the  earth, 
and  to  be  bought  from  among  men,  and  to  be 
bought  with  a  price;  that  is,  with  the  price  of 
Christ's  blood,  1  Cor.  vi.  20.  Hence  the  church 
of  God  is  said  to  be  purchased  with  it,  Acts  xx.  28. 
Sometimes  the  compound  word  £:*> -op*?*  is  used; 
which  signifies  to  buy  again,  or  out  of  the  hands 
9f  another,  as  the  redeemed  are  bought  out  of  the 
hands  of  justice,  as  in  Gal.  iii.  13;  and  iv.  5.  In 
other  places,  /.ut^*  is  used,  or  others  derived  from 
it,  which  signifies  the  deliverance  of  a  slave  or 
captive  from  thraldom,  by  paying  a  ransom  price 
for  him :  so  the  saints  are  said  to  be  redeemed, 
not  with  silver  or  gold,  the  usual  price  paid  for  a 
ransom,  but  with  a  far  greater  one,  the  blood  and 
life  of  Christ,  which  he  came  into  this  world  to 
give  as  a  ransom  price  for  many,  and  even  him- 
self, which  is  avnKuTfov,  an  answerable,  ade- 
quate, and  full  price  for  them,  1  Pet.  i.  18.  The 
ei-ils  from  which  we  are  redeemed  or  delivered 
are  the  curse  of  the  law,  sin,  Satan,  the  world, 
death,  and  hell.  The  moving  cause  of  redemp- 
tion is  the  love  of  God,  John  iii.  16.  The  pro- 
curing cause,  Jesus  Christ,  1  Pet.  i.  18,  If). 
The  ends  of  redemption  are,  that  the  justice  of 
God  might  be  satisfied;  his  people  reconciled, 
adopted,  sanctified,  and  brought  to  glory.  The 
properties  of  it  are  these :  1.  It  is  agreeable  to  all 
the  perfections  of  God.— '2.  What  a  creature 
never  could  obtain,  and  therefore  entirely  of  free 
grace. — 3.  It  is  special  and  particular.— 4.  Full 
and  complete. — And,  5.  lastly,  It  is  eternal  as  to 
its  blessings.  See  articles  Atonement,  Propi- 
tiation", Reconciliation,  Satisfaction;  and 
Edwards's  History  of  Redemption ;  Cole  on  the 
Sovereignty  of  God;  Lime  Street  Led.  lect.  5; 
Waits' s  Ruin  and  Recovery;  Dr.  Owen  on  the 
Death  and  Satisfaction  of  Christ;  Gill's  Body 
of  Divinity. 

REFORMATION,  in  general,  an  act  of  re- 
forming or  correcting  an  error  or  abuse  in  reli- 
gion, discipline,  or  the  like.  By  way  of  eminence, 
the  word  is  used  for  that  great  alteration  and  re- 
formation in  the  corrupted  system  of  Christianity, 
begun  by  Luther  in  the  year  1517. 

Before  the  period  of  the  Reformation,  the  pope 
had  in  the  most  audacious  manner  declared  him- 
self the  sovereign  of  the  whole  world.  All  the 
parts  of  it  which  were  inhabited  by  those  who 
were  not  Christians,  he  accounted  to  be  inhabited 
by  nobody;  and  if  Christians  took  it  into  their 
heads  to  possess  any  of  those  countries,  he  gave 
!  i  'i.i  full  liberty  to  make;  war  upon  the  inhabit- 
ants without  any  provocation,  and  to  treat  them 
with  no  mere  humanity  than  they  would  have 
treated  wild  beasts.  The  countries,  if  conquered, 
were  to  be  parcelled  out  according  to  the  pope's 
pleasure;  and  dreadful  was  the  situation  of  that 
prince  who  refused  to  obey  the  will  of  the  holy 
pontiff.  In  consequence  of  this  extraordinary 
authority  which  the  pope  had  assumed,  he  at  lust 
granted  to  the  king  of  Portugal,  all  the  countries 
to  the  eastward  if  Cape  Noa  in  Africa,  and  to 
'361 


REFORMATION 
the  king  of  Spain  all  the  countries  to  the  west 
ward  of  it.  In  this  was  completed  in  his  person 
the  character  of  Antichrist  sitting  in  the  temple 
of  God,  and  skovnng  himself  as  God.  He  had 
long  before  assumed  the  supremacy  belonging  to 
the  Deity  himself  in  spiritual  matters ;  and  now 
he  assumed  the  same  supremacy  in  worldly  mat- 
ters also,  giving  the  extreme  regions  of  the  earth 
to  whom  he  pleased. 

Every  thing  was  quiet,  every  heretic  extermi- 
nated, and  the  whole  Christian  world  supinely 
acquiesced  in  the  enormous  absurdities  which 
were  inculcated  upon  them ;  when,  in  1517,  the 
empire  of  superstition  began  to  decline,  and  has 
continued  to  do  so  ever  since.  The  person  who 
made  the  first  attack  on  the  extravagant  super- 
stitions then  prevailing  was  Martin  Luther,  the 
occasion  of  which  is  fully  related  under  the  arti- 
cle Lutherans. 

The  Reformation  began  in  the  city  of  Wittem- 
berg,  in  Saxony,  but  was  not  long  confined  either 
to  that  city  or  province.  In  1520,  the  Franciscan 
friars,  who  had  the  care  of  promulgating  indul- 
gences in  Switzerland,  were  opposed  by  Zuing- 
lius,  a  man  not  inferior  in  understanding  and 
knowledge  to  Luther  himself.  He  proceeded 
with  the  greatest  vigour,  even  at  the  very  begin- 
ning, to  overturn  the  whole  fabric  of  popery; 
but  his  opinions  were  declared  erroneous  by  the 
universities  of  Cologne  and  Louvain.  Notwith- 
standing this,  the  magistrates  of  Zurich  approved 
of  his  proceedings;  and  that  whole  canton,  to- 
gether with  those  of  Bern,  Basil  and  Chaffau- 
sen,  embraced  his  opinions. 

In  Germany,  Luther  continued  to  make  great 
advances,  without  being  in  the  least  intimidated 
by  the  ecclesiastical  censures  which  were  thun- 
dered against  him  from  all  quarters,  he  being 
continually  protected  by  the  German  princes, 
either  from  religious  or  political  motives,  so  that 
his  adversaries  could  not  accomplish  his  destruc- 
tion, as  they  had  done  that  of  others.  Mclanc- 
thon,  Carlostadius,  and  other  men  of  eminence, 
also  greatly  forwarded  the  work  of  Luther;  and 
in  all  probability  the  popish  hierarchy  would  have 
soon  come  to  an  end,  in  the  northern  parts  of 
Europe  at  least,  had  not  the  emperor  Charles  V. 
given  a  severe  check  to  the  progress  of  reforma- 
tion in  Germany. 

During  the  confinement  of  Luther  in  a  castle 
near  Warburg,  the  Reformation  advanced  rapid- 
ly ;  almost  every  city  in  Saxony  embracing  the 
Lutheran  opinions.  At  this  time  an  alteration 
in  the  established  forms  of  worship  was  first  ven- 
tured upon  at  Wittemberg,  by  abolishing  the 
celebration  of  private  masses,  and  by  giving  the 
cup,  as  well  as  the  bread,  to  the  laity  in  the  Lord's 
Supper.  In  a  short  time,  however,  the  new  opi- 
nions were  condemned  by  the  university  of  Paris, 
and  a  refutation  of  them  was  attempted  by  Henry 
VIII.  of  England.  But  Luther  was  not  to  be 
thus  intimidated.  He  published  his  animad- 
versions on  both  with  as  much  acrimony  as  if  he 
had  been  refuting  the  meanest  adversary;  and  a 
controversy  managed  by  such  illustrious  antago- 
nists drew  a  general  attention,  and  the  reformers 
daily  gained  new  converts  both  in  France  and 
England. 

1  'ut  while  the  efforts  of  Luther  were  thus  every 
where  crowned  with  success,  the  divisions  began 
to  prevail  which  have  since  so  inneh  agitated  the- 
reformed  churches.    The  liwt  dispute  was  \ny 


REFORMATION 
tween  Luther  and  Zuioglhis  concerning  the  man- 
ner in  winch  the  bodv  and  blood  of  I  Jurist  wore 
present  in  the  euchanst.  Both  parties  maintain- 
ed their  tenets  with  the  utmost  obstinacy;  and, 
by  their  divisions,  first  gave  their  adversaries  an 
argument  against  them,  which  to  this  day  the 
Catholics  urge  with  great  force;  namely,  that  the 
Protestants  arc  so  divided,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
know  who  arc  ri_rht  or  wrong  ;  and  that  there  can- 
not be  a  stronger  proof  than  these  divisions  that 
the  whole  doctrine  is  false.  To  these  intestine 
divisions  were  added  the  horrors  of  a  civil  war, 
occasioned  by  oppression  on  the  one  hand,  and 
enthusiasm  on  the  other.    See  Anabaptists. 

These  proceedings)  however,  were  checked. — 
Luther  and  Melancthon  were  ordered  by  the  elec- 
tor of  Saxony  to  draw  up  a  body  of  laws  relating 
to  the  form  of  ecclesiastical  government,  the  me- 
thod of  public  worship,  &c.  which  was  to  be  pro- 
claimed by  heralds  throughout  his  dominions. — 
He,  with  Melancthon,  had  translated  part  of  the 
New  Testament  in  1532 ;  on  the  reading  of  which 
the  people  were  astonished  to  find  how  different 
the  laws  of  Christ  were  to  those  which  had  been 
imposed  by  the  pope,  and  to  which  they  had  been 
subject.  The  princes  arid  the  people  saw  that 
Luther's  opinions  were  founded  on  truth.  They 
openly  renounced  the  papal  supremacy,  and  the 
happy  morn  of  the  Reformation  was  welcomed 
by  those  who  had  long  sat  in  superstitious  dark- 
ness. 

This  open  resolution  so  exasperated  the  patrons 
of  popery,  that  they  intended  to  make  war  on  the 
Lutherans,  who  prepared  for  defence.  In  1536, 
a  diet  was  assembled  at  Spire,  when  the  empe- 
ror's ambassadors  were  desired  to  use  their  utmost 
endeavours  to  suppress  all  disputes  about  religion, 
and  to  insist  upon  the  rigorous  execution  of  the 
sentence  which  had  been  pronounced  against 
Luther  at  Worms.  Rut  this  opinion  was  oppos- 
ed, and  the  diet  proved  favourable  to  the  Reforma- 
tion. But  this  tranquillity,  which  they  in  conse- 
quence enjoyed,  did  not  last  long.  In  1529,  a  new 
diet  was  formed,  and  the  power  which  had  been 
granted  to  princes  of  managing  ecclesiastical  af- 
fairs till  the  meeting  of  a  general  council,  was  now 
revoked,  and  every  change  declared  unlawful  that 
should  bo  introduced  into  the  doctrine,  discipline, 
or  worship  of  the  established  religion,  before  the 
determination  of  the  approaching  council  was 
known.  This  decree  was  considered  as  iniqui- 
tous and  intolerable  by  several  members  of  the 
diet;  and  when  they  found  that  all  their  argu- 
ments and  remonstrances  were  in  vain,  they  en- 
tered a  solemn  protest  against  the  decree  on  the 
lftth  of  April,  and  appealed  to  the  emperor  and 
a  future  council.  Hence  arose  the  denomination 
of  Protestant.*,  which  from  that  time  has  been 
given  to  those  who  separate  from  the  church  of 
Rome. 

Charles  V.  was  in  Italy,  to  whom  the  dissent- 
ing princes  sent  ambassadors  to  lay  their  griev- 
ances before  him;  but  they  met.  with  no  encou- 
raging reception  from  him.  The  pope  and  the 
emperor  were  in  close  union  at  this  time,  and  they 
had  interviews  upon  the  business.  The  pope 
thought  the  emperor  to  be  Uh>  element,  and  al- 
leged that  it  was  his  duty  to  execute  vengeance 
upon  the    heretical    faction.     To   this,   however, 

the  emperor  paid  no  regard,  looking  upon  it  as 
unjust  to  condemn,  unheard,  a  set  of  men  who 
had  always  approved  themselves  good  citizens. 
388 


REFORMATION 

The  emperor,  therefore,  set  out  for  Germany 
having  already  appointed  a  diet  of  the  empire  to 
be  held  at  Augsburg,  where  he  arrived  and  fount! 
there  a  full  assembly  of  the  members  of  the  diet. 
Flere  the  gentle  and  pacific  Melancthon  had  been 
ordered  to  draw  up  a  confession  of  their  faith, 
which  he  did,  and  expressed  his  sentiments  and 
doctrine  with  the  greatest  elegance  and  perspi- 
cuity ;  and  thus  came  forth  to  view  the  famous 
Confession  of  Augsburg. 

This  was  attempted  to  be  refuted  by  the  divines 
of  the  church  of  Rome,  and  a  controversy  took 
place,  which  the  emperor  endeavoured  to  recon- 
cile, but  without  success:  all  hopes  of  bringing 
about  a  coalition  seemed  utterly  desperate.  The 
votaries  of  the  church  of  Rome,  therefore,  had 
recourse  to  the  powerful  arguments  of  imperial 
edicts  and  the  force  of  the  secular  arm  ;  and,  on 
the  l'Jth  of  November,  a  decree  was  issued  by  the 
emperor's  orders  every  way  injurious  to  the  re- 
formers. Upon  which  they  assembled  at  Smal- 
cald,  where  they  concluded  a  league  of  mutual 
defence  against  all  aggressors,  by  which  they 
formed  the  Protestant  states  into  one  body,  and 
resolved  to  apply  to  the  kings  of  France  and  Eng- 
land, to  implore  them  to  patronize  their  new  con- 
federacy. The  king  of  France,  being  the  avowed 
rival  of  the  emperor,  determined  secretly  to  cherish 
those  sparks  of  political  discord;  and  the  king  of 
England,  highly  incensed  against  Charles,  in  com 
plaisance  to  whom  the  pope  had  long  retarded, 
and  now  openly  opposed,  his  lon^-solicited  di- 
vorce, was  equally  disposed  to  strengthen  a  league 
which  might  be  rendered  formidable  to  the  empe- 
ror. Being,  however,  so  taken  up  with  the  scheme 
of  divorce,  and  of  abolishing  the  papal  jurisdic- 
tion in  England,  he  had  but  little  leisure  to  attend 
to  them.  Meanwhile  Charles  was  convinced 
that  it  was  not  a  time  to  extirpate  heresy  by  vio- 
lence ;  and  at  last  terms  of  pacification  were 
agreed  upon  at  Nuremberg,  and  ratified  solemnly 
in  the  diet  at  Ratisbon  ;  and  affairs  so  ordered  by 
Divine  Providence,  that  the  Protestants  obtained 
terms  which  amounted  almost  to  a  toleration  of 
their  religion. 

Soon  after  the  conclusion  of  the  peace  at  Nu- 
remberg, died  John,  elector  of  Saxony,  who  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  John  Frederic,  a  prince  of 
invincible  fortitude  and  magnanimity,  but  whoso 
reign  was  little  better  than  one  continued  train 
of  disappointment!;  and  calamities.  The  religious 
truce,  however,  gave  new  vigour  to 'he  Reforms 
tion.  Those  who  had  hitherto  been  only  secret 
enemies  to  the  Roman  pontiff  now  publicly  threw 
off  his  yoke  ;  and  various  cities  and  provinces  of 
Germany  enlisted  themselves  under  the  religious 
standards  of  Luther.  On  the  other  hand,  as  the 
emperor  had  now  no  other  hope  of  terminating 
the  religions  disputes  but  by  the  meeting  of  a  ge- 
neral council,  he  repeated  his  requests  to  the  pope 
for  that  purpose.  The  pontiff  (Clement  Vll.), 
whom  the  history  of  past  councils  filled  with  the 
greatest  uneasiness,  endeavoured  to  retard  what 
lie  could  not  with  decency  refuse.  At  last,  i:i 
1533,  he  made  a  proposal,  by  his  legate,  toasscm 
hie  a  council  at  Mantua,  Placentia,  or  Bologna; 
but  the  Protestants  refused  their  consent  to  the 
nomination  of  an  Italian  council,  and  insisted  tha" 
a  controversy  which  bad  its  rise  in  the  heart  of 
Germany  should  be  determined  within  the  limits 
of  the  empire.  The  pope,  by  his  usual  artifices, 
eluded  the  performance  of  his  own  promise  ;  and, 


REFORMATION, 
in  1534,  was  cut  off  by  death,  in  the  midst  of  his 
stratagem.  His  successor  Paul  III.  seemed  to 
show  less  reluctance  to  the  assembling  a  general 
council,  and,  in  the  year  1535,  expressed  his  in- 
clination to  convoke  one  at  Mantua;  and,  in  the 
3rear  following,  actually  sent  circular  letters  for 
that  purpose  through  all  the  states  and  kingdoms 
under  his  jurisdiction.  This  council  was  sum- 
moned by  a  bull  issued  out  on  the  second  of  June, 
1536,  to  meet  at  Mantua  the  following  year ;  but 
several  obstacles  prevented  its  meeting;  one  of 
the  most  material  of  which  was,  that  Frederick, 
duke  of  Mantua,  had  no  inclination  to  receive  at 
once  so  many  guests,  some  of  them  very  turbu- 
lent, into  the  place  of  his  residence.  On  the  other 
hand, theProteslants  were  firmly  persuaded, that, 
as  the  council  was  assembled  in  Italy,  and  by  the 
authority  of  the  pope  alone,  the  latter  must  have 
had  an  undue  influence  in  that  assembly  ;  of  con- 
sequence, that  all  things  must  have  been  carried 
by  the  votaries  of  Rome.  For  this  reason  they 
assembled  at  Smalcald  in  the  year  1537,  where 
they  solemnly  protested  against  this  partial  and 
corrupt  council ;  and,  at  the  same  time,  had  a  new 
summary  of  their  doctrine  drawn  up  by  Luther, 
in  order  to  present  it  to  the  assembled  bishops,  if 
it  should  be  required  of  them.  This  summary, 
Which  had  the  title  of  The  Articles  of  Smalcald ', 
is  commonly  joined  with  the  creeds  and  confes- 
sions of  the  Lutheran  church. 

After  the  meeting  of  the  general  council  in 
Mantua  was  thus  prevented,  many  schemes  of 
accommodation  were  proposed  both  by  the  em- 
peror and  the  Protestants ;  but,  by  the  artifices 
of  the  church  of  Rome,  all  of  them  came  to 
nothing.  In  1541,  the  emperor  appointed  a  meet- 
ing at  Worms  on  the  subject  of  religion,  between 
persons  of  piety  and  learning,  chosen  from  the 
contending  parties.  This  conference,  however, 
was,  for  certain  reasons,  removed  to  the  diet  that 
was  to  be  held  at  Ratisl.on  the  same  year,  and  in 
which  the  principal  subject  of  deliberation  was  a 
memorial  presented  by  a  person  unknown,  con- 
taining a  project  of  peace.  But  the  conference 
produced  no  other  effect  than  a  mutual  agree- 
ment of  the  contending  parties  to  refer  their  mat- 
ters to  a  general  council,  or,  if  the  meeting  of 
such  a  council  should  be  prevented,  to  the  next 
German  diet. 

The  resolution  was  rendered  ineffectual  by  a 
variety  of  incidents,  which  widened  the  breach, 
and  put  off  to  a  farther  day  the  deliberations 
which  were  designed  to  heal  it.  The  pope  order- 
ed his  legate  te  declare  to  the  diet  of  Spire,  as- 
sembled in  1543,  that  he  would,  according  to  the 
promise  he  had  already  made,  assemble  a  general 
council,  and  that  Trent  should  be  the  place  of 
its  meeting,  if  the  diet  had  no  objection  to  that 
city.  Ferdinand,  and  the  princes  who  adhered 
to  the  cause  of  the  pope,  gave  their  consent  to 
this  proposal;  but  it  was  vehemently  objected  to 
by  the  Protestants,  both  because  the  council  was 
summoned  by  the  authority  of  the  pope  only,  and 
also  because  the  place  was  within  the  jurisdiction 
of  the  pope;  whereas  they  desired  a  free  coun- 
cil, which  should  not  be  biassed  by  the  dictates 
nor  awed  by  the  proximity  of  the  pontiff.  Bui 
this  protestation  produced  no  effect.  Paul  111. 
persisted  in  his  purpose,  and  issued  out  his  circu- 
lar letters  for  the  convocation  of  the  council,  with 
the  approbation  of  the  emperor.  In  justice  to 
this  pontiff,  however,  it  must  be  observed,  that 
2&J 


REFORMATION. 

he  showed  himself  not  to  be  averse  to  every  re- 
formation. He  appointed  four  cardinals,"  and 
three  other  persons  eminent  lor  their  learning,  to 
draw  up  a  plan  for  the  reformation  of  the  church 
in  general,  and  of  the  church  of  Rome  in  par- 
ticular. The  reformation  proposed  in  this  plan 
was,  indeed,  extremely  superficial  and  partial ; 
yet  it  contained  some  particulars  which  could 
scarcely  have  been  expected  from  those  who 
composed  it. 

All  this  time  the  emperor  had  been  labouring 
to  persuade  the  Protestants  to  consent  to  the 
meeting  of  the  council  at  Trent ;  but,  when  he 
found  them  fixed  in  their  opposition  to  this 
measure,  he  began  to  listen  to  the  sanguinary 
measures  of  the  pope,  and  resolyed  to  terminate 
the  dispute  by  force  of  arms.  The  elector  of 
Saxony,  and  landgrave  of  Hesse,  who  were  the 
chief  supporters  of  the  Protestant  cause,  upon 
this  took  proper  measures  to  prevent  their  being 
surprised  and  overwhelmed  by  a  superior  force  ; 
but,  before  the  horrors  of  war  commenced,  the 
great  reformer  Luther  died  in  peace  at  Ayselben, 
the  place,  of  his  nativity,  in  1546. 

The  emperor  and  the  pope  had  mutually  re- 
solved en  the  destruction  of  all  who  should  dare 
to  oppose  the  council  of  Trent.  The  meeting 
of  it  was  to  serve  as  a  signal  for  taking  up  arms ; 
and  accordingly  its  deliberations  were  scarcely 
begun,  in  1546,  when  the  Protestants  perceived 
undoubted  signs  of  the  approaching  storm,  and 
a  formidable  union  betwixt  the  emperor  and  pope, 
which  threatened  to  crush  and  overwhelm  them  at 
once.  This  year,  indeed,  there  had  been  a  new 
conference  at  Ratisbon  upon  the  old  subject  of 
accommodating  differences  in  religion  ;  but,  from 
the  manner  in  which  the  debates  were  carried 
on,  it  plainly  appeared  that  these  differences 
could  only  be  decided  in  the  field  of  battle.  The 
council  of  Trent,  in  the  mean  time,  promulgated 
their  decrees;  while  the  reformed  princes,  in  tho 
diet  of  Ratisbon,  protested  against  their  autho- 
rity, and  were  on  that  account  proscribed  by  the 
emperor,  who  raised  an  army  to  reduce  them  to 
obedience. 

The  elector  of  Saxony,  and  the  landgrave  of 
Hesse  led  their  forces  into  Bavaria  against  the 
emperor,  and  cannonaded  his  camp  at.  Ingold- 
stadt.  It  was  supposed  that  this  would  bring  on 
an  engagement,  which  would  probably  have  been 
advantageous  to  the  cause  of  the  reformed;  but 
this  was  prevented  chiefly  by  (he  perfidy  of  Mau- 
rice, duke  of  Saxony,  who  invaded  the  domi- 
nions of  his  uncle.  Divisions  were  also  fomented 
among  the  confederate  princes  by  the  dissimula- 
tion of  the  emperor ;  and  France  failed  in  lay- 
ing the  subsidy  which  had  been  promised  by  its 
monarch  :  all  which  so  discouraged  the  heads  of 
the  Protestant  party,  that  their  army  soon  dis- 
persed, and  the  elector  of  Saxony  was  obliged 
to  direct  his  march  homewards.  But  he  was 
pursued  by  the  emperor,  who  made  several  forced 
marches  with  a  view  to  destroy  his  enemy  before 
hi;  should  have  time  to  recover  his  vigour.  The 
two  armies  nut  near  Muhlberg,  on  the  Elbe,  on 
the  24th  of  April,  1517;  and  after  a  bloody  ac- 
tion, the  elector  was  entirely  defeated,  and  him- 
self taken  prisoner.  Maurice,  who  had  so  basely 
betrayed  him,  was  now  declared  elector  of  Saxo- 
ny ;  and,  by  his  entreaties,  Philip,  landgrave  of 
Hesse,  the  other  chief  of  the  Protestants,  was 
persuaded  to  throw  himself  on  the  mercy  of  tlie 
2  n  2 


REFORMATION 

emperor,  and  to  implore  his  pardon.  To  this  he 
consented,  relying  on  the  promise  of  Charles 
for  obtaining  forgiveness,  and  being  restored  to 
liberty;  but,  notwithstanding  these  expectations, 
he  was  unjustly  detained  prisoner,  by  a  scandal- 
ous violation  of  the.  most  solemn  convention. 

The  affairs  of  the  Protestants  now  seemed  to 
be  desperate.  In  the  diet  of  Augsburg,  which 
was  soon  after  called,  the  emperor  required  the 
Protestants  to  leave  the  decision  of  these  religious 
disputes  to  the  wisdom  of  the  council  which  was 
to  meet  at  Trent.  The  greatest  part  of  the  mem- 
bers consented  to  this  proposal,  being  convinced 
by  the  powerful  argument  of  an  imperial  army, 
which  was  at  hand  to  dispel  the  darkness  from 
the  eyes  of  such  at  might  otherwise  have  been 
blind  to  the  force  of  Charles's  reasoning.  How- 
ever, this  general  submission  did  not  produce  the 
effect  which  was  expected  from  it.  A  plague 
which  broke  out,  or  was  said  to  do  so,  in  the  city, 
caused  the  greatest  part  of  the  bishops  to  retire 
to  Bologna,  by  which  means  the  council  was  in 
effect  dissolved  ;  nor  could  all  the  entreaties  and 
remonstrances  of  the  emperor  prevail  upon  the 
pope  to  re-assemble  It  without  delay.  During 
this  interval,  therefore,  the  emperor  judged  it 
necessary  to  fall  upon  some  method  of  accommo- 
dating the  religious  differences,  and  maintaining 
peace  until  the  council  so  long  expected  should 
he  finally  obtained."  With  this  view  he  ordered 
Julius  Pelugius,  bishop  of  Naumberg,  Michael 
Sidonius,  a  creature  of  the  pope,  and  John  Agri- 
cola,  a  native  of  Ayselben,  to  draw  up  a  formu- 
lary which  might  serve  as  a  rule  of  faith  and 
worship  till  the  council  should  be  assembled ;  but 
as  this  was  only  a  temporary  expedient,  and 
had  not  the  force  of  a  permanent  or  perpetual  in- 
stitution, it  thence  obtained  the  name  of  the 
Interim. 

This  project  of  Charles  was  formed  partly  with 
a  design  to  vent  his  resentment  against  the  pope, 
and  [tartly  to  answer  other  political  purposes.  It 
contained  all  the  essential  doctrines  of  the  church 
of  Rome,  though  considerably  softened  by  the 
artful  terms  which  were  employed,  and  which 
were  quite  different  from  those  employed  before 
and  after  this  period  by  the  council  of  Trent. 
There  was  even  an  affected  ambiguity  in  many 
of  the  expressions,  which  made  them  susceptible 
of  different  senses,  and  applicable  to  the  senti- 
ments of  both  communions.  The  consequence 
ot  all  this  was,  that  the  imperial  creed  was  repro- 
bated by  both  parties.  [See  Interim.]  In  the 
year  1542,  the  pope  (Paul  III.)  died;  and  was 
ded  by  Julius  III.,  who,  at  the  repeated  soli- 
citations of  the  emperor,  consented  to  the  re-as- 
sembiing  of  a  council  of  Trent.  A  diet  was 
B  Id  .it  Augsburg,  under  the  cannon  of  an 
J  army,  and  Charles  laud  the  matter  before 
the  princes  of  the  empire.  Most  of  those  present 
gave  their  consent  to  it,  and,  amongst  the  rest, 
Maurice, elector  of  Saxony;  who  consented  on 
tlie  following  conditions:  1.  That  the  points  of 
doctrine  which  had  already  been  decided  there 
should  be  re-ex, i mined.— 2".  That  this  examina- 
tion should  be  made  in  the  presence  of  the  Pro- 
testant divines.— ::.  That  the  Saxon  Protestants 
should  have  a  liberty  of  voting  as  well  as  of  deli- 
berating in  the  council. — 1.  That  the  pope  should 
not  pretend  to  preside  in  the  assembly,  either  in 

KTs.ei  or  by  his  legates.     This  declaration  of 
_  laurice  was  read  in  the  diet,  and  his  deputies 
3!)0 


REFORMATION 
insisted  upon  its  being  entered  into  iBe  registers, 
which  the  archbishop  of  Mentz  obstinately  re- 
fused. The  diet  was  concluded  in  1551 :  and, 
at  its  breaking  up,  the  emperor  desired  the  assem- 
bled princes  and  states  to  prepare  all  things  for 
the  approaching  council,  and  promised  to  use  his 
utmost  endeavours  to  procure  moderation  and  har- 
mony, impartiality  and  charity,  in  the  transac- 
tions of  that  assembly. 

On  the  breaking  up  of  the  diet,  the  Protestants 
took  such  steps  as  they  thought  most  proper  for 
their  own  safety.  The  Saxons  employee!  Me- 
lancthon,  and  the  Wirtembergers,  Brengius,  to 
draw  up  confessions  of  faith  to  be  laid  before  the 
new  council.  The  Saxon  divines,  however,  pro- 
ceeded no  fartherthan  Nuremberg,  having  received 
secret  orders  from  Maurice  to  stop  there;  for  the 
elector  perceiving  that  Charles  had  formed  designs 
against  the  liberties  of  the  German  princes,  resolv- 
ed t^>  take  the  most  effectual  measures  for  crushing 
his  ambition  at  once.  Hethercforeentered  w7ith  the 
utmost  secrecy  and  expedition  into  an  alliance 
with  the  king  of  France  and  several  of  the  Ger- 
man princes,  for  the  security  of  the  rights  and 
liberties  of  the  empire ;  after  which,  assembling 
a  powerful  army  in  155*2,  he  marched  against  the 
emperor,  who  lay  with  a  handful  of  troops  at 
Inspruek,  and  expected  no  such  thing.  By  this 
sudden  and  unforeseen  accident,  Charles  was  so 
much  dispirited,  that  he  was  willing  to  make 
peace  almost  on  any  terms.  The  consequence  of 
this  was,  that  he  concluded  a  treaty  at  Passau, 
which  by  the  Protestants  is  considered  as  the 
basis  of  their  religious  liberty.  By  the  first  three 
articles  of  this  treaty  it  was  agreed  that  Maurice 
and  the  confederates  should  lay  down  their  arms, 
and  lend  their  troops  to  Ferdinand  to  assist  him 
against  the  Turks;  and  that  the  landgrave  of 
Hesse  should  be  set  at  liberty.  By  the  fourth  it 
was  agreed  that  the  rule  of  faith  called  the  Inte- 
rim should  be  considered  as  null  and  void ;  that 
the  contending  parties  should  eryoy  the  free  and 
undisturbed  exercise  of  their  religion  until  a  diet 
should  be  assembled  to  determine  arnica  lily  the 
present,  disputes  (which  diet  was  to  meet  in  the 
space  of  six  months;)  and  that  this  religious 
liberty  should  continue  always,  in  case  it  should 
be  found  impossible  to  come  to  an  uniformity  in 
doctrine  and  worship.  It  was  also  determined, 
that  all  those  who  had  suffered  banishment  or  any 
oiher  calamity,  on  account  of  their  having  been 
concerned  in  the  league  or  war  of  Smalcald, 
should  be  reinstated  in  their  privileges,  posses- 
sions, and  employments;  that  the  imperial  cham- 
ber at  Spire  should  be  open  to  the  Protestants  as 
well  as  to  the  Catholics;  anil  that  there  should 
always  be  a  certain  number  of  Lutherans  in  that 
high  court.  To  this  peac*>,  Albert,  marquis  of 
Brandenburgh,  refused  to  subscribe;  and  con- 
tinued the  war  against  the  Roman  Catholics, 
committing  such  ravages  in  the  empire,  that,  a 
confederacy  was  at  last  formed  against  him.  At 
the  head  of  this  confederacy  was  .Maurice,  elector 
of  Saxony,  who  died  of  a  wound  he  received  in  a 
battle  fought  on  the  occasion  in  1553. 

The  assembly  of  the.  diet  promised  by  Charles 
was  prevented  by  various  accidents ;  however,  it 
met  at  Augsburg,  in  1555,  where  it  was  opened 
by  Ferdinand  in  the  name  of  the  emperor,  an. I 
terminated  those  deplorable  calamities  which  had 
so  long  desolated  the  empire.  After  varii  | 
bates,  the  following  acts  were  passed,  on  the  ..     li 


REFORMATION 

of  September : — That  the  Protestants  who  fol- 
lowed the  confession  of  Augsburg  should  be  for 
the  future  considered  as  entirely  free  from  the 
jurisdiction  of  the  Roman  pontiff,  and  from  the 
authority  and  superintendence  of  the  bishops; 
that  they  were  left  at  perfect  liberty  to  enact  laws 
for  themselves  relating  to  their  religious  senti- 
ments, discipline,  and  worship ;  that  all  the  in- 
habitants of  the  German  empire  should  be  allowed 
to  judge  for  themselves  in  religious  matters,  and 
to  join  themselves  to  that  church  whose  doctrine 
and  worship  they  thought  the  most  pure  and  con- 
sonant to  the  spirit  of  true  Christianity ;  and 
that  all  those  who  should  injure  or  prosecute  any 
person  under  religious  pretences,  and  on  account 
of  their  opinions,  should  be  declared  and  pro- 
ceeded against  as  public  enemies  of  the  empire, 
invaders  of  its  liberty,  and  disturbers  of  its  peace. 
Thus  was  the  Reformation  established  in  many 
parts  of  the  German  empire,  where  it  continues 
to  this  day  :  nor  have  the  efforts  of  the  popish 
powrers  at  any  time  been  able  to  suppress  it,  or 
even  to  prevent  its  gaining  ground.  It  was  not, 
however,  in  Germany  alone  that  a  reformation 
of  religion  took  place.  Almost  all  the  kingdoms 
of  Europe  began  to  open  their  eyes  to  the  truth 
about  the  same  time.  The  reformed  religion  was 
propagated  in  Swedet.,  soon  after  Luther's  rup- 
*,ure  with  the  church  of  Rome,  by  one  of  his  dis- 
ciples, named  Olaus  Patri.  The  zealous  efforts 
of  this  missionary  were  seconded  by  Gustavus 
Vasa,  whom  the  Swedes  had  raised  to  the  throne 
in  the  place  of  Christiern,  king  of  Denmark, 
whose  horrid  barbarity  lost  him  the  crown.  This 
prince,  howeVer,  was  as  prudent  as  he  was  zeal- 
ous; and,  as  the  minds  of  the  Swedes  were  in  a 
fluctuating  state,  he  wisely  avoided  all  kind  of 
vehemence  and  precipitation  in  spreading  the  new 
doctrine.  Accordingly  the  first  object  of  his  at- 
tention was  the  instruction  of  his  people  in  the 
sacred  doctrines  of  the  holy  Scriptures  ;  for  which 
purpose  he  invited  into  his  dominions  several 
learned  Germans,  and  spread  abroad  through  the 
kingdom  the  Swedish  translation  of  the  Bible 
that  had  been  made  by  Olaus  Patri.  Some  time 
after  this,  in  152G,  he  appointed  a  conference  at 
Upsal,  between  the  reformer  and  Peter  Gallius,  a 
zealous  defender  of  the  ancient  superstition,  in 
which  each  of  the  champions  was  to  bring  forth 
his  arguments,  that  it  might  be  seen  on  which 
side  the  truth  lay.  In  this  dispute  Olaus  obtained 
a  signal  victory,  which  contributed  much  to  con- 
firm Gustavus  in  his  persuasion  of  the  truth  of 
Luther's  doctrine,  and  to  promote  its  progress  in 
Sweden.  The  following  year  another  event  gave 
the  finishing  stroke  to  its  propagation  and  suc- 
cess. This  was  the  assembly  of  the  states  at 
Westeraas,  where  Gustavus  recommended  the 
doctrine  of  the  reformers  with  such  zeal,  that, 
after  warm  debates,  fomented  by  the  clergy  in 
general,  it  was  unanimously  resolved  that  the 
reformation  introduced  by  Luther  should  have 
place  in  Sweden.  This  resolution  was  princi- 
pally owing  to  the  firmness  and  magnanimity  of 
Gustavus,  who  declared  publicly,  that  he  would 
lay  down  the  sceptre,  and  retire  from  the  king- 
dom, rather  than  rule  a  people  enslaved  by  the 
orders  and  authority  of  the  pop0)  an<'  more  con- 
trolled by  the  tyranny  of  their  bishop  than  by 
the  laws  of  their  monarch.  From  this  time  the 
papal  empire  in  Sweden  was  entirely  overthrown, 
and  Gustavus  declared  head  of  the  church. 
3J1 


REFORMATION 

In  Denmark,  the  reformation  was  introduced 
as  early  as  the  year  15*21,  in  consequence  of  the 
ardent  desire  discovered  by  Christiern  II.  of  hav- 
ing his  subjects  instructed  in  the  doctrines  of  Lu- 
ther. This  monarch,  notwithstanding  his  cruelty, 
for  which  his  name  has  been  rendered  odious,  was 
nevertheless  desirous  of  delivering  his  dominions 
from  the  tyranny  of  the  church  of  Rome.  For 
this  purpose,  in  the  year  1520,  he  sent  for  Martin 
Reinard,  one  of  the  disciples  of  Carlostadt,  out 
of  Saxony,  and  appointed  him  professor  of  divi- 
nity at  Hasnia;  and  after  his  death,  which  hap- 
pened in  1521,  he  invited  Carlostadt  himself  to 
fill  that  important  place.  Carlostadt  accepted  of 
this  office,  indeed,  but  in  a  short  time  returned  to 
Germany;  upon  which  Christiern  used  his  ut- 
most endeavours  to  engage  Luther  to  visit  his  do- 
minions, but  in  vain.  However,  the  progress  of 
Christiern  in  reforming  the  religion  of  his  sub- 
jects, or  rather  of  advancing  his  own  power  above 
that  of  the  church,  was  checked,  in  the  year  1523, 
by  a  conspiracy,  by  which  he  was  deposed  and 
banished  ;  his  uncle  Frederick,  duke  of  Holstein 
and  Sleswic,  being  appointed  his  successor. 

Frederic  conducted  the  reformation  with  much 
greater  prudence  than  his  predecessor.  He  per- 
mitted the  Protestant  doctors  to  preach  publicly 
the  sentiments  of  Luther,  but  did  not  venture  to 
change  the  established  government  and  discipline 
of  the  church.  However,  he  contributed  greatly 
to  the  progress  of  the  reformation  by  his  success- 
ful attempts  in  favour  of  religious  liberty  in  an 
assembly  of  the  states  held  at  Odensee  in  1527. 
Here  he  procured  the  publication  of  a  famous 
edict,  by  which  every  subject  of  Denmark  was 
declared  free  either  to  adhere  to  the  tenets  of  the 
church  of  Rome,  or  to  the  doctrine  of  Luther. 
The  papal  tyranny  was  totally  destroyed  by  his 
successor  Christiern  III.  He  began  by  suppress- 
ing the  despotic  authority  of  the  bishops,  and  re- 
storing to  their  lawful  owners  a  great  part  of  the 
wealth  and  possessions  which  the  church, had  ac- 
quired by  various  stratagems.  This  was  followed 
by  a  plan  of  religious  doctrine,  worship,  and  dis- 
cipline, laid  down  by  Bugenhagius,  whom  the 
king  had"  sent  for  from  Wittemburg  for  that  pur- 
pose; and  in  1539  an  assembly  of  the  states  at 
Odensf  e  gave  a  solemn  sanction  to  all  these  trans- 
actions. 

In  France,  also,  the  reformation  began  to  make 
some  progress  very  early.  Margaret,  queen  of 
Navarre,  sister  to  Francis  I.,  the  perpetual  rival 
of  Charles  V.,  was  a  great  friend  to  the  new  doc- 
trine ;  and  it  appears  that,  as  early  as  the  year 
1523,  there  were  in  several  of  the  provinces  of 
France  great  numbers  of  people  who  had  con- 
ceived the  greatest  aversion  both  to  the  doctrine 
and  tyranny  of  the  church  of  Rome ;  among 
whom  were  many  of  the  first  rank  and  dignity, 
and  even  some  of  the  episcopal  order.  But  as 
their  number  increased  daily,  and  troubles  and 
commotions  were  excited  in  several  places  on  ac- 
count of  the  religious  differences,  the  authority  of 
the  king  intervened,  and  many  persons  eminent 
for  their  virtue  and  piety  were  put  to  death  in  the 
most  barbarous  manner.  Indeed,  Francis,  who 
had  either  no  religion  at  all,  or,  at  best,  no  fixed 
and  consistent  system  of  religious  principles,  con-  t» 
ducted  himself  towards  the  Protestants  in  such  a 
manner  as  best  answered  his  private  views. — 
Sometimes  he  resolved  to  invite  Melancthon  into 
France,  probably  with  a  view  to  please  his  sister, 


REFORMATION 
the  queen  of  Navarre,  whom  he  loved  tenderly, 
and  who  had  strongly  imbibed  the  Protestant 
principles.  At  other  times  lie  exercised  the  most 
infernal  cruelty  towards  the  reformed  ;  and  once 
made  the  following  mad  declaration :  That,  if  he 
thought  the  blood  of  his  arm  was  tainted  by  the 
Lutheran  heresy,  he  would  have  it  cut  off;  and 
that  he  would  not  even  spare  his  own  children,  if 
they  entertained  sentiments  contrary  to  those  of 
the  Catholic  church. 

About  this  time  the  famous  Calvin  began  to 
draw  the  attention  of  the  public,  but  more  espe- 
cially of  the  queen  of  Navarre.  His  zeal  exposed 
him  oj  danger  ;  and  the  friends  of  the  reforma- 
tion, whom  Francis  was  daily  committing  to  the 
flames,  placed  him  more  than  once  in  the  most 
perilous  situation,  from  which  he  was  delivered 
by  the  interposition  of  the  queen  of  Navarre. — 
He  therefore  retired  out  of  France  to  Basil  in 
Switzerland,  where  he  published  his  Christian 
Institutions,  and  became  afterwards  so  famous. 

Those  among  the  French  who  first  renounced 
the  jurisdiction  of  the  Homish  church  are  com- 
monly called  Lutherans  by  the  writers  of  those 
early  times  ;  hence  it  has  been  supposed  that  they 
had  all  imbibed  the  peculiar  sentiments  of  Luther. 
But  this  appears  by  no  means  to  have  been  the 
case;  for  the  vicinity  of  the  cities  of  Geneva, 
Lausanne,  &c,  which  had  adopted  the  doctrines 
of  Calvin,  produced  a  remarkable  effect  upon  the 
French  Protestant  churches;  insomuch  that, 
about  the  middle  of  this  century,  they  all  entered 
into  communion  with  the  church  of  Geneva. — 
The  French  Protestants  were  called  Huguenots 
[see  Huguknots]  by  their  adversaries,  by  way  of 
contempt.  Their  fate  was  very  severe,  being  per- 
secuted with  unparalleled  fury  ;  and  though  many 
princes  of  the  blood,  and  of  the  first  nobility,  had 
embraced  their  sentiments,  vet  in  no  part  of  the 
world  did  the  reformers  suffer  so  much.  At  last, 
all  commotions  were  quelled  by  the  fortitude  and 
magnanimity  of  Henry  IV.,  who,  in  the  year 
1598,  granted  all  his  subjects  full  liberty  of  con- 
science by  the  famous  edict  of  Nantes,  and  seem- 
ed to  have  thoroughly  established  the  reformation 
throughout  his  dominions.  During  the  minority 
of  Louis  XIV.,  however,  this  edict  was  revoked 
by  cardinal  Mazarine,  since  which  time  the  Pro- 
testants have  often  been  cruelly  persecuted  ;  nor 
was  the  profession  of  the  reformed  religion  in 
France  at  any  time  so  safe  as  in  most  other  coun- 
tries of  Europe. 

In  the  other  parts  of  Europe  the  opposition  to 
the  church  of  Rome  was  but  faint  and  ambi- 
guous before  the  diet  of  Augsburg.  Before  that 
period,  however,  it  appears,  from  undoubted 
testimony,  that  the  doctrine  of  Luther  had  made 
a  considerable,  though  probably  secret,  progress 
through  Spain,  Hungary,  Bohemia,  Britain,  Po- 
land, and  the  Netherlands;  and  had  in  all  these 
countries  many  friends,  of  whom  several  repaired 
to  Wittemburg,  in  order  to  enlarge  their  know- 
ledge by  means  of  Luther's  conversation.  Some 
of  these  countries  threw  off  the  Romish  Yoke 
entirely,  and  in  others  a  prodigious  number  of 
fimilies  embraced  the  principles  of  the  reformed 
religion.  It  is  certain,  indeed,  and  the  Roman 
Catholics  themselves  acknowledge  it  without 
hesitation,  that  the  papal  doctrines  and  authority 
would  have  fallen  into  ruin  in  all  parts  of  the 
world  at  once,  had  not  the  force  of  the  secular 
arm  been  employed  to  support  the  tottering  edi- 


REFORMATION 
ficc.  In  the  Netherlands,  particularly,  the  most 
grievous  persecutions  took  place,  so  "that  by  the 
emperor  Charles  V.  upwards  of  100,000  were 
destroyed,  while  still  greater  cruelties  verc  ex- 
ercised upon  the  people  by  his  son  Philip  II. — 
The  revolt  of  the  United  Provinces,  however, 
and  motives  of  real  policy,  at  last  put  a  stop  to 
these  furious  proceedings;  and  though,  in  many 
provinces  of  the  Netherlands,  the  establishment 
of  the  Popish  religion  was  still  continued,  the 
Protestants  have  been  long  free  from  the  danger 
of  persecution  on  account  of  their  principles. 

The  reformation  made  a  considerable  progress 
in  Spain  and  Italy  soon  after  the  rupture  between 
Luther  and  the  Roman  pontiff.  In  all  the  pro- 
vinces of  Italy,  but  more  especially  in  the  territo- 
ries of  Venice,  Tuscany,  and  Naples,  the  super- 
stition of  Rome  lost  ground,  and  great  numbers 
of  people  of  all  ranks  expressed  an  aversion  to 
the  papal  yoke.  This  occasioned  violent  and 
dangerous  commotions  in  the  kingdom  of  Naples 
in  the  year  151G ;  which,  however,-  were  at  last 
quelled  by  the  united  efforts  of  Charles  V.  and 
his  viceroy  Don  Pedro  di  Toledo.  In  several 
places  the  pope  put  a  stop  to  the  progress  of  the 
reformation  by  letting  loose  the  inquisitors,  who 
spread  dreadful  marks  of  their  barbarity  through 
the  greatest  part  of  Italy.  These  formidable 
ministers  of  superstition  put  so  many  to  death, 
and  perpetrated  such  horrid  acts  of  cruelty  and 
oppression,  that  most  of  the  reformed  consulted 
their  safety  by  a  voluntary  exile,  while  others 
returned  to  the  religion  of  Rome,  at  least  in  ex- 
ternal appearance.  But  the  inquisition,  which 
frightened  into  the  profession  of  popery  several 
Protestants  in  other  parts  of  Italy,  could  never 
make  its  way  into  the  kingdom  of  Naples ;  nor 
could  either  the  authority  or  entreaties  of  the 
pope  engage  the  Neapolitans  to  admit  even  visit- 
ing inquisitors. 

In  Spain,  several  people  embraced  the  Protes- 
tant religion,  not  only  from  the  controversies  of 
Luther,  but  even  from  those  divines  whom 
Charles  V.  had  brought  with  him  into  Germany 
in  order  to  refute  the  doctrines  of  Luther ;  for 
these  doctors  imbibed  the  pretended  heresy,  in- 
stead of  refuting  it,  and  propagated  it  more  or 
less  on  their  return  home.  But  the  inquisition, 
which  could  obtain  no  footing  in  Naples,  reigned 
triumphant  in  Spain;  and  by  the  most  dreadful 
methods  frightened  the  people  back  into  popery, 
and  suppressed  the  desire  of  exchanging  their 
superstition  for  a  more  national  plan  of  religion. 
It  was,  indeed,  presumed,  that  Charles  himself 
died  a  Protestant;  and  it  seems  to  be  certain 
that,  when  the  approach  of  death  had  dissi- 
pated those  schemes  of  ambition  and  grandeur 
which  had  so  long  blinded  him,  his  sentiments 
became  much  more  rational  and  agreeable 
to  Christianity  than  they  had  ever  been.  All 
the  ecclesiastics  who  had  attended  him,  as  scon 
as  he  expired,  were  sent  to  the  inquisition,  and 
committed  to  the  (lames,  or  put  to  death  by  some 
other  method  equally  terrible.  Such  was  the  fate 
of  Augustine  Casal,  the  emperor's  preacher;  of 
Constantine  Pontius,  his  confessor;  of  Fgidius, 
who  mhe  had  named  to  the  bishopric  of  Tortosaj 
oi  Bartholomew  do  Caranza,  a  Dominican,  who 
had  been  confessor  to  king  Philip  and  quetn 
Mary  ;   with  twenty  others  of  less  note. 

In  England,  the  principles  of  the  reformation 
began  to  be  adopted  as  soon  as  an  account  of 


REFORMATION 
Luther's  doctrines  could  be  conveyed  thither.  In 
that  kingdom  there  were  still  great  remains  of 
llie  sect  called  Lollards,  whose  doctrines  resem- 
bled that  of  Luther ;  and  among  whom,  of  con- 
sequence, the  sentiments  of  our  reformer  gained 
great  credit.  Henry  VIII.,  king  of  England,  at 
that  time  was  a  violent  partisan  of  the  church 
of  Rome,  and  had  a  particular  veneration  for  the 
writings  of  Thomas  Aquinas.  Being  informed 
that  Luther  spoke  of  his  favourite  author  with 
contempt,  he  conceived  a  violent  prejudice  against 
the  reformer,  and  even  wrote  against  him,  as  we 
nave  already  observed.  Luther  did  not  hesitate 
at  writing  against  his  Majesty,  overcame  him  in 
argument,  and  treated  him  with  very  little  cere- 
mony. The  first  step  towards  public  reforma- 
tion, however,  was  not  taken  till  the  year  1529. 
Great  complaints  had  been  made  in  England, 
and  of  a  very  ancient  date,  of  the  usurpations  of 
the  clergy;  and,  by  the  prevalence  of  the  Luthe- 
ran opinions,  these  complaints  were  now  become 
more  general  than  before.  The  House  of  Com- 
mons, finding  the  occasion  favourable,  passed 
several  bills,  restraining  the  impositions  of  the 
clergy :  but  what  threatened  the  ecclesiastical 
order  with  the  greatest  danger,  were  the  severe 
reproaches  thrown  out  almost  without  opposition 
in  the  House  against  the  dissolute  lives,  ambition. 
and  avarice  of  the  priests,  and  their  continual  en- 
croachments on  the  privileges  of  the  laity.  The 
bills  for  regulating  the  clergy  met  with  opposi- 
tion in  the  House  of  Lords;  and  bishop  Fisher 
imputed  them  to  want  of  faith  in  the  Commons, 
and  to  a  formed  design,  proceeding  from  here- 
tical and  Lutheran  principles,  of  robbing  the 
church  of  her  patrimony,  and  overturning  the 
national  religion.  The  Commons,  however,  com- 
plained to  the  king  by  their  speaker  Sir  Thomas 
Audley,  of  these  reflections  thrown  out  against 
them ;  and  the  bishop  was  obliged  to.  retract  his 
words. 

Though  Henry  had  not  the  least  idea  of  re- 
jecting any,  even  of  the  most  absurd  Romish 
superstitions,  yet,  as  the  oppressions  of  the 
clergy  suited  very  ill  with  the  violence  of  his  own 
temper,  he  was  pleased  with  every  opportunity 
of  lessening  their  power.  In  the  parliament  of 
1531  lie  showed  his  design  of  humbling  the 
clergy  in  the  most  effectual  manner.  An  obso- 
lete statute  was  revived,  from  which  it  was  pre- 
tended that  it  was  criminal  to  submit  to  the 
legatine  power  which  had  been  exercised  by  car- 
dinal Wolsey.  By  this  stroke  the  whole  body 
of  clergy  was  declared  guilty  at  once.  They 
were  too  well  acquainted  with  Henry's  disposi- 
tion, however,  to  reply,  that  their  ruin  would 
have  been  the  certain  consequence  of  their  not 
submitting  to  Wolsey's  commission,  which  had 
been  given  by  royal  authority.  Instead  of 
making  any  defence  of  this  kind,  they  chose  to 
throw  themselves  on  the  mercy  of  their  sovereign; 
which,  however,  it  cost  them  118,810/.  to  pro- 
cure. A  confession  was  likewise  extorted  from 
them,  that  the  king  was  protector  and  supreme 
head  of  the  church  of  England  ;  though  some  of 
them  had  the  dexterity  to  get  a  clause  inserted 
which  invalidated  the  whole  submission,  viz.,  in 
no  far  as  permitted  by  the  law  of  Christ. 

The  king,  having  thus  begun  to  reduce  the 

power  of  the  clergy,  kept  no  bounds  with  them 

afterwards.     He  did   not,   indeed,   attempt  any 

reformation  in  religious  mutters;  nay,  he  perse- 

3D3  1i  Z 


REFORMATION 
cuted  most  violently  such  as  did  attempt  this  in 
the  least.  Indeed,  the  most  essential  article  of 
his  creed  seems  to  have  been  his  own  supremacy ; 
for  whoever  denied  this  was  sure  to  suffer  the 
most  severe  penalties,  whether  Protestant  or 
Papist. 

He  died  in  1547,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  only 
son  Edward  VI.  This  amiable  prince,  whose 
early  youth  was  crowned  with  that  wisdom,  sa- 
gacity, and  virtue  that  would  have  done  honour 
to  advanced  years,  gave  new  spirit  and  vigour  to 
the  Protestant  ce.use,  and  was  its  brightest  orna- 
ment, as  well  as  its  most  effectual  support.  He 
encouraged  learned  and  pious  men  of  foreign 
countries  to  settle  in  England,  and  addressed  a 
particular  invitation  to  Martin  Bucer,  and  Paul 
Fagius,  whose  moderation  added  a  lustre  to  their 
other  virtues,  that  by  the  ministry  and  labours  of 
these  eminent  men  in  concert  with  those  of  the 
friends  of  the  reformation  in  England,  he  might 
purge  his  dominions  from  the  sordid  fictions  of 
popery,  and  establish  the  pure  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity in  their  place.  For  this  puipose  he  issued 
out  the  wisest  orders  for  the  restoration  of  true 
religion ;  but  his  reign  was  too  short  to  accom- 
plish fully  such  a  glorious  purpose.  In  the  year 
1553  he  was  taken  from  his  loving  and  afflicted 
subjects,  whose  sorrow  was  inexpressible,  and 
suited  to  their  loss.  His  sister  Mary,  (the  daugh- 
ter of  Catherine  of  Arragon,  from  whom  Henry 
had  been  separated  by  the  famous  divorce,)  a 
furious  bigot  to  the  church  of  Rome,  and  a  prin- 
cess whose  natural  character,  like  the  spirit,  of 
her  religion,  was  despotic  and  cruel,  succeeded 
him  on  the  British  throne,  and  imposed  anew  the 
arbitrary  laws  and  the  tyrannical  yoke  of  Rome 
upon  the  people  of  England.  Nor  were  the  me- 
thods which  she  employed  in  the  cause  of  super- 
stition better  than  the  cause  itself,  or  tempered  by 
any  sentiments  of  equity  or  compassion.  Bar- 
barous tortures,  and  death  in  the  most  shocking 
forms,  awaited  those  who  opposed  her  will,  or 
made  the  least  stand  against  the  restoration  of 
popery ;  and,  among  many  other  victims,  the 
learned  and  pious  Cranmer,  archbishop  of  Can- 
terbury, who  had  been  one  of  the  most  illustrious 
instruments  of  the  reformation  in  England,  fell  a 
sacrifice  to  her  fury.  This  odious  scene  of  per- 
secution was  happily  concluded  in  the  year  1558, 
by  the  death  of  the  queen,  who  left  no  issue  ;  and 
as  soon  as  her  successor  the  lady  Elizabeth  as- 
cended the  throne,  all  things  assumed  a  new 
and  pleasing  aspect.  This  illustrious  princess, 
whose  sentiments,  counsels,  and  projects,  breathed 
a  spirit  superior  to  the  natural  softness  and  deli- 
cacy of  her  sex,  exerted  this  vigorous  and  manly 
spirit  in  the  defence  of  oppressed  conscience  and 
expiring  liberty,  broke  anew  the  despotic  yoke  of 
papal  authority  and  superstition;  and,  delivering 
her  people  from  the  bondage  of  Rome,  established 
that  form  of  religious  doctrine  and  ecclesiastical 
government  which  still  subsists  in  England. 
This  religious  establishment  differs  in  some  re- 
spects from  the  plan  that  had  been  formed  by 
those  whom  Edward  VI.  had  employed  for  pro- 
moting the  cause  of  the  Reformation,  and  ap- 
proaches nearer  to  the  rites  and  discipline  of 
former  times;  though  it  is  widely  different,  and 
in  the  most  important  points  entirely  opposite  to 
the  principles  of  the  Roman  hierarchy. 

The  cause  of  the  Reformation  underwent  in 
Ireland   the  same  vicissitudes   and   revolutions 


REFORMATION 

that  had  attended  it  in  England.  When  Henry 
VIII.  after  the  abolition  of  the  papal  authority, 
was  declared  supreme  head  upon  earth  of  the 
church  of  England,  George  Brown,  a  native  of 
England,  and  a  monk  of  the  Augustine  order, 
whom  that  monarch  had  created,  in  the  year 
1535,  archbishop  of  Dublin,  began  to  act  with 
the  utmost  vigour  in  consequence  of  this  change 
in  the  hierarchy.  He  purged  the  churches  of 
iiis  diocese  from  superstition  in  all  its  various 
forms,  pulled  down  images,  destroyed  relics, 
abolished  absurd  and  idolatrous  rites ;  and,  by  the 
influence  as  well  as  authority  he  had  in  Ireland, 
caused  the  king's  supremacy  to  be  acknowledged 
in  that  nation.  Henry  showed,  soon  after,  t'hat 
this  supremacy  was  not  a  vain  title;  for  he  ban- 
ished the  monks  out  of  that  kingdom,  confiscated 
their  revenues,  and  destroyed  their  convents.  In 
the  reign  of  Edward  VI.  still  further  progress 
was  made  in  the  removal  of  popish  superstitions 
by  the  zealous  labours  of  bishop  Brown,  and  the 
auspicious  encouragement  he  granted  to  all  who 
exerted  themselves  in  the  Reformation.  But  the 
death  of  this  excellent  prince,  and  the  accession 
of  e/uecn  Mary,  had  like  to  have  changed  the  face 
of  affairs  in  Ireland  as  much  as  in  England  ;  but 
lier  designs  were  disappointed  by  a  very  curious 
adventure,  of  which  the  following  account  has 
been  copied  from  the  papers  of  Richard,  earl  of 
Cork: — "  Q.ueen  Mary  having  dealt  severely  with 
the  Protestants  in  England,  about  the  latter  end 
of  her  reign,  signed  a  commission  for  to  take  the 
same  course  with  them  in  Ireland;  and,  to  exe- 
cute the  same  with  greater  force,  she  nominates 
Dr.  Cole  one  of  the  commissioners.  This  doctor 
coming  with  the  commission  to  Chester  on  his 
■journey,  the  mayor  of  that  city  hearing  that  her 
Majesty  was  sending  a  messenger  into  Ireland, 
and  he  being  a  churchman,  waited  on  the  doctor, 
who  in  a  discourse  with  the  mayor  taketh  out  of 
a  cloke-bag  a  leather  box,  saying  unto  him,  Here 
is  a  commission  that  shall  lash  the  heretics  of 
Ireland,  calling  the  Protestants  by  that  title.  The 
good  woman  of  the  house  being  well  affected  to 
the  Protestant  religion,  and  also  having  a  brother 
named  John  Edmonds,  of  the  same,  then  a  citizen 
in  Dublin,  was  much  troubled  at  the  doctor's 
words;  but  watching  her  convenient  time  while 
the  mayor  took  his  leave,  and  the  doctor  compli- 
mented him  down  the  stairs,  she  opens  the  box, 
takes  the  commission  out,  and  places  in  lieu  there- 
of a  sheet  of  paper  with  a  pack  of  cards  wrapt  up 
therein,  the  knave  pf  clubs  being  faced  uppermost. 
The  doctor  coining  up  to  his  chamber,  suspected 
nothing  of  what  had  been  done,  and  put  up  the  box 
as  formerly.  The  next  day,  going  to  the  water- 
side, wind  and  weather  serving  him,  he  sails  to- 
wards Ireland,  and  landed  on  the  7th  of  October, 
1558,  at  Dublin.  Then  coming  to  the  castle,  the 
lord  Fiter Walter,  being  lord-deputy,  sent  for  him 
to  come  before  him  and  the  privy' council;  who 
coming  in,  after  he  had  made  a  speech  relating 
upon  what  account  he  came  over,  he  presents  the 
box  unto  the  lord-deputy;  who  caused  it  to  be 
opened,  that  the  secretary  might  read  the  com- 
mission,—there  was  nothing  save  a  pack  of  cards 
with  (he  knave  of  clubs  uppermost:  which  not 
only  startled  the  lord-deputy  and  council,  but  the 
doctor,  who  assured  them  he  had  a  commission, 
hut  knew  not  how  it  was  gone.  Then  the  lord- 
deputy  made  ans.ver,  Let  us  have  another  com- 
mission, and  we  will  shuffle  the  curds  in  the  mean 

394 


REFUGEES 
while.  The  doctor  being  troubled  in  his  mind, 
went  away,  and  returned  into  England,  and 
coming  to  the  court,  obtained  another  commission  ; 
but,  staying  for  a  wind  on  the  water-side,  news 
came  to  him  that  the  queen  was  dead  ;  and  thus 
God  preserved  the  Protestants  of  Ireland."— 
Queen  Elizabeth  was  so  delighted  with  this  story, 
which  was  related  to  her  by  lord  Fitz-Walter  on 
his  return  to  England,  that  she  sent  for  Elizabeth 
Edmonds,  whose  husband's  name  was  Malter- 
shad,  and  gave  her  a  pension  of  40/.  during  her  life. 

In  Scotland,  the  seeds  of  reformation  were  very 
early  sown  by  several  noblemen  who  had  resided 
in  Germany  during  the  religious  disputes  there ; 
but  for  many  years  it  was  suppressed  by  the 
power  of  the  pope,  seconded  by  inhuman  laws 
and  barbarous  executions.  The  most  eminent 
opposer  of  the  papal  jurisdiction  was  John  Knox, 
a  disciple  of  Calvin,  a  man  of  great  zeal  and  in- 
vincible fortitude.  On  all  occasions  he  raised  the 
drooping  spirits  of  the  reformers,  and  encouraged 
them  to  go  on  with  their  work,  notwithstanding 
the  opposition  and  treachery  of  the  queen-regent; 
till  at  last,  in  1561,  by  the  assistance  of  an  En- 
glish army  sent  by  Elizabeth,  popery  was,  in  a 
manner,  totally  extirpated  throughout  the  king- 
dom. Erom  this  period  the  form  of  doctrine, 
worship,  and  discipline,  established  by  Calvin  at 
Geneva,  has  had  the  ascendency  in  Scotland. 

On  the  review  of  this  article,  what  reason  have 
we  to  admire  Infinite  Wisdom,  in  making  human 
events,  apparently  fortuitous,  subservient  to  the 
spread  of  the  Gospel!  What  reason  to  adore 
that  Divine  Power  which  was  here  evidently 
manifested  in  opposition  to  all  the  powers  of  the 
world !  What  reason  to  praise  that  Goodness, 
which  thus  caused  light  and  truth  to  break  forth 
for  the  happiness  and  salvation  of  millions  of 
the  human  race ! 

For  further  information  on  this  interesting  sub- 
ject, we  refer  our  readers  to  the  works  of  Burnet 
and  Brandt;  to  Beausobrc's  Histoirc  dc  la  Re- 
formation dans  V Empire,  et  les  Etals  de  la 
Confession  d'Augsbvrgh  depuis  1517-1530,  in 
4  vols.  8vo.  Berlin,  1785;  Mosheim's  Ecclesias- 
tical History ;  and  particularly  the  Appendix  to 
vol.  iv.  p.  13G,  on  the  Spirit  of  the  Reformers,  by 
Dr.  Maclaine.  See  also  Sleidan  De  Statu  Reli- 
gionis  et  Reipublicce  Carolo  V.  ;  Father  Paul's 
Hist,  of  the  Council  of  Trent  ;  Robertson's  Hist, 
of  Charles  V.  ;  Knox's  and  Dr.  Gilbert  Stew- 
ard's Hist,  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland 
Enclijc.  Brit. ;  Claude's  Defence  of  the  Refor- 
mation ;  An  Essay  on  the  Spirit  and  Influence 
of  the  Reformation  by  Luther,  by  B.  C.  Villiers, 
which  work  obtained  the  prize  on  this  question 
(proposed  by  the  National  Institute  of  France  in 
the  public  sitting  of  the  15th  Germinal,  in  the 
year  10,)  "What  has  been  the  Influence  of  the 
Reformation  by  Luther  on  the  political  situation 
of  the  different  states  of  Europe,  and  on  the  pro- 
gress of  knowledge?'  H.  Move's  Hints  to  a 
Young  Princess,  vol.  ii.  eh.  35. 

REFORMED  CHURCH.  See  Church 
Reformed. 

REFUGEES,  a  term  first  applied  to  the 
French  Protestants,  who,  by  the  revocation  of 
the  edict  of  Nantes,  were  constrained  to  fly  from 
persecution,  and  take  refuge  in  foreign  countries. 
Since  that  time,  howcve«,  it  has  been  extended 
to  all  such  as  leave  their  country  in  times  of  dis- 
tress.    Sec  HoGUEKOTS. 


RELICS 

REGIUM  DONUM  MONEY,  money  al- 
lowed by  government  to  the  Dissenters.  The 
origin  of  it  was  in  the  year  1723.  As  the  Dis- 
senters approved  themselves  strong  friends  to  the 
house  of  Brunswick,  they  enjoyed  favour ;  and, 
being  excluded  all  lucrative  preferment  in  the 
church,  the  prime  minister  wished  to  reward 
them  for  their  loyalty,  and,  by  a  retaining  fee, 
preserve  them  steadfast.  A  considerable  sum, 
therefore,  was  annually  lodged  with  the  heads  of 
the  Presbyterians,  Independents,  and  Baptists, 
to  be  distributed  among  the  necessitous  ministers 
of  their  "congregations. 

REGENERATION,  a  new  birth;  that  work 
of  the  Holy  Spirit  by  which  we  experience  a 
change  of  heart.  It  is  to  be  distinguished  from 
baptism,  which  is  an  external  rite,  though  some 
have  confounded  them  together.  Nor  does  it 
signify  a  mere  reformation  of  the  outward  con- 
duct. Nor  is  it  a  conversion  from  one  sect  or 
creed  to  another;  or  even  from  atheism.  Nor 
are  new  faculties  given  in  this  change.  Nor  does 
it  consist  in  new  revelations,  succession  of  terrors 
or  consolations ;  or  any  whisper  as  it  were  from 
God  to  the  heart,  concerning  his  secret  love, 
choice,  or  purpose  to  save  us.  It  is  expressed  in 
Scripture  by  being  born  again,  John  iii.  7;  born 
from  above,  so  it  may  be  rendered,  John  iii.  2,  7, 
27 ;  being  quickened,  Ephes.  ii.  1 ;  Christ  formed 
in  the  heart,  Gal.  iv.  12 ;  a  partaking  of  the  di- 
vine nature,  2  Pet.  i.  4.  The  efficient  cause  of 
regeneration  is  the  Divine  Spirit.  That  man  is 
not  the  author  of  it  is  evident,  if  we  consider, 
1.  The  case  in  which  men  are  before  it  takes 
place;  a  state  of  ignorance  and  inability,  John 
iii.  4. — 2.  The  nature  of  the  work  shows  plainly 
that  it  is  not  in  the  power  of  men  to  do  it :  it  is 
called  a  creation,  a  production  of  a  new  principle 
which  was  not  before,  and  which  man  could  not 
himself  produce,  Eph.  ii.  8,  10. — 3.  It  is  expressly 
denied  to  be  of  men,  but  declared  to  be  of  God, 
John  i.  12,  13;  1  John  iii.  9.  The  instrumental 
cause,  if  it  may  be  so  called,  is  the  word  of  God, 
James  i.  18  ;  1  Cor.  iv.  15.  The  evidences  of  it 
are,  conviction  of  sin,  holy  sorrow,  deep  humility, 
knowledge,  faith,  repentance,  love,  and  devotcd- 
ncss  to  God's  glory.  The  properties  of  it  are 
these  :  1.  It  is  a  passive  work,  and  herein  it  dif- 
fers from  conversion.  In  regeneration  we  are 
passive,  and  receive  from  God ;  in  conversion  we 
are  active,  and  turn  to  him. — 2.  It  is  an  irre- 
sistible, or  rather  an  invincible  work  of  God's 
grace,  Eph.  iii.  8. — 3.  It  is  an  instantaneous  act, 
for  there  can  be  no  medium  between 'life  and 
death ;  and  here  it  differs  from  sanctilication, 
which  is  progressive. —  1.  It  is  a  complete  act,  and 
perfect  in  its  kind ;  a  change  of  the  whole  man, 
2  Cor.  v.  17. — 5.  It  is  a  great  and  important  act, 
both  as  to  its  author  and  effects,  Eph.  ii.  4,  5. — 
6.  It  is  an  internal  act,  not  consisting  in  bare 
outward  forms,  Ezek.  xxxvi.  2G,  27. — 7.  Visible 
as  to  its  effects,  1  John  iii.  14 — 8.  Delightful, 
1  Pet.  i.  8.— <).  Necessary,  John  iii.  3.— 10.  Jt  is 
an  act,  the  blessings  of  which  we  can  never  finally 
lose,  John  xiii.  I. — See  Calling,  Conversion  ; 
and  Charnock's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  1  to  230;  Cole 
and  Wright,  but  especially  IVitkerspoon  on  Re- 
generation ;  Do  Idridge's  Ten  Sen/urns  on  the 
Subject;  Dr.  Gilts  Body  of  Divinity,  article 
Regeneration;  Dr.  Owen  on  the  Spirit;  Lime 
Street  Lectures,  ser.  8. 

RELICS,  in  the  Roman  church,  the  remains 
3U5 


RELICS 

of  the  bodies  or  clothes  of  saints  or  martyrs,  and 
the  instruments  by  which  they  were  put  to 
death,  devoutly  preserved,  in  honour  of  their 
memory;  kissed,  revered,  and  carried  in  pre- 
cession. 

The  respect  which  was  justly  due  to  the  mar- 
tyrs and  teachers  of  the  Christian  faith,  in  a  few 
ages,  increased  almost  to  adoration  ;  and  at  length 
adoration  was  really  paid  both  to  departed  saints, 
and  to  relics  of  holy  men  or  holy  things.  The 
abuses  of  the  church  of  Rome  with  respect  to 
relics,  are  very  flagrant  and  notorious  ;  for  such 
was  the  rage  for  them  at  one  time,  that,  as  F.  Ma- 
billon,  a  Benedictine,  justly  complains,  the  altars 
were  loaded  with  suspected  relics :  numerous  spu- 
rious ones  being  every  where  offered  to  the  piety 
and  devotion  of  the  faithful.  He  adds,  too,  that 
bones  are  often  consecrated,  which  so  far  from 
belonging  to  saints,  probably  do  not  belong  to 
Christians.  From  the  catacombs  numerous  re- 
lics have  been  taken,  and  yet  it  is  not  known 
who  were  the  persons  interred  therein.  In 
the  eleventh  century,  relics  were  tried  by  fire, 
and  those  which  did  not  consume  were  reckoned 
genuine,  and  the  rest  not.  Relics  were,  and  still 
are,  preserved  on  the  altars  whereon  mass  is 
celebrated  ;  a  square  hole  being  made  in  the 
middle  of  the  altar  big  enough  to  receive  the 
hand ;  and  herein  is  the  relic  deposited,  being 
first  wrapped  in  red  silk,  and  inclosed  in  a  leaden 
box. 

The  Romanists  plead  antiquity  in  behalf  of 
relics :  for  the  Manichees,  out  of  hatred  to  the 
flesh,  which  they  considered  as  an  evil  principle, 
refused  to  honour  the  relics  of  saints ;  which  is 
reckoned  a  kind  of  proof  that  the  Catholics  did 
it  in  the  first  age. 

We  know,  indeed,  that  the  touching  of  linen 
clothes,  or  relics,  from  an  opinion  of  some  extra- 
ordinary virtue  derived  therefrom,  was  as  ancient 
as  the  first  ages,  there  being  a  hole  made  in  the 
coffins  of  the  forty  martyrs  at  Constantinople 
expressly  for  that  purpose.  The  honouring  the 
relics  of  saints,  on  which  the  church  of  Rome 
afterwards  founded  her  superstitions  and  lucra- 
tive use  of  them,  as  objects  of  devotion,  as  a  kind 
of  charms,  or  amulets,  and  as  instruments  of 
pretended  miracles,  appears  to  have  originated 
in  a  very  ancient  custom  that  prevailed  among 
Christians,  of  assembling  at  the  cemeteries  or 
burying-pkees  of  the  martyrs,  fpr  the  purpose  of 
commemorating  them,  and  of  performing  divine 
worship.  When  the  profession  of  Christianity 
obtained  the  protection  of  civil  government,  under 
Constantine  the  Great,  stately  churches  were 
erected  over  sepulchres,  and  their  names  and 
memories  were  treated  with  every  possible  token 
of  affection  and  respect.  This  reverence,  how- 
ever, gradually  exceeded  all  reasonable  bounds  ; 
and  those  prayers  and  religious  services  were 
thought  to  have  a  peculiar  sanciity  and  virtue 
which  were  performed  over  their  tombs :  hence 
the  practice  which  afterwards  obtained  of  depo- 
siting relics  of  saints  and  martyrs  under  the  altars 
in  all  churches.  This  practice  was  then  thought 
of  such  importance,  that  St.  Ambrose  would  nut 
consecrate  a  church  because  it  had  no  relics;  and 
the  council  of  Constantinople  in  Trullo  ordained, 
that  those  altars  should  be  demolished  under 
which  there  were  found  no  relics.  The  rage  of 
procuring  relics  for  this  and  other  purposes  of  a 
similar  nature  became  so  excessive,  that  iu  330, 


RELICS 
Ihe  emperor  Theodosius  the  Great  was  obliged  to 
pass  a  law,  forbidding  the  people  to  dig  up  the 

bodies  of   the  martyrs,  and    to   tratfie   in   their 
relies. 

Such  was  the  origin  of  that  respect  for  saered 
relics,  which  afterwards  was  perverted  into  a 
formal  worship  of  them,  and  became  the  occasion 
of  innumerable  processions,  pilgrimages,  and  mi- 
racles, from  which  the  church  of  Rome  hath 
derived  incredible  advantage.  In  the  end  of  the 
ninth  century  it  was  not  sufficient  to  reverence 
departed  saints,  and  to  confide  in  their  interces- 
sions and  succours;  to  clothe  them  with  an 
imaginary  power  of  healing  diseases,  working 
miracles,  and  delivering  from  all  sorts  of  calami- 
ties and  dangers;  their  bones,  their  clothes,  the 
apparel  and  furniture  they  had  possessed  dur- 
ing their  lives,  the  very  ground  which  they  had 
touched,  or  in  which  their  putrified  carcases  were 
laid,  were  treated  with  a  stupid  veneration,  and 
supposed  to  retain  the  marvellous  virtue  of  heal- 
ing all  disorders,  both  of  body  and  mind,  and  of 
defending  such  as  possessed  them  against  all  the 
assaults  and  devices  of  the  devil.  The  conse- 
quence of  all  this  was,  that  every  one  was  eager 
to  provide  himself  with  these  salutary  remedies: 
consequently  great  numbers  undertook  fatiguing 
and  perilous  voyages,  and  subjected  themselves 
to  all  sorts  of  hardships  ;  while  others  made  use 
of  this  delusion  to  accumulate  their  riches,  and 
to  impose  upon  the  miserable  multitude  by  the 
most  impious  and  shocking  inventions.  As  the 
demand  for  relies  was  prodigious  and  universal, 
the  clergy  employed  the  utmost  dexterity  to 
satisfy  all  demands,  and  were  far  from  being  nice 
in  the  methods  they  used  for  that  end.  The 
bodies  of  the  saints  were  sought  by  fasting  and 
prayer,  instituted  bv  the  priest,  in  order  to  obtain 
a  divine  answer,  and  an  infallible  direction;  and 
this  pretended  direction  never  failed  to  accom- 
plish their  desires :  the  holy  carcass  was  always 
found,  and  that  always  in  consequence,  as  they 
impiously  gave  out,  of  the  suggestion  and  inspi- 
ration of  God  himself.  Each  discovery  of  this 
kind  was  attended  with  excessive  demonstrations 
of  joy,  and  animated  the  zeal  of  these  devout  seek- 
ers to  enrich  the  church  still  more  and  more  with 
this  new  kind  of  treasure.  Many  travelled  with 
this  view  into  the  eastern  provinces,  and  frequent- 
ed the  places  which  Christ  and  his  disciples  had 
honoured  with  their  presence ;  that  with  the  bones 
and  other  sacred  remains  of  the  first  heralds  of 
the  Gospel,  they  might  comfort  dejected  minds, 
calm  trembling  consciences,  save  sinking  states,; 
and  defend  their  inhabitants  from  all  sorts  of 
calamities.  Nor  did  these  pious  travellers  return 
home  empty  :  the  craft,  dexterity,  and  knavery 
of  the  Greeks,  found  a  rich  prey  in  the  stupid 
credulity  of  the  Latin  relic-hunters,  and  made  a 

Iirofitable  commerce  of  this  new  devotion.  The 
atter  paid  considerable  sums  for  legs  and  arms, 
skulls,  and  jaw-bones,  (several  of  which  were 
Pagan,  and  some  not  human,)  and  other  things 
that  were  supposed  to  have  belonged  to  the  pri- 
mitive worthies  of  the  Christian  church;  and 
thus  the  Latin  churches  came  to  the  possession 
of  those  celebrated  relics  of  St.  Mark,  St.  James, 
St.  Bartholomew,  Cyprian,  Pantaleon,  ami  others, 
which  they  show  at  this  day  with  so  much  osten- 
tation. Hut  there  were  many  who,  unable  to 
procure  for  themselves  these  spiritual  treasures 
by  voyages  and  prayers,  had  recourse  to  violence 
3DG 


RELIGION 

and  theft ;  for  all  sorts  of  means,  and  all  sorts  cf 
attempts,  in  a  cause  of  this  nature,  were  con- 
sidered, when  successful,  as  pious  and  acceptable 
to  the  Supreme  Being.  Besides  the  arguments 
from  antiquity,  to  which  the  Papists  refer  in  vin- 
dication of  their  worship  of  relics,  of  which  the 
reader  may  form  some  judgment  from  this  arti- 
cle, Dellarmine  appeals  to  Scripture  in  support 
of  it ;  and  cites  the  following  passages,  viz.  Exod. 
xiii.  10  ;  Deut.  xxxiv.  0  ;  2  ivings  xiii. '21 ;  xxiii 
16,  17.  18;  lsa.  xi.  10;  Matt.  xi.  20,  21,  22; 
Acts  v.  12,  15;  xix.  11,  12. 

The  Roman  Catholics  in  Great  Britain  do  not 
acknowledge  any  worship  to  lie  due  to  relics,  but 
merely  a  high  veneration  and  respect,  by  which 
means  they  think  they  honour  God,  who,  they 
say,  has  often  wrought  very  extraordinary  mira- 
cles by  them.  But,  however  proper  this  venera- 
tion and  respect  may  he,  its  abuse  has  been  so 
great  and  so  general,  as  fully  to  warrant  the  re- 
jection of  them  altogether. 

Relics  are  forbidden  to  he  used  or  brought  into 
England  by  several  statutes ;  and  justices  of  peace 
are  empowered  to  search  houses  lor  popish  books 
and  relics,  which  when  found  are  to  be  defaced 
and  burnt,  &c  3  Jac  I.  cap.  2(5. 

RELIEF,  a  species  of  Dissenters  in  Scotland 
whose  only  dilference  from  the  Scotch  established 
church  is  the  choosing  their  own  pastors.  They 
were  separated  from  the  church  in  the  year  1752, 
occasioned  by  Mr.  Thomas  Gillespie  being  de- 
posed for  refusing  to  assist  at  the  admission  of  a 
minister  to  a  parish  who  were  unwilling  to  re- 
ceive him.  When  Mr.  Gillespie  was  deprived 
of  his  parish,  he  removed  to  Dunfermline,  and 
] 'reached  there  to  a  congregation  who  were  at- 
tached  to  him,  and  vehemently  opposed  the  law 
of  patronage.  Being  excluded  from  the  commu- 
nion of  the  church,  he,  with  two  or  three  other 
ministers,  constituted  themselves  into  a  presby- 
tery, called  the  Presbytery  of  Relief;  willing  to 
allbrd  relief  to  all  "  who  adhered  to  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  church  of  Scotland,  as  exhibited  in  her 
creeds,  canons,  confessions,  and  forms  of  worship." 
They  are  unwilling,  it  is  said,  to  be  reckoned  se- 
ceders.  Their  licentiates  are  educated  under  the 
established  church  professors,  whose  certificates 
they  acknowledge.  Many  of  their  people  receive 
the  Lord's  Supper  with  equal  readiness  in  the 
established  church  as  in  their  own.  The  relief 
synod  consists  of  about  sixty  congregations,  and 
about  36,000  persons. 

RELIGION  is  a  Latin  word,  derived,  accord- 
ing to  Cicero,  from  relcgcrc,  "to  re-consider;" 
but  aceoiding  Co  Servius  and  most  modern  gram- 
marians, from  religaie,  "to  hind  fast."  If  the 
(  ii  «  Ionian  etymology  be  the  true  one,  the  word 
religion  will  denote  the  diligent  study  of  whatever 
pertains  to  the  worship  of  God ;  but,  according 
to  the  other  derivation,  it  denotes  that  obligation 
which  we  feel  on  our  minds  from  the  relation  in 
which  we  stand  to  some  superior  power.  The 
word  is  sometimes  used  as  synonimous  with  sect ; 
but,  in  a  practical  sense,  it  is  generally  considered 
as  the  same  with  godliness,  or  a  life  devoted  to 
the  worship  and  fear  of  God.  Dr.  Doddridge 
thus  defines  it :  "Religion  consists  in  the  resolu- 
tion of  the  will  for  God,  and  in  a  constant  care  to 
avoid  whatever  we  are  persuaded  he  would  dis- 
approve, to  despatch  the  work  he  has  assigned  us 
in  life,  ami  to  promote  his  glory  in  the  happiness 
of  mankind."     [See  Godliness.]     The  founda- 


RELIGION 

Hon  of  all  religion  rests  on  the  belief  of  the  exist- 
ence of  God.  As  we  have,  however,  already 
considered  the  evidences  of  the  divine  existence, 
they  need  not  be  enumerated  again  in  this  place  ; 
the  reader  will  find  them  under  the  article  Ex- 
istence of  Gon. 

Religion  has  been  divided  into  natural  and  re- 
vealed. By  natural  religion  is  meant  that  know- 
ledge, veneration,  and  love  of  God,  and  the  prac- 
tice of  those  duties  to  him,  our  fellow-creatures, 
and  ourselves,  which  are  discoverable  by  the  riirht 
exercise  of  our  rational  faculties,  from  considering 
the  nature  and  perfections  of  God,  and  our  rela- 
tion to  him  and  to  one  another.  By  revealed 
religion  is  understood  that  discovery  which  he 
has  made  to  us  of  his  mind  and  will  in  the  Holy 
Scriptures.  As  it  respects  natural  religion, 
some  doubt  whether,  properly  speaking,  there  can 
be  any  such  thing  ;  since,  through  the  fall,  reason 
is  so  depraved,  that  man  without  revelation  is 
under  the  greatest  darkness  and  misery,  as  may 
be  easily  seen  by  considering  the  history  of  those 
nations  who  are  destitute  of  it,  and  who  are  given 
up  to  barbarism,  ignorance,  cruelty,  and  evils  of 
every  kind.  So  far  as  this,  however,  may  be  ob- 
served, that  the  light  of  nature  can  give  us  no 
proper  ideas  of  God,  nor  inform  us  what  worship 
will  be  acceptable  to  him.  It  does  not  tell  us 
how  man  became  a  fallen,  sinful  creature,  as  he 
is,  nor  how  he  can  be  recovered.  It  affords  us 
no  intelligence  as  to  the  immortality  of  the  soul, 
the  resurrection  of  the  body,  and  a  future  state 
of  happiness  and  misery.  The  apostle,  indeed, 
observes,  that  the  Gentiles  have  the  law  written 
on  their  hearts,  and  are  a  law  unto  themselves ; 
vet  the  greatest  moralists  among  them  were  so 
blinded  as  to  be  guilty  of,  and  actually  to  counte- 
nance the  greatest  vices.  Such  a  system,  there- 
fore, it  is  supposed,  can  hardly  be  said  to  be  reli- 
gious, which  leaves  man  in  such  uncertainty, 
ignorance,  and  impiety.  [See  Revelation.]  (.in 
the  other  side  it  is  observed,  "that,  though  it  is  in 
the  highest  degree  probable  that  the  parents  of 
mankind  received  all  their  theological  knowledge 
by  supernatural  means,  it  is  yet  obvious  that 
some  parts  of  that  knowledge  must  have  been 
capable  of  a  proof  purely  rational,  otherwise  not 
a  single  religious  truth  could  have  been  conveyed 
through  the  succeeding  generations  of  the  human 
race  but  by  the  immediate  inspiration  of  each  in- 
dividual. We,  indeed,  admit  many  propositions 
as  certainly  true,  upon  the  sole  authority  of  the 
Jewish  and  Christian  Scriptures,  and  we  receive 
these  Scriptures  with  gratitude  asthe  lively  oracles 
cf  God  ;  but  it  is  self-evident  that  we  could  not 
do  cither  the  one  or  the  other,  were  we  not  con- 
vinced by  natural  means  that  God  exists;  that 
he  is  a  being  of  goodness,  justice,  and  power; 
and  that  he  inspired  with  divine  wisdom  the  pen- 
men of  the  sacred  volumes.  Now,  though  it  is 
very  possible  that  no  man,  or  body  of  men,  left  to 
themselves  from  infancy  in  a  desert  world,  would 
ever  have  made  a  theological  discovery,  yet  what- 
ever propositions  relating  to  the  being  and  attri- 
butes of  the  First  Cause,  and  duty  of  man,  can 
be  demonstrated  by  human  reason,  independent 
of  written  revelation,  may  be  called  natural  the- 
ology, and  are  of  the  utmost  importance,  as  being 
to  us  the  first  principles  of  all  religion.  Natural 
theology,  in  this  sense  of  the  word,  is  the  founda- 
tion of  the  Christian  revelation ;  for,  without  a  pre- 
vious knowledge  of  it,  we  could  have  no  evidence 
307 


RELLYANISTS 

that  the  Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa 
incuts  are  indeed  the  word  of  God." 

The  religions  which  exist  in  the  world  h^vo 
been  generally  divided  into  four,  the  Pasxar,,  the 
Jewish,  the  Mahometan,  and  the  Christian;  to 
which  articles  the  reader  is  referred.  The  va- 
rious duties  of  the  Christian  religion  also  aro 
stated  in  their  different  places.  See  also,  as  con- 
nected with  this  article,  the  articles  Inspiration, 
Revelation,  and  Theology,  and  books  there 
recommended. 

RELIGIOUS,  in  a  general  sense,  something 
that  relates  to  religion.  It  is  also  used  for  a  per- 
son engaged  by  solemn  vows  to  the  monastic  life; 
or  a  person  shut  up  in  a  monastery,  to  lead  a  life 
of  devotion  and  austerity  under  some  rule  or  in- 
stitution. The  male  religious  are  called  monks 
and  friars ;  the  females,  nuns  and  canon  esses. 

RELLYANISTS,  or  Relltan  Uni ver- 
sa lists,  the  followers  of  Mr.  James  Relly.  He 
first  commenced  his  ministerial  character  in  con- 
nexion with  Mr.  Whitefield,  and  was  received 
with  great  popularity.  Upon  a  change  of  his 
views,  he  encountered  reproach,  and  was  pro- 
nounced by  many  as  an  enemy  to  godliness.  He 
believed  that  Christ  as  a  Mediator  was  so  united 
to  mankind,  that  his  actions  were  theirs,  his  obe- 
dience and  sufferings  theirs;  and,  consequently 
that  he  has  as  fully  restored  the  whole  human 
race  to  the  divine  favour,  as  if  all  had  obeyed  and 
suffered  in  their  own  persons ;  and  upon  this  per- 
suasion he  preached  a  finished  salvation,  called 
by  the  apostle  Jude,  "  The  common  salvation." 
Many  of  his  followers  are  removed  to  the  world 
of  spirits,  but  a  branch  still  survives,  and  meets 
at  the  chapel  in  Windmill-street,  Moorfields, 
London ;  where  there  are  different  brethren  who 
speak.  They  are  not  observers  of  ordinances, 
such  as  water-baptism  and  the  sacrament :  pro- 
fessing to  believe  only  in  one  baptism,  which  they 
call  an  immersion  of  the  mind  or  conscience  into 
truth  by  the  teaching  of  the  Spirit  of  God  ;  and 
by  the  same  Spirit  they  are  enabled  to  feed  on 
Christ  as  the  bread  of  life,  professing  that  in  and 
with  Jesus  they  possess  all  things.  They  incul- 
cate and  maintain  good  works  for  necessary  pur> 
poses ;  but  contend  that  the  principal  and  only 
work  which  ought  to  be  attended  to,  is  the  doing 
of  real  good  without  religious  ostentation ;  that  to 
relieve  the  miseries  and  distresses  of  mankind, 
according  to  our  ability,  is  doing  more  real  good 
than  the  superstitious  observance  of  religious  cere- 
monies. In  general  they  appear  to  believe  that 
there  will  be  a  resurrection  to  life,  and  a  resur- 
rection to  condemnation ;  that  believers  only  will 
be  among  the  former,  who  as  first  fruits,  and 
kings  and  priests,  will  have  part  in  the  first  re- 
surrection, and  shall  reign  with  Christ  in  his 
kingdom  of  the  millennium  ;  that  unbelievers  who 
are  after  raised,  must  wait  the  manifestation  of 
the  Saviour  of  the  world,  under  that  condemna- 
tion of  conscience  which  a  mind  in  darkness  and 
wrath  must  necessarily  feel ;  that  believers,  called 
kings  and  priests,  will  be  made  the  medium  of 
communication  to  their  condemned  brethren; 
and  like  Joseph  to  his  brethren,  though  he  spoke 
roughly  to  them,  in  reality  overflowed  with  allec- 
tion  and  tenderness;  that  ultimately  every  knee 
shall  how,  and  every  tongue  confess  that  in  the 
Lord  they  have  righteousness  and  strength  ;  and 
thus  every  enemy  shall  be  subdued  to  the  king- 
dom and  glory  of  the  Great  Mediator.     A  Ml 

a  I    0 


REPENTANCE 
Murray  belonging  to  this  society  emigrated  to 
America,  and  preached  these  sentiments  at  Bos- 
ton and  elsewhere.  Mr.  Relly published  several 
works,  the  principal  of  which  were,  "Union." 
"  The  Trial  of  Spirits."  "Christian  Lihertv." 
"One  Baptism.''  "The  Salt  of  Sacrifice."  "An- 
tichrist  resisted.''  "  Letters  on  Universal  Salva- 
tion."    "  The  Oherubimical  Mystery." 

REMEDIAL  LAW.    See  Law,  and  article 

Jl'STIKICATIOV. 

REMONSTRANTS,  a  title  given  to  the 
Arminians,  by  reason  of  the  remonstrance  which, 
in  1610,  they  made  to  the  states  of  Holland 
against  the  sentence  of  the  synod  of  Dort,  which 
condemned  them  as  heretics.  Episcopius  and 
Grotius  were  at  the.  head  of  the  Remonstrants, 
whose  principles  were  first  openly  patronized  in 
England  by  archbishop  Laud.  In  Holland,  the 
Galvinists  presented  an  address  in  opposition  to 
the  remonstrance  of  the  Arminians,  and  called  it 
a  counter-remonstrance.  See  Arminians  and 
Dokt. 

REMORSE,  uneasiness  occasioned  by  a  con- 
sciousness of  guilt.  When  it  is  blended  with  the 
fear  o(  punishment,  and  rises  to  despair,  it  con- 
stitutes the  supreme  wretchedness  of  the  mind. 

REPENTANCE  in  general,  is  sorrow  for 
any  thing  past.  In  theology  it  signifies  that  sor- 
row for  sin  which  produces  newness  of  life.  The 
Greek  word  most  frequently  used  in  the  New 
Testament  for  repentance  is  pn-airot*,  which  pro- 
perly denotes  an  after-thought,  or  the  sou!  recol- 
lecting its  own  actings;  and  that  in  such  a  man- 
ner as  to  produce  sorrow  in  the  review,  and  a 
desire  of  amendment.  Another  word  also  is 
used  («sT*,ua>.0)Kx>,)  which  signifies  anxiety  or 
uneasiness  upon  the  consideration  of  wh;it  is 
done.  There  are,  however,  various  kinds  of  re- 
pentance: as,  1.  A  natural  repentance,  or  what 
is  merely  the  effect  of  natural  conscience. — %.  A 
national  repentance,  such  as  the  Jews  in  Baby- 
lon were  called  unto  ;  to  which  temporal  blessings 
were  promised,  Ezek.  xviii.  30. — 3.  An  external 
repentance,  or  an  outward  humiliation  for  sin,  as 
in  the  ease  of  Ahab. —  1.  A  hypocritical  repent- 
ance, as  represented  in  Ephraim,  Hos.  vii.  1G.— 
5.  A  legal  repentance,  which  is  a  mere  work  of 
the  law,  and  the  effect  of  convictions  of  sin  by  it, 
which  in  time  wear  off,  and  come  to  nothing. — 
C.  An  '  repentance,  which  consists  in 

conviction  of  sin;  sorrow  for  it;  confession  of  it; 
hatred  to  it;  and  renunciation  of  it.  A  legal  and 
evangelical  repentance  are  distinguished"' thus: 
1.  A  legal  repentance  flows  only  from  a  sense  of 
danger  and  tear  of  wrath;  but  an  evangelical  re- 
pentance is  a  true  mourning  for  sin,  and  an  earn- 
est desire  of  deliverance  from  it, — -2.  A  legal  re- 
pentance flows  from  unbelief,  but  evangelical  is 
always  js  the  fruit  and  consequence  of  a  saving 
faith. — 3.  A  legal  repentance  Hows  from  an  aver- 
si  m  to  God  and  to  his  holy  law,  but  an  evange- 
lical from  love  to  both.—  i.  A  legal  repentance 
ordinarily  flows  from  discouragement  and  despon- 
dency, but  evangelical  from  encouraging  hope.— 
5.  A  legal  repentance  is  temporary,  but  evangeli- 
cal is  the  daily  exercise  of  the  true  Christian.— 
G.  A  legal  repentance  dors  at  most  produce  only 
a  partial  and  external  reformation,  but  an  evan- 
gelical is  a  total  change  of  heart  and  life. 

The  aut!i?>r  of  true  repentance  is  God,  Acts  v. 
31.  The  subject.';  of  it  are  sinners,  since  none 
but  those,  that  have  sinned  can  repent.  The 
MS 


REPROOF 

means  of  repentance  is  the  word,  and  the  minis- 
ters of  it;  yet  sometimes  consideration,  sanctified 
afflictions,  conversation,  &c.  have  been  the  instru- 
ments of  repentance.  The  blessings  connected 
with  repr  itance  are,  pardon,  peace,  and  everlast 
ing  life,  Acts  xi.  18.  The  time  of  repentance  is 
the  present  life,  Is.  Iv.  6;  Eccl.  ix.  50.  The  evi- 
dences of  repentance  are,  faith,  humility,  prayer, 
and  obedience,  Zech.  xii.  10.  The  necessity  of 
repentance  appears  evident  from  the  evil  of  sin  ; 
the  mis  ry  it  involves  us  in  here;  the  commands 
given  us  to  repent  in  God's  word ;  the  promises 
made  to  the  penitent:  and  the  absolute  incapabil- 
ity of  enjoying  God  here  or  hereafter  without  it. 
See  Dickinson's  Letters,  let.  9;  Dr.  Oicen  on  the 
130th  Psalm;  Gill's  Body  of  Divinity,  article 
Repentance  ;  Ridgley's  Body  of  Divinity,  ques- 
tion 70;  Davits' s  Sermons,  ser.  44.  vol.  iii. ; 
Case's  Sermons,  ser.  4;  Whitefield's  Sermons, 
S in rin's  Sermons,  ser.  9.  vol.  iii.;  Robinso7i'a 
Translation;  Scott's  Treatise  on  Repentance. 

REPROACH,  the  act  of  finding  fault  in  op- 
probrious terms,  or  attempting  to  expose  to  infa- 
my and  disgrace.  In  whatever  cause  we  engage, 
however  disinterested  our  motives,  however  laud- 
able our  designs,  reproach  is  what  we  must  ex- 
pect. But  it  becomes  us  not  to  retaliate,  but  to 
hear  it  patiently  ;  and  so  to  live,  that  every  charge 
brought  against  us  be  groundless.  If  we  be  re- 
proached for  righteousness'  sake,  we  have  no 
reason  to  be  ashamed  nor  to  be  afraid.  All  good 
men  have  thus  suffered,  Jesus  Christ  himself 
especially.  We  have  the  greatest  promises  of 
support.  Besides,  it  has  a  tendency  to  humble 
us,  detach  us  from  the  world,  and  excite  in  us  a 
desire  for  that  state  of  blessedness  where  all  re- 
proach shall  be  done  away. 

REPROBATION,  the  act  of  abandoning,  or 
state  of  being  abandoned  to  eternal  destruction, 
and  is  applied  to  that  decree  or  resolve  which 
God  has  taken  from  all  eternity  to  punish  sinners 
who  shall  die  in  impenitence;  in  which  sense  it 
is  opposed  to.election.  See  Election  and  PRE- 
DESTINATION:'. 

REPROOF,  blame  ot  reprehension  spoken  to 
a  person's  face.  It  is  distinguished  from  a  repri- 
mand thus.  He  who  reproves  another,  point3 
out  his  fault,  and  blames  him.  He  who  repri- 
mands, affects  to  punish,  and  mortifies  the  of- 
fender. In  giving  reproof,  the  following  rules 
may  be  observed  :  1.  We  should  not  be  forward 
in  reproving  our  elders  or  superiors,  but  rather  to 
remonstrate  and  supplicate  for  redress.  What 
the  ministers  of  God  do  in  this  kind,  they  do  by 
special  commission,  as  those  that  must  give  an 
account,  1  Tim.  v.  1 ;  Heb.  xiii.  17. — '2.  We  must 
not  reprove  rashly;  there  should  be  proof  before 
reproof. — 3.  We  should  not  reprove  tor  slight 
matters,  for  such  faults  or  defects  as  proceed  from 
natural  frailty,  from  inadvertency,  or  mistake  in 
matters  of  small  consequence. — 4.  We  should 
never  reprove  unseasonably,  as  to  the  time,  the 
place,  or  the  circumstances. — 5.  We  should  re- 
prove mildly  and  sweetly,  in  the  calmest  manner, 
in  the  gentlest  terms. — 6.  We  should  not  affect 
to  be  reprchensive :  perhaps  there  is  no  one  con- 
sidered more  troublesome  than  he  who  delights  in 
finding  fault  with  others.  In  receiving  reproof. 
it  may  be  observed,  1.  That  We  should  not  reject 
it  merely  because  it  may  come  from  those  who  are 
not  exactly  on  a  level  with  ourselves. — '2.  We 
should  consider  whether  the  reproof  given  be  no 


RESURRECTION 
actually  deserved ;  and  that,  if  the  reprover  knew 
all,  whether  the  reproof  would  not  be  sharper 
than  what  it  is. — 3.  Whether,  if  taken  humbly 
and  patiently,  it  will  not  be  of  great  advantage  to 
us. — 4.  That  it  is  nothing  but  pride  to  suppose 
that  we  are  never  to  be  the  subjects  of  reproof, 
since  it  is  human  to  err. 

RESENTMENT,  generally  used  in  an  ill 
sense,  implying  a  determination  to  return  an  in- 
jury. Dr.  Johnson  observes,  that  resentment  is  a 
union  of  sorrow  with  malignity;  a  combination  of 
a  passion  which  all  endeavour  to  avoid,  with  a 
passion  which  all  concur  to  detest.  The  man  who 
retires  to  meditate  mischief,  and  to  exasperate  his 
own  rage,  whose  thoughts  are  employed  only  on 
means  of  distress  and  contrivances  of  ruin,  whose 
mind  never  pauses  from  the  remembrance  of  his 
own  sufferings,  but  to  indulge  some  hope  of  en- 
joying the  calamities  of  another,  may  justly  be 
numbered  among  the  most  miserable  of  human 
beings ;  among  those  who  are  guilty ;  who  have 
neither  the  gladness  of  prosperity,  nor  the  calm 
of  innocence. 

RESIGNATION,  a  submission  without  dis- 
content to  the  will  of  God.  The  obligations  to  this 
duty  arise  from,  1.  The  perfections  of  God,  Deut. 
xxxii.  4. — 2.  The  purposes  of  God,  Eph.  i.  11. — 
3.  The  commands  of  God,  Heb.  xii.  !). — 4.  The 
promises  of  God,  1  Pet.  v.  7. — 5.  Our  own  in- 
terest, Hos.  ii.  14, 15. — 6.  The  prospect  of  eternal 
felicity,  Heb.  iv.  9.  See  articles  Affliction-, 
Despair,  and  Patience;  Worthington  on  Re- 
signation; Grosrenor's  Mourner;  Brookes  Mute 
Christian;  and  books  under  Affliction. 

RESTITUTION,  that  act  of  justice  by  which 
we  restore  to  our  neighbour  whatever  we  have 
unjustly  deprived  him  of,  Exod.  xxii.  1;  Luke 
xix.  8. 

Moralists  observe  respecting  restitution,  1.  That 
where  it  can  be  made  in  kind,  or  the  injury  can 
be  certainly  valued,  we  are  to  restore  the  thing  or 
the  value. — 2.  We  are  bound  to  restore  the  thing 
with  the  natural  increase  of  it,  that  is,  to  satisfy 
for  the  loss  sustained  in  the  mean  time,  and  the 
gain  hindered. — 3.  Where  the  thing  cannot  be 
restored,  and  the  value  of  it  is  not  certain,  we  are 
to  give  reasonable  satisfaction,  according  to  a 
middle  estimation. — 4.  We  are  at  least  to  give  by 
way  of  restitution  what  the  law  would  give,  for 
that  is  generally  equal,  and  in  most  cases  rather 
favourable  than  rigorous. — 5.  A  man  is  not  only 
bound  to  restitution  for  the  injury  he  did,  but  for 
all  that  directly  follows  upon  the  injurious  act. 
For  the  first  injury  being  wilful,  we  are  supposed 
to  will  all  that  which  follows  upon  it.  Tillotson's 
Sermons,  ser.  170,  171  j  Chillingworth's  Works, 
ser.  7. 

RESURRECTION,  a  rising  again  from  the 
state  of  the  dead :  generally  applied  to  the  resur- 
rection of  the  last  day.     This  doctrine  is  argued, 

1.  Frtim  the  resurrection  of  Christ,  1  Cor.  xv. — 

2.  From  the  doctrines  of  grace,  as  union,  election, 
redemption,  &c. — 3.  From  Scripture  testimonies. 
Matt.  xxii.  23,  &c. ;  Job  xix.  25,  27 ;  Is.  xxvi.  19 ; 
Phil.  ii.  20 ;  1  Cor.  xv. ;  Dan.  xii.  2 ;  1  Thess.  iv; 
14;  R.ev.  xx.  13. — 4.  From  the  general  judgment, 
which  of  course  requires  it.  As  to  the  nature  of 
this  resurrection,  it  will  be,  1.  General,  Rev.  xx. 
12,  15 ;  2  Cor.  v.  10.— 2.  Of  the  same  body.  It  is 
true,  indeed,  that  the  body  has  not  always  the 
same  particles,  which  are  continually  changing, 
out  it  has  always  the  same  constituent  parts, 

399 


RESURRECTION 
which  proves  its  identity ;  it  is  the  same  body  that 
is  born  that  dies,  and  the  same  that  dies  that  shall 
rise  again  ;  so  that  Mr.  Locke's  objection  to  the 
idea  of  the  same  body  is  a  mere  quibble. — 3.  The 
resurrection  will  be  at  the  command  of  Christ, 
and  by  his  power,  John  v.  28,  29. — 4.  Perhaps, 
as  to  the  manner,  it  will  be  successive ;  the  dead 
in  Christ  rising  first,  1  Cor.  xv.  23;  1  Thess.  iv. 
lb".  This  doctrine  is  of  great  use  and  importance. 
It  is  one  of  the  first  principles  of  the  doctrine  of 
Christ;  the  whole  Gospel  stands  or  falls  with  it. 
It  serves  to  enlarge  our  views  of  the  divine  per- 
fections. It  encourages  our  faith  and  trust  in 
God  under  all  the  difficulties  of  life.  It  has  a 
tendency  to  regulate  our  affections  and  moderate 
our  desires  after  earthly  things.  It  supports  the 
saints  under  the  loss  of  near  relations,  and  en- 
ables them  to  rejoice  in  the  glorious  prospect  set 
before  them.  See  Hody  on  the  Resurrection; 
Pearson  on  the  Creed ;  Lime  Street  Led.  ser. 
10;  Watt's  Ontology;  Young'' s  Last  Day;  Locke 
on  the  Understanding,  1.  ii.  c.  27;  Warburton's 
Legation  of  Moses,  vol.  ii.  p.  553,  &c. ;  Bishop 
Newton's  Works,  vol.  iii.  p.  G7G,  083. 

RESURRECTION  OF  CHRIST.  Few 
articles  are  more  important  than  this.  It  deserves 
our  particular  attention,  because  it  is  the  grand 
hinge  on  which  Christianity  turns.  Hence,  says 
the  apostle,  he  was  delivered  for  our  offences,  and 
raised  again  for  our  justification.  Infidels,  how- 
ever, have  disbelieved  it,  but  with  what  little  rea- 
son we  may  easily  see  on  considering  the  subject 
"If  the  body  of  Jesus  Christ,"  %ays  Saurin, 
'■'were  not  raised  from  the  dead,  it  must  have 
been  stolen  away.  But  this  theft  is  incredible. 
Who  committed  it  ?  The  enemies  of  Jesus  C  hrist 
Would  they  have  contributed  to  his  glory  by  coun- 
tenancing a  report  of  his  resurrection  ?  Would 
his  disciples  ?  It  is  probable  they  would  not,  and  it 
is  next  to  certain  they  could  not.  How  could  they 
have  undertaken  to  remove  the  body  ?  Frail  and 
timorous  creatures,  people  who  fled  as  soon  as 
they  saw  him  taken  into  custody ;  even  Peter,  the 
most  courageous,  trembled  at  the  voice  of  a  ser- 
vant girl,  and  three  times  denied  that  he  knew 
him.  People  of  this  character,  would  they  have 
dared  to  resist  the  authority  of  the  governor  1 
Would  they  have  undertaken  to  oppose  the  de- 
termination of  the  Sanhedrim,  to  force  a  guard, 
and  to  elude  or  overcome  soldiers  armed  and 
aware  of  danger?  If  Jesus  Christ  were  not  risen 
again  (I  speak  the  language  of  unbelievers,)  he 
had  deceived  his  disciples  with  vain  hopes  of  \\u 
resurrection.  How  came  the  disciples  not  to  dis- 
cover the  imposture  ?  Would  they  have  hazarded 
themselves  by  undertaking  an  enterprise  so  peril- 
ous in  favour  of  a  man  who  had .  so  cruelly  im- 
posed on  their  credulity?  But  were  we  to  grant 
that  they  formed  the  design  of  removing  the  body, 
how  could  they  have  executed  it  ?  How  could  sol- 
diers armed,  and  on  guard,  sutler  themselves  to  be 
over-reached  by  a  few  timorous  people?  Either, 
says  St.  Augustine,  they  were  asleep  or  awake  ; 
if  they  were  awake,  why  should  they  svjfer  tlie 
body  to  be  taken  away  ?  If  asleep,  how  coidd  th;y 
know  that  the  disciples  took  it  away?  How  dare 
they,  then,  depose  that  it  was  stolen?" 

The  testimony  of  the  apostles  furnishes  us  with 
arguments,  and  there  are  eight  considerations 
which  give  the  evidence  sufficient  weight.  1.  The 
nature  of  these  witnesses.  They  were  not  men 
of  power,  riches,  eloquence,  or  credit,  to  impose 


RESURRECTION 
upon  the  world;  they  wore  poor  and  moan. — 
2.  The  number  of  these  witnesses.  See  1  <  !or. 
xv.;  Luke  x\iv.  34 ;  Mark  x\i.  14;  Matt,  xxviii. 
10.  It  is  not  likely  that  a  collusion  should  have 
been  held  among  so  many  to  support  a  lie,  which 
would  be  of  no  Utility  to  them. — 3.  The  facts 
themselves  which  they  avow;  not  suppositions, 
distant  events,  or  events  related  by  others,  but 
real  facts  which  they  saw  with  their  own  eyes, 
1  John  i. — I.  The  agreement  of  their  evidence: 
they  all  deposed  the  same  thing. — 5.  Observe  the 
tribunals  before  which  they  gave  evidence:  Jews 
and  heathens,  philosophers  anil  rabbins,  courtiers 
and  lawyers.  If  they  had  been  impostors,  the 
fraud  certainly  would  have  been  discovered. — 
(!.  The  place  in  which  they  bore  their  testimony. 
Not  at  a  distance,  where  they  might  not  easily 
have  been  detected,  if  f  dse,  but  at  Jerusalem,  in 
the  synagogues,  in  the  pretorium. — 7.  The  time 
or  this  testimony;  not  years  after,  but  three  days 
after,  they  declared  he  was  risen ;  yea,  before 
their  rafje  was  quelled,  while  Calvary  was  yet 
dyed  with,  the  blood  they  had  spilt.  If  it  had  been 
a  fraud,  it  is  not  likely  they  would  have  come  for- 
ward in  such  broad  day-light,  amidst  so  much 
opposition. — S.  Lastly,  the  motives  which  induced 
them  to  publish  the  resurrection  :  not  to  gain 
fame,  riches,  glory,  profit ;  no,  they  exposed  them- 
selves to  suffering  and  death,  and  proclaimed  the 
truth  from  conviction  of  its  importance  and  cer- 
tainty. 

"Collect,"  says  Saurin,  "all  these  proofs  to- 
gether ;  consider  them  in  one  point  of  view,  and 
see  how  many  extravagant  suppositions  must  he 
advanced,  if  the  resurrection  of  our  Saviour  be 
denied.  It  must  be  supposed  that  guards,  who 
had  been  particularly  cautioned  by  their  officers, 
sat  down  to  sleep;  and  that,  however,  they  de- 
served credit  when  they  said  the  body  of  Jesus 
Christ  was  stolen.  It  must  be  supposed  that  men, 
who  have  been  imposed  on  in  the  most  odious 
and  cruel  manner  in  the  world,  hazarded  their 
dearest  enjoyments  for  the  glory  of  an  impostor. 
It  must  be  supposed  that  ignorant  and  illiterate 
men,  who  had  neither  reputation,  fortune,  nor 
eloquence,  possessed  the  art  of  fascinating  the 
nyes  of  all  the  church.  It  must  be  supposed 
either  that  live  hundred  persons  wereal!  deprived 
of  their  senses  at  a  time,  or  that  they  were  all  de- 
ceived in  the  plainest  matters  of  fact;  or  that  this 
multitude  of  false  witnesses  had  found  out  the 
secret  of  never  contradicting  themselves  or  one 
another,  and  of  being  always  uniform  in  their  tes- 
mony.  It  must  be  supposed  that  the  most  expert 
courts  of  judicature  could  not  find  out  a  shadow 
of  contradiction  in  a  palpable  imposture.  It  must 
be  supposed  that  the  apostles,  sensible  men  in 
other  cases,  chose  precisely  those  places  and  those 
times  which  were  most  unfavourable  to  their 
view*  It  must  be  supposed  that  millions  madly 
Buffered  imprisonments,  tortures,  and  crucifix'™"^ 
to  spread  an  illusion.  It  must  be  suppose  mat 
ten  thousand  miracles  were  wrought  in  favour  of 
falsehood,  or  all  these  facts  must  lie  denied  ;  anil 
then  it  must  be  supposed  that  the  apostles  were 
idiots;  that  the  enemies  of  Christianity  were 
idiots;  and  that  all  the  primitive  Christians  were 
idiots. 

The   doctrine   of  the   resurrection   of  Christ 
affords  us  a  variety  of  useful  instructions.     1  lire 
we  see  evidence  of  divine  power;  prophecv  ac- 
complished ;  the  character  of  Jesus  established ; 
400 


REVELATION 
his  work  finished  ;  and  a  future  state  proved.  It 
is  a  ground  of  faith,  the  basis  of  hope,  a  source  of 
consolation,  and  a  stimulus  to  obedience.  See 
Saurin's  Sermons,  ser.  8.  vol  ii. ;  Robinson's 
Translation  ;  Ditto,  and  West  on  the  Resur- 
rection ;  Cook's  Illustration  of  the  general  Evi- 
dence establishing  the  Reality  of  Christ's  Rcsur 
rection,  p.  30,1,  Ecc.  Rev.  vol.  iv.  but  especially 
a  small  but  admirable  Essay  on  the  Resurrection 
of  Christ,  by  Mr.  Dore. 

RETIREMENT,  the  state  of  a  person  who 
quits  a  public  station  in  order  to  be  alone.  Re- 
tirement is  of  great  advantage  to  a  wise  man. 
To  him  "  the  hour  of  solitude  is  the  hour  of  medi- 
tation. He  communes  with  his  own  heart.  He 
reviews  the  actions  of  his  past  life.  He  corrects 
what  is  amiss.  He  rejoices  in  what  is  right ; 
and,  wiser  by  experience,  lays  the  plan  of  his  fu- 
ture life.  The  great  and  the  noble,  the  wise  and  the 
learned,  the  pious  and  the  good,  have  been  lovers 
of  serious  retirement.  On  this  field  the  patriot 
forms  his  schemes,  the  philosopher  pursues  his 
discoveries,  the  saint  improves  himself  in  wisdom 
and  goodness.  Solitude  is  the  hallowed  ground 
which  religion  in  every  age  has  adopted  as  its 
own.  There  her  sacred  inspiration  is  felt,  and 
her  holy  mysteries  elevate  the  soul ;  there  devo- 
tion lifts  up  the  voice;  there  falls  the  tear  of  con- 
trition ;  there  the  heart  pours  itself  forth  before 
him  who  made,  and  him  who  redeemed  it.  Apart 
from  men,  we  live  with  nature,  and  converse 
with  God."  Logan's  Sermons,  vol.  ii.  ser.  2; 
Blair's  Sermons,  ser.  9,  vol.  i. ;  Bates's  Rural 
Philosophy;  Brewster's  Recluse ;  Zimmerman 
on  Solitude. 

REVELATION,  the  act  of  revealing  or  mak- 
ing a  thing  public  that  was  before  unknown ;  it 
is  also  used  for  the  discoveries  made  by  God  to 
his  prophets,  and  by  them  to  the  world;  and 
more  particularly  for  the  books  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testaments.  A  revelation  is,  in  the  first 
place,  possible.  God  may,  for  any  thing  we  can 
certainly  tell,  think  proper  to  make  some  disco- 
very to  his  creatures  which  they  knew  not  before. 
As  he  is  a  Being  of  infinite  power,  we  may  be 
assured  he  cannot  be  at  a  loss  for  means  to  commu- 
nicate his  will,  and  that  in  such  a  manner  as  will 
sufficiently  mark  it  his  own. — 2.  It  is  desirable. 
For,  whatever  the  light  of  nature  could  do  for 
man  before  reason  was  depraved,  it  is  evident 
that  it  has  done  little  for  man  since.  Though 
reason  be  necessary  to  examine  the  authority 
of  divine  revelation,  yet,  in  the  present  state, 
it  is  incapable  of  giving  us  proper  discoveries 
of  God,  the  way  of  salvation,  or  of. bringing 
us  into  a  state  of  communion  with  God.  It 
therefore  follows. — 3.  That  it  is  necessary.  With- 
out, it  we  can  attain  to  no  certain  knowledge  of 
God,  of  Christ,  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  of  pardon,  of 
justification,  of  sanctification,  of  happiness,  of  a 
future  state  of  rewards  and  punishments. — 4.  No 
revelation,  as  Mr.  Brown  observes,  relative  to  the 
redemption  of  mankind,  could  answer  its  re- 
spective ends,  unless  it  were  sufficiently  marked 
with  internal  and  external  evidences.  That  the 
Bible  hath  internal  evidence,  is  evident  from  the 
ideas  it  gives  us  of  God's  perfections,  of  the  law 
of  nature,  of  redemption,  of  the  state  of  man,  &c. 
As  to  its  external  evidence,  it  is  easily  seen  by 
the  characters  of  the  men  who  composed  it,  the 
miracles  wrought,  its  success,  the  fulfilment  of  its 
predictions,  &c. — fSee  Sc'RiPTUKE.] — 5.  Thccwi* 


REVELATION 

tents  of  revelation  are  agreeable  to  reason.  It  is 
true,  there  are  some  things  above  the  reach  of 
reason;  but  a  revelation  containing  such  tilings 
is  no  contradiction,  as  long  as  it  is  not  against 
reason  :  for  if  every  thing  be  rejected  which  can- 
not be  exactly  comprehended,  we  must  become 
unbelievers  at  once  of  almost  every  thing  around 
us.  The  doctrines,  the  institutions,  the  threaten- 
in<rs,  the  precepts,  the  promises,  of  the  Bible,  are 
every  way  reasonable.  The  matter,  form,  and 
exhibition  of  revelation  are  consonant  with  rea- 
son.— (5.  The  revelation  contained  in  our  Bible 
is  perfectly  credible.  It  is  an  address  to  the  rea- 
son, judgment,  and  affections  of  men.  The  Old 
Testament  abounds  with  the  finest  specimens  of 
history,  sublimity,  and  interesting  scenes  of  Pro- 
vidence. The  facts  of  the  New  Testament  are 
supported  by  undoubted  evidence  from  enemies 
and  friends.  The  attestations  to  the  early  ex- 
istence of  Christianity  are  numerous  from  Igna- 
tius, Polycarp,  Irenseus,  Justin  Martyr,  and  Ta- 
tian,  who  were  Christians ;  and  by  Tacitus, 
Suetonius,  Serenus,  Pliny,  &c.  who  were  hea- 
thens.— [See  Christianity.] — 7.  The  revela- 
tions contained  in  our  Bible  are  divinely  inspired. 
The  matter,  the  manner,  the  scope,  the  predictions, 
miracles,  preservation,  dec.  &c.  all  prove  this. — 
[See  Inspiration.] — 8.  Revelation  is  intended  for 
universal  benefit.  It  is  a  common  objection  to 
it,  that  hitherto  it  has  been  confined  to  few,  and 
therefore  could  not  come  from  God,  who  is  so  be- 
nevolent ;  but  this  mode  of  arguing  will  equally 
hold  good  against  the  permission  of  sin,  the  in- 
equalities of  Providence,  the  dreadful  evils  and 
miseries  of  mankind,  which  God  could  have  pre- 
vented. It  must  be  farther  observed,  that  none 
deserve  a  revelation  ;  that  men  have  despised  and 
abused  the  early  revelations  he  gave  to  his  people. 
This  revelation,  we  have  reason  to  believe,  shall 
bo  made  known  to  mankind.  Already  it  is 
spreading  its  genuine  influence.  In  the  cold  re- 
gions of  the  north,  in  the  burning  regions  of  the 
south,  the  Bible,  begins  to  be  known;  and,  from 
the  predictions  it  contains,  we  believe  the  glorious 
sun  of  revelation  shall  shine  and  illuminate  the 
whole  globe. — 9.  The  effects  of  revelation  which 
have  already  taken  place  in  the  world  have  been 
astonishing.  In  proportion  as  the  Bible  has  been 
known,  arts  and  sciences  have  been  cultivated, 
peace  and  liberty  have  been  diffused,  civil  and 
moral  obligations  have  been  attended  to.  Nations 
have  emerged  from  ignorance  and  barbarity, 
whole  communities  have  been  morally  reformed, 
unnatural  practices  abolished,  and  wise  laws  in- 
stituted. Its  spiritual  effects  have  been  wonder- 
ful. Kings  and  peasants,  conquerors  and  phi- 
losophers, the  wise  and  the  ignorant,  the  rich  and 
the  poor,  have  been  brought  to  the  foot  of  the 
cross;  yea,  millions  have  been  enlightened,  im- 
proved, reformed,  and  made  happy  by  its  in- 
fluences. Let  any  one  deny  this,  and  he  must  be 
an  hardened,  ignorant  intidel  indeed.  Great  is 
the  truth,  and  must  prevail.  See  Dr.  Iceland's 
Necessity  of  Revelation.  "This  work,"  says 
Mr.  Ryland,  "has  had  no  answer,  and  1  am  per- 
suaded it  never  will  meet  with  a  solid  confuta- 
tion." Ifihjburlon  against  the  Deists ;  Iceland's 
View  of  Deist ical  Writers;  Brown's  Compen- 
dium of  Natural  and  Revealed  Religion;  Stil- 
lingfieel's  Origines  Sacrte,  perhaps  one  of  the 
ablest  defences  of  revealed  religion  ever  written. 
Uelanfs  Revelation  examined  with  Candour; 
401  3  A 


RITE 

;1rc/(.  Campbell  m  Revelation;  ELis  un  Divine 
Tilings;   Gale's  Court  of  the  Gentiles. 

REVENGE  means  the  return  of  injury  for 
injury,  or  the  infliction  of  pain  on  another  in  con- 
sequence of  an  injury  received  from  him,  farther 
than  the  just  ends  of  reparation  or  punishment 
require.  Revenge  differs  materially  from  resent- 
ment, which  rises  in  the  mind  immediately  on 
being  injured;  but  revenge  is  a  cool  and  deliber- 
ate wickedness,  and  is  often  executed  years  after 
the  offence  is  given.  By  some  it  is  considered  as 
a  perversion- of  anger.  Anger,  it  is  said,  is  a  pas- 
sion given  to  man  for  wise  and  proper  purposes, 
but  revenge  is  the  corruption  of  anger ;  is  un- 
natural, and  therefore  ought  to  be  suppressed.  It 
is  observable  that  the  proper  object  of  anger  is 
vice ;  but  the  object  in  general  of  revenge  is  man. 
It  transfers  the  hatred  due  to  the  vice  to  the  man, 
to  whom  it  is  not  due.  It  is  forbidden  by  the 
Scriptures,  and  is  unbecoming  the  character  and 
spirit  of  a  peaceful  follower  of  Jesus  Christ.  See 
Anger. 

REVEREND,  venerable  ;  deserving  awe  and 
respect.  It  is  a  title  of  respect  given  to  ecclesias- 
tics. The  religious  abroad  arc  called  reverend 
fathers;  and  abbesses,  prioresses,  &c,  reverend 
mothers.  In  England,  bishops  are  right  reve- 
rend, and  archbishops  most  reverend ;  private 
clergymen,  reverend.  In  France,  before  the  re- 
volution, their  bishops,  archbishops,  and  abbots, 
were  all  alike,  most  reverend.  In  Scotland,  the 
clergy  individually  are  reverend;  a  synod  is,  very 
reverend;  and  the  general  assembly  is,  venerable. 
The  Dissenters,  also,  in  England  have  the  title 
of  reverend;  though  some  of  them  suppose  the 
term  implies  too  much  to  be  given  to  a  mere 
creature,  and  that  of  God  only  it  may  be  said 
with  propriety,  "  holy  and  reverend  is  his  name," 
Ps.  cxi.  4. 

REVERENCE,  awful  regard  ;  an  act  of  obei- 
sance ;  a  submissive  and  humble  deportment.  See 
Lord's  Name  taken  in  Vain. 

RIGHTEOUSNESS,  justice,  holiness.  The 
righteousness  of  God-  is  the  absolute  and  essential 
perfection  of  his  nature ;  sometimes  it  is  put  for 
his  justice.  The  righteousness  of  Christ,  denotes 
not  only  his  absolute  perfection,  but  is  taken  for 
his  perfect  obedience  to  the  law,  and  suffering  the 
penalty  thereof  in'our  stead.  The  righteousness 
of  the  law  is  that  obedience  which  the  law  re- 
quires. The  righteousness  of  faith  is  the  righte- 
ousness of  Christ  as  received  by  faith.  The  saint* 
have  a  threefold  righteousness.  1.  The  righteous- 
ness of  their  persons,  as  in  Christ,  his  merit  being 
imputed  to  them,  and  they  accepted  on  the  account 
thereof,  2  Cor.  v.  21 ;  Eph.  v.  27;  Is.  xlv.  24.— 
2.  The  righteousness  of  their  principles  being  de- 
rived from,  and  formed  according  to,  the  rule  of 
right,  Ps.  cxix.  11. — 3.  The  righteousness  of  their 
lives,  produced  by  the  sanctifying  influence  of  the 
Holy  Spirit,  without  which  no  man  shall  see  the 
Lord,  Heb.  xiii.  11 ;  1  Cor.  vi.  11.  See  Imputa- 
tion, Justification,  Sanctification;  Dickin- 
son's Letters,  let.  12;  Witherspoon's  Essay  on 
Imputed  Righteousness;  Hervefs  Theron  and 
Aspasio;  Dr.  Owen  on  Justification;  Watls's 
Works,  p.  532.  vol.  iii.  oct.  ed. ;  Jcnks  on  Sub- 
mission to  the  Righteousness  of  God. 

RITE,  a  solemn  act  of  religion:  an  external 

ceremony.     (See  Ceremony.)     For  the   right3 

of  the    Jews,    see    Loicman's   Hebrew   Ritual; 

Spencer  de  Heb.  Leg.;  Durcll  on  the  Mosaic  In* 

2  i  2 


SABBATARIANS 
stitution;  Bishop  Law's  Theory  of  Religion,  p. 
89.  i>;h  cd.;  Godwyn'S  Moses  and  Aaron;  Ed- 
wards' 8  Surrey  qf  all  Religions,  vol.  i.  ch.  !(; 
Jennings's  Jewish  Antiquities. 

RITUAL,  a  hook  directing  the  order  anil 
manner  to  he  observed  in  performing  divine  ser- 
vice in  a  particular  church,  diocese,  or  the  like. 

ROGERENES,  so  called  from  John  Rogers, 
their  chief  leader.  They  appeared  in  New  Eng- 
land abbot  ltJ77.  The  principal  distinguishing 
tenet  of  this  denomination  was,  that  worship 
performed  the  first  day  of  the  week  was  a  species 
of  idolatry  which  they  ought  to  oppose.  In  con- 
sequence of  this,  they  used  a  variety  of  measures 
to  disturb  those  wh.>  were  assembled  for  public 
worship  on  the  Lord's  day. 

ROMAN  CATHOLIC  CHURCH  IN 
THE  UNITED  STATES.  The  earliest 
settlement  of  Roman  Catholics  in  this  country. 
appears  to  have  been  made  in  Maryland.  In 
1632,  a  Jesuit  accompanied  the  emigrants  to  this 
state;  and  from  that  date  till  the  period  of  the 
revolution,  the  American  •Catholics  in  Maryland 
and  Virginia  were  constantly  served  by  Jesuit 
missionaries,  successively  scut  from  England. — 
The  Rev.  Dr.  John  Carroll  having  been  elected 
the  first  bishop,  by  the  clergy,  through  a  special 
indulgence  granted  them  by  the  pope,  Pius  VI., 
a  see  was  constituted,  and  the  bishop  elect  con- 
secrated in  England,  August  15,  17D0.  He.  had 
been  chosen  by  twenty-four  out  of  twenty-six 
priests  assembled  for  the  purpose.  At  length,  in 
1810,  the  increase  of  the  Romish  communion 
had  become  so  great  in  the  United  States,  it  was 
judged  best  at  Rome  to  erert  the  Episcopate  of 
Baltimore  into  a  Metropolitan  or  Archi-episcopal 
see,  and  to  establish  four  new  suffragan  .dioceses, 
viz.  Boston,  New  York,  Philadelphia,  and  Bards- 
town,  Kentucky.  This  was,  accordingly,  carried 
into  effect  with  great  pomp  and  solemnity.  Pre- 
vious to  this  period,  New  Orleans  had  been  erect- 
ed into  a  bishopric ;  and  in  18:20,  those  of  Rich- 
mond and  Charleston  were  added.  All  these 
receive  their  titles  from  the  places  where  they  are 
constituted,  as  in  countries  connected  with  the 
Romish  government,  or  as  is  done  in  episcopal 
England.  Singular,  therefore,  as  is  the  sound, 
Boston,  the  capital  of  the  Puritans  is  designated 
as  an  episcopate  subject  to  Rome,  an  event  doubt- 
less regarded  with  triumph  at  her  court.  To  the 
above  Episcopal  sees,  that  of  Ohio  has  been  sub- 
sequently added,  and  is  denominated  from  Cin- 
cinnati, the  principal  town,  where  the  bishop's 
cathedral  was  consecrated  December  17,  182b'. — 
Mobile  has  also  been  created  an  episcopate  by 
Pius  VIII.  the  present  pope. 

The  diocese   of  Bardstown  possesses  a   Do- 
minican   convent,    two    nunneries,    and    thirty 
hurches.     Nunneries   are  also  connected  with 
most  of  the  other  dioceses.     The  population  be- 
longing to  the  Roman  Catholic  church  in  this 


SABBATARIANS 
country  is  estimated  at  ha,f  a  million.  They 
have  in  the  United  States  an  archbishop,  who 
resides  at  Baltimore,  and  nine  bishops.  The 
sum  of  $24,000,  raised  in  Europe  by  the  "  Asso- 
ciation for  the  Propagation  of  the  Faith.11  was 
assigned  in  1828,  to  the  missions  of  America,  to 
be  appropriated  more  especially  to  the  benefit  bf 
the  great  Valley  of  the  West.  They  have  ]>e- 
riodical  publications  at  Charleston.  (South  Caro- 
lina,) Hartford,  and  Boston.  A  convention  of  thr. 
prelates  met  at  Baltimore  in  October,  1829,  and 
addressed  a  pastoral  letter  to  the  laity  in  th  s 
United  States.  The  principal  matters  of  exhorta- 
tion are,  the  necessity  of  greatly  increasing  the 
number  of  the  priests ;  the  importance  of  the 
education  of  children  ;  infiuence  through  means 
of  the  press ;  interpreting  the  Scriptures  "  ac- 
cording to  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  church  ;" 
adherence  to  the  principles  and  government  of  the 
church;  urgency  of  etlbrts  to  disseminate  the 
true  faith,  &c.  On  the  whole,  the  state  and 
prospects  of  the  Papal  church  in  the  United 
States  are  such,  that  protestants  are  beginning  to 
regard  them  in  a  very  serious  light.  See  Quar- 
terly Register  and  Journal  of  the  American 
Education  Society  for  February,  1830. — B. 

•ROSARY,   a  bunch  or  string   of  beads  on 
which  the  Roman  Catholics  count  their  prayers. 

ROSICRUCIANS,  a  name  assumed  by  a 
sect  or  cabal  of  hcrmetical  philosophers,  who 
arose,  as  it  has  been  said,  or  at  least  became  first 
taken  notice  of,  in  Germany,  in  the  beginning 
of  the  fourteenth  century.  They  bound  them- 
selves together  by  a  solemn  secret,  which  they  all 
swore  inviolably  to  preserve ;  and  obliged  them- 
selves, at  their  admission  into  the  order,  to  a 
strict  observance  of  certain  established  rules. — ■ 
They  pretended  to  know  all  sciences,  and  chiefly 
medicine;  whereof  they  published  themselves 
the  restorers.  They  pretended  to  be  masters  of 
abundance  of  important  secrets,  and  among 
others,  that  of  the  philosopher's  stone;  all  winch 
they  affirmed  to  have  received  by  tradition  from 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  Chaldeans,  the  Magi,  and 
Gymnosophists.  They  have  been  distinguished 
by  several  names,  accommodated  to  the  several 
branches  of  their  doctrine.  Because  they  pre- 
tend to  protract  the  period  of  human  life  by 
means  of  certain  nostrums,  and  even  to  restore 
youth,  they  were  called  Immortales;  as  they  pre- 
tended to  know  all  things,  they  have  been  called 
liluminati;  and,  because  they  have  made  no  ap- 
pearance for  several  years,  unless  the  sect  of  Illu- 
minated on  the  continent  derives  its  origin  from 
them,  they  have  been  called  the  Invisible  Bro- 
thers. Their  society  is  frequently  signed  by  the 
letters  F.  R.  C.  which  some  among  them  inter- 
pret Fratres  Roris  Cocti;  it  being  pretended  that 
the  matter  of  the  philosopher's  stone  is  dew  con- 
cocted, exalted,  &c. 
RUSSIAN  CHURCH.  SeeGitEEKCiiCRcn 


S. 


SABBATARIANS,  those  who  keep  the 
seventh  day  as  the  sabbath.  They  are  to  be 
found  principally,  if  not  wholly,  among  the  Bap- 
tists. They  object  to  the  reasons  which  are  gene- 
rally alleged  for  keeping  the  first  day  ;  and  assert, 
that  the  change  from  the  seventh  to  the  first 
408 


was  effected  by  Consfantine  on  his  conversion 
to  Christianity.  The  three  following  propositions 
contain  a  summary  of  their  principles  as  to  this 
article  of  the  sabbath  by  which  they  stand  dis- 
tinguished. 1.  That  God  hath  required  the  ob- 
servation of  the   seventh,  or  last  day  of  every 


SABBATH 

week,  to  he  observed  by  mankind  universally  for 
the  weekly  sabbath. — 2.  That  this  command  of 
God  is  perpetually  binding  on  man  till  time  shall 
be  no  more. — And,  3.  That  this  sacred  rest  of 
the  seventh-day  sabbath  is  not  (by  divine  au- 
thority) changed  from  the  seventh  and  last  to  the 
lirst  day  of  the  week,  or  that  the  Scripture  doth 
no  where  require  the  observation  of  any  other 
'day  of  the  week  for  the  weekly  sabbath,  but  the 
seventh  day  only.  They  hold,  in  common  with 
other  Christians,  the  distinguishing  doctrines  of 
Christianity.  There  are  two  congregations  of 
the  Sabbatarians  in  London;  one  among  the 
general  Baptists,  meeting  in  Mill  Yard;  the 
(Jther  among  the  particular  Baptists,  in  Cripple- 
gat&  There  are,  also,  a  few  to  be  found  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  the  kingdom,  and  some,  it  is  said, 
in  America.  A  tract,  in  support  of  this  doctrine, 
was  published  by  Mr.  Comthwaite,  in  1740. — 
See  Evans's  Sketch  of  the  Denominations  of 
Ike  Christian  World;  and  books  under  next 
article. 

SABBATARIANS  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES.  The  Sabbatarians  in  this  country 
nre  more  generally  known  by  the  name  of  Se- 
venth-day Baptists,  and  differ  from  the  Baptists 
generally  in  no  respect,  but  in  regard  to  the  sab- 
bath, believing  that  the  seventh,  and  not  the  first 
day  of  the  week,  is  the  day  which  ought  to  be 
religiously  observed.  In  1668,  there  were  a  few 
churches  of  this  connexion  in  England.  The 
first  Sabbatarian  church  in  America,  was  formed 
in  Newport,  Rhode  Island,  in  1671.  They  are 
confined  principally  to  that  state.  A  few  years 
since  they  numbered  about  1000  communicants. 
In  the  United  States  there  arc  about  2000  mem- 
bers united  together  in  an  annual  conference. 
Population  10,000.— B. 

SABBATH,  in  the  Hebrew  language,  signi- 
fies rest,  and  is  the  seventh  day  of  the  week ;  a 
day  appointed  for  religious  duties,  and  a  total 
cessation  from  work,  in  commemoration  of  God's 
resting  on  the  seventh  day ;  and  likewise  in  me- 
morial of  the  redemption  of  the  Israelites  from 
Egyptian  bondage. 

Concerning"  the  time  when  the  Sabbath  was 
first  instituted,  there  have  been  different  opinions. 
Some  have  maintained  that  the  salification  of 
the  seventh  day  mentioned  in  Gen.  ii.  is  only 
there  spoken  of  Six  jrpoM^sw?,  or  by  anticipation  ; 
nnd  is  to  be  understood  of  the  sabbath  afterwards 
enjoined  in  the  wilderness;  and  that  the  histo- 
rian, writing  after  it  was  instituted,  there  gives 
the  reason  of  its  institution  ;  and  this  is  supposed 
to  be  the  case,  as  it  is  never  mentioned  during 
the  patriarchal  age.  But  against  this  sentiment 
it  is  urged,  1.  That  it  cannot  be  easily  supposed 
that  the  inspired  penman  would  have  mentioned 
the  sancttlication  of  the  seventh  day  among  the 
primeval  transactions,  if  such  sanctification  had 
not  taken  place  until  2500  years  afterwards. — 
9.  That  considering  Adam  was  restored  to  favour 
through  a  Mediator,  and  a  religious  service  in- 
stituted, which  man  was  required  to  observe,  in 
testimony  not  only  of  his  dependence  on  the 
Creator,  but  also  of  his  faith  and  hope  in  the 
promise,  it  seems  reasonable  that  an  institution 
so  grand  and  solemn,  and  so  necessary  to  the 
observance  of  this  service,  should  be  then  exist- 
ent.— 3.  That  it  is  no  proof  against  its  existence 
hecause  it  is  not  mentioned  in  the  patriarchal  age, 
no  more  than  it  is  against  its  existence  from 
403 


SABBATH 

Moses  to  the  end  of  David's  reign,  which  was 
near  440  years. — 4.  That  the  Sabbath  was  men- 
tioned as  a  well-known  solemnity  before  the  pro- 
mulgation of  the  law,  Exod.  xvi.  23.  For  the 
manner  in  which  the  Jews  kept  it,  and  the  awful 
consequences  of  neglecting  it,  we  refer  the  reader 
to  the  Old  Testament,  Lev.  xxvi.  34,  35;  Neh. 
xiii.  16,  18;  Jer.  xvii.  21;  Ezek.  xx.  16,  17; 
Num.  xv.  23,  36. 

Under  the  Christian  dispensation,  the  Sabbath 
is  altered  from  the  seventh  to  the  first  day  of  the 
week.  The  arguments  for  the  change  are  these  : 

1.  As  the  seventh  day  was  observed  by  the  Jew 
ish  church  in  memory  of  the  rest  of  God  after 
the  works  of  the  creation,  and  their  deliverance 
from  Pharaoh's  tyranny,  so  the  first  day  of  the 
week  has  always  been  observed  by  the  Christian 
church  in  memory  of  Christ's  resurrection. — 

2.  Christ  made  repeated  visits  to  his  disciples  on 
that  day. — 3.  It  is  called  the  Lord's  day,  Rev.  i. 
10. — 4.  On  this  day  the  apostles  were  assem- 
bled, when  the  Holy  Ghost  came  down  so  visibly 
upon  them,  to  qualify  them  for  the  conversion  of 
the  world. — 5.  On  this  day  we  find  St.  Paul 
preaching  at  Troas,  when  the  disciples  came  to 
break  bread. — The  directions  the  apostles  give  to 
the  Christians  plainly  allude  to  their  religious 
assemblies  on  the  first  day. — 7.  Pliny  bears  wit- 
ness of  the  first  day  of  the  week  being-  kept  as  a 
festival,  in  honour  of  the  resurrection  of  Christ ; 
and  the  primitive  Christians  kept  it  in  the  most 
solemn  manner. 

These  arguments,  however,  are  not  satisfactory 
to  some ;  and  it  must  be  confessed  that  there  is  no 
law  in  the  New  Testament  concerning  the  first 
day.  However,  it  may  be  observed,  that  it  is  not 
so  much  the  precise  time  that  is  universally  bind- 
ing, as  that  one  day  out  of  seven  is  to  be  regarded. 
"  As  it  is  impossible,"  says  Dr.  Doddridge,  "  cer- 
tainly to  determine  which  is  the  seventh  day 
from  the  creation :  and  as,  in  consequence  of  the 
spherical  form  of  the  earth,  and  the  absurdity  of 
the  scheme  which  supposes  it  one  great  plain,  the 
change  of  place  will  necessarily  occasion  some 
alteration  in  the  time  of  the  beginning  and  end- 
ing of  any  day  in  question,  it  being  always  at  the 
same  time,  somewhere  or  other,  sun-rising  and 
sun-setting,  noon  and  midnight,  it  seems  very 
unreasonable  to  lay  such  a  stress  upon  the  parti- 
cular day  as  soma  do.  It  seems  abundantly  suffi- 
cient that  there  be  six  days  of  labour  and  one 
of  religious  rest,  which  there  will  be  upon  the 
Christian  and  the  Jewish  scheme." 

As  the  sabbath  is  of  divine  institution,  so  it  is 
to  be  kept  holy  unto  the  Lord.  Numerous  have 
been  the  days  appointed  by  men  for  religious  ser- 
vices ;  but  these  are  not  binding  because  of  hu- 
man institution.  Not  so  the  sabbath.  Hones 
the.  fourth  commandment  is  ushered  in  with  a 
peculiar  emphasis — "Remember  that  thou  keep 
holy  the  sabbath  day."  This  institution  is  wise 
as  to  its  ends:  That  God  may  be  worshipped ; 
man  instructed;  nations  benefited ;  and  families 
devoted  to  the  service  of  God.  It  is  lasting  as 
to  its  duration.  The  abolition  of  it  would  be 
unreasonable;  unscriptural,  Exod.  xxxi.  13;  and 
every  way  disadvantageous  to  the  body,  to  society, 
to  the  soul,  and  even  to  the  brute  creation.  It  is, 
however,  awfully  violated  by  visiting,  feasting, 
indolence,  buying  and  selling,  working,  worldly 
amusements,  and  travelling.  "Look  into  ttifl 
streets,"  says  bishop  Porteus,    "on  the  Lord's 


/ 

SACRAMENT 
day,  and  sec  whether  they  convoy  the  idea  of  a 
day  of  rest  Do  not  our  servants  and  our  cattle 
seem  to  he  almost  as  fully  occupied  on  that  day 
as  on  any  other?  And,  as  it' this  was  not  a  suffi- 
cient infringement  of  their  rights,  we  contrive  by 
needless  entertainments  at  home,  and  needless. 
journeys  abroad,  which  are  often  by  choice  arid 
inclination  reserved  tor  this  very  day,  to  take  up 
all  the  little  remaining  part  of  their  leisure  time. 
A  sabbath  day's  journey  was  among  the  Jews  a 
proverbial  expression  for  a  very  short  one;  among 
us  it  can  have  no  such  meaning  affixed  to  it. 
That  day  scons  to  he  considered  by  too  many  as 
set  apart,  by  divine  and  human  authority,  for  the 
purpose  not  of  rest,  but.  of  its  direct  opposite,  the 
labour  o(  travelling,  thus  adding  one  day  more 
of  torment  to  those  generous  but  wretched  ani- 
mals whose  services  they  hire  ;  and  who,  being 
generally  strained  beyond  their  strength  the  other 
six  days  of  the  week,  have,  of  all  creatures  under 
heaven,  the  best  and  most  equitable  claim  to  sus- 
pension of  labour  on  the  seventh." 

These  are  evils  greatly  to  be  lamented;  they 
are  an  insult  to  God,  an  injury  to  ourselves,  and 
an  awful  example  to  our  servants,  our  children, 
and  our  friends.  To  sanctify  this  day,  we  should 
consider  it,  1.  A  day  of  rent;  not,  indeed,  to  ex- 
clude works  of  mercy  and  charity,  but.  a  cessation 
from  ail  ia!>cur  and  care. — -2.  As  a  day  of  remem- 
brance} of  creation,  preservation,  redemption. — 
3.  As  a  day  of  meditation  and  prayer,  in  which 
we  should  cultivate  c«mmunion  with  God,  Rev. 
i.  10. — 1.  As  a  day  of  public  worship,  Acts  xx. 
7  ;  John  xx.  II). — 5.  As  a  day  of  joy,  Is.  lvi.  2; 
l's.  cxviii.  24. — 6.  As  a  day  of  praise,  Ps.  cxvi. 
1*3,  1  1.— 7.  As  a  day  of  antidilution;  looking 
forward  to  that,  holy,  happy,  and  eternal  sabbath, 
that  remains  for  the  people  of  God.  See  Chand- 
ler's two  Sermons  on  the  Sabbath;  Wright  mi 
the  Sabbath;  Watts' s  Holiness  of  THmes  and 
Places;  Orion's  six  Disc,  on  the  Lord's  Day; 
KcnnicotVs  Sermon  and  Dial,  on  the  Sabbath; 
lip.  Portcus's  Ser.  ser.  '.).  vol.  i.;  Watts's  Ser. 
ser.  57.  vol.  i. ;  S.  Palmer's  Apology  for  the 
Christian  Sabbath;  Kennicott  on  the  Oblations 
of  Cain  and  Abel,  p.  184,  185. 

SABELL1ANS,  a  sect  in  the  third  century 
tint  embraced  the  opinions  of  Sabcllius,  a  philo- 
sopher of  Egypt,  who  openly  taught  that  there 
is  but  one  person  in  the  GodheaJ. 

The  Sabellians  maintained  that  the  Word  and 
the  lioly  Spirit  are  only  virtues,  emanations,  or 
functions  of  the  Deity;  and  held  that  he  who  is 
in  heaven  is  the  father  of  all  things;  that  he  de- 
scended into  the  Virgin,  became  a  child,  and  was 
born  of  her  as  a  sou;  and  that,  having  accom- 
plished the  mystery  of  our  salvation,  he  diffused 
himself  on  the  apostles  ill  tongues  of  fire,  and 
was  then  denominated  the  Holy  Ghost.  This 
they  explained  by  resembling  God  to  the  sun; 
the  illuminated  virtue  or  quality  of  which  was 
the  Word,  anil  its  warming  virtue  the  Holy  Spirit. 
The  Word,  they  taught,  was  darted,  like  a  di- 
vine ray,  to  accomplish  the  work  of  redemption; 
end  that,  being  re-ascended  to  heaven,  the  influ- 
ences of  the  Father  were  communicated  after  a 
like  manner  to  the  apostles. 

S  \<  !l  )PH(  Mil.  a  denomination  in  the  fourth 
century,  so  called,  because  they  always  went, 
clothed  in  sackcloth,  and  affected  a  great  deal  of 

austerity  and  penance. 

SACRAMENT  is  derived  from  the  Latin 
401 


SACRIFICE 
word  sacramentvm,  which  signifies  an  oath,  par- 
ticularly the  oath  taken  by  soldiers  to  be  true. 
to  their  country  and  rreneral. — The  word  was 
adopted  by  the  writers  of  the  Latin  church,  to 
denote  those  ordinances  of  religion  by  which 
Christians  came  under  an  obligation  of  obedience 
to  God,  and  which  obligation,  they  supposed,  was 
equally  sacred  with  that  of  an  oath.  [See  Vow. J 
Of  sacraments,  in  this  sense  of  the  word,  Pro- 
testant churches  admit  of  but  two  ;  and  it  is  not 
easy  to  conceive  how  a  greater  number  can  be 
made  out  from  Scripture,  if  the  definition  of  a 
sacrament  be  just  wdiich  is  given  by  the  church 
of  England.  By  that  church,  the  meaning  of 
the  word  sacrament  w  declared  to  be  "an  outward 
and  visible  sign  of  an  inward  and  spiritual  srace 
given  unto  us,  ordained  by  Christ  himself,  as  a 
means  whereby  we  receive  the  same,  and  a  pledge 
to  assure  us  thereof." — According  to  this  defini- 
tion, baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper  are  certainly 
sacraments,  for  each  consists  of  an  outward  and 
visible  sign  of  what  is  believed  to  be  an  inward 
and  spiritual  grace ;  both  were  ordained  by  Christ 
himself,  and  in  the  reception  of  each  does  the 
Christian  solemnly  devote  himself  to  the  service 
of  his  Divine  Master.  [See  Baptism,  and  Lord's 
Supper.]  The  Romanists,  however,  add  to  this 
number  confirmation,  penance,  extreme  unction, 
ordination,  and  marriage,  holding  in  all  seven 
sacraments.  [See  Popkry.]  Numerous,  how- 
ever, as  the  sacraments  of  the  Romish  church  are, 
a  sect  of  Christians  sprung  up  in  England,  early 
in  the  last  century,  who  increased  their  number. 
The  founder  of  this  sect  was  a  Dr.  Deacon. 
According  to  these  men,  every  rite,  and  every 
phrase,  in  the  book  called  the  Apostolical  Consti- 
tutions, were  certainly  in  use  among  the  apostles 
themselves.  Still,  however,  they  make  a  distinc- 
tion between  the  greater  and  the  lesser  sacra- 
ments. The  greater  sacraments  are  only  two, 
baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  lesser  are 
no  fewer  than  ten,  viz.  five  belonging  to  baptism, 
exorcism,  anointing  with  oil,  the  while  garment, 
a  taste  of  milk  and  honey,  and  anointing  with 
chrism  or  ointment.  The  other  five  are,  the  sign 
of  the  cross,  imposition  of  hands,  unction  of  the 
sick,  holy  orders,  and  matrimony.  This  sect, 
however,  if  not  extinguished,  is  supposed  to  be 
in  its  last  wane.  Its  founder  published,  in  1748, 
his  full,  true,  and  comprehensive  view  of  Chris- 
tianity, in  two  catechisms,  octavo. 

SACRAMENTARIANS,  a  general  name 
given  for  all  such  as  have  held  erroneous  opinions 
respecting  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  term  is  chiefly 
applied  among  Catholics,  by  way  of  reproach  to 
the  Lutherans,  Calvinists,  and  other  Protestants. 

SACRIFICE,  an  offering  made  to  God  on  an 
altar,  by  means  of  a  regular  minister;  as  an  ac- 
knowledgment of  his  power,  and  a  payment  of 
homage.  Sacrifices  (though  the  term  is  some- 
times used  to  comprehend  all  the  offerings  made 
to  God,  or  in  any  way  devoted  to  his  service  and 
honour)  differ  from  mere  oblations  in  this,  that  in 
a  sacrifice  there  is  a  real  destruction  or  change 
of  the  thing  offered ;  whereas  an  oblation  is  only 
a  simple  offering  or  gift,  without  any  such  change 
at  all:  thus,  all  sorts  of  tithes,  and  first  fruits, 
and  whatever  of  men's  worldly  substance  is  con- 
secrated to  God  for  the  support  of  his  worship 
and  the  maintenance  of  his  ministers,  are  offer- 
ings, or  oblations;  and  these,  under  the  Jewish 
law,  were  cither  of  living  creatures,    or  other 


SACRIFICE 

tilings :  but  sacrifices,  in  the  more  peculiar  sense 
of  the  term,  were  either  wholly  or  in  part  con- 
sumed by  fire.  They  have,  by  divines,  been 
divided  into  bloody  and  unbloody.  Bloody  sacri- 
fices were  made  of  living  creatures ;  unbloody,  of 
the  fruits  of  the  earth.  They  have  also  been 
divided  into  expiatory,  impelratory,  and  eucha- 
ristical.  The  first  kind  were  offered  to  obtain 
if  God  the  forgiveness  of  sins;  the  second,  to 
irocure  some  favour;  and  the  third,  to  express 
thankfulness  for  favours  already  received.  Un- 
der one  or  other  of  these  heads  may  all  sacrifices 
be  arranged,  though  we  are  told  that  the  Egyp- 
tians had  six  hundred  and  sixty-six  different 
kinds;  a  number  surpassing  all  credibility.  Va- 
rious have  been  the  opinions  of  the  learned  con- 
rerning  the  origin  of  sacrifices.  Some  suppose 
that  they  had  their  origin  in  superstition,  and 
were  merely  the  inventions  of  men ;  others,  that 
they  originated  in  the  natural  sentiments  of  the 
human  heart;  others  imagine  that  God,  in  order 
to  prevent  their  being  offered  to  idols,  introduced 
diem  into  his  service,  though  he  did  not  approve 
of  them  as  good  in  themselves,  or  as  proper  rites 
of  worship.  "  But  that  animal  sacrifices,"  says 
a  learned  author,  "  were  not  instituted  by  man, 
seems  extremely  evident  from  the  acknowledged 
universality  of  the  practice  ;  from  the  wonderful 
sameness  of  the  manner  in  which  the  whole  world 
offered  these  sacrifices ;  and  from  the  expiation 
which  was  constantly  supposed  to  be  effected  by 
them: 

"  Now  human  reason,  even  among  the  most 
strenuous  opponents  of  the  divine  institutions,  is 
allowed  to  be  incapable  of  pointing  out  the  least 
natural  fitness  or  congruity  between  blood  and 
atonement;  between  killing  of  God's  creatures 
and  the  receiving  a  pardon  for  the  violation  of 
God's  laws.  This  consequence  of  sacrifices, 
when  properly  offered,  was  the  invariable  opinion 
of  the  heathens,  but  not  the  whole  of  their  opinion 
in  this  matter ;  for  they  had  also  a  traditionary 
belief  among  them,  that  these  animal  sacrifices 
were  not  only  expiations,  but  vicarious  commuta- 
tions, and  substituted  satisfactions;  and  they 
called  the  animals  so  offered  [their  Mn^^ii]  the 
ransom  of  their  souls. 

"But  if  these  notions  are  so  remote  from,  nay, 
so  contrary  to,  any  lesson  that  nature  teaches,  as 
they  confessedly  are,  how  came  the  whole  world 
to  practise  the  rites  founded  upon  them?  It  is 
certain  that  the  wisest  Heathens,  Pythagoras, 
Plato,  Porphyry,  and  others,  slighted  the  religion 
of  such  sacrifices,  and  wondered  how  an  institu- 
tion so  dismal  (as  it  appeared  to  them,)  and  so  big 
with  absurdity,  could  diffuse  itself  through  the 
world. — An  advocate  for  the  sufficiency  of  reason 
[Tindall]  supposes  the  absurdity  prevailed  by  de- 
grees; and  the  priests  who  shared  with  their 
gods,  and  reserved  their  best  bits  for  themselves, 
had  the  chief  hand  in  this  gainful  superstition. 
But  it  may  well  be  asked  who  were  the  priests  in 
the  days  of  Cain  and  Abel?  Or,  what  gain  could 
this  superstition  be  U>  them,  when  the  one  gave 
away  his  fruits,  and  the  other  his  animal  sacri- 
fice, without  being  at  liberty  to  taste  the  least  part 
of  it?  And  it  is  worth  remarking,  that  what  this 
author  wittily  falls  the  best  bits,  and  appropriates 
to  the  priests,  appears  to  have  been  the  skin  of 
the  burnt-offering  among  the  jews,  and  the  skin 
and  feet  among  the  Heathens." 

Dr.  Spencer  observes  [De  Leg.  Hob.  lib.  iii. 
405 


SACRIFICE 

§  0,]  that  "sacrifices  were  looked  upon  as  gifts. 
and  that  the  general  opinion  was,  that  gifts  would 
have  the  same  effect  with  God  as  with  man ; 
would  appease  wrath,  conciliate  favour  with  the 
Deity,  and  testify  the  gratitude  and  affection  of 
the  sacrificer ;  and  that  from  this  principle  pro- 
ceeded expiatory,  precatory,  and  eucharistical 
offerings.  This  is  all  that  is  pretended  from  na- 
tural light  to  countenance  this  practice.  But, 
how  well  soever  the  comparison  may  be  thought 
to  hold  between  sacrifices  and  gifts,  yet  the  opi- 
nion that  sacrifices  would  prevail  with  God  must 
j  proceed  from  an  oljservation  that  gifts  had  pre- 
vailed with  men ;  an  observation  this  which  Cain 
and  Abel  bad  little  opportunity  of  making.  And 
if  the  coats  of  skin  which  God  directed  Adam  to 
make  were  the  remains  of  sacrifices,  sure  Adam 
could  not  sacrifice  from  this  observation,  when 
there  were  no  subjects  in  the  world  upon  which 
he  could  make  these  observations."  [Kennicott's 
second  Dissert,  on  the  Oflerings  of  Cain  and 
AbeL  p.  201,  &c] 

But  the  grand  objection  to  the  divine  origin  of 
sacrifices  is  drawn  from  the  Scriptures  them- 
selves, particularly  the  following,  [Jer.  vii.  22, 
23  :]  "1  spake  not  to  your  fathers,  nor  command- 
ed them,  at  the  time  that  I  brought  them  out  of 
Egypt,  concerning  the  matters  of  burnt-offerings 
or  sacrifices ;  but  only  this  very  thing  commanded 
1  them,  saying,  Obey  my  voice,  and  I  icill  be  your 
God,  and  ye  shall  be  my  people."  The  ingenious 
writer  above  referred  to,  accounts  for  this  passage 
[p.  153  and  '209]  by  referring  to  the.  transaction 
at  Marah,  [Exod.  xv.  23,  2(3,]  at  which  time  God 
spake  nothing  concerning  sacrifices;  it  certainly 
cannot  be  intended  to  contradict  the  whole  book 
of  Leviticus,  which  is  full  of  such  appointments 
Another  learned  author,  to  account  for  the  above, 
and  other  similar  passages,  observes,  "  Tire  Jews 
werediligent  in  performlngthc external  serviccsof 
religion ;  in  offering  prayers,  incense,  sacrifices,  ob- 
lations :  but  these  prayers  were  not  offered  with 
faith;  and  their  oblations  were  mademore  frequent- 
ly to  their  idols  than  to  the  God  of  their  fathers. 
The  Hebrew  idiom  excludes  with  a  general  nega- 
tive, in  a  comparative  sei*e,  one  of  two  objects 
opposed  to  one  another,  thus  :  '  I  will  have  mercy, 
and  not  sacrifice.'  [Hosea  vi.  6.]  '  For  I  spake 
not  to  your  fathers,  nor  commanded  them,  con- 
cerning burnt-ofierings  or  sacrifices;  but  this 
thing  I  commanded  them,  saying,  Obey  my 
voice.'1  "  [Lowth  in  Isaiah  Ixiii.  22,  24.]  The 
ingenious  Dr.  Doddridge  remarks,  that,  accord- 
ing to  the  genius  of  the  Hebrew  language,  one 
thing  seems  to  be  forbidden,  and  another  com- 
manued,  when  the  meaning  only  is,  that  the  latter 
is  generally  to  lie  preferred  to  the  former*  The 
text  before  us  is  a  remarkable  instance  of  this; 
as  likewise  Joel  ii.  13;  Matt.  vi.  19,  20;  John 
vi.  27;  Luke  xii.  4,  5;  and  Col.  iii.  2.  And  it 
is  evident  that  Gen.  xlv.  8;  Exod.  xvi.  8;  John 
v.  30 ;  vii.  19,  and  many  other  passages,  are  to  lie 
expounded  in  the  same  comparative  sense.  [Pa- 
raph, on  the  New  Test.,  sect.  59.]  So  that  the 
whole  may  be  resolved  into  the  apopthegm  of  the 
wise  man,  [Prov.  xxi.  3:]  "To  do  justice  and 
judgment  is  more  acceptable  to  the  Lord  than 
sacrifice."  See  Kcnnicott,  above  referred  to; 
Edwards's  History  of  Redemption,  p.  7(5,  note  ; 
Outran  de  SacrUiciis;  Warburton's  Div,  Leg. 
b.  9.  C.  2 ;  Bishop  Laic's  Tlwory  of  llel.  p.  50  u 
51 ;  Jennings's  Jewish    \ntiq.  vol.  i.  p.  2G  28 


SAMARITANS 
Flcury's  Manner?  of  the  Israelites,  part  iv.  ch.  4  ; 
AfJEwen  on  the  Types. 

SACRILhlGE,  the  crime  of  profaning  sacred 
tilings,  or  things  devoted  to  God.  Tin-  ancient 
church  distinguished  several  sorts  of  sacrilege. 
The  tirst  was  the  diverting  things  appropriated 
to  sacred  purposes  to  other  uses. — 2.  Robbing  the 
graves,  or  defacing  and  spoiling  the  monuments 
of  the  dead. — 3.  Those  were  considered  as  sacri- 
legious persons  who  delivered  up  their  Bibles  and 
the  sacred  utensils  of  the  church  to  the  Pagans, 
in  the  time  of  the  Dioclesian  persecution. — 
4.  Profaning  the  sacraments,  churches,  altars, 
&c. — 5.  Molesting  or  hindering  a  clergyman  in 
the  performance  of  his  office. — (i.  Depriving  men 
of  the  use  of  the  Scriptures  or  the  sacraments, 
particularly  the  cup  in  the  eucharist.  The  Romish 
casuists  acknowledge  all  these  but  the  last. 

SADDUCEES,  a  famous  sect  among  the 
Jews  ;  so  called,  it  is  said,  from  their  founder  Sa- 
doc  It  began  in  the  time  of  Antigonus,  of  Socho, 
president  of  the  Sanhedrim  at  Jerusalem,  and 
teacher  of  the  law  in  the  principal  divinity  school 
of  that  city.  Antigonus  having  often,  in  his  lec- 
tures, inculcated  to  his  scholars  that  they  ought 
not  to  serve  God  in  a  servile  manner,  hut  only 
out  of  filial  love  and  fear,  two  of  his  scholars,  Sa- 
doc  and  Baithus,  thence  inferred  that  there  were 
no  rewards  at  all  after  this  life ;  and,  therefore, 
separating  from  the  school  of  their  master,  they 
thought  there  was  no  resurrection  nor  future 
state,  neither  angel  nor  spirit,  Matt.  xii.  23 ;  Acts 
j:\iii.  S.  They  seem  to  agree  greatly  with  the 
Epicureans ;  differing  however  in  this,  that  though 
they  denied  a  future  state,  yet  they  allowed  the 
power  of  God  to  create  the  world  ;  whereas  the 
followers  of  Epicurus  denied  it.  It  is  said  also, 
they  rejected  the  Bible,  except  the  Pentateuch; 
denied  predestination;  and  taught,  that  God  had 
made  man  absolute  master  of  all  his  actions,  with- 
out assistance  to  good,  or  restraint  from  evil. 

SAINT,  a  person  eminent  for  godliness.  The 
word  is  generally  applied  by  us  to  the  apostles 
and  other  holy  persons  mentioned  in  the  Scrip- 
tures: but  the  Romanists  make  its  application 
much  more  extensive;  as,  according  to  them,  all 
who  are  canonized  arc  made  saints  of  a  high  de- 
gree.   See  Canonization. 

SALVATION  means  the  safety  oi  preserva- 
tion of  any  thing  that  has  been  or  is  in  danger;  but 
it  is  more  particularly  used  by  us  to  denote  our  de- 
liverance from  sinand  hell,  and  the  final  enjoyment 
of  God  in  a  future  state,  through  the  mediation  of 
Jesus  Christ  See  articles  Atonement,  Propi- 
tiation', Reconciliation,   Redemption,  and 

SaNI  riPICATION. 

SAMARITANS,  an  ancient  sect  among  the 
Jews,  whose  origin  was  in  the  time  of  king  Reho- 
boam,  under  whose  reign  the  people  of  Israel 
were  divided  into  two  distinct  kingdoms,  that  of 
Judah  and  that  of  Israel.  The  capital  of  the 
kingdom  of  Israel  was  Samaria,  whence  the 
I  ,  .  lites  took  the  name  of  Samaritans.  Shal- 
oiancser,  king  of  Assyria,  having  besieged  and 
taken  Samaria,  carried  away  all  the  people  cap- 
tives into  the  remotest  parts  of  his  dominions,  and 
filled  their  place  with  Babylonians,  Cutheans,  and 
Other  idolaters.  These,  finding  that  they  were 
exposed  to  wild  beasts,  desired  that  an  Israelii i.-di 
priest  might  be  senf  among  them  to  instruct  them 
Ui  the  ancient  religion  and  customs  of  the  land 
they  inhabited.  This  being  granted  then:,  they 
406 


SAMARITAN 
were  delivered  from  the  plague  of  wild  beast?, 
and  embraced  the  law  of  Moses,  with  which  they 
mixed  a  great  part  of  their  ancient  idolatry. 
Upon  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  the  Babylonish 
captivity,  it  appears  that  they  had  entirely  quitted 
the  worship  of  their  idols.  But  though  they 
were  united  in  religion,  they  were  not  so  in 
affection  with  the  Jews;  for  they  employed  va- 
rious calumnies  and  stratagems  to  hinder  then 
rebuilding  the  temple  of  Jerusalem ;  and  when 
they  could  not  prevail,  they  erected  a  temple  on 
Mount  Gerizim,  in  opposition  to  that  of  Jerusa- 
lem. [See  2  Kings  xvii.;  Ezra  iv.  v.  vi.]  The 
Samaritans  at  present  are  few  in  number,  but 
pretend  to  great  strictness  in  their  observation  of 
the  law  of  Moses.  They  are  said  to  be  scattered  ; 
some  at  Damascus,  some  at  Gaza,  and  some  at 
Grand  Cairo,  in  Egypt. 

SAMARITAN'PENTATEUCH,  the  col- 
lection of  the  five  books  of  Moses,  written  in  Sa- 
maritan or  Phoenician  characters;  and,  according 
to  some,  the  ancient  Hebrew  characters  which 
were  in  Use  before  the  captivity  of  Babylon. 
This  Pentateuch  was  unknown  in  Europe  til! 
the  seventeenth  century,  though  quoted  by  Eu- 
sebius,  Jerome,  &c.  Archbishop  Usher  was  the 
first,  or  at  least  among  the  first,  who  procured  it 
out  of  the  East,  to  the  number  of  five  or  six  co- 
pies. Pietro  della  Valle  purchased  a  very  neat 
copy  at  Damascus,  in  1G1G,  for  M.  de  Sansi.  then 
ambassador  of  France  at  Constantinople,  and 
afterwards  bishop  of  St.  Malo.  This  book  was 
presented  to  the  Fathers  of  the  Oratory  of  St, 
Honore,  where  perhaps  it  is  still  preserved ;  and 
from  which  father  Morinus,  in  1G32,  printed  the 
first  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  which  stands  in  Le 
Jay's  Polyglot,  but  more  correctly  in  Walton's, 
from  three  Samaritan  manuscripts,  which  be- 
longed to  Usher.  The  generality  of  divines  hold, 
that  the  Samaritan  Pentateuch,  and  that  of  the 
Jews,  are  one  and  the  same  work,  written  in  the 
same  language,  only  in  different  characters ;  and 
that  the  difference  between  the  two  texts  is  ow  ing 
to  the  inadvertency  and  inaccuracy  of  transcribers, 
or  to  the  affectation  of  the  Samaritans,  by  inter- 
polating what  might  promote  their  interests  and 
pretensions;  that  the  two  copies  were  originally 
the  very  same,  and  that  the  additions  were  after- 
wards inserted.  And  in  this  respect  the  Penta- 
teuch of  the  Jews  must  be  allowed  the  preference 
to  that  of  the  Samaritans;  whereas  others  prefer 
the  Samaritan,  as  an  original,  preserved  inthesanifl 
character  and  the  same  condition  in  which  Moses 
left  it.  The  variations,  additions,  and  transposi- 
tions which  are  found  in  the  Samaritan  Penta- 
teuch, are  carefully  collected  by  Hettinger,  and 
may  be  seen  on  confronting  the  two  texts  in  the 
last  volume  of  the  English  Polyglot,  or  by  inspect- 
in^  Kennicott's  edition  of  the  Hebrew  Bible, 
where  the  various  readings  are  inserted.  Some 
of  thfse  interpolations  serve  to  illustrate  the  text : 
others  are  a  kind  of  paraphrase,  expressing  at 
length  what  was  only  hinted  at  in  the  original ; 
and  others,  again,  such  as  favour  their  preten- 
sions against  the  Jews  :  namely,  tin'  potting  Ge- 
rizim for  Ebal.  Besides  the  Pentateuch  in  Phor-- 
nieian  characters,  there  is  another  in  the  language 
which  was  spoken  at  the  time  that  Mans 
first  high  priest  of  the  temple  of  Gerizim,  and 
son-in-law  of  Sanballat,  governor  of  Samaria, 
under  the  king  of  Persia,  took  shelter  among  the 
Samaritans.    "The  language  of  this  last  is  a  mii- 


SANDEMANIANS 
tire  of  Chaldee,  Syrian,  and  Phoenician.     It  is 
called  the  Samaritan  version,  executed  in  favour 

of  those  who  did  not  understand  pure  Hebrew  ; 
and  is  a  literal  translation,  expressing  the  text 
word  for  word. 

SANCTIFICATION,  that  work  of  God's 
grace  by  which  we  are  renewed  after  the  image 
of  God,  set  apart  for  his  service,  and  enabled  to 
die  unto  sin  and  iive  unto  righteousness.  It  must 
be  carefully  considered  in  a  twofold  light.  1.  As 
an  inestimable  privilege  granted  us  from  God, 
1  Thess.  v.  23. — And,  2.  As  an  all-comprehensive 
duty  required  of  us  by  his  holy  word,  1  Thess.  iv. 
3.  It  is  distinguished  from  justification  thus ': 
Justification  changeth  our  state  in  law  before  God 
as  Judge. ;  sanctification  changeth  our  heart  and 
life  before  him  as  our  Father.  Justification  pre- 
cedes, and  sanctification  follows,  as  the  fruit  and 
evidence  of  it.  The  surety-righteousness  cf  Christ 
imputed  is  our  justifying  righteousness;  but  the 
grace  of  God  implanted  is  the  matter  of  our  sanc- 
tification. Justification  is  an  act  done  at  once ; 
sanctification  is  a  work  which  is  gradual.  Justi- 
fication removes  the  guilt  of  sin  ;  sanctification  the 
power  of  it.  Justification  delivers  us  from  the 
avenging  wrath  of  God;  sanctification  conforms 
us  to  his  image.  Yet  justification  and  sanctifica- 
tion are  inseparably  connected  in  the  promise  of 
God,  Rom.  viii.  28  to  30;  in  the  covenant  of 
grace.  Heb.  viii.  10 ;  in  the  doctrines  and  pro- 
mises of  the  Gospel,  Acts  v.  31 ;  and  in  the  ex- 
perience of  all  true  believers,  1  Cor.  vi.  11.  Sanc- 
tification is,  1.  A  divine  work,  and  not  to  be 
begun  or  carried  on  by  the  power  of  man,  Tit.  iii. 
5. — 2.  A  Progressive  work,  and  not  perfected  at 
once,  Prov.  iv.  18. — 3.  An  internal  work,  not 
consisting  in  external  profession  or  bare  morality, 
Psal.  li.  6. — 4.  A  necessary  work;  necessary  as 
to  the  evidence  of  our  state,  the  honour  of  our 
characters,  the  usefulness  of  our  lives,  the  happi- 
ness of  our  minds,  and  the  internal  enjoyment 
of  God's  presence  in  a  future  world,  John  iii.  3; 
Heb.  xii.  14.     Sanctification  evidences  itself  by, 

I.  A  holy  reverence,  Neh.  v.  15. — 2.  Earnest  re- 
gard, Lam.  iii.  24. — 3.  Patient  submission,  Psal. 
xxxix.  9.  Hence  Abp.  Usher  said  of  it,  "Sanc- 
tification is  nothing  less  than  for  a  man  to  be 
brought  to  an  entire  resignation  of  his  will  to  the 
will  of  God,  and  to  live  in  the  offering  up  of  his 
eoul  continually  in  the  flames  of  love,  and  as  a 
whole  burnt-oilering  to  Christ." — 4.  Increasing 
hatred  to  sin,  Psal.  cxix.  133. — 5.  Communion 
with  God,  Isa.  xxvi.  8. — 6.  Delight  in  his  word 
and  ordinances,  Psal.  xxvii.  4. — 7.  Humility,  Job 
xlii.  5,  6. — 8.  Prayer,  Psal.  cix.  4. — 9.  Holy  con- 
fidence, Ps.  xxvii.  1. — 10.  Praise,  Psal.  ciii.  1. — 

II.  Uniform  obedience,  John  xv.  8.  See  Marshall 
on  Sanctification  ;  Dr.  Given  on  the  Holy  Spirit. ; 
Witsii  CEconomia,  lib.  iii.  c.  12;  Broicn's  Nat. 
and  Rev.  Theology,  p.  417;  Haiveis's  Sermons, 
eer.  11,  12,  13;  Scougal's  Works.  See  articles 
Holiness,  Wop.ks. 

SANCTIONS,  Divin'f.,  are  those  acts  or  laws 
of  the  Supreme  Being  which  render  any  thing 
obligatory.     See  Law. 

SANDEMANIANS,  a  sect  that  originated 
in  Scotland  about,  the  year  172^;  where  it  is,  at 
this  time,  distinguished  by  the  name  of  Glassites, 
after  its  founder,  Mr.  John  Glass,  who  was  a 
minister  of  the  established  church  in  that  king- 
dom ;  but  being  charged  with  a  design  of  subvert- 
sif  the  national  covenant,  and  sapping  the 
407 


SANDEMANIANS 
foundation  of  all  national  establishments,  by  main- 
taining that  the  kingdom  of  Christ  is  not  of  this 
world? was  expelled  from  the  synod  by  the  church 
of  Scotland.  His  sentiments  are  fully  explained 
in  a  tract,  published  at  that  time,  entitled,  "The 
Testimony  of  the  King  of  Martyrs,"  and  pre- 
served in  the  first  volume  of  bis  works.  In  con- 
sequence of  Mr.  Glass's  expulsion,  his  adherents 
formed  themselves  into  churches,  conformable,  in 
their  institution  and  discipline,  to  what  they  ap- 
prehended to  be  the  plan  of  the  first  churches 
recorded  in  the  New  Testament.  Soon  after  the 
year  1755,  Mr.  Robert  Sandeman,  an  elder  in 
one  of  these  churches  in  Scotland,  published  a 
series  of  letters  addressed  to  Mr.  Hervey,  occa- 
sioned by  his  Theron  and  Aspasio,  in  which  he 
endeavours  to  show  that  Ids  notion  of  faith  is 
contradictory  to  the  Scripture  account  of  it,  and 
could  only  serve  to  lead  men,  professedly  holding 
the  doctrines  called  Calvinistic,  to  establish  their 
own  righteousness  upon  their  frames,  feelings, 
and  acts  of  faith.  In  these  letters  Mr.  Sandeman 
attempts  to  prove  that  justifying  faith  is  no  more 
than  a  simple  belief  of  the  truth,  or  the  divine 
testimony  passively  received  by  the  understand- 
ing ;  and  that  this  divine  testimony  carries  in  itself 
sufficient  ground  of  hope  to  every  one  who  be- 
lieves it,  without  any  thing  wrought  in  us,  or  done 
by  us,  to  give  it  a  particular  direction  to  ourselves. 

Some  of  the  popular  preachers,  as  they  were 
called,  had  taught  that  it  was  of  the  essence  of 
faitti  to  believe  "that  Christ  is  ours;  but  Mr.  San- 
deman contended,  that  that  which  is  believed  in 
true  faith  is  the  truth,  and  what  would  have  been 
the  truth,  though  we  had  never  believed  it.  They 
dealt  largely  in  calls  and  invitations  to  repent  and 
believe  in  Christ  in  order  to  forgiveness ;  but  he 
rejects  the  whole  of  them,  maintaining  that  the 
Gospel  contained  no  offer  but  that  of  evidence, 
and  that  it  was  merely  a  record  or  testimony  to 
be  credited.  They  had  taught  that  though  ac- 
ceptance with  God,  which  included  the  forgive- 
ness of  sins,  was  merely  on  account  of  the  imputed 
righteousness  of  Christ,  yet  that  none  was  ac- 
cepted of  God,  nor  forgiven,  till  he  repented  of 
his  sin,  and  received  Christ  as  the  only  Saviour; 
but  he  insists  that  there  is  acceptance  with  God 
through  Christ  for  sinners,  while  such  or  before 
"any  act,  exercise,  or  exertion  of  their  minds 
whatsoever;"  consequently  before  repentance; 
and  that  "  a  passive  belief  of  this  quiets  the  guilty 
conscience,  begets  hope,  and  so  lays  the  founda- 
tion for  love."  If  is  by  this  passive  belief  of  the 
truth  that  we,  according  to  Mr.  Sandeman,  arc 
justified,  and  that  boasting  is  excluded.  If  any 
act,  exercise,  or  exertion  of  the  mind,  were  neces- 
sary to  our  being  accepted  of  God,  he  conceives 
there  would  be  whereof  to  glory ;  and  justification 
by  faith  could  not  be  opposed,  as  it  is  in  Rom.  iv. 
4,  G,  to  justification  by  works. 

The  authors  to  whom  Mr.  Sandeman  refers, 
under  the  title  of  "  popular  preachers,"  are  Flavel, 
Boston,  Guthrie,  the  Erskines,  &c.  whom  he  has 
treated  with  acrimony  and  contempt.  "  I  would 
be  far,"  says  he,  "from  refusing  even  to  the 
popular  preachers  themselves  what  they  so  much 
grudge  to  others, — the  benefit  of  the  one  instance 
of  a  hardened  sinner  finding  mercy  at  last ;  for  I 
know  of  no  sinners  more  hardened,  none  greater 
destroyers  of  mankind,  than  they."  There  have 
not  been  wanting  writers,  however,  who  have 
vindicated  these  ministers  from  his  invectives  and 


SANDEMAN1ANS 
have  endeavoured  to  show  that  Mr.  Sandcman's 
notion  of  faith,  by  excluding  all  exercise  or  con- 
currence of  the  will  with  the  Gospel  way  of  sal- 
vation, confounds  the  faith  of  devils  with  that  of 
Christians,  and  so  is  calculated  to  deceive  the 
souls  of  men.  It  has  also  been  observed,  that 
though  Mr.  Sandeman  admits  of  the  acts  ol'  faith 
and  love  as  fruits  of  believing  the  truth,  yet,  "all 
his  godliness  consisting  (as  he  acknowledges  to 
Mr.  Pike)  in  lore  to  that  which  first  relieved 
him,"  it  amounts  to  nothing  but  self-love.  And 
as  self-love  is  a  stranger  to  all  those  strong  affec- 
tions expressed  in  the  cxixth  Psalm  towards  the 
law  of  Coil,  he  cannot  admit  of  them  as  the  lan- 
guage oi'  a  good  man,  hut  applies  the  whole  psalm 
to  Christ,  though  the  person  speaking  acknow- 
ledges, that  "hefore  he  was  afflicted,  he  went 
astray."  Others  have  theught,  that  from  the 
same  principle  it  were  easy  to  account  for  the 
bitterness,  pride,  and  contempt,  which  distinguish 
the  system ;  for  self-love,  say  they,  is  consistent 
with  the  greatest  aversion  to  all  beings  divine  or 
human,  excepting  so  far  as  they  become  subser- 
vient to  us. 

The  chief  opinion  and  practices  in  which  this 
sect  differs  from  other  Christians,  are,  their  weekly 
administration  o£  the  Lord's  Supper;  their  bve 
feasts,  of  which  every  member  is  not  only  allowed 
hut  required  to  partake,  and  which  consist  of 
their  dining  together  at  each  other's  houses  in  the 
interval  between  the  morning  and  afternoon  ser- 
vice. Their  kiss  of  charity  used  on  this  occasion 
at  the  admission  of  a  new  member,  and  at  other 
times  when  they  deem  it  necessary  and  proper  ; 
their  weekly  collection  before  the  Lord's  Supper, 
for  the  support  of  the  poor,  and  defraying  other 
expenses;  mutual  exhortation;  abstinence  from 
nlood  and  things  strangled  ;  washing  each  other's 
feet,  when,  as  a  deed  of  mercy,  it  might  be  an  ex- 
pression of  love,  the  precept  concerning  which, 
as  well  as  other  precepts,  they  understand  liter- 
ally;  community  of  goods,  so  far  as  that  every 
one  is  to  consider  all  that  he  has  in  his  possession 
and  power  liable  to  the  calls  of  the  poor  and  the 
church  ;  and  the  unlawfulness  of  laying  up  trea- 
sures upon  earth,  by  setting  them  apart  for  any 
distant,  future,  and  uncertain  use.  They  allow  of 
public  and  private  diversions,  so  far  as  they  are 
unconnected  with  circumstances  really  sinful; 
but  apprehending  a  lot  to  be  sacred,  disapprove 
of  lotteries,  playing  at  cards,  dice,  &C 

They  maintain  a  plurality  of  elders,  pastors, 
or  bishops,  in  each  church  ;  and  the  necessity  of 
the  presence  of  two  ciders  in  every  act  of  dis- 
cipline, and  at  the  administration  of  the  Lord's 
Supper. 

In  the  choice  of  these  elders,  want  of  learning, 
and  engagement  in  trad,-,  are  no  sufficient  objec- 
tion, if  qualified  according  to  the  instructions 
given  to  Timothy  ami  Titus;  but  second  mar- 
riages disqualify  for  the  office;  and  they  are  or- 
dained by  prayer  and  fasting,  imposition  of  hands, 

ami  giving  the  right  hand  of  fellowship. 

In  their  discipline  they  are  strict  and  severe, 
end  think  themselves  obliged  to  separate  from  the 
communion  and  worship  of  all  such  religious  so- 
cieties as  appear  to  them  not  to  profess  the  simple 
truth  for  their  only  ground  of  hope,  and  who  do 
not  waik  in  obedience  to  it.  We  shall  only  add, 
that  in  every  transaction  they  esteem  unanimity 
to  be  absolutely  necessary.  See  Gl  iSstTES. 
Gloat/a  Testimony  of  ike  Kins  of  Martyrs: 
40d 


SATISFACTION 

Sandemaii's  Letters  on  Thcron  and  Aspasio, 
letter  11;  Backus' s  Discourse  on  Faith  audits 
Influence,  p.  7 — 20;  Adams's  View  of  Religions  ; 
Bellamy's  Nature  and  Glory  of  the  Gospel 
Lond.  edit,  notes,  p.  (>.j — 125;  History  of  bis. 
Church,  p.  •Jt;.),  vol.  i.;  Fuller's  Letters  on  San- 
demon  inn  ism. 

SANrl  EDREVf,  a  council  or  assembly  of  per- 
sons sitting  together;  the  name  whereby  the 
Jews  called  the  great  council  of  the  nation,  as- 
sembled in  an  apartment  of  the  temple  of  Jerusa- 
lem, to  determine  the  most  important  affairs  both 
of  church  and  state. 

SARABAITES,  wandering  fanatics,  or  ra- 
ther imposlors,  of  the  fourth  century,  who,  in- 
stead of  procuring  a  subsistence  by  honest  indus- 
try, travelled  through  various  cities  and  provinces, 
and  gained  a  maintenance  by  fictitious  miracles, 
by  selling  relics  to  the  multitude,  and  other  frauds 
of  a  like  nature. 

SATAN  is  a  He' *ew  word,  and  signifies  an 
adversary,  or  enemy,  and  is  commonly  applied  in 
Scripture  to  the  devil,  or  the  chief  of  the  fallen 
angels.  "  By  collecting  the  passages,"  says  Cru- 
den,  "  where  Satan,  or  the  devil,  is  mentioned,  it 
may  be  observed,  that  he  fell  from  heaven  with 
all  his  company;  that  God  cast  him  down  from 
thence  for  the  punishment  of  his  pride ;  that,  by 
his  envy  and  malice,  sin,  death,  and  all  other 
evils,  came  into  the  world ;  that,  by  the  permis- 
sion of  God,  he  exercises  a  sort  of  government  in 
the  world  over  his  subordinates,  over  apostate 
angels  like  himself;  that  God  makes  use  of  him 
to  prove  good  men  ami  chastise  had  ones  ;  that 
he  is  a  lying  spirit  in  the  mouth  of  false  prophets, 
seducers,  and  heretics ;  that  it  is  he,  or  some  of 
his,  that  torment  or  possess  men  ;  that  inspire 
them  with  evil  designs,  as  he  did  David,  when  he 
suggested  to  him  to  number  his  people;  to  Judas, 
to  betray  his  Lord  and  Master;  and  to  Ananias 
and  Sapphira,  to  conceal  the  price  of  their  field. 
That  he  roves  full  of  rage  like  a  roaring  lion,  to 
tempt,  to  betray,  to  destroy,  and  to  involve  us  in 
guilt  and  wickedness;  that  his  power  and  malico 
are  restrained  within  certain  limits,  and  controlled 
by  the  will  of  God.  In  a  word,  that  he  is  an 
enemy  to  God  and  man,  and  uses  his  utmost  en- 
deavours to  rob  God  of  his  glory,  and  men  ol 
their  souls."  See  articles  Angel,  Devil,  Temp- 
tation.— More  particularly  as  to  the  temptations 
of  Satan.  1.  He  adapts  them  to  our  temper  and 
circumstances. — '2.  fie  chooses  the  fittest  season 
to  tempt ;  as  youth,  age,  poverty,  prosperity,  public 
devotion,  after  happy  manifestations  ;  or  when  in 
a  bad  frame;  after  some  signal  source;  when 
alone,  or  in  the  presence  of  the  object ;  when  un- 
employed and  oil'  our  guard  ;  in  death. — ?>.  He 
puts  on  the  mask  of  religious  friendship,  "2  Cor. 
\i.  11;  Matt.  iv.  (1;  Luke  ix.  50;  Gen.  hi. — 
4.  Manages  temptation  with  the  greatest  suhtilty. 
lie  asks  but  little  at  first;  leaves  t'or  a  season  in 
order  to  renew  his  attack. — 5.  He  leads  men  to 
sin  with  a  hope  of  speedy  repentance. —  (i.  He 
raises  suitable  instruments,  bad  habits,  relations. 
Gen.  hi.;  Job  ii.  !>,  10.  Gilpin  on  Temptations  ; 
Brooks  on  Satan's  Devices;  Bishop  Porteus'a 
ns,  vol.  ii.  p.  63  ;  Burgh's  C'rHu,  vol.  i.  c?s. 
3;  vol.  ii.  ess.  1  ;  Boire's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  360 ; 
lull's  <  'hristian  Armour. 

SATANIANS,  a  branch  of  the  Messalians, 
who  a,. [.eared  about  the  year  390.  It  is  sai-L 
among  other  things,  that  they  believed  the  devil 


SCEPTIC 

lr>  be  extremely  powerful,  and  that  it  was  much 
wiser  to  respect  and  adore  than  to  curse  him. 

SATISFACTION,  in  general,  signifies  the 
act  of  giving  complete  or  perfect  pleasure.  In 
the  Christian  system  it  denotes  that  which  Christ 
did  and  suffered  in  order  to  satisfy  divine  justice, 
to  secure  the  honours  of  the  divine  government, 
and  thereby  make  an  atonement  for  the  sins  of 
his  people.  Satisfaction  is  distinguished  from 
merit  thus  :  The  satisfaction  of  Christ  consists  in 
his  answering  the  demands  of  the  law  on  man 
which  were  consequent  on  the  breach  of  it. 
These  were  answered  by  suffering  its  penalty. 
The  merit  of  Christ  consists  in  what  he  did  to 
fulfil  what  the  law  demanded,  before  man  sinned, 
which  was  perfect  obedience.  The  satisfaction 
of  Christ  is  to  free  us  from  misery,  and  the  merit 
of  Christ  is  to  purchase  happiness  for  us.  See 
Atonement  and  Propitiation.  Also  Dr. 
Owen  on  the  Satisfaction  of  Chritt  ;  Gill's  Body 
of  Div.  article  Satisfaction;  Stilling  fleet  on  Sa- 
tisfaction ;  Walls's  Redeemer  and  Sanclijier, 
p.  28,  3*2  ;  Henry's  Thcron  and  Aspasio. 

SATURNI ANS,  a  denomination  which  arose 
about  the  year  115.  They  derived  their  name 
from  Saturnius  of  Antioch,  one  of  the  principal 
Gnostic  chiefs.  He  held  the  doctrine  of  two  prin- 
ciples, whence  proceeded  all  things ;  the  one,  a 
wise  anJ  benevolent  Deity;  and  the  other,  matter, 
a  princi;  le  essentially  evil,  and  which  he  sup- 
posed acted  under  the  superintendance  of  a  cer- 
tain intelligence  of  a  malignant  nature.  See 
Gnostics. 

SAVIOUR,  a  person  who  delivers  from  dan- 
ger and  misery.  Thus  Jesus  Christ  is  called  the 
Saviour,  as  he  delivers  us  from  the  greatest  evils, 
and  brings  us  into  the  possession  of  the  greatest 
good.  See  Jesus  Christ,  Liberty,  Propitia- 
tion, Redemption'. 

Order  of  St.  Saviour,  a  religious  order  of  the 
Romish  church,  founded  by  St.  Bridget,  about 
the  year  1315  ;  and  so  called  from  its  being  pre- 
tended that  our  Saviour  himself  declared  its  con- 
stitution and  rules  to  the  foundress. 

SAVOY  CONFERENCE,  a  conference 
held  at  the  Savoy,  in  1661,  between  the  Episco- 
pal divines  and  the  Presbyterians,  in  order  to  re- 
view the  Book  of  Common  Prayer ;  but  which 
was  carried  on  the  side  of  the  Episcopalians.  See 
Necdc's  Hist,  of  the  Puritan*,  vol.  ii.  p.  001, 
quarto  edit,  or  Introduction  to  Palmer's  Non- 
conformists? Memori  d. 

SAVOY  CONFESSION  OF  FAITH,  a 
declaration  of  the  faith  and  order  of  the  Indepen- 
dents, agreed  upon  by  their  elders  and  messen- 
gers in  their  meeting  at  the  Savoy  in  the  year 
1658.  This  was  reprinted  in  the  year  17—.'.  See 
Neale's  History  of  the  Puritans,  vol.  ii.  p.  507, 
quarto  edit. 

SCEPTIC,  txe^tixo;,  from  txstto.uxi,  "I  con- 
sider, look  about,  or  deliberate,"  properly  signifies 
considerative  and  inquisitive;  or  one  who  is  al- 
ways weighing  reasons  on  one  side  and  the  other, 
without  ever  deciding  b;  tweeu  them.  The  word 
is  applied  to  an  ancient  sect  u(  philosophers 
founded  by  Pyrrho,  who  denied  the  real  existence 
of  all  qualities  in  bodies,  except  those  which  are 
essential  to  primary  atoms;  and  referred  every 
thing  else  to  the  perceptions  of  the  mind  produced 
by  external  objects;  in  other  words,  to  appear- 
ance and  opinion.  In  modern  tftnes  the  word 
has  been  applied  to  Deists,  or  those  who  doubt  of 
40.)  3  B 


SCHISM 

the  truth  and  authenticity  of  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures. One  of  the  greatest  sceptics  in  iater  times 
was  Hume:  he  endeavoured  to  introduce  doubts 
into  every  branch  of  physics,  metaphysics,  his- 
tory, ethics,  and  theology.  He  has  been  confuted, 
however,  by  the  doctors  Reid,  Campbell,  Gregory 
and  Beattie.     See  Infidelity. 

SCHLWENKFELDI  ANS,  a  denomination 
in  the  sixteenth  century  ;  so  called  from  one  Gas- 
per Schewenkfeldt,  a  Silcsian  knight.  He  dif- 
fered from  Luther  in  the  three  following  points. 
The  first  of  these  points  related  to  the  doctrine 
concerning  the  eucharist.  Schewenkfeldt  invert- 
ed the  following  words  of  Christ, —  This  is  viy 
body;  and  insisted  on  their  being  thus  under- 
stood,— My  body  is  this:,  i.  e.  such  as  this  bread 
which  is  broken  and  consumed  ;  a  true  and  real 
food,  which  nourisheth,  satisficth,  and  delight eth 
the  soul.  My  blood  ii  this,  that  is,  such  its  ellects, 
as  the  wine  which  strengthens  and  refresheth  the 
heart.  Secondly,  He  denied  that  the  eternal 
word  which  is  committed  to  writing  in  the  Holy 
Scriptures  was  endowed  with  the  power  of  heal- 
ing, illuminating,  and  renewing  the  mind  ;  and 
he  ascribed  this  power  to  the  internal  word, 
which,  according  to  his  notion,  was  Christ  him- 
self. Thirdly,  He  would  not  allow  Christ's 
human  nature,  in  its  exalted  state,  to  be  called  a 
creature,  or  a  created  substance,  as  such  a  de- 
nomination appeared  to  him  infinitely  below  its 
majestic  dignity  ;  united  as  it  is  in  that  glorious 
state  with  the  divine  essence. 

SCHISM,  from  r%is/i*,  a  rent,  cleft,  fissure; 
in  its  general  acceptation  it  signifies  division  or 
separation;  but  is  chiefly  used  in  speaking  of 
separations  happening  from  diversity  of  opinions 
among  people  of  the  same  religion  and  faith.  All 
separations,  however,  must  not,  properly  speak- 
ing, be  considered  as  schisms. 

Schism,  says  Mr.  Arch.  Hall,  is,  properly,  a 
division  among  those  who  stand  in  one  connexion 
of  fellowship ;  but  where  the  difference  is  carried 
so  far.  that  the  parties  concerned  entirely  break 
up  all  communion  one  with  another,  and  go  into 
distinct  connexions  for  obtaining  the  general  ends 
ill'  that  religious  fellowship  which  they  once  did, 
but  now  do  not  carry  on  and  pursue  with  united# 
endeavours,  as  one  church  joined  in  the  bonds  of 
individual  society ;  where  this  is  the  ease,  it  is 
undeniable  there  is  something  very  different  from 
schism:  it  is  no  longer  schism  in,  but  a  separa- 
tion from,  the  body. — Dr.  Campbell  supposes  that 
the  word  schism  in  Scripture  does  not  always 
signify  open  separation,  but  that  men  may  be 
guilty  of  schism  by  such  an  alienation  of  affec- 
tion from  their  brethren  as  violates  the  internal 
union  subsisting  in  the  hearts  of  Christians, 
though  there  be  no  error  in  doctrine,  nor  separa- 
tion from  communion.  See  1  Cor.  iii.  3,  4 ;  xii. 
•it— 2G. 

The  great  schism  of  the  West  is  that  which 
happened  in  the  times  of  Clement  VII.  and  Ur- 
ban VI.  which  divided  the  church  for  forty  or 
fifty  years,  and  was  at  length  ended  by  the  elec- 
tion of  Martin  V.  at  the  council  of  Constance. 

The  Romanists  number  thirty-four  schisms  in 
tiieir  church  ;  they  bestow  the  name  of  English 
schism  on  the  Reformation  of  religion  in  this 
kingdom.  Those  of  the  church  of  England  apply 
the  term  schism  to  the  separation  of  the  Presby- 
terians, Independents,  Anabaptists,  and  Metho- 
dists. 

2K 


SCHOOLMEN 

"The  sin  of  schism,"  says  the  learned  Black  - 
stone,  '  ns  such,  is  by  no  means  the  object  of 
temporal  coercion  and  punishment — If,  through 
weakness  of  intellect,  through  misdirected  piety, 
through  perverseness  and  acerbity  of  temper,  or 
through  a  prospect  of  secular  advantage  in  herd- 
ing with  a  party,  men  quarrel  with  the  eccle- 
siastical establishment,  the  civil  magistrate  has 
nothing  to  do  with  it;  unless  their  tenets  and 
practice  are  such  a»  threaten  ruin  or  disturbance 
to  the  state.  All  persecution  for  diversity  of 
opinions,  however  ridiculous  and  absurd  they  may 
be,  is  contrary  to  every  principle  of  sound  policy 
and  civil  freedom.  The  names  and  subordina- 
tion of  the  clergy,  the  posture  of  devotion,  the 
materials  and  colour  of  a  minister's  garment,  the 
joining  in  a  known  or  unknown  form  of  prayer, 
and  other  matters  of  the  same  kind,  must  be  left 
to  the  option  of  every  man's  private  judgment." 
The  following  have  been  proposed  as  remedies 
for  schism :  "  1.  Be  disposed  to  support  your 
brethren  by  all  the  friendly  attentions  in  your 
power,  speaking  justly  of  their  preaching  and 
character.  Never  withhold  these  proofs  of  your 
brotherly  love,  unless  they  depart  from  the  "doc- 
trines or  spirit  of  the  Gospel. — 2.  Discountenance 
the  silly  reports  you  may  hear,  to  the  injury  of 
any  of  your  brethren.  Oppose  backbiting  and 
slander  to  the  utmost. — 5.  Whenever  any  brother 
is  sinking  in  the  esteem  of  his  flock  through  their 
caprice,  perverseness,  or  antinomianism,  endea- 
vour to  hold  up  his  hands  and  his  heart  in  his 
work. — 4.  Never  espouse  the  part  of  the  factious 
schismatics,  till  you  have  heard  your  brother's 
account  of  their  conduct. — 5.  In  cases  of  open 
separation,  do  not  preach  for  separatists  till  it  is 
evident  that  God  is  with  them.  Detest  the  thought 
of  wounding  a  brother's  feelings  through  the  con- 
temptible influence  of  a  party  spirit ;  for  through 
this  abominable  principle  schisms  are  sure  to  be 
multiplied. — G.  Let  the  symptoms  of  disease  in 
the  patients  arouse  the  benevolent  attention  of 
the  physicians.  Let  them  check  the  forward, 
humble  the  proud,  and  warn  the  unruly ;  and 
many  a  schismatic  distemper  will  receive  timely 
cure. — 7.  Let  elderly  ministers  and  tutors  of 
academies  pay  more  attention  to  these  things,  in 
proportion  as  the  disease  may  prevail:  for  much 
good  may  be  accomplished  by  their  influence." 
See  King  on  the  Primitive  Church,  p.  152; 
Hales  and  Henry  on  Schism;  Polhill  on  Schism; 
Dr.  Campbell's  Prel.  Disc,  to  the  Gospels,  part  3; 
F.Iaweis's  Appcn.  to  the  first  volume  of  his  Church 
History;  Archibald  Hall's  View  of  a  Gospel 
Church;  }>r.  Owen's  View  of  the  Nature  of 
Schism  ;  Duck's  Sermons,  ser.  6,  on  Division*. 

SCHISM  BILL.  See  conclusion  of  the  ar- 
ticle Nonconformists. 

SCHOLASTIC  DIVINITY,  is  that  part 
or  species  of  divinity  which  clears  and  discussos 
questions  by  reason  and  argument;  in  which 
sense  it  stands,  in  some  measure,  opposed  to 
positive  divinity  ;  which  is  founded  on  the  autho- 
riiv  of  fathers,  councils,  &C.  The  school  divinity 
is  now  fallen  into  contempt,  and  is  scarcely  re- 
garded anywhere  let.  in  boom  of  the  universities, 
where  they  are  still  by  then  charters  obliged  to 
teach  it. 

SCHOOLMEN,  a  sect  of  men  in  the  twelfth, 

thirteenth,  and  fourteenth  centuries,  who  framed 

a  new  sort  of  divinity,  called  Scholastic  Theology. 

[See  last  article.]     Their  divinity  was  founded 

410 


SCRIPTURE 
upon  and  confirmed  by  the  philosophy  of  Aris- 
totle, and  lay,  says  Dr.  Gill,  in  contentions  and 
litigious  disputations,  in  thorny  questions  and 
subtle  distinctions.  Their  whole  scheme  was 
chiefly  directed  to  support  Antichristianism :  so 
that  by  their  means  Popish  darkness  was  the 
more  increased,  and  Christian  divinity  almost 
banished  out  of  the  world. 

"  Considering  them  as  to  their  metaphysical  re- 
searches," says  an  anonymous  but  excellent  writer, 
"  they  fatigued  their  readers  in  the  pursuit  of  end- 
less abstractions  and  distinctions ;  and  their  design 
seems  rather  to  have  been  accurately  to  arrange 
and  define  the  objects  of  thought  than  to  explore 
the  mental  faculties  themselves.  The  nature  of 
particular  ami  universal  ideas,  time,  space,  infinity, 
together  with  the  mode  of  existence  to  be  ascribed 
to  tin1  Supreme  Being,  chiefly  engaged  the  atten- 
tion of  the  mightiest  minds  in  the  middle  ages. 
Acute  in  the  highest  degree,  and  endowed  with 
a  wonderful  patience  of  thinking,  they  yet,  by  a 
mistaken  direction  of  their  powers,  wasted  them- 
selves in  endless  logomachies,  and  displayed  more 
of  a  teazing  subtlety  than  of  philosophical  depth. 
They  chose  rather  to  strike  into  the  dark  and  in- 
tricate by-paths  of  metaphysical  science,  than  to 
pursue  a  career  of  useful  discovery;  and  as  their 
disquisitions  were  neither  adorned  by  taste,  nor 
reared  on  a  basis  of  extensive  knowledge,  they 
gradually  fell  into  neglect,  when  juster  views  in 
philosophy  made  their  appearance.  Still  they 
will  remain  a  mighty  monument  of  the  utmost 
which  the  mind  of  man  can  accomplish  in  tlie 
field  of  abstraction.  If  the  metaphysician  does 
not  find  in  the  schoolmen  the  materials  of  his 
work,  he  will  perceive  the  study  of  their  writings 
to  be  of  excellent  benefit  in  sharpening  his  tools. 
They  will  aid  his  acuteness,  though  they  may 
fail  to  enlarge  his  knowledge." 

Some  of  the  most  famous  were,  Damascene, 
Lanfrane,  P.  Lombard,  Alex.  Hales,  Bonaven- 
ture,  Thomas  Aquinas,  Duns  Scotus,  and  Du- 
randus.  Gill's  Body  of  Div.,  Preface;  Eclectic 
Rev.  for  Dec.  1805 ;  Hannah  More's  Hints  to  a 
You  rig  Princess,  vol.  ii.  p.  2G7,  268. 

SCORNER,  one  who  treats  any  person  orthing 
with  contempt  "He  deems,"  says  Mr.  Scott, 
"  his  own  understanding  equal  to  the  discovery, 
investigation,  and  even  comprehension,  of  every 
subject ;  he  therefore  rejects  as  false  whatever  he 
cannot  account  for,  what  he  finds  contrary  to  his 
preconceived  sentiments,  and  what  is  out  of  the 
reach  of  his  reason  :  and,  indeed,  all  that  tends  to 
condemn  his  conduct,  or  expose  his  folly." 

SCOTISTS,  a  set  of  school  divines  and  phi- 
losophers; thus  called  from  their  founder,  J. 
Duns  Scotus,  a  Scottish  cordelier,  who  maintain- 
ed the  immaculate  conception  of  the  Virgin,  or 
that  she  was  born  without  original  sin,  in  oppo- 
sition to  Thomas  Aquinas  and  the  Thomists. 

SCRIBE.  This  word  has  different  significa- 
tions in  Scripture.  1.  A  clerk,  or  writer,  or  secre- 
tary, 2  Sam.  viii.  17. — 2.  A  commissary,  or 
muster-master  of  the  army,  2  Chron.  xxvi.  11; 
•J  Kings  xxv.  1!).— 3.  A  man  of  learning,  a  doc- 
tor of  the  law,  1  Chron.  xxvii.  32. 

SCRIPTURE,  is  a  word  derived  from  the 
Lai  in  scriptura,  and  in  its  original  sense  is  of  the 
same  import  with  writing,  signifying  "anything 
written."  It  is,  however,  commonly  used  to  de- 
note the  writings  of  the  Old  and  New  Testa- 
ments, which  are  called  sometimes  the  Scripturet, 


SCRIPTURE 

sometimes  the  sacred  or  Holy  Scriptures,  and 
sometimes  canonical  Scriptures.  These  books 
are  called  the  Scriptures  by  way  of  eminence,  as 
they  are  the  most  important  of  all  writings.  They 
arc  said  to  be  holy  or  sacred  on  account  of  the 
•sacred  doctrines  which  they  teach ;  and  they  are 
termed  canonical,  because  when  their  number 
and  authenticity  were  ascertained,  their  names 
were  inserted  in  ecclesiastical  canons,  to  distin- 
guish them  from  other  books,  which,  being  of  no 
authority,  were  kept  out  of  sight,  and  therefore 
styled  apocryphal.     See  Apocrypha. 

Among  other  arguments  for  the  divine  autho- 
rity of  the  Scriptures,  the  following  may  be  con- 
sidered as  worthy  of  our  attention  : 

"  1.  The  sacred  penmen,  the  prophets  and 
apostles,  were  holy,  excellent  men,  and  would 
not — artless,  illiterate  men,  and  therefore  could 
not — lay  the  horrible  scheme  of  deluding  man- 
kind. The  hope  of  gain  did  not  influence  them, 
for  they  were  self-denying  men,  that  left  all  to  fol- 
low a  Master  who  had  no  where  to  lay  his  head; 
and  whose  grand  initiating  maxim  was,  Except 
a  man  forsake  all  that  he  hath,  he  cannot  be  my 
disciple. — They  were  so  disinterested,  that  they 
secured  nothing  on  earth  but  hunger  and  naked- 
ness, stocks,  prisons,  racks  and  tortures,  which, 
indeed,  was  all  that  they  could  or  did  expect, 
in  consequence  of  Christ's  express  declaration. 
Neither  was  a  desire  of  honoui  the  motives  of 
their  actions  :  for  their  Lord  himself  was  treated 
with  the  utmost  contempt,  and  had  more  than 
once  assured  them  that  they  should  certainly 
share  the  same  fate:  besides,  they  were  humble 
men,  not  above  working  as  mechanics,  for  a 
coarse  maintenance ;  and  so  little  desirous  of  hu- 
man regard,  that  they  exposed  to  the  world  the 
meanness  of  their  birth  and  occupations,  their 
great  ignorance  and  scandalous  falls.  Add  to 
this,  that  they  were  so  many,  and  lived  at  such 
listance  of  time  and  place  from  each  other,  that, 
had  they  been  impostors,  it  would  have  been  im- 
practicable for  them  to  contrive  and  carry  on  a 
forgery  without  being  detected.  And,  as  they  nei- 
ther would  nor  could  deceive  the  world,  so  they 
neither  could  nor  would  be  deceived  themselves ; 
for  they  were  days,  months,  and  years,  eye  and 
ear  witnesses  of  the  things  which  they  relate ; 
and,  when  they  had  not  the  fullest  evidence  of  im- 
portant facts,  they  insisted  upon  new  proofs,  and 
even  upon  sensible  demonstrations;  as,  for  in- 
stance, Thomas,  in  the  matter  of  our  Lord's  re- 
surrection, John  xx.  25 ;  and,  to  leave  us  no  room 
to  question  their  sincerity,  most  of  them  joyfully 
sealed  the  truth  of  their  doctrines  with  their  own 
blood.  Did  so  many  and  such  marks  of  veracity 
ever  meet  in  any  other  authors  ? 

"  2.  But  even  while  they  lived,  they  confirmed 
their  testimony  by  a  variety  of  miracles  wrought 
in  divers  places,  and  for  a  number  of  years; 
sometimes  before  thousands  of  their  enemies,  as 
the  miracles  of  Christ  and  his  disciples;  some- 
times before  hundreds  of  thousands,  as  those  of 
Moses.    (See  Miracle.) 

"  3.  R-eason  itself  dictates,  that  nothing  but 
the  plainest  matter  of  fact  could  induce  so  many 
thousands  of  prejudiced  and  persecuting  Jews  to 
embrace    the   humbling,    self-denying    doctrine 

'  the  cross,  which  they  so  much  despised  and 
•rred.      Nothing  but  the   clearest  evidence, 

.sine  from  undoubted  truth,  could  make  multi- 
tudes of  lawless,  luxurious  heathens  receive,  fol- 
411 


SCRIPTURE 
low,  and  transmit  to  posterity,  the  doctrine  avA 
writings  of  the  apostles ;  especially  at  a  time 
when  the  vanity  of  their  pretensions  to  miracles, 
and  the  gift  of  tongues,  could  be  so  easily  disco- 
vered, had  they  been  impostors;  and  when  the 
profession  of  Christianity  exposed  persons  of  all 
ranks  to  tne  greatest  contempt  and  most  inin.i 
nent  danger. 

"  4.  When  the  authenticity  of  the  miracles  was 
attested  by  thousands  of  living  witnesses,  religious 
rites  were  instituted  and  performed  by  hundreds 
of  thousands,  agreeable  to  Scripture  injunctions, 
in  order  to  perpetuate  that  authenticity:  and  these 
solemn  ceremonies  have  ever  since  been  kept  up  in 
all  parts  of  the  world  ;  the  Passorer  by  the  Jews, 
in  remembrance  of  Moses's  miracles  in  Egypt ; 
and  the  Eucharist  by  Christians,  as  a  memorial 
of  Christ's  death,  and  the  miracles  that  accom- 
panied it,  some  of  which  are  recorded  by  Phlegon 
tne  Trallian,  a  heathen  historian. 

"  5.  The  Scriptures  have  not  only  the  external 
sanction  of  miracles,  but  the  eternal  stamp  of 
the  omniscient  God  by  a  variety  of  prophecies, 
some  of  which  have  already  been  most  exactly 
confirmed  by  the  event  predicted.  (See  Pro- 
phecy.) 

"  (i.  The  scattered,  despised  people,  the  Jews, 
the  irreconcilable  enemies  of  the  Christians,  keep 
with  amazing  care  the  Old  Testament,  full  of 
the  prophetic  history  of  Jesus  Christ,  and  by 
that  means  afford  the  world  a  striking  proof 
that  the  New  Testament  is  true ;  and  Christians, 
in  their  turn,  show  that  the  Old  Testament  is 
abundantly  confirmed  and  explained  by  the  New 
(See  Jews,  §  4.) 

"  7.  To  say  nothing  of  the  harmony,  venera- 
ble antiquity,  and  wonderful  preservation  of  those 
books,  some  of  which  are  by  far  the  most  an- 
cient in  the  world ;  to  pass  over  the  inimitable 
simplicity  and  true  sublimity  of  their  style  ;  the 
testimony  of  the  fathers  and  the  primitive  Chris- 
tians ;  they  carry  with  them  such  characters  of 
truth,  as  command  the  respect  of  every  unpreju- 
diced reader. 

"  They  open  to  us  the  mystery  of  the  creation  ; 
the  nature  of  God,  angels,  and  man  ;  the  immor- 
tality of  the  soul ;  the  end  for  which  we  were 
made ;  the  origin  and  connexion  of  moral  and 
natural  evil ;  the  vanity  of  this  world,  and  the 
glory  of  the  next.  There  we  see  inspired  shep- 
herds, tradesmen,  and  fishermen,  surpassing  as 
much  the  greatest  philosophers  as  these  did  the 
herd  of  mankind,  both  in  meekness  of  wisdom, 
and  sublimity  of  doctrine. — There  we  admire  the 
purest  morality  in  the  world,  agreeable  to  the 
dictates  of  sound  reason,  confirmed  by  the  wit- 
ness which  God  has  placed  for  himself  in  our 
breast,  and  exemplified  in  the  lives  of  men  of 
like  passions  with  ourselves. — There  we  discover 
a  vein  of  ecclesiastical  history  and  theological 
truth  consistently  running  through  a  collection 
of  sixty-six  different  books,  written  by  various 
authors,  in  different  languages,  during  the  space 
of  above  1500  years. — There  we  find,  as  in  a 
deep  and  pure  spring,  all  the  genuine  drops  and 
streams  of  spiritual  knowledge  which  can  possi- 
bly be  met  with  in  the  largest  libraries. — There 
the  workings  of  the  human  heart  are  described 
in  a  manner  that  demonstrates  the  inspiration  of 
the  Searcher  of  Hearts. — There  we  have  a  par- 
ticular account  of  all  our  spiritual  maladies,  with 
their  various  symptoms,  and  the  method  of  a  cer- 


SCRIPTURE 
lain  cure;  a  cure  that  has  been  witnessed  by 
multitudes  of"  martyrs  and  departed  saints,  and 
is  now  enjoyed  by  thousands  of  good  men,  who 
would  account  it  an  honour  to  seal  the  truth  of 
the  Scriptures  with  their  own  Wood. — There  you 
meet  with  the  noblest  strains  of  penitential  and 
joyous  devotion,  adapted  to  the  dispositions  and 
states  of  all  travellers  to  Sion. — And  there  you 
read  those  awful  threat)  rungs  and  cheering  pro- 
mises which  are  daily  fulfilled  in  the  consciences 
of  men,  to  the  admiration  of  believers,  and  the 
astonishment  of  attentive  infidels. 

"8.  The  wonderful  efficacy  of  the  Scriptures 
is  another  proof  that  they  are  of  God.  When 
they  are  faithfully  opened  by  his  ministers,  and 
powerfully  applied  by  his  Spirit,  they  wound  and 
heal;  they  kill  and  make  alicc ;  they  alarm  the 
careless,  direct  the  lost,  support  the  tempted, 
Strengthen  the  weak,  comfort  mourners,  and 
nourish  pious  souls. 

"To  conclude:  It  is  exceedingly  remarkable, 
that  the  more  humble  and  holy  people  are,  the 
more  they  read,  admire,  and  value  the  Scriptures  ; 
and,  on  the  contrary,  the  more  self-conceited, 
worldly-minded,  and  wicked,  the  more  they  ne- 
glect, despise,  and  asperse  them. 

".As  for  the  objections  which  are  raised  against 
their  perspicuity  and  consistency,  tiiose  who  are 
both  pious  and  learned,  know  that  they  are  gene- 
rally founded  on  prepossession,  and  the  want  of 
understanding  in  spiritual  tilings;  or  on  our 
ignorance  of  several  customs,  idioms,  and  circum- 
stances, which  were  perfectly  known  when  those 
books  were  written.  Frequently  also,  the  imma- 
terial  error  arises  merely  from  a  wrong  punctua- 
tion, or  a  mistake  of  copiers,  printers,  or  transla- 
tors; as  the  daily  discoveries  of  pious  critics,  and 
ingenuous  confessions  of  unprejudiced  inquirers, 
abundantly  prove." 

To  understand  the  Scriptures,  says  Dr.  Camp- 
bell, we  should,  1.  Get  acquainted  with  each 
writer's  style. — -2.  Inquire  carefully  into  the  cha- 
racter, the  situation,  and  the  oflice  of  the  writer; 
the  time,  the  place,  the  occasion  of  his  writing ; 
and  the  people  for  whose  immediate  use  he  ori- 
ginally intended  his  work. — 3.  Consider  the  prin- 
cipal scope  of  the  book,  and  the  particulars 
chiefly  observable  in  the  method  by  which  the 
writer  has  purposed  to  execute  his  design. — 
4.  Where  the  phrase  is  obscure,  the  context 
must  be  consulted.  This,  however,  will  not 
always  answer. — 5.  If  it  do  not,  consider  whe- 
ther the  phrase  be  any  of  the  writer's  peculiari- 
ties ;  if  so,  it  must  be  inquired  what  is  the  ac- 
ceptation in  which  he  employs  it  in  other  places. 
6.  If  this  be  not  sufficient,  recourse  should  be 
had  to  the  parallel  passages,  if  there  be  any  such, 
in  the  other  sacred  writers. — 7.  If  thid  throws 
no  light,  consult  the  New  Testament  and  the 
Septuagint,  where  the  word  may  be  used. — 8.  If 
the  term  be  only  once  us<\l  in  Scripture,  then 
recur  to  the  ordinary  acceptation  of  the  term  in 
classical  authors. — ;i.  Sometimes  reference  may 
be  hid  to  the  fathers. — 10.  The  ancient,  versions, 
as  well  as  modern  scholiasts,  annotators,  and 
translators,  may  be  consulted. — 11.  The  analogy 
of  faith,  and  the  etymology  of  the  word,  must  be 
used  with  caution. 

Above  all,  let  the  reader  unite  prayer  with  his 
endeavours,  that  his  understanding  may  be  illu- 
minated, and  his  heart  impressed  with  the  great 
truths  which  the  sacred  Scriptures  contain. 
412 


SCRIPTURE 

As  to  the  public  reading  of  the  Scriptures  h 
may  be  remarked,  that  this  is  a  very  laudable  ai<d 
necessary  practice.  "One  circumstance,"  as  a 
writer  observes,  "  why  this  should  be  attended  to 
in  congregations,  is,  that  numbers  of  the  hearers, 
in  many  places,  cannot  read  them  themselves, 
and  not  a  few  of  them  never  hear  them  read  Ll 
the  families  where  they  reside.  It  is  strange 
that  this  has  not  long  ago  struck  every  person  of 
the  least  reflection,  in  all  our  churches,  and  espe- 
cially the  ministers,  as  a  most  conclusive  and 
irresistible  argument  for  the  adoption  of  this 
practice. 

"  It  surely  would  be  better  to  abridge  the 
preaching  and  singinLr,  and  even  the  prayers,  to 
one  half  of  their  length  or  more,  than  to  neglect 
the  public  reading  of  the  Scriptures.  Let  these 
things,  therefore,  be  duly  considered,  together 
with  the  following  reasons  and  observations,  and 
let  the  reader  judge  and  determine  the  case,  or  the 
matter,  for  himself. 

"  Remember  that  God  no  sooner  caused  any 
part  of  his  will,  or  word,  to  be  written,  than  he 
also  commanded  the  same  to  be  read,  not  only  in 
the  family,  but  also  in  the  congregation,  and  that 
even  when  all  Israel  were  assembled  together  (the 
men,  women,  and  children,  and  even  the  stran- 
gers that  were  within  their  gates;)  and  the  end 
was,  that  they  might  hear,  and  that  they  might 
learn,  afiu\fear  the  Lord  their  God,  and  observe 
to  do  all  lite  icords  of  his  law,  Deut.  xxxi.  13. 

"  Afterward,  when  synagogues  were  erected  in 
the  land  of  Israel,  that  the  people  might  every 
Sabbath  meet  to  worship  God,  it  is  well  known 
that  the  public  reading  of  the  Scripture  was  a 
main  part  of  the  service  there  performed ;  so 
much  so,  that  no  less  than  three-fourths  of  the 
time  was  generally  employed,  it  seems,  in  reading 
and  expounding  the  Scriptures.  Even  the  prayers 
and  songs  used  on  those  occasions  appear  to  have 
been  all  subservient  to  that  particular  and  princi- 
pal employment  or  service,  the  reading  of  the 
law. 

"This  work,  or  practice,  of  reading  the  Scrip- 
ture in  the  congregation,  is  warranted  and  re- 
commended in  the  New  Testament,  as  well  as  in 
the  Old.  As  Christians,  it  is  Jit  and  necessary 
that  we  should  first  of  all  look  unto  Jesus,  who 
is  the  author  and  linisher  of  our  faith.  His  ex- 
ample, as  well  as  his  precepts,  is  full  of  precious 
and  most  important  instruction ;  and  it  is  a  re- 
markable circumstance,  which  ought  never  to  be 
forgotten,  that  he  began  his  public  ministry,  in 
the  synagogue  of  Nazareth,  by  reading  a  portion 
of  Scripture  out  of  the  book  of  the  prophet.  Isaiah, 
Luke  iv.  15—19.  This  alone,  one  would  think, 
might  be  deemed  quite  sufficient  to  justify  the 
practice  among  his  disciples  through  all  succeed- 
ing ages,  and  even  inspire  them  with  zeal  for  its 
constant  observance. 

"  The  apostle  Paul,  in  pointing  out  to  Timo- 
thy his  ministerial  duties,  particularly  mentions 
reading,  1  Tim.  iv.  13.  Give  attendance  (says 
he)  to  reading,  to  exhortation,  to  doctrine,  evi- 
dently distinguishing  reading  as  one  of  the  pub- 
lic duties  incumbent  upon  Timothy.  There  can 
be  no  reason  for  separating  these  three,  as  if  the 
former  was  only  a  private  duty,  and  the  others 
public  ones :  the  most  natural  and  consistent  idea 
is,  that  they  were  all  three  public  duties ;  and 
that  the  reading  here  spoken  of,  was  no  other 
than  the  reading  of  the  Scriptures  in  those  Chris- 


SECEDERS 
tian  assemblies  where  Timothy  was  concerned, 
end  which  the  apostle  would  have  him  by  no 
means  to  neglect.  If  the  public  reading  of  the 
Scriptures  was  so  necessary  and  important  in 
those  religious  assemblies  which  had  Timothy 
for  their  minister,  how  much  more  must  it  be  in 
our  assemblies,  and  even  in  those  which  enjoy 
the  labours  of  our  most  able  and  eminent  minis- 
ters !" 

On  the  subject  of  the  Scriptures,  we  must  re- 
fer the  reader  to  the  articles  Bible,  Canon,  In- 
spiration, Prophecy,  and  Revelation1.  See 
also  Browne's  Introduction  to  his  Bible;  Dr. 
Campbe'l's  Preliminary  Dissertations  to  his 
Trans!,  of '-he  Gospels;  Fletcher's  Appeal;  Si- 
mon's Crihcal  History  of  the  Old  and  JS'ew 
Test.;  Ostervald's  Arguments  of  the  Books  and 
Characters  of  the  Old  and  Neio  Test.;  Cosin's 
Scholastic  Hist,  of  the  Canon  of  Scrip.;  War- 
den's System  of  Revealed  Religion ;  Wells's 
Geography  of  the  Old  and  New  Test.;  The 
U%e  of  Sacred  History,  especially  as  illustrating 
and  confirming  the  Doctrine  of  Revelation,  by 
Dr.  Jamicson;  Dickon  Inspiration;  Blackwcll's 
Sacred  Classics;  Michael's  Introduction  to  the 
New  Test.;  Melmoth's  Sublime  and  Beautiful 
of  the  Scriptures;  Dwight's  Dissertation  on  the 
Poetry,  History,  and  Eloquence  of  the  Bible; 
Edwards  on  the  Authority,  Style,  and  Perfec- 
tion of  Scripture;  Slackhouse's  History  of  the 
Bible;  Kannicott's  State,  of  the  Hebrew  Text; 
Jones  on  the  Figurative  Language  of  Scripture; 
and  books  under  articles  Bible,  Commentary, 
Christianity,  and  Revelation. 

•SECEDERS,  a  numerous  body  of  Presbyte- 
rians in  Scotland,  who  have  withdrawn  from  the 
communion  of  the  established  church. 

in  1732,  more  than  fortv  ministers  presented 
an  address  to  the  general  assembly,  specifying,  in 
a  variety  of  instances,  what  they  considered  to  be 
grout  defections  from  the  established  constitution 
of  the  church,  and  craving  a  redress  of  these 
grievances.  A  petition  to  the  same  effect,  sub- 
scribed by  several  hundreds  of  elders  and  private 
Christians,  was  offered  at  th6  same  time ;  but  the 
assembly  refused  a  hearing  to  both,  and  enacted, 
that  the  election  of  ministers  to  vacant  charges, 
where  an  accepted  presentation  dVl  not  take  place, 
should  be  competent  only  to  a  conjunct  meeting 
of  elders  and  heritors,  being  Pn.testants.  To 
tlus  act  many  objections  were  made  by  numbers 
of  ministers  and  private  Christians.  They  as- 
serted that  more  than  thirty  to  one  in  every  parish 
were  not  possessed  of  landed  property,  and  were, 
on  that  account,  deprived  of  what  they  deemed 
their  natural  right  to  choose  their  own  pastors. 
It  was  also  said,  that  tliis  act  was  extremely  pre- 
judicial to  the  honour  and  interest  of  the  church, 
as  well  as  to  the  edification  of  the  people;  and, 
in  line,  that  it  was  directly  contrary  to  the  ap- 
pointment of  Jesus  Christ,  and  the  practice  of  the 
apostles,  when  they  filled  up  the  first  vacancy  in 
the  apostolic,  college,  and  appointed  the  election 
of  deacons  and  elders  in  the  primitive  church. 
Many  of  those  also  who  were  thought  to  be  the 
best  friends  of  the  church  expressed  their  fears, 
that  this  act  would  have  a  tendency  to  overturn 
the  ecclesiastical  constitution,  which  was  esta- 
blished at  the  revolution. 

Mr.  Ebenezer  Erskine,  minister  at  Stirling, 
distinguished  himself  by  a  bold  and  determined 
opposition  to  the  measures  of  the   assembly  in 
413 


SECEDERS 
1732.  Being  at  that  time  moderator  of  the  synod 
of  Perth  and  Stirling,  he  opened  the  meeting  at 
Perth  with  a  sermon  from  Psalm  cxv  iii.  22.  "  The 
stone  which  the  builders  rejected  is  become  the 
head  stone  of  the  corner."  In  the  course  of  hisi 
sermon,  he  remonstrated  with  no  small  degree 
of  freedom  against  the  act  of  the  preceding  assem- 
bly, with  regard  to  the  settlement  of  ministers; 
and  alleged  that  it  was  contrary  to  the  word  of 
God  and  the  established  constitution  of  the  church. 
A  formal  complaint  was  lodged  against  him  for 
uttering  several  offensive  expressions  in  his  ser- 
mon before  the  synod.  Many  of  the  members 
declared  that  they  had  heard  him  utter  nothing 
but  sound  and  seasonable  doctrine  ;  but  his  ac- 
cusers, insisting  on  their  complaint,  obtained  an 
appointment  of  committee  of  synod  to  collect  what 
were  called  the  offensive  expressions,  and  to  lay 
them  before  the  next  diet  in  writing.  This  was 
done  accordingly  ;  and  Mr.  Erskine  gave  in  his 
answers  to  every  article  of  the  complaint.  After 
three  days'  warm  reasoning  on  this  affair,  the 
synod,  by  a  majority  of  six,  found  him  censurable , 
against  which  sentence  he  protested,  and  appeal- 
ed to  the  next  general  assembly.  When  the  as- 
sembly met  in  May  1733,  it  affirmed  the  sentence 
of  the  synod,  and  appointed  Mr.  Erskine  to  be 
rebuked  and  admonished  from  the  chair.  Upon 
which  he  protested,  that  as  the  assembly  had 
found  him  censurable,  and  had  rebuked  him  for 
doing  what  he  conceived  to  be  agreeable  to  the 
word  of  God  and  the  standards  of  the  church,  he 
should  be  at  liberty  to  preach  the  same  truths, 
and  to  testily  against  the  same  or  similar  evils,  on 
every  proper  occasion.  To  this  protest  Mr. 
William  Wilson,  minister  at  Perth,  Alexandef 
Moncrief,  minister  at  Abernethy,  and  James 
Fisher,  minister  at  Kinclaven,  gave  in  a  written 
adherence,  under  the  form  of  an  instrument ;  and 
these  four  withdrew,  intending  to  return  to  their 
respective  charges,  and  act  agreeably  to  their  pro- 
test whenever  they  should  have  an  opportunity. 
Had  the  affair  rested  here,  there  would  never 
have  been  a  secession  ;  but  the  assembly  resolving 
to  carry  the  process,  cited  them  by  their  officer, 
to  compear  next  day.  They  obeyed  the  citatiun ; 
and  a  committee  was  appointed  to  retire  with 
them,  in  order  to  persuade  them  to  withdraw 
their  protest.  '  The  committee  having  reported 
that  they  still  adhered  to  their  protest,  the  assem- 
bly ordered  them  to  appear  before  the  commission 
in  August  following,  and  retract  their  protest; 
and,  if  they  should  not  comply,  and  testily  their 
sorrow  for  their  conduct,  the  commission  was 
empowered  to  suspend  them  from  the  exercise  of 
their  ministry,  with  certification  that,  if  they 
should  act  contrary  to  the  said  sentence,  the  com- 
mission should  proceed  to  a  higher  censure. 

The  commission  met  in  August  accordingly; 
and  the  four  ministers,  still  adhering  to  their  pro- 
test, were  suspended  from  the  exercise  of  their 
office,  and  cited  to  the  next  meeting  of  the  com- 
mission in  November  following.  Prom  this  sen- 
tence several  ministers  and  elders,  members  of 
the  commission,  dissented.  The  commission  met 
in  November,  and  the  suspended  ministers  com- 
peared. Addresses,  representations,  and  letters 
from  several  synods  and  presbyteries,  relative  to 
the  business  now  before  the  commission,  were  re- 
ceived and  read.  Thesynods  of  Dumfries,  Mur- 
ray, Ross,  Angus  and  Mearns,  Perth  and  Stirling 
i  craved  that  the  commission  would  delay  proceed- 


SECEDERS 
ing  to  a  higher  censure.     The  synods  of  Gal- 
loway and  Fife,  as  also  the  presbytery  of  Dornoob, 

addressed  the  commission  for  lenity,  tenderness, 
and  forbearance  towards  the  suspended  ministers; 
and  the  presbytery  of  Aberdeen  represented,  that, 
in  their  judgment,  the  sentence  of  suspension 
inflicted  on  the  aforesaid  ministers  was  too  high, 
and  that  it  was  a  stretch  of  ecclesiastical  autho- 
rity. Many  members  of  the  commission  reasoned 
in  the  same  manner,  and  alleged,  that  the  act 
and  sentence  of  last  assembly  did  not  oblige  them 
to  proceed  to  a  higher  censure  at  this  meeting  of 
the  commission.  The  question,  however,  was 
put, — Proceed  to  a  higher  censure  or  not?  and 
the  votes  being  numbered,  were  found  equal  on 
both  sides:  upon  which  Mr.  John  Goldie,  the 
moderator,  gave  his  casting  vote  to  proceed  to 
a  higher  censure  ;  which  stands  in  their  minutes 
in  these  words : — "  The  commission  did  and 
hereby  do  loose  the  relation  of  Mr.  Ebenezer 
Erskine,  minister  at  Stirling,  Mr.  William  Wil- 
son, minister  at  Perth,  Mr.  Alexander  Moncrief, 
minister  at  Abernethy,  and  Air.  James  Fisher, 
minister  at  Kinelaven,  to  their  respective  charges, 
and  declare  them  no  longer  ministers  of  this 
church ;  and  do  hereby  prohibit  all  ministers  of 
this  church  to  employ  them,  or  any  of  them,  in 
any  ministerial  function.  And  the  commission 
do  declare  the  churches  of  the  said  ministers  va- 
cant from  and  after  the  date  of  this  sentence." 

This  sentence  being  intimated  to  them,  they 
protested  that  their  ministerial  office  and  rela- 
tion to  their  respective  charges  should  be  held  as 
valid  as  if  no  such  sentence  had  passed ;  and 
that  they  were  now  obliged  to  make  a  secession 
from  the  prevailing  party  in  the  ecclesiastical 
courts;  and  that  it  shall  lie  lawful  and  warrant- 
able for  them  to  preach  the  Gospel,  and  discharge 
every  branch  of  the  pastoral  office,  according  to 
the  word  of  God,  and  the  established  principles 
of  the  church  of  Scotland.  Mr.  Ralph  Erskine, 
minister  at  Dunfermline,  Mr.  Thomas  Mair, 
minister  at  Orwel,  Mr.  John  M'Laren,  minister 
at  Edinburgh,  Mr.  John  Currie,  minister  at 
Kinglassie,  Mr.  James  Wardlaw,  minister  at 
Dunfermline,  and  Air.  Thomas  Nairn,  minister 
at  Abbotshall,  protested  against  the  sentence  of 
the  commission,  and  that  it  should  be  lawful  for 
them  to  complain  of  it  to  any  subsequent  gene- 
ral assembly  of  the  church. 

The  secession  properly  commenced  at  this 
date.  And  accordingly  the  ejected  members  de- 
clared in  their  protest,  that  they  were  laid  under 
the  disagreeable  necessity  of  seceding,  not  from 
the  principles  and  constitution  of  the  church  of 
Scotland,  to  which,  they  said,  they  steadfastly  ad- 
hered, but  from  the  present  church-courts,  which 
had  thrown  them  nut  from  ministerial  communion. 
The  assembly,  however,  which  met  in  May 
1731,  did  so  far  modify  the  above  sentence,  that 
they  empowered  the  synod  of  Perth  and  Stirling 
to  receive  the  ejected  ministers  into  the  com- 
munion of  the  church,  and  restore  them  to  their 
respective  charges;  but  with  this  express  direc- 
tion, "that  the  said  synod  should  not  take  upon 
them  to  judge  of  the  legality  or  formality  of  the 
former  procedure  of  the  church  judicatories  in  re- 
lation to  this  affair,  or  either  approve  or  censure 
die  same."  As  this  appointment  neither  con- 
demned the  act  of  the  preceding  assembly,  nor 
'he  conduct  of  the  commission,  the  seceding 
ministers  considered  it  to  be  rather  an  act  of 
414 


SECEDERS 
grace  than  of  justice ;  and  therefore,  they  said, 
they  could  not  return  to  the  church-courts 
upon  this  ground  ;  and  they  published  to  the 
world  the  reasons  of  their  refusal,  and  the  terms 
upon  which  they  were  willing  to  return  to  the 
communion  of  the  established  church.  Thev 
now  erected  themselves  into  an  ecclesiastical 
court,  which  they  called  the  Associated  Presby- 
tery, and  preached  occasionally  to  numbers  of 
the  people  who  joined  them  in  d>Terent  parts  of 
the  country.-  They  also  published  what  they 
called  an  Act,  Declaration,  and  Testimony,  to 
the  doctrine,  worship,  government,  and  discipline 
of  the  church  of  Scotland  ;  and  against  several 
instances,  as  they  said,  of  defection  from  these, 
both  in  former  and  in  the  present  times.  Some 
time  after  this,  several  ministers  of  the  established 
church  joined  them,  and  the  Associated  Presby- 
tery now  consisted  of  eight  ministers.  But  the 
general  assembly  which  met  in  1738,  finding  that 
the  number  of  Seceders  was  much  increased,  or- 
dered the  eight  ministers  to  be  served  with  a 
libel,  and  to  be  cited  to  the  next  meeting  of  the 
assembly,  in  1739.  They  now  appeared  at  the 
bar  as  a  constituted  presbytery,  and  having  for- 
mally declined  the  assembly's  authority,  they 
immediately  withdrew.  The  assembly  which 
met  next  year  deposed  them  from  the  office  of 
the  ministry  :  which,  however,  they  continued  to 
exercise  in  their  respective  congregations,  who 
still  adhered  to  them,  and  erected  meeting-houses, 
where  they  preached  till  their  death.  Mr.  James 
Fisher,  the  last  survivor  of  them,  was,  by  an 
unanimous  call,  in  1711,  translated  from  Kinela- 
ven to  Glasgow,  where  he  continued  in  the 
exercise  of  his  ministry  among  a  numerous  con- 
gregation, respected  by  all  ranks  in  that  large  city, 
and  died  in  1775,  much  regretted  by  his  people 
and  friends.  In  1745,  the  seceding  ministers 
were  become  so  numerous,  that  they  were  erected 
into  three  different  presbyteries  under  one  synod, 
when  a  very  unprofitable  dispute  divided  them 
into  two  parties. 

The  burgess  oath,  in  some  of  the  royal  bo- 
roughs of  Scotland,  contains  the  following  clause : 
"  I  profess  and  allow  with  my  heart  the  true  reli- 
gion presently  professed  within  this  realm,  and 
authorized  by  the  laws  thereof.  I  will  abide  at 
arid  defend  the  same  to  my  life's  end,  renouncing 
the  Romish  religion  called  Papistry."  Messrs. 
Ebenezer  and  Ralph  Erskine,  James  Fisher, 
and  others,  affirmed  that  this  clause  was  no  way 
contrary  to  the  principles  upon  which  the  seces- 
sion was  formed,  and  that  therefore  every  seceder 
might  lawfully  swear  it.  Messrs.  Alexander 
Moncrief,  Thomas  Mair,  Adam  Gib,  and  others, 
contended,  on  the  other  hand,  that  the  swearing 
of  the  above  clause  was  a  virtual  renunciation  of 
their  testimony ;  and  this  controversy  was  so 
keenly  agitated,  that  they  split  into  two  different 
parties,  and  now  met  in  different  synods.  Those 
of  them  who  assert  the  lawfulness  of  swearing 
the  Burgess  oath  are  called  Burgher's;  and  the 
other  party,  who  condemn  it,  are  called  Anti- 
burglicr  Seceders.  Each  party  claiming  to  itself 
the  lawful  constitution  of  the  Associate  Synod, 
the  Antiburghers,  after  several  previous  steps, 
excommunicated  the  Burghers,  on  the  ground  of 
their  sin,  and  of  their  contumacy  in  it.  This 
rupture  took  place  in  1747,  since  which  period 
no  attempts  to  effect  a  re- union  have  been  suc- 
cessful.    They  remain  under  the  jurisdiction  of 


SECEDERS 
different  synods,  and  holds  separate  communion, 
although  much  of  their  former  hostility  has 
been  laid  aside.  The  Antiburghers  consider  the 
Burghers  as  too  lax,  and  not  sufficiently  stead- 
fast to  their  testimony.  The  Burghers,  on  the 
other  hand,  contend  that  the  Antiburghers  are 
too  rigid,  in  that  they  have  introduced  new  terms 
of  communion  into  the  society. 

What  follows  in  this  article  is  a  further  ac- 
count of  those  who  are  commonly  called  the 
Burgher  Scccders.  As  there  were  among  them, 
from  the  commencement  of  their  secession,  seve- 
ral students  who  had  been  educated  at  one  or 
other  of  the  universities,  they  appointed  one  of 
their  ministers  to  give  lectures  in  theology,  and 
train  up  candidates  for  the  ministry. 

Where  a  congregation  is  very  numerous,  as  in 
Stirling,  Dunfermline,  and  Perth,  it  is  formed 
into  a  collegiate  charge,  and  provided  with  two 
ministers.  They  are  erected  into  six  different 
presbyteries,  united  in  one  general  synod,  which 
commonly  meets  at  Edinburgh  in  May  and  Sep- 
tember. They  have  also  a  synod  in  Ireland, 
composed  of  three  or  four  different  presbyteries. 
They  are  legally  tolerated  in  Ireland;  and  go- 
vernment, some  years  ago,  granted  500/.  per 
annum,  and  of  late  an  additional  500Z. ;  which, 
when  divided  among  them,  affords  to  each  mi- 
nister about  20/.  over  and  above  the  stipend 
which  he  receives  from  his  hearers.  These  have, 
besides,  a  presbytery  in  Nova  Scctia ;  and,  some 
years  ago,  it  is  said,  that  the  Burgher  and  the 
Antiburgher  ministers  residing  in  the  United 
States  formed  a  coalition,  and  joined  in  a  general 
synod,  which  they  call  the  Synod  of  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania.  They  all  preach  the  doc- 
trines contained  in  the  Westminster  Confession 
of  Faith  and  Catechisms,  as  they  believe  these 
io  be  founded  on  the  sacred  Scriptures.  They 
ratechise  their  hearers  publicly,  and  visit  thein 
from  house  to  house  once  every  year.  They  will 
not  give  the  Lord's  supper  to  those  who  are  igno- 
rant of  the  principles  of  the  Gospel,  nor  to  such 
as  are  scandalous  and  immoral  in  their  lives. — 
They  condemn  private  baptism ;  nor  will  they 
admit  those  who  are  grossly  ignorant  and  pro- 
fane to  be  sponsors  for  their  chddren.  Believing 
that  the  people  have  a  natural  right  to  choose 
their  own  pastors,  the  settlement  of  their  minis- 
ters always  proceeds  upon  a  popular  election ; 
nnd  the  candidate  who  is  elected  by  the  majority, 
is  ordained  among  them.  Convinced  that  the 
charge  of  souls  is  a  trust  of  the  greatest  import- 
ance, they  carefully  watch  over  the  morals  of 
their  students,  and  direct  them  to  such  a  course 
of  reading  and  study  as  they  judge  most  proper 
to  qualify  them  for  the  profitable  discharge  of  the 
pastoral  duties.  At  the  ordination  of  their  mi- 
nisters, they  use  a  formula  of  the  same  kind 
with  that  of  the  established  church,  which  their 
ministers  are  bound  to  subscribe  when  called  to 
it ;  and  if  any  of  them  teach  doctrines  contrary 
to  the  Scriptures,  or  the  Westminster  Confession 
of  Faith,  they  are  sure  of  being  thrown  out  of 
their  communion.  By  this  means,  uniformity  of 
sentiment  is  preserved  among  them ;  nor  has 
any  of  their  ministers,  excepting  one,  been  prose- 
cuted for  error  in  doctrine  since  the  commence- 
ment of  their  secession. 

They  believe  that  the  holy  Scriptures  are  the 
sole  criterion  of  truth,  and  the  only  rule  to  direct 
mankind  to  glorify  and  enjoy  God,  the  chief  and 
415 


SECEDERS 

eternal  good  ;  and  that  "  the  Supreme  Judge,  by 
which  all  controversies  of  religion  are  to  be  de- 
termined, and  all  the  decrees  of  councils,  opi- 
nions of  ancient  writers,  doctrines  of  men  and 
private  spirits,  are  to  be  examined,  and  in  whose 
sentence  we  are  to  rest,  can  be  no  other  but  the 
Holy  Spirit  speaking  in  the  Scriptures."  They 
are  fully  persuaded,  however,  that  the  standards 
of  public  authority  in  the  church  of  Scotland 
exhibit  a  just  and  consistent  view  of  the  mean- 
ing and  design  of  the  holy  Scriptures  with  re- 
gard to  doctrine,  worship,  government,  and  disci- 
pline ;  and  they  so  far  differ  from  the  dissenters 
in  England,  in  that  they  hold  these  standards  to 
be  not  only  articles  of  peace  and  a  test  of  ortho- 
doxy, but  as  a  bond  of  union  and  fellowship. — 
They  consider  a  simple  declaration  of  adherence 
to  the  Scriptures  as  too  equivocal  a  proof  of  unity 
in  sentiment,  because  Arians,  Socinians,  and 
Arminians,  make  such  a  confession  of  their  faith, 
while  they  retain  sentiments  which  they  (the 
Seceders)  apprehend  are  subversive  of  the  great 
doctrines  of  the  Gospel.  They  believe  that  Jesus 
Christ  is  the  only  King  and  Head  of  the  church, 
which  is  his  body ;  that  it  is  his  sole  prerogative 
to  enact  laws  for  the  government  of  this  king- 
dom, which  is  not  of  this  world  ;  and  that  the 
church  is  not  possessed  of  a  legislative,  but  only 
of  an  executive  power,  to  be  exercised  in  ex- 
plaining and  applying  to  their  proper  objects 
and  end  those  laws  which  Christ  hath  published 
in  the  Scriptures.  Those  doctrines  which  they 
teach,  relative  to  faith  and  practice,  are  exhibiteu 
at  great  length  in  an  Explanation  of  the  West- 
minster Assembly's  Shorter  Catechism,  by  way 
of  question  and  answer,  in  two  volumes,  com- 
posed chiefly  by  Mr.  James  Fisher,  late  of  Glas- 
gow, and  published  by  desire  of  their  synod. 

For  these  fifty  years  past,  the  grounds  of  their 
secession,  they  allege,  have  been  greatly  enlarged 
by  the  public  administrations  of  the  established 
churcn ;  and  particularly  by  the  uniform  execu- 
tion of  the  law  respecting  patronage,  which,  they 
say,  has  obliged  many  thousands  of  private  Chris- 
tians to  withdraw  from  the  parish  churches,  and 
join  their  society. 

In  most  of  their  congregations,  they  celebrate 
the  Lord's  Supper  twice  in  the  year ;  and  they 
catechise  their  young  people  concerning  their 
knowledge  of  the  principles  of  religion  previously 
to  their  admission  to  that  sacrament. — When 
any  of  them  fall  into  the  sin  of  fornication  or 
adultery,  the  scandal  is  regularly  purged  accord- 
ing to  the  form  of  process  in  the  established 
church  ;  and  those  ol  the  delinquents  who  do  not 
submit  to  adequate  censure,  are  publicly  declared 
to  be  fugitives  from  discipline,  and  are  expelled 
the  society.  They  never  accept  a  sum  of  money 
as  a  commutation  for  the  offence.  They  condemn 
all  clandestine  and  irregular  marriages ;  nor  will 
they  marry  any  persons  unless  they  have  been 
proclaimed  in  the  parish  church  on  two  different 
Lord's  days  at  least. 

The  constitution  of  the  Antiburgher  church 
differs  very  little  from  that  of  the  Burghers.  The 
supreme  court  among  them  is  denominated  The 
General  Associate  Synod,  having  under  its  juris- 
diction three  provincial  synods  in  Scotland  and 
one  in  Ireland.  They,  as  well  as  the  Burgher 
Seceders,  have  a  professor  of  theology,  whose 
lectures  every  candidate  for  the  office  of  a  preacher 
is  obliged  to  attend. 


SELF-DECEPTION 

SECT,  a  collective  term,  comprehending  all 
such  ;is  follow  the  doctrines  and  opinions  of  some 
divine,  philosopher,  &C.  The  word  sect,  says 
Dr.  Campbell,  (Prelim  Diss.)  among  the  Jews, 
was  not  in  its  application  entirely  coincident  with 
the  same  term  as  applied  by  Christians  to  the 
subdivisions  subsisting  among  themselves.  We, 
if  I  mistake  not,  invariably  use  it  of  those  who 
form  separate  communions,  and  do  not  associate 
with  one  another  in  religious  worship  and  cere- 
monies.  Thus,  v.c  call  Papists,  Lutherans,  Cal- 
\inisis,  different  sects,  not  so  much  on  account 
of  their  differences  in  opinion,  as  because  they 
have  established  to  themselves  different  fraterni- 
ties, to  which,  in  what  regards  public,  worship, 
they  confine  themselves;  the  several  denomina- 
tions abovementioned  having  no  intercommunity 
with  one  another  in  sacred  matters.  High 
church  and  low  church  we  call  only  parties,  be- 
cause they  have  not  formed  separate  communions. 
Great  and  known  dilferences  in  opinion,  when 
followed  by  no  external  breach  in  the  society,  are 
not  considered  with  us  as  constituting  distinct 
sects,  though  their  differences  in  opinion  may 
give  rise  to  mutual  aversion.  Now,  in  the  Jew- 
ish sects,  (if  we  except  the  Samaritans,)  there 
were  no  separate  communities  erected.  The 
same  temple,  and  the  same  synagogues,  were  at- 
tended alike  by  Pharisees  and  by  Sadducees: 
nay,  there  were  often  of  both  denominations  in 
the  sanhedrim,  and  even  in  the  priesthood. — An- 
other difference  was  also,  that  the  name  of  the 
sect  was  not  applied  to  all  the  people  who  adopted 
the  same  opinions;  but  solely  to  the  men  of  emi- 
nence among  them  who  were  considered  as  the 
leaders  of  the.  party. 

SECULAR  CLERGY.     See  CkerGy. 

SECUNDIANS,  a  denomination  in  the  se- 
cond century,  which  derived  their  name  from 
Secundus,  a  disciple  of  Valentine.  He  main- 
tained the  doctrine  of  two  eternal  principles,  light 
and  darkness;  whence  arose  the  good  and  evil 
that  are  observable  in  the  universe.     See  Valen- 

T  I  NUNS. 

SEDUCER,  one  who  decoys  or  draws  away 
another  from  that  which  is  right. 

SEEKERS,  a  denomination  which  arose  in 
the  year  1645.  They  derived  their  name  from 
their  maintaining  that  the  true  church  ministry, 
Scripture,  and  ordinances,  were  lost,  for  which 
they  were  seeking.  They  taught  that  the  Scrip- 
tures were  uncertain ;  that  present  miracles  were 
necessary  to  faith;  that  our  ministry  is  without 
authority ;  and  that  our  worship  and  ordinances 
are  unnecessary  or  vain. 

SELEUCIANS,  disciples  of  Seleucus,  a  phi- 
losopher of  Galatia,  who,  about  the  year  380, 
adopted  the  sentiments  of  Hermngenes'and  'hose 
of  Audaeus.  He  taught,  with  the  Valentinians, 
that  Jesus  Christ  assumed  a  body  only  in  ap- 
pearance. He  also  maintained  that  the  world 
was  not  made  by  God,  but  was  co-etcrnal  with 
him;  and  that  the  soul  was  only  an  animated 
fire  created  by  the  angels;  that  Christ  does  not 
sit  at  the  right  hand  of  the  h'ather  in  a  human 
body,  but  that  he  lodged  his  body  in  the  sun,  ac- 
cording to  Ps.  xix.  4;  and  tint  the  pleasures  of 
lieatitudc  consisted  in  corporeal  delight. 

SELF-DECEPTION,  includes  all  those  va- 
rious frauds  which  We  practise  on  ourselves  in 
forming  a  judgment,  or  receiving  an  impression 
of  our  own  sLUe,  character,  and  conduct;  or 
416 


SELF-DECEPTION 

those  deceits  which  make  our  hearts  impose  on 
us  in  making  us  promises,  if  they  may  be  so 
termed,  which  are  not  kept,  and  contracting  en- 
gagements which  are  never  performed.  Self- 
deception,  as  one  observes,  appears  in  the  follow- 
ing cases :  "  1.  In  judging  of  our  own  character, 
on  which  we  too  easily  confer  the  name  of  self- 
examination,  how  often  may  we  detect  ourselves 
in  enhancing  the  merit  of  the  good  qualities  we 
possess,  and  in  giving  ourselves  credit  for  others, 
which  we  really  have  not. — 2.  When  several 
motives  or  passions  concur  in  prompting  us  to 
any  action,  we  too  easily  assign  the  chief  place 
and  effect  to  the  best. — 3.  We  are  too  prone  to 
flatter  ourselves  by  indulging  the  notion  that  our 
habits  of  vice  are  but  individual  acts,  into  which 
we  have  been  seduced  by  occasional  temptations, 
while  we  are  easily  led  to  assign  the  name  of 
habits  to  our  occasional  acts  and  individual  in- 
stances of  virtue. — i.  We  confound  the  mere 
assent  of  the  understanding  naturally,  attended 
by  some  correspondent  but  transient  sensibilities, 
with  the  impulses  of  the  affections  and  determi- 
nation of  the  will. — 5.  We  are  apt  to  ascribe  to 
settled  principles  the  good  actions  which  are  the 
mere  effect  of  natural  temper. — 6.  As  sometimes, 
in  estimating  the  character  of  others,  we  too 
hastily  infer  the  right  motive  from  the  outward 
act ;  so  in  judging  of  ourselves  we  overrate  the 
worth,  by  overvaluing  the  motives  of  our  actions. 

7.  We  often  confound  the  non-appearance  of  a 
vicious    affection   with   its   actual  extinction. — 

8.  We  often  deceive  ourselves  by  comparing  our 
actual  with  our  former  character  and  cewttect, 
and  perhaps  too  easily  ascribing  to  the  extirpa- 
tion of  vicious,  or  the  implantation  of  virtuous 
habits,  that  improvement  which  is  owing  merely 
to  the  lapse  of  time,  advancing  age,  altered  cir- 
cumstances, &c. — !).  Another  general  and  fertile 
source  of  self-deception  is  our  readiness  to  excuse 
or  at  least  to  extenuate,  the  vices  of  our  particu- 
lar station :  while  we  congratulate  ourseives  on 
the  absence  of  other  vices  which  we  are  under 
no  temptation  to  commit. — 10.  We  deceive  our- 
selves by  supposing  our  remorse  for  sin  is  genuine, 
when,  alas,  it  does  not  lead  to  repentance. — 
11.  By  forming  improper  judgments  of  others, 
and  forming  our  own  conduct  upon  theirs." 
From  this  view  we  may  learn,  1.  That  the  ob- 
jects as  to  which  men  deceive  themselves  are  very 
numerous,  God,  Jesus  Christ,  the  Holy  Spirit, 
the  Bible  and  Gospel  doctrines,  religious  expe- 
rience, sin,  heaven,  hell,  &c. — 2.  The  causes  art 
great  and  powerful ;  sin,  Satan,  the  heart,  the 
world,  interest,  prejudice. — 3.  The  numbers 
who  deceive  themselves  are  great,  the  young,  the 
aged,  the  rich,  the  poor,  self-righteous,  hypocrites, 
apostates,  the  ungodly. — 4.  The  evils  are  many 
and  awful.  It  renders  us  the  slaves  of  procrasti- 
nation, leads  us  to  overrate  ourselves,  flatters  us 
with  an  idea  of  easy  victory,  confirms  our  evil 
habits,  and  exposes  us  to  the  greatest  danger. — 
5.  We  should  endeavour  to  understand  ana 
practise  the  means  not  to  be  deceived ;  such  as 
strict  self-inquiry,  prayer,  watchfulness,  and  ever 
taking  the  Scriptures  for  our  guide.— 6",  and 
lastly,  We  should  learn  to  ascertain  the  evidences 
of  not  being  deceived,  which  are  such  as  these : 
when  sin  is  the  object  of  our  increasing  fear,  a 
tenderness  of  conscience,  when  we  can  appeal  to 
God  as  to  I  he  sincerity  of  our  motives  and  aims, 
when   dependent  on  Cod's  promise,. providence, 


SELF-DENIAL 
and  grace,  and  when  a  nformed  to  him  in  all 
righteousness  and  true  holiness.     Christ.   Obs. 
380-3,  p.  632,  f>33. 

SELF-DEDICATION,  the  giving  up  of 
ourselves  unreservedly  to  God,  that  we  may  serve 
him  in  righteousness  and  true  holiness.  See 
Howe?s  Works,  vol.  i.  oct.  edit. 

SELF-DEFENl  !E  implies  not  only  the  pre- 
servation of  one's  life,  but  also  the  protection  of 
our  property,  because  without  property  life  cannot 
be  preserved  in  a  civilized  nation. 

Some  condemn  all  resistance,  whatsoever  be 
the  evil  offered,  or  whosoever  be  the  person  that 
offers  it ;  others  will  not  admit  that  it  should  pass 
Hiiy  further  than  bare  resistance  ;  others  say,  that 
it  must  never  be  carried  so  far  as  hazarding  the 
life  of  the  assailant ;  and  others  again,  who  deny 
it  not  to  be  lawful  in  some  cases  to  kill  the  ag- 
gressor, at  the  same  time  affirm  it  to  be  a  thing 
■more  laudable  and  consonant  to  the  Gospel,  to 
choose  rather  to  lose  one's  life,  in  imitation  of 
Christ,  than  to  secure  it  at  the  expense  of 
Another's,  in  pursuance  of  the  permission  of 
rature.     But, 

"Notwithstanding,"  says  Grove,  "the  great 
names  which  may  appear  on  the  side  of  any  of 
"hese  opinions,  I  cannot  but  think  self-defence, 
though  it  proceeds  to  the  killing  of  another  to 
save  one's  self,  is  in  common  cases  not  barely 
permitted,  but  enjoined  by  nature  ;  and  that  a 
man  would  be  wanting  to  the  Author  of  his  being, 
to  society,  and  to  himself,  to  abandon  that  life 
with  which  he  is  put  in  trust.  That  a  person  for- 
feits his  own  life  to  the  sword  of  justice,  by  taking 
away  another's  unprovoked,  is  a  principle  not  to 
be  disputed.  This  being  so,  I  ask,  whence  should 
arise  the  obligation  to  let  another  kill  me,  rather 
than  venture  to  save  myself  by  destroying  my 
enemy'?  It  cannot  arise  from  a  regard  to  society, 
which  by  my  suffering  another  to  kill  me,  loses 
two  lives;  that  of  an  honest  man  by  unjust  vio- 
lence, and  that  of  his  murderer,  if  it  can  be  called 
a  loss,  by  the  hand  of  justice.  Whereas,  by  killing 
the  invader  of  my  life,  I  only  lake  a  life,  which 
must  otherwise  have  been  forfeited,  and  preserve 
the  life  of  an  innocent  person.  Nor,  for  the  same 
reason,  can  there  be  any  such  obligation  arising 
from  the  love  of  our  neighbour ;  since  I  do  not 
really  sare  his  lire  by  parting  with  my  own,  but 
only  leave  him  to  be  put  to  death  after  a  more 
ignominious  manner  by  the  public  executioner. 
And  if  it  be  said  that  I  despatch  him  with  his 
sins  upon  him  into  the  other  world,  which  he 
might  have  lived  long  enough  to  repent  of,  if 
legally  condemned ;  as  he  must  answer  for  that, 
who  brought  me  under  a  necessity  of  using  this 
method  for  my  own  preservation;  so  I  myself 
may  not  be  prepared,  or  may  not  think  myself  so, 
or  so  well  assured  of  it  as  to  venture  into  the  pre- 
sence of  my  great  Judge ;  and  no  charity  obliges 
me  to  prefer  the  safety  of  another's  soul  to  my 
own.  Self-defence,  therefore,  may  be  with  justice 
practised,  1.  In  case,  of  an  attempt  made  upon 
the  life  of  a  person,  against  which  he  has  no  other 
way  of  seen  ring  himself  but  repelling  force  by 
tbrce. — 2.  It  is  generally  esteemed  lawful  to  kill 
in  the  defence  of  chastity,  supposing  there  be  no 
other  way  of  preserving  it."  See  Grore's  Aforal 
Philosophy.  Also  Hints  on  llic  Laxrfulncss  of 
Self-defence,  by  a  Scotch  Dissenter. 

SELF-DENIAL,  a  term  that  denotes  our  re- 
linquishing every  thing  that  stands  in  opposition 
417  3  C 


SELF-LOVE 

to  the  divine  command,  and  our  own  spiritual 
welfare,  Matt.  xvi.  24.  It  does  not  consist  in 
denying  what  a  man  is,  or  what  he  has;  in  re- 
fusing favours  conferred  on  us  in  the  course  of 
providence ;  in  rejecting  the  use  of  God's  crea- 
tures; in  being  careless  of  life,  health,  and  family; 
in  macerating  4he  body,  or  abusing  it  in  any  re- 
spect; but  in  renouncing  all  those  pleasures, 
profits,  views,  connexions,  or  practices,  that  aro 
prejudicial  to  the  true  interests  of  the  soul.  The 
understanding  must  be  so  far  denied  as  not  to 
lean  upon  it,  independent  of  divine  instruction, 
Prov.  iii.  5,  6.  The  will  must  be  denied,  so  far  as 
it  opposes  the  will  of  God,  Eph.  v.  17.  The  affec- 
tions, when  they  become  inordinate,  Col.  iii.  v. 
The  gratification  of  the  members  of  the  body  must 
be  denied  when  out  of  their  due  course,  Rom.  vi. 
12,  13.  The  honours  of  the  world,  and  praise  of 
men,  when  they  become  a  snare,  Jieb.  xi.  24,  26. 
Worldly  emoluments,  when  to  be  obtained  in  an 
unlawful  way,  or  when  standing  in  opposition  to 
religion  and  usefulness,  Matt.  iv.  20,  22.  Friends 
and  relatives,  so  far  as  they  oppose  the  truth,  and 
would  influence  us  to  oppose  it  too,  Gen.  xii.  L 
Our  own  righteousness,  so  as  to  depend  upon  it, 
Phil.  iii.  8,  9.  Life  itself  must  be  laid  down,  if 
called  for,  in  the  cause  of  Christ,  Matt.  xvi.  24, 
25.  In  fine,  every  thing  that  is  sinful  must  be 
denied,  however  pleasant,  and  apparently  advan- 
tageous, since,  without  holiness,  no  man  shall  see 
the  Lord,  Heb.  xii.  14.  To  enable  us  to  practise 
this  duty,  let  us  consider  the  injunction  of  Christ, 
Matt.  xvi.  21;  his  eminent  example,  Phil.  ii.  5,  8; 
the  encouragement  he  gives,  Matt.  xvi.  25 ;  the 
example  of  his  saints  in  all  ages,  Heb.  xi. ;  the 
advantages  that  attend  it ;  and,  above  all,  learn  to 
implore  the  agency  of  that  Divine  Spirit,  without 
whom  we  can  do  nothing. 

SELF-EXAMINATION,  is  the  calling  our- 
selves to  a  strict,  account  for  all  the  actions  of  our 
lives,  comparing  them  with  the  word  of  God,  the 
rule  of  duty ;  considering  how  much  evil  we  have 
committed,  and  good  we  have  omitted.  It  is  a 
duty  founded  on  a  divine  command,  2  Cor.  xiii.  5, 
and  ought  to  be,  1.  Deliberately. — 2.  Frequently. 
— 3.  Impartially. — 4.  Diligently. — 5.  Wisely. — 
And,  6.  With  a  desire  of  amendment.  This, 
though  a  legal  duty,  as  some  modern  Christians 
would  call  it,  is  essential  to  our  improvement,  our 
felicity,  and  interest.  "They,"  says  Mr.  Wilber- 
force  (Pract.  View,)  "who,  in  a  crazy  vessel, 
navigate  a  sea  wherein  are  shoals  and  currents 
innumerable,  if  they  would  keep  their  course,  or 
reach  their  port  in  safety,  must  carefully  repair 
the  smallest  injuries,  and  often  throw  out  their 
line,  and  take  their  observations.  In  the  voyage 
of  life,  also,  the  Christian  who  would  not  make 
shipwreck  of  his  faith,  while  he  is  habitually 
watchful  and  provident,  must  make  it  his  express 
business  to  look  into  his  state,  and  ascertain  his 
progress." 

SELF-EXISTENCE  OF  GOD,  is  his  entire 
existence  of  himself,  not  owing  it  to  any  other 
being  whatsoever ;  and  thus  God  would  exist,  if 
there  were  no  other  being  in  the  whole  compass 
of  nature  but  himself.  See  Existence  and 
Eternity  of  Gon. 

SELF-GOVERNMENT.     See  Heart. 

SELFISHNESS.     See  Set.f-seeking. 

SELF-LOVE  is  that  instinctive  principle 
which  impels  every  animal,  rational  and  irrational, 
to  preserve  its  life  and  promote  its  own  happiness. 


SELF-SEEKING 
1  It  is  very  generally  confounded  with  selfishness; 
but,  perhaps,  the  one  propensity  is  distinct  from 
the  other.  Every  man  loves  himself,  but  every 
man  is  not  selfish.  The  scliish  man  grasps  at  all 
immediate  advantages,  regardless  of  the  conse- 
quences which  his  conduct  may  have  upon  his 
neighbour.  Self-love  only  prompts  him  who  is 
actuated  by  it  to  procure  to  himself  the  greatest 
possible  sum  of  happiness  during  the  whole  of  his 
existence.  In  this  pursuit,  the  rational  self-lover 
will  often  forego  a  present  enjoyment  to  obtain  a 
greater  and  more  permanent  one  in  reversion ; 
and  he  will  as  often  submit  to  a  present  pain  to 
avoid  a  greater  hereafter.  Self-love,  as  distin- 
guished from  selfishness,  always  comprehends  the 
whole  of  a  man's  existence ;  and,  in  that  extended 
sense  of  the  phrase,  every  man  is  a  self-lover;  for, 
with  eternity  in  his  view,  it  is  surely  not  possible 
for  the  most  disinterested  of  the  human  race  not 
to  prefer  himself  to  all  other  men,  if  their  future 
and  everlasting  interests  could  come  into  competi- 
tion. This,  indeed,  they  never  can  do ;  for  though 
the  introduction  of  evil  into  the  world,  and  the 
different  ranks  which  it  makes  necessary  in  so- 
ciety, put  it  in  the  power  of  a  man  to  raise  him- 
self in  the  present  state  by  the  depression  of  his 
neighbour,  or  by  the  practice  of  injustice ;  yet,  in 
the  pursuit  of  the  glorious  prize  which  is  set  be- 
fore us,  there  can  be  no  rivalship  among  the  com- 
petitors. The  success  of  one  is  no  injury  to  an- 
other; and  therefore,  in  this  sense  of  the  phrase, 
self-love  is  not  only  lawful,  but  absolutely  un- 
avoidable." Self-love,  however,  says  Jortin,  (ser. 
13.  vol.  iv.)  is  vicious,  1.  "When  it  leads  us  to 
judge  too  favourably  of  our  faults. — 2.  When  we 
think  too  well  of  our  righteousness,  and  over-value 
our  good  actions,  and  are  pure  in  our  own  eyes. 
— 3.  When  we  over-value  our  abilities,  and  en- 
tertain too  good  an  opinion  of  our  knowledge  and 
capacity.— 4.  "When  we  are  proud  and  vain  of 
inferior  things,  and  value  ourselves  upon  the  sta- 
tion and  circumstances  in  which,  not  our  own 
deserts,  but  some  other  cause,  has  placed  us. — 
5.  When  we  make  our  worldly  interest,  conve- 
nience, ease,  or  pleasure,  the  great  end  of  our 
actions. 

Much  has  been  said  about  the  doctrine  of  dis- 
interested love  to  God.  It  must  be  confessed,  that 
we  ought _  to  love  him  for  his  own  excellencies ; 
yet  it  is  difficult  to  form  an  idea  how  we  can  love 
God  unconnected  with  any  interest  to  ourselves. 
What,  indeed,  we  ought  to  do,  and  what  we  really 
do,  or  can  do,  is  very  different.  There  is  an  ever- 
lasting obligation  on  men  to  love  God  for  what 
he  is,  however  incapable  of  doing  it;  but,  at  the 
same  time,  our  love  to  him  is  our  interest ;  nor  can 
we  in  the  present  state,  I  think,  while  possessed 
of  such  bodies  and  such  minds,  love  God  without 
including  a  sense  of  his  relative  goodness.  "  We 
love  him,"  says  John,  "  because  he  first  loved  us." 
See  Love. 

SELF-SEEKING,  the  aiming  at  our  own 
interest  only  in  every  thing  we  do.  It  must  be 
distinguished  from  that  regard  which  we  ou«rht 
to  pay  to 'the  preservation  of  our  health,  the  cul- 
tivation of  our  minds,  the  lawful  concerns  of  busi- 
ness, and  the  salvation  of  our  souls.  Self-seekinc 
evidences  itself  by  parsimoniousness,  oppression" 
neglect,  and  contempt  of  others,  rebellion,  sedi- 
tion, egotism,  immoderate  attempts  to  gain  fame, 
power,  pleasure,  money,  and  frequently  by  trross 
acta  of  lying  and  injustice.  Its  evils  are  numcr- 1 
41« 


SEMI-PELAGIANS 
ous.  It  is  highly  dishonourable  and  aharin,*, 
transforming  a  man  into  any  thing  or  every  thins 
for  his  own  interest.  It  is  sinful,  and  the  source 
of  innumerable  sins;  as  perjury,  hvpocrisv,  false- 
hood, idolatry,  persecution,  and  murder  itself.  It 
is  dangerous.  It  excites  contempt,  is  the  source 
of  tyranny,  discord,  war,  and  makes  a  man  a 
slave,  and  exposes  him  to  the  just  indignation  of 
God.  The  remedies  to  "prevent  or  svppress  this 
evil,  are  these :  Consider  that  it  is  absolutely*  pro- 
hibited, Jer.  xlv.  5;  Luke  iv.  23;  Heb.  xiii.  5; 
Col.  iii.  5.  A  mark  of  a  wicked  degenerate  mind  : 
that  the  most  awful  curses  are  pronounced  against 
it.  Is.v.  18;  Hab.  vi.  9— 12;  Is.  xv.  1,  2;  Amos 
vi.  1 ;  Mic.  ii.  1,  2 ;  that  it  is  contrary  to  the  ex- 
ample of  all  wise  and  good  men :  that  the  most 
awful  examples  of  the  punishment  of  this  sin  are 
recorded  in  Scripture;  as  Pharoah,  Achan,  Ha- 
man,  Gehazi,  Absalom,  Ananias  and  Sapphira, 
Judas,  and  many  others. 

SEMBIANI,  so  called  from  Sembianus  their 
leader,  who  condemned  all  use  of  wine  as  evil  of 
itself.  He  persuaded  his  followers  that  wine  was 
a  production  of  Satan  and  the  earth,  denied  the 
resurrection  of  the  body,  and  rejected  most  of  the 
books  of  the  Old  Testament. 

SEMI-ARIANS  were  thus  denominated,  be- 
cause, in  profession,  they  condemned  the  errors 
of  the  Arians,  but  in  reality  maintained  their 
principles,  only  palliating  and  concealing  them 
under  softer  and  more  moderate  terms.  They 
would  not  allow,  with  the  orthodox,  that  the  Son 
was  o/tocuo-io;,  of  the  same  substance,  but  only 
o/ioiouu-io;,  of  a  like  substance  with  the  Father; 
and  thus,  though  in  expression  they  differed  from 
the  orthodox  in  a  single  letter  only,  yet  in  effect 
they  denied  the  divinity  of  Jesus  Christ.  The 
Semi-arianism  of  the  moderns  consists  in  their 
maintaining  that  the  Son  was,  from  all  eternity, 
begotten  by  the  will  of  the  Father ;  contrary  to 
the  doctrine  of  those  who  teach  that  the  eternal 
generation  is  necessary.  Such,  at  least,  are  the 
respective  opinions  of  Dr.  Clarke  and  Bishop  Bull. 

SEMI-PELAGIANS,  a  name  anciently,  and 
even  at  this  day,  given  to  such  as  retain  some 
tincture  of  Pelagianism. 

Cassian,  who  had  been  a  deacon  of  Constanti- 
nople, and  was  afterwards  a  priest  at  Marseilles, 
was  the  chief  of  these  Semi-Pelagians,  whose 
leading  principles  were,  1.  That  God  did  not 
dispense  his  grace  to  one  more  than  another,  in 
consequence  of  predestination,  i.  e.  an  eternal  and 
absolute  decree,  but  was  willing  to  save  all  men, 
if  they  complied  with  the  terms  of  his  Gospel. — 
2.  That  Christ  died  for  all  men.— 3.  That  the 
grace  purchased  by  Christ,  and  necessary  to  sal- 
vation, was  offered  to  all  men — 4.  That  man, 
before  he  received  grace,  was  capable  of  faith  and 
holy  desires. — 5.  That  man  was  born  free,  and 
was  consequently  capable  of  resisting  the  influ- 
ences of  grace,  or  of  complying  with  its  sugges- 
tion.— The  Semi-Pelagians  were  very  numerous ; 
and  the  doctrine  of  Cassian,  though  variously  ex- 
plained, was  received  in  the  greatest  part  of  the 
monastic  schools  in  Gaul,  from  whence  it  spread 
itself  far  and  wide  through  the  European  pro- 
vinces. As  to  the  Greeks,  and  other  Eastern 
Christians,  they  had  embraced  the  Semi-Pelagian 
doctrines  liefore  Cassian.  In  the  sixth  century 
the  controversy  between  the  Semi-Pelagians  and 
the  disciples  of  Augustin  prevailed  much,  and 
continued  to  divide  the  Western  churches. 


SEPTUAGINT 

SENSATION  properly  signifies  that  internal 
act  by  which  we  ari;  made  conscious  of  pleasure 
or  pain  felt  at  the  trgan  of  sense.  As  to  sensa- 
tions and  feelings,  says  Dr.  Reid,  some  belong  to 
the  animal  part  of  our  nature,  and  are  common  to 
us  with  the  brutes;  others  belong  to  the  rational 
and  moral  part.  The  first  are  more  properly  called 
sensations ;  the  last,  feelings.  The  French  word 
ftentiment  is  common  to  both.  The  design  of  the 
Almighty  in  giving  us  both  the  painful  and 
agreeable  feelings  is,  for  the  most  part,  obvious, 
and  well  deserving  our  notice.  1.  The  painful 
sensations  are  admonitions  to  avoid  what  would 
hurt  us ;  and  the  agreeable  sensations  to  invite  us 
to  those  actions  that  are  necessary  to  the  preserva- 
tion of  the  individual  or  the  kind. — 2.  By  the 
same  means,  nature  invites  us  to  moderate  bodily 
exercise,  and  admonishes  us  to  avoid  idleness  and 
inactivity  on  the  one  hand,  and  excessive  labour 
on  the  other. — 3.  The  moderate  exercise  of  all 
our  rational  powers  gives  pleasure. — 4.  Every 
species  of  beauty  is  beheld  with  pleasure,  and 
every  species  of  deformity  with  disgust. — 5.  The 
benevolent  affections  are  all  accompanied  with  an 
agreeable  feeling ;  the  malevolent  on  the  contrary : 
— and,  6.  The  highest,  the  noblest,  and  the  most 
durable  pleasure,  is  that  of  doing  well ;  and  the 
most  bitter  and  painful  sentiment,  the  anguish 
and  remorse  of  a  guilty  conscience.  See  Thcorie 
des  Sentimens  Agreables ;  Reid  on  the  Intel- 
lectual Powers,  p.  332 ;  Kaimcs's  Elements  of 
Criticism,  vol.  ii.  p.  501. 

SENSE,  a  faculty  of  the  soul,  whereby  it  per- 
ceives external  objects  by  means  of  impressions 
made  on  the  organs  of  the  body. 

Moral  sense  is  said  to  be  an  apprehension  of 
that  beauty  or  deformity  which  arises  in  the  mind 
by  a  kind  of  natural  instinct,  previously  to  any 
reasoning  upon  the  remoter  consequences  of  ac- 
tions. Whether  this  really  exists  or  not  is  dis- 
puted. On  the  affirmative  side  it  is  said,  that, 
1.  We  approve  or  disapprove  certain  actions  with- 
out deliberation. — 2.  This  approbation  or  disap- 
probation is  uniform  and  universal.  But  against 
this  opinion  it  is  answered,  that,  1.  This  uni- 
formity of  sentiment  does  not  pervade  all  nations. 
— 2.  Approbation  of  particular  conduct  arises 
from  a  sense  of  its  advantages.  The  idea  con- 
tinues when  the  motive  no  longer  exists ;  receives 
strength  from  authority,  imitation,  &c.  The  effi- 
cacy of  imitation  is  most  observable  in  children. — 
3.  There  are  no  maxims  universally  true,  but 
bend  to  circumstances. — 4.  There  can  be  no  idea 
without  an  object,  and  instinct  is  inseparable  from 
the  idea  of  the  object.  See  Paley's  Moral  Philo- 
sophy, vol.  i.  chap.  v. ;  Hutcheson  on  the  Pas- 
sions, p.  2-15,  &c;  Mason's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  p.  253. 

SEPTUAGESIMA,  the  third  Sunday  be- 
fore the  first  Sunday  in  Lent ;  so  called  because 
it  was  about  70  days  before  Easter. 

SEPTUAGINT,  the  name  given  to  a  Greek 
version  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament,  from 
its  being  supposed  to  be  the  work  of  seventy-two 
Jews,  who  are  usually  called  the  seven  _,  inter- 
preters, because  seventy  is  a  round  number. 

Aristobulus,  who  was  tutor  to  Ptolemy  Phys- 
con;  Philo,  who  lived  in  our  Saviour's  time,  and 
was  contemporary  with  the  apostles;  and  Jose- 
phus,  speak  of  this  translation  as  made  by  seventy- 
two  interpreters,  by  the  care  of  Demetrius  Pha- 
lercus,  in  the  reign  of  Ptulemy  Philadelphus.  All 
the  Christian  writers,  during  the  first  fifteen  cen- 
419 


SEPTUAGINT 
turies  of  the  Christian  a>ra,  have  admitted  this 
account  of  the  Septuagint  as  an  undoubted  fact ; 
but,  since  the  Reformation,  critics  have  boldly 
called  it  in  question.  But  whatever  differences  of 
opinion  there  have  been  as  to  the  mode  of  trans- 
lation, it  is  universally  acknowledged  that  such  a 
version,  whole  or  in  part,  existed ;  and  it  is  pretty 
evident  that  most  of  the  books  must  have  been 
translated  before  our  Saviour's  time,  as  they  are 
quoted  by  him.  It  must  also  be  considered  as  a 
wonderful  providence  in  favour  of  the  religion  of 
Jesus.  It  prepared  the  way  for  his  coming,  and 
afterwards  greatly  promoted  the  setting  up  of  his 
kingdom  in  the  world ;  lor  hitherto  the  Scriptures 
had  remained  lecked  up  from  all  other  nations  but 
the  Jews,  in  the  Hebrew  tongue,  which  was  un- 
derstood by  no  other  nation;  but  now  it  was 
translated  into  the  Greek  language,  which  was  a 
language  commonly  understood  by  the  nations  of 
the  world.  It  has  also  been  with  great  propriety 
observed,  "that  there  are  many  words  and  forms 
of  speech  in  the  New  Testament,  the  true  import 
of  which  cannot  be  known  but  by  their  use  in  the 
Septuagint.  This  version  also  preserves  many 
important  words,  some  sentences,  and  several 
whole  verses  which  originally  made  a  part  of  the 
Hebrew  text,  but  have  long  ago  entirely  disap- 
peared. This  is  the  version,  and  this  only,  which 
is  constantly  used  and  quoted  in  the  Gospels  and 
by  the  apostles,  and  which  has  thereby  received 
the  highest  sanction  which  any  writings  can  pos- 
sibly receive." 

There  have  been  various  editions  of  the  Sep- 
tuagint; such  as  Breitenger's  edition,  1730; 
Boss's  edition,  1709;  Daniel's  edition,  1653; 
Mills's  edition,  12mo.  1725;  Bishop  Pearson's, 
printed  by  Field,  12mo.  1665;  but  Grabe's  edi- 
tion, published  in  1707,  is  in  great  repute. 

Dr.  Holmes,  canon  of  Christ  Church,  was 
employed  for  some  years  on  a  correct  edition  of 
the  Septuagint.  He  had  been  collating  from  more 
than  three  hundred  Greek  manuscripts;  from 
twenty  or  more  Coptic,  Syriac,  Arabic,  Sclavo- 
nian,  and  Armenian  manuscripts;  from  eleven 
editions  of  the  Greek  text  and  versions ;  and  from 
near  thirty  Greek  fathers,  when  death  prevented 
him  from  finishing  this  valuable  work.  He  printed 
the  whole  of  the  Pentateuch  in  five  parts,  folio ; 
and  lately  edited  the  prophecy  of  Daniel  according 
to  Thcodotian  and  the  LXX.  departing  from  his 
proposed  order,  as  if  by  a  presentiment  of  his  end. 
This  valuable  work  is  now  continued  by  Mr. 
Parsons,  of  Cambridge. 

Those  who  desire  a  larger  account  of  this 
translation,  may  consult  Hudy  dc  Bib.  Te.rtibus; 
Prideaux's  Connexion  ;  Owen's  Inquiry  into  the 
Septuagint  Version ;  Blair's  Lectures  on  the 
Canon  ;  and  Michaelis' s  Introduction  to  the  New 
Testament;   Clarke's  Bibliothcca. 

SEPTUAGINT  CHRONOLOGY,  the 
chronology  which  is  formed  from  the  dates  and 
periods  of  time  mentioned  in  the  Septuagint 
translation  of  the  Old  Testament.  It  reckons 
1500  years  more  from  the  creation  to  Abraham 
than  the  Hebrew  Bible.  Dr.  Kennicott,  in  the 
dissertation  prefixed  to  his  Hebrew  Bible,  has 
shown  it  to  be  very  probable  that  the  chronology 
of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures,  since  the  period  just 
mentioned,  was  corrupted  by  the  Jews  between 
the  years  175  and  200 ;  and  that  the  chronology 
of  the  Septuagint  is  more  agreeable  to  truth,  it 
is  a  fact,  that,  during  the  second  and  third  centu- 


SERMON 

Ties,  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  were  almost  entirely 
in  the  hands  of  the  Jews,  while  the  Septuagint 
was  confined  to  the  Christians.  The  Jews  had, 
therefore,  a  very  favourable  opportunity  for  this 
corruption.  The  following  is  the  reason  which 
is  given  by  Oriental  writers :  it  being  a  very  an- 
cient tradition  that  Messiah  was  to  come  in  the 
sixth  chiliad,  Itecause  he  was  to  come  in  the  last 
days  (founded  on  a  mystical  application  of  the 
six  davs'  creation,)  the  contrivance  was  to  shorten 
the  age  of  the  world  from  about  5500  to  o7(>0; 
and  thence  to  prove  that  Jesus  could  not  be  the 
Messiah.  Dr.  Kennieott  adds,  that  some  He- 
brew copies,  having  the  larger  chronology,  were 
extant  till  the  time  of  Eusebius,  and  some  till  the 
year  700. 

SERIOUSNESS,  a  term  often  used  as  sy- 
nonymous with  religion. 

SERMON,  a  discourse  delivered  in  public  for 
the  purpose  of  religious  instruction  and  improve- 
ment. 

In  order  to  make  a  good  sermon,  the  follow- 
ing things  may  be  attended  to.  The  exordium 
should  correspond  with  the  subject  on  which  we 
are  about  to  treat.  For  this  purpose  the  context 
often  forms  a  source  of  appropriate  remark ; 
and  this,  though  called  a  hackneyed  way,  is  one 
of  the  best  for  opening  gradually  to  the  subject; 
though,  I  confess,  always  to  use  it  is  not  so  well, 
as  it  looks  formal.  There  are  some  subjects  in 
which  the  context  cannot,  be  consulted  :  then, 
perhaps,  it  is  best  to  begin  with  some  passage  of 
Scripture  apposite  to  the  subject,  or  some  striking 
observation.  It  has  been  debated,  indeed,  whe- 
ther we  should  begin  with  any  thing  particu- 
larly calculated  to  gain  the  attention,  or  whether 
we  should  rise  gradually  in  the.  strength  of  re- 
mark and  aptness  of  sentiment.  As  to  this,  we 
may  observe,  that  although  it  is  acknowledged 
that  a  minister  should  flame  most  towards  the 
end,  perhaps  it  would  he  well  to  guard  against  a 
t<x)  low  anil  feeble  manner  in  the  exordium.  It 
Las  been  frequently  the  practice  of  making  apolo- 
gies, byway  of  introduction :  though  this  may 
be  admitted  in  some  singular  cases,  as  on  the 
sudden  death  of  a  minister,  or  disappointment  of 
the  preacher  through  unforeseen  circumstances; 
vet  I  think  it  is  often  made  use  of  where  it  is  en- 
tirely unnecessary,  and  carries  with  it  an  air  of 
affectation  and  pride.  An  apology  for  a  man's 
self  is  often  more  a  reflection  than  any  thing 
else.  If  he  lie  not  qualified,  why  have  the  effron- 
tery to  engage  1  and,  if  qualified,  why  tell  the 
people  an  untruth  7 

Exordiums  should  be  short;  some  give  us  an 
abridgment  of  their  sermon  in  their  introduction, 
which  takes  off'  the  people's  attention  afterwards  : 
otiiers  promise  so  much,  that  the  expectation 
thereby  raised  is  often  disappointed.  Both  these 
should  In-  avoided  :  and  a  simple,  correct,  modest, 
deliberate,  easy  gradation  to  the  text  attended  to. 

As  to  the  plan. — Sometimes  a  text  may  be  dis- 
cussed by  exposition  and  inference;  sometimes 
by  raising  a  proposition,  as  the  general  sentiment 
of  the  text,  from  which  several  truths  may  be 
deduced  and  insisted  on-  sometimes  by  geiieral 
observations;  and  sometimes  by  division.  If  we 
discuss  by  exposition,  then  we  should  examine 
the  authenticity  of  the  reading,  the  accuracy  of 
tile  translation,  and  the  scope  of  the  writer.  If 
a  proposition  be  raised,  care  should  be  taken  that 
His  founded  on  the  meaning  of  the  text.  If  oh- 
420 


SERMON 
servations  be  made,  they  should  not  be  too  nume- 
rous, foreign,  nor  upon  every  particle  in  the  text 
If  by  division,  the  heads  should  be  distinct  anil 
few,  yet  have  a  just  dependence  on  and  con- 
nexion one  with  the  other.  It  was  common  in  the 
last  two  centuries  to  have  such  a  multitude  of 
heads,  subdivisions,  observations,  and  inferences, 
that  hardly  any  one  could  remember  them:  it  is 
the  custom  of  the  present  day,  among  many,  to 
run  into  the  other  extreme,  and  to  have  no  divi- 
sion at  all.  This  is  equally  as  injurious.  "I  have 
no  notion,"  says  one,  "  of  the  great  usefulness  of 
a  sermon  without  heads  and  divisions.  They 
should  Vie  few,  and  distinct,  and  not  coincide. 
But  a  general  harangue,  or  a  sermon  with  a  con- 
cealed division,  is  very  improper  for  the  gene- 
rality of  hearers,  especially  the  common  people, 
as  they  can  neither  remember  it,  nor  so  well  un- 
derstand it.''  Another  observes,  "  We  shook] 
ever  remember  that  we  are  speaking  to  the  plain- 
est capacities ;  and  as  the  arranging  our  ideas 
properly  is  necessary  to  our  being  understood,  so 
the  giving  each  division  of  our  discourse  its 
denomination  of  number  has  a  happy  effect  to 
assist  the  attention  and  memory  of  our  hearers." 

As  to  the  amplification. — After  having  laid  a 
good  foundation  on  which  to  build,  the  super- 
structure should  be  raised  with  care.  "  Let  every 
text  have  its  true  meaning,  every  truth  its  due 
weight,  every  hearer  his  proper  portion."  The 
reasoning  should  be  clear,  deliberate,  and  strong. 
No  flights  of  wit  should  be  indulged  ;  but  a  close 
attention  to  the  subject,  with  every  exertion  to 
inform  the  judgment  and  impress  the  heart.  It 
is  in  this  part  of  a  sermon  that  it  will  be  seen 
whether  a  man  understands  his  subject,  enters 
into  the  spirit  of  it,  or  whether,  after  all  his  pa- 
rade, he  be  a  mere  trifier.  I  have  known  some, 
who,  after  having  given  a  pleasing  exordium  and 
ingenious  plan,  have  been  very  deficient  in  the 
amplification  of  the  subject;  which  shows  that  a 
man  may  be  capable  of  making  a  good  plan,  and 
not  a  good  sermon,  which,  of  the  two,  perhaps,  is 
worse  than  making  a  good  sermon  without  a  good 
plan.  The  best  of  men,  however,  cannot  always 
enter  into  the  subject  with  that  ability  which  at 
certain  times  they  are  capable  of.  If  in  our 
attempts,  therefore,  to  enlarge  on  particulars, 
we  find  our  thoughts  do  not  run  freely  on  any 
point,  we.  should  not  urge  them  too  much — 
this  will  tire  and  jade  the  faculties  too  soon  ;  but 
pursue  our  plan.  Better  thoughts  may  occur 
afterwards,  which  wc  may  occasionally  insert. 

As  to  ike  application. — It  is  much  to  be  la- 
mented that  this  is  a  part  which  does  not  belong 
to  the  sermons  of  some  divines.  They  can  dis- 
cuss a  topic  in  a  general  way,  show  their  abili- 
ties, and  give  pleasing  descriptions  of  virtue  and 
religion ;  but  to  apply  they  think  will  hurt  the 
feelings  of  their  auditors.  But  I  believe  it  has 
been  found  that,  among  such,  little  good  has  been 
done  ;  nor  is  it  likely,  when  the  people  are  never 
led  to  suppose  that  they  are  the  parties  interested. 
There  are  also  some  doctrinal  preachers  who  re- 
ject application  altogether,  and  who  affect  to  dis- 
charge their  office  by  narrating  and  reasoning 
only  ;  but  such  should  remember  that  reasoning 
is  persuasion;  and  that  themselves,  as  often  as 
any  men,  slide  into  personal  application,  espe- 
cially in  discussing  certain  favourite  points  in 
divinity.  Application  is  certainly  one  of  the 
most  important  parts  of  a  sennon.     Here  bolii 


SERPENTINIANS 
the  judgment  and  the  passions  should  be  power- 
fully addressed.  Here  the  minister  must  reason, 
expostulate,  invite,  warn,  and  exhort ;  and  all 
without  harshness  and  an  insulting  air.  Here  pity, 
love,  faithfulness,  concern,  must  be  all  display- 
ed. The  application,  however,  must  not  be  too 
long,  unnatural,  nor,  I  think,  concluded  abruptly. 
We  shall  now  subjoin  a  few  remarks  as  to  the 
style  and  delivery. 

As  to  style  :  it  should  he  perspicuous.  Singu- 
lar terms,  hard  words,  bombastic  expressions,  are 
not  at  all  consistent.  Quoting  Latin  and  Greek 
sentences  will  be  of  little  utility.  Long  argu- 
mentations, and  dry  metaphysical  reasoning, 
should  be  avoided.  A  plain  manly  style,  so  clear 
that  it  cannot  be  misunderstood,  should  be  pur- 
sued. The  Scriptures  are  the  best  model.  Mr. 
Flavel  says,  "  The  devil  is  very  busy  with  minis- 
ters in  their  studies,  tempting  them  to  lofty  lan- 
guage, and  terms  of  art,  above  their  hearers' 
capacities." 

The  style  should  be  correct.  That  a  man  may 
preacn,  and  do  good,  without  knowing  much  of 
grammar,  is  not  to  be  doubted ;  but  certainly  it 
cannot  be  pleasing  to  hear  a  man,  who  sets  him- 
self up  as  a  teacher  of  others,  continually  violating 
all  the  rules  of  grammar,  and  rendering  himself  a 
laughing-stock  to  the  more  intelligent  part  of  the 
congregation;  "and  yet,"  says  one,  "I  have 
heard  persons,  who  could  scarce  utter  three  sen- 
tences without  a  false  construction,  make  gram- 
matical criticism  not  only  on  the  English  lan- 
guage, but  on  Latin,  Greek,  and  Hebrew." 

Care  should  always  be  taken  not  to  use  a  re- 
dundancy of  words,  and  a  jingle  of  sentences  and 
syllable.-:,  as  they  carry  more  an  air  of  pedantry 
than  of  prudence. 

As  to  the  use.  of  figures. — "  A  noble  metaphor, 
when  it  is  placed  to  an  advantage,  casts  a  kind 
of  glory  round  it,  and  darts  a  lustre  through  a 
whole  sentence."  But  the  present  and  past  age 
have  abounded  with  preachers  who  have  mur- 
dered and  distorted  figures  in  a  shameful  manner. 
Reach's  metaphors  are  run  beyond  all  due  bounds. 
Yet  I  know  of  no  method  so  useful  in  preaching 
as  by  figures,  when  well  chosen,  when  they  are 
not  too  mean,  nor  drawn  out  into  too  many  pa- 
rallels. The  Scriptures  abound  with  figures. 
Our  Lord  and  his  disciples  constantly  used  them; 
and  people  understand  a  subject  better  when  re- 
presented by  a  figure,  than  by  learned  disquisi- 
tions. 

A*  to  the  delivery  of  sermons,  we  refer  to  the 
articles  Declamation  and  Ej.oouence.  See 
also  Minister  and  Preaching. 

SERPENTINIANS,  or  Ophites,  heretics 
in  the  second  century,  so  called  from  the  venera- 
tion they  had  for  the  serpent  that  tempted  Eve, 
and  the  worship  paid  to  a  real  serpent :  they  pre- 
tended that  the  serpent  was  Jesus  Christ,  and 
that  he  taught  men  the  knowledge  of  good  and 
evil.  They  distinguished  between  Jesus  and 
Christ  Jesus,  they  said,  was  born  of  the  Virgin, 
but  Christ  came  down  from  heaven  to  be  united 
with  him:  Jesus  was  crucified,  but  Christ  had 
left  him  to  return  to  heaven.  They  distinguished 
the  God  of  the  Jews,  whom  they  termed  Jalda- 
oaotli,  from  the  supreme  God  :  to  the  former  they 
ascribed  the  body,  to  the  latter  the  soul  of  men. 
It  is  said  they  had  a  live  serpent,  which  they  kept 
in  a  kind  of  cage  :  at.  certain  times  they  opened 
the  cage-door,  and  called  the  serpent :  the  animal 
421 


SHAKERS 

came  out,  and,  mounting  upon  the  table,  twineil 
itself  about  some  loaves  of  bread.  This  bread 
they  broke,  and  distributed  it  to  the  company; 
and  this  they  called  their  Eucharist. 

SERVANTS.  The  business  of  servants  is 
to  wait  upon,  minister  to,  support  and  defend 
their  masters ;  but  there  are  three  cases,  as  Dr. 
Stennett  observes,  wherein  a  servant  may  be  jus- 
tified in  refusing  obedience  :  1.  When  the  mas- 
ter's commands  are  contrary  to  the  will  of  God. — 
2.  When  they  are  required  to  do  what  is  not  in 
their  power. — 3.  When  such  service  is  demanded 
as  falls  not  within  the  compass  of  the  servant's 
agreement.  The  obligations  servants  are  under 
to  universal  obedience,  are  from  these  considera- 
tions: 1.  That  it  is  fit  and  right.— 2.  That  it  is 
the  expressed  command  of  God'. — 3.  That  it  is 
for  the  interest  both  of  body  and  soul. — 4.  That  it 
is  a  credit  to  our  holy  religion.  The  manner  in 
which  this  service  is  to  be  performed  is,  1.  With 
humility,  Prov.  xxx.  21,  22;  Eccl.  x.  7. — 2.  Fi- 
delity, Titus  ii.  10;  Matt.  xxiv.  45.-3.  Dili- 
gence, Prov.  x.  4;  xxi.  5;  1  Thess.  iv.  11. — 
4.  Cheerfulness.  Stennett' s  Domestic  Duties, 
scr.  7 ;  Flechcood's  Relative  Duties,  ser.  14,  15  ; 
Paley's  Moral  Philosophy,  vol.  i.  chap.  11. 

SERV1TES,  a  religious  order  in  the  church 
of  Rome,  founded  about  the  year  1233,  by  seven 
Florentine  merchants,  who,  with  the  approbation 
of  the  bishop  of  Florence,  renounced  the  world, 
and  lived  together  in  a  religious  community  on 
mount  Senar,  two  leagues  from  that  city. 

SETH1ANS?  heretics  who  paid  divine  wor- 
ship to  Seth.  whom  they  looked  upon  to  be  Jesus 
Christ,  the  Son  of  God,  but  who  was  made  by  a 
third  divinity,  and  substituted  in  the  room  of  the 
two  families  of  Abel  and  Cain,  which  had  been 
destroyed  by  the  deluge.  They  appeared  in 
Egypt  in  the  second  century  ;  and  as  they  were 
addicted  to  all  sorts  of  debauchery,  they  did  not 
want  followers.  They  continued  in  Egypt  above 
two  hundred  vears. 

SEVENTY.  About  the  year  B.  C.  277,  the 
Old  Testament  was  translated  into  Greek,  by  the 
united  labours  of  about  seventy  learned  Jews, 
and  that  translation  has  been  since  known  by  the 
version  of  the  LXX.     See  Septuagint. 

SEVER1TES.     See  Angelites. 

SEXAGESIMA,  the  second  Sunday  before 
Lent ;  so  called  because  about  the  60th  day  be- 
fore Easter. 

SHAKERS,  a  sect  which  was  instituted  about 
the  year  1774,  in  America.  Anna  Leese,  whom 
they  style  the  Elect  Lady,  is  the  head  of  this 
party.  They  assert  that  she  is  the  woman  spoken 
of  in  the  12th  chapter  of  Revelations,  and  that 
she  speaks  seventy -two  tongues;  and  though 
those  tongues  are  unintelligible  to  the  living,  she 
converses  with  the  dead,  who  understand  her 
language.  They  add  further,  that  she  is  the  mo- 
ther of  all  the  elect,  and  that  she  travails  for  the 
whole  world;  that,  in  fine,  no  blessing  can  de- 
scend to  any  person  but  only  by  and  through 
her,  and  that  in  the  way  of  her  being  possessed 
of  their  sins  by  their  confessing  and  repenting  of 
them,  one  by  one,  according  to  her  direction. 
They  vary  in  theirexercises:  their  heavy  dancing, 
as  it  is  called,  is  performed  by  a  perpetual  spring 
ing  from  the  house  floor,  about  four  inches  up 
and  down,  both  in  the  men's  and  women's  apart- 
ment, moving  about  with  extraordinary  transport, 
singing  sometimes  one  at  a  time,  and  sometime* 
2  L 


SIBYLLINE 
more.  This  elevation  affects  the  nerves,  so  that 
they  have  intervals  of  shuddering,  as  if  they  were 
in  a  violent  fit  of  the  ague.  They  sometimes  clap 
their  hands,  and  leap  so  high  as  to  strike  the  joists 
above  their  heads.  They  throw  off  their  outside 
garment  in  these  exercises,  and  spend  their 
strength  very  cheerfully  this  way :  their  chief 
speaker  often  calls  for  their  attention,  when  they 
all  stop,  and  hear  some  harangue,  and  then  he- 
gin  dancing  again.  They  assert  that  their  dancing 
is  the  token  of  the  great  joy  and  happiness  of  the 
Jerusalem  state,  and  denotes  the  victory  over  sin. 
One  of  their  most  favourite  exertions  is  turning 
round  very  swiftly  for  an  hour  or  two.  This', 
they  say,  is  to  show  the  great  power  of  God. 
Such  is  the  account  which  different  writers  have 
given  us  of  this  sect;  but  others  observe,  that 
though,  at  first,  they  used  these  violent  gesticula- 
tions, now  they  have  "  a  regular,  solemn,  uniform 
dance,  or  genuflection,  to  a  regular,  solemn 
hymn,  which  is  sung  by  the  elders,  and  as  regu- 
larly conducted  as  a  proper  band  of  music."  See 
Sew  York  Theol.  Mag.  for  Nov.  and  Dec.  1795. 

SHAKERS  in  tub  UNITED  STATES. 
This  Society  is  sometimes  called  the  Millennial 
Church.  They  are  denominated  Shakers  from 
.he  violent  bodily  commotions  with  which  they 
are  sometimes  seized.  In  1780,  ten  or  twelve 
individuals  came  to  this  country  from  England. 
In  1787,  they  formed  themselves  into  a  society  at 
New  Lebanon,  New  York,  and  established  a 
community  of  goods  in  all  respects.  Their  gene- 
ral employments  are  agriculture  and  the  me- 
chanic arts.  They  are  remarkable  for  their 
neatness,  sobriety,  honesty,  and  harmlessness. 
Their  peculiar  manner  of  worship  is  by  dancing. 
Societies  of  Shakers  are  formed  at  Alfred  and 
New  Gloucester,  Me. ;  Canterbury  and  Enfield, 
N.  H. ;  Shirley)  Harvard,  Tyringham,  and  Han- 
cock, Mass. ;  Enfield,  Conn. ;  Watervliet  and 
New  Lebanon,  N.  Y. ;  Union  Village  and  Wa- 
tervliet, Ohio ;  Pleasant  Hill  and  South  Union, 
Ky.  Number  of  societies  in  1828,  16 ;  preach- 
ers, 45  ;  population,  5,400. — B 

SHAME,  a  painful  sensation,  occasioned  by 
the  quick  apprehension  that  reputation  and  cha- 
racter are  in  danger,  or  by  the  perception  that 
they  are  lost.  It  may  arise,  says  Dr.  Cogan, 
from  the  immediate  detection,  or  the  fear  of  de- 
tection, in  something  ignominious.  It  may  also 
arise  from  native  diffidence  in  young  and  in- 
genuous minds,  when  surprised  into  situations 
where  they  attract  the  peculiar  attention  of  their 
superiors.  The  glow  of  shame  indicates,  in  the 
first  instance,  that  the  mind  is  not  totally  aban- 
doned ;  in  the  last,  it  manifests  a  nice  sense  of 
honour  and  delicate  feelings,  united  with  inex- 
perience and  ignorance  of  the  world. 

SI  IAS  rER,  the  name  of  a  book  in  high  esti- 
mation among- the  idolaters  of  Hindostan,  con- 
taining all  the  dogmas  of  the  religion  of  the 
Bra  nuns,  and  all  the  ceremonies  of  their  worship. 

SHROVE  TUESDAY.  The  day  before 
Ash  We  Inesday  or  Lent,  on  which,  iii  former 
times,  persons  went  to  their  parish  churches  to 
confess  their  sins. 

SIBYLLINE  ORACLES,  prophecies  de- 
livered, it  is  said,  by  certain  women  of  antiquity, 
showing  the  fates  and  revolutions  of  kingdoms. 
We  have  a  collection  of  them  in  eight  books.  I  >r. 
Jortin  observes,  that  they  were  composed  at  dif- 
ferent times  by  different  persons;  first  by  Pagans, 
422 


SIN 
and  then,  perhaps,  bv  Jews,  and  certainly  by 
Christians.  They  abound  with  phrases,  words, 
facts,  and  passages,  taken  from  the  LXX.,  and 
the  New  Testament.  They  are,  saws  the  Doc- 
tor, a  remarkable  specimen  of  astonishing  impu- 
dence and  miserable  poetry,  and  seem  to  have 
been,  from  first  to  last,  and  without  any  one  ex- 
ception, mere  impostures. 

SIMONY  is  the  corrupt  presentation  of  any 
one  to  an  ecclesiastical  benefice,  for  money,  gift, 
or  reward.  It  is  so  called  from  the  resemblance 
it  is  said  to  bear  to  the  sin  of  Simon  Magus, 
though  the  purchasing  of  tholy  orders  seems  to 
approach  nearer  to  this  offence.  It  was  by  the 
canon  law  a  very  grievous  crime ;  and  is  so  much 
the  more  odious,  because,  as  Sir  Edward  Coke 
observes,  it  is  ever  accompanied  with  perjury  : 
for  the  presentee  is  sworn  to  have  committed  no 
simony.  However,  it  was  not  an  offence  punish- 
able in  a  criminal  way  at  the  common  law,  it  be- 
ing thought  sufficient  to  leave  the  clerk  to  ec- 
clesiastical censures.  But  as  these  did  not  affect 
the  sii  noniacal  patron,  nor  were  efficacious  enough 
to  repel  the  notorious  practice  of  the  tiling,  divers 
acts  of  parliament  have  been  made  to  restrain  it, 
by  means  of  civil  forfeitures,  which  the  modern 
prevailing  usage  with  regard  to  spiritual  prefer- 
ments calls  aloud  to  be  put  in  execution. 

SIN,  the  transgression  of  the  law,  or  want  of 
conformity  to  the  will  of  God,  1  John  iii.  4. — 
1.  Original  sin  is  that  whereby  our  whole  nature 
is  corrupted,  and  rendered  contrary  to  the  law  of 
God ;  or,  according  to  the  9th  article  of  the 
church  of  England,  "  It  is  that  whereby  man  is 
very  far  gone  from  original  righteousness,  and  is, 
of  his  own  nature,  inclined  to  evil."  Tins  is 
sometimes  called  indicelling  sin,  Rom.  vii.  The 
imputation  of  the  sin  of  Adam  to  his  posterity  is 
also  what  divines  generally  call,  with  some  lati- 
tude of  expression,  original  sin. — 2.  Actual  sin  ■ 
is  a  direct  violation  of  God's  law,  and  generally 
applied  to  those  who  are  capable  of  committing 
moral  evil ;  as  opposed  to  idiots,  or  children,  who 
have  not  the  right  use  of  their  powers. — 3.  Sins 
of  omission  consist  in  the  leaving  those  things 
undone  which  ought  to  be  done. — 4.  Sins  of 
commission  are  those  which  are  committed  against 
affirmative  precepts,  or  doing  what  should  not  be 
done. — 5.  Sins  of  infirmity  are  those  which  arist 
from  the  infirmity  of  the  flesh,  ignorance,  sur- 
prise, snares  of  the  world,  fee.  See  Intiismity.- 
6.  Secret  sins  are  those  committed  in  secret,  or 
those  which  we,  through  blindness  or  prejudice, 
do  not  see  the  evil  of,  Psal.  xix.  12. — 7.  Pre- 
sumptuous sins  are  those  which  are  done  boldly, 
and  against  light  and  conviction.  [See  Pre- 
sumption.]— 8.  Unpardonable  sin  is  the  denial 
of  the  truths  of  the  Gospel,  with  an  open  and 
malicious  rejection  of  it.  The  reason  why  this 
sin  is  never  forgiven,  is  not  because  of  any  want 
of  sufficiency  in  the  blood  of  Christ,  nor  in  the 
pardoning  mercy  of  God,  but  because  such  as 
commit  it  never  repent  of  it,  but  continue  obsti- 
nate and  malignant  until  death. 

The  corruption  of  human  nature  is,  1.  Uni- 
versal as  to  the  subjects  of  it,  Rom.  iii.  83 ;  Isa. 
liii.  (!. — 2.  General,  as  to  all  the  powers  of  man, 
Isa.  i.  (>. — 3.  Auful,  filling  the  mind  with  con- 
stant rebellion  against  God  and  his  law. —  1.  Hate 
ful  to  ( iod,  Job  xv.  lti;  and, — 5.  Punishable  by 
him,  1  Sam:  ii.  9,  10;  Rom.  ii.  9.  Why  the  Al- 
mighty permitted  it,  when  his  power  could  have 


SINGING 
prevented  it,  and  how  it  is  conveyed  from  parents 
to  their  children,  form  some  of  those  deep  things 
*>f  God,  of  which  we  can  know  but  little  in  the 
present  state;  only  this  we  are  assured  of,  that 
he  is  a  God  of  truth,  and  that  whatever  he  does, 
«r  permits,  will  ultimately  tend  to  promote  his 
glory.  While  we  contemplate,  therefore,  the 
nature,  the  evil,  the  guilt,  the  consequence  of  sin, 
it  is  our  happiness  to  reflect,  that  he  who  permit- 
ted it  hath  provided  a  remedy  for  it ;  and  that  he 
"so loved  the  world,  that  he  gave  his  only  begot- 
ten Son,  that  whosoever  believeth  in  him,  should 
not  perish,  but  have  everlasting  life."  See 
Atonement,  Redemption,  and  Edwards,  Wes- 
ley, and  Taylor,  on  Original  Sin;  Gill's  Body 
of  Div.  article  Sin;  King's  and  Jenyns's  Origin 
of  Evil;  Burrough's  Exceeding  Sinfulness  of 
Sin;  Dr.  Owen  on  Indwelling  Sin;  Dr.  Wright's 
Deceitful ness  of  Sin;  Fletcher's  Appeal  to  Mat- 
ter of  Fact;  Williams's  Answer  to  Bel  sham; 
Watts's  Ruin  and  Recovery;  Howe's  Living 
Temple,  p.  2,  c.  4;  Dr.  Smith's  Sermon  on  the 
Permission  of  Evil. 

SINCERITY,  freedom  from  hypocrisy  or  dis- 
simulation. The  Latin  word  sincerus,  from 
whence  our  English  word  sincere  is  derived,  is 
composed  of  sine  and  cera,  and  signifies  without 
wax,  as  pure  honey,  which  is  not  mixed  with  any 
wax ;  thus  denoting  that  sincerity  is  a  pure  and 
upright  principle.  The  Greek  word  ci\i*fivna, 
translated  sincerity,  (2  Cor.  i.  12,)  signifies  pro- 
perly a  judgment  made  of  things  by  the  light  and 
splendour  of  the  sun;  as,  in  traffic,  men  hold  up 
goods  they  are  buying  to  the  light  of  the  sun,  to 
see  if  they  can  discover  any  defect  in  them.  Thus, 
those  who  are  truly  sincere  can  bear  the  test  of 
light,  and  are  not  afraid  of  having  their  principles 
and  practices  examined  by  it.  This  word,  how- 
ever, like  many  others,  is  abused,  and  often  be- 
comes a  subterfuge  for  the  ungodly  and  the  indo- 
lent, who  think  that  their  practice  is  nothing; 
but  that  sincerity,  or  a  good  heart,  as  they  call  it, 
is  all  in  all.  But  such  deceive  themselves,  for  a 
tree  is  known  by  its  fruits  ;  and  true  godly  sin- 
cerity will  evidence  itself  by  serious  inquiry, 
impartial  examination,  desire  of  instruction,  un- 
prejudiced judgment,  devotedness  of  spirit,  and 
uniformity  of  conduct.  The  reader  will  find  this 
subject  ably  handled  in  Gurnall's  Christian  Ar- 
mour, vol.  ii.  p.  121  to  148.     See  Hypocrisy. 

SINGING,  an  ordinance  of  divine  worship,  in 
which  we  express  our  joy  in  God,  and  gratitude 
for  his  mercies.  It  has  always  been  a  branch 
both  of  natural  and  revealed  religion,  in  all  ages 
and  periods  of  time.  It  was  a  part  of  the  wor- 
ship of  the  Heathen.  It  was  practised  by  the 
people  of  God  before  the  giving  of  the  law  of 
Moses,  Exod.  xv. ;  also  under  the  ceremonial 
law.  Under  the  Gospel  dispensation  it  is  par- 
ticularly enjoined,  Colossians  hi.  16;  Ephesians 
v.  10.  It  was  practised  by  Christ  arid  his  apos- 
tles, Matt.  xxvi.  30,  and  in  the  earliest  tunes  of 
Christianity.  The  praises  of  God  may  be  sung 
privately  in  the  family,  but  chiefly  in  the  house 
of  God ;  and  should  be  attended  to  with  reve- 
rence, sincerity,  joy,  gratitude,  and  with  the  un- 
derstanding, 1  Cor.  xiv.  15.  Among  the  Bap- 
tists, during  the  early  part  of  their  existence, 
psalmody  was  generally  excluded,  as  a  human 
ordinance ;  but  some  congregations  having  adopt- 
ed it  about  the  beginning  of  the  18th  century,  a 
violent  controversy  was  excited.  About  the  mid- 
423 


SLANDER 
die  of  the  century,  however,  the  praises  of  Goa 
were  sung  in  every  Baptist  church.  It  is  to  be 
lamented,  however,  that  this  ordinance  has  not 
that  attention  paid  to  it  which  it  deserves.  That 
great  divine,  Dr.  Jonathan  Edwards,  observes, 
that  "  as  it  is  the  command  of  God  that  all  should 
sing,  so  all  should  make  conscience  of  learning 
to  sing,  as  it  is  a  thing  that  cannot  be  decently 
performed  at  all  without  learning.  Those,  there- 
fore, (where  there  is  no  natural  inability,)  who 
neglect  to  learn  to  sing,  live  in  sin,  as  they  ne- 
glect what  is  necessary  in  order  to  their  attending 
one  of  the  ordinances  of  God's  worship."  We 
leave  those  who  are  wilfully  dumb  in  God's  house, 
to  consider  this  pointed  remark  ! 

Much  has  been  said  as  to  the  use  of  instru- 
mental music  in  the  house  of  God.  On  the  one 
side  it  is  observed  that  we  ought  not  to  object  to 
it,  because  it  assists  devotion ;  that  it  was  used  in 
the  worship  of  God  under  the  Old  Testament ; 
and  that  the  worship  of  heaven  is  represented 
by  a  delightful  union  of  vocal  and  instrumental 
music.  But  on  the  other  side,  it  is  remarked, 
that  nothing  should  be  done  in  or  alx>ut  God's 
worship  without  example  or  precept  from  the 
New  Testament ;  that,  instead  of  aiding  devo- 
tion, it  often  tends  to  draw  off  the  mind  from  the 
right  object;  that  it  does  not  accord  with  the 
simplicity  of  Christian  worship ;  that  the  prac- 
tice of  those  who  lived  under  the  ceremonial  dis- 
pensation can  be  no  rule  for  us ;  that  not  one 
text  in  the  New  Testament  requires  or  authorizes 
it  by  precept  or  example,  by  express  words  or 
fair  inference;  and  that  the  representation  of  the 
musical  harmony  in  heaven  is  merely  figurative 
language,  denoting  the  happiness  of  the  saints. 
We  have  not  room  here  to  prosecute  the  argu- 
ments on  either  side;  but  the  reader  may  refer  to 
p.  211,  of  the  fourth  volume  of  Bishop  Beve- 
ridge's  Thesaurus ;  Stillingfleet's  and  Bishop 
Home's  Sermons  on  Church  Music  ;  No.  630 
of  the  eighth  vol.  of  the  Spectator  :  Bp.  Home 
on  the  150th  Psalm;  Theol.  Mag.  vol.  ii.  p.  427, 
and  vol.  iv.  p.  333,  458 ;  Biblical  Mag.  vol.  ii. 
p.  35;  Ridgley's  Body  of  Divinity,  ques.  155; 
Haweis's  Church  History,  vol.  i.  p.  403 ;  Wil- 
liams's Historical  Essay  on  Church  Music,  pre- 
fixed to  Psalmodia  Evangelica,  vol.  ii.  p.  56 ; 
Bedford's  Temple  Music;  Lyra  Evangelica ; 
Practical  Discourses  on  Singing  in  the  Worship 
of  God,  preached  at  thb  Friday  Evening  Leo 
ture  in  Eastchcap,  1708 ;  Dodwell's  Treatise 
on  the  Lawfulness  of  Instrumental  Music  in 
Holy  Duties. 

SIX  ARTICLES,  Law  of.  See  Statutes. 

SLANDER,  according  to  Dr.  Barrow,  is  ut- 
tering false  speeches  against  our  neighbour,  to 
the  prejudice  of  his  fame,  safety,  welfare ;  and 
that  out  of  malignity,  vanity,  rashness,  ill  nature 
or  bad  design.  The  principal  kinds  of  slander 
are  these  : — 1.  Charging  others  with  facts  they 
arc  not  guilty  of. — 2.  Atfixing  scandalous  names 
and  odious  characters  which  they  deserve  not. — 
3.  Aspersing  a  man's  actions  with  foul  names, 
importing  that  they  proceed  from  evil  principles, 
or  tend  to  bad  ends,  when  it  doth  not  or  cannot 
appear. — 1.  Perverting  a  man's  words  or  acts  dis- 
advantageously  by  affected  misconstruction. — 5. 
Partial  or  lame  representation  of  men's  discourse 
or  practice,  suppressing  some  part  of  the  truth, 
or  concealing  some  circumstances  which  ought 
to  be  explained. — 6.  Instilling  sly   suggestions 


SOBRIETY 

which  create  prejudice  in  the  hearers. — 7.  Mag- 
nifying and  aggravating  the  faults  of  others. — 
8.  Imputing  to  our  neighbour's  practice,  judg- 
ment, or  profession,  evil  consequences  which 
have  no  foundation  in  truth. 

Of  all  characters  in  society,  a  slanderer  is  the 
most  odious,  and  the  most  likely  to  produce  mis- 
chief. "  His  tongue,"  says  the  great  Massillon, 
"  is  a  devouring  lire,  which  tarnishes  whatever  it 
touches ;  which  exercises  its  fury  on  the  good 
grain  equally  as  on  the  chaff;  on  the  profane  as 
on  the  sacred  ;  which,  wherever  it  passes,  leaves 
only  desolation  and  ruin ;  digs  even  into  the  bowels 
of  the  earth ;  turns  into  vile  ashes  what  only  a 
moment  before  had  appeared  to  us  so  precious 
and  brilliant ;  acts  with  more  violence  and  dan- 
ger than  ever,  in  the  time  when  it  was  apparently 
smothered  up  and  almost  extinct :  which  blackens 
what  it  cannot  consume,  and  sometimes  sparkles 
and  delights  before  it  destroys.  It' is  an  assem- 
blage of  iniquity,  a  secret,  pride,  which  discovers 
to  us  the  mote  in  our  brother's  eye,  but  hides  the 
beam  which  is  in  our  own ;  a  mean  envy,  which, 
hurt  at  the  talents  or  prosperity  of  others,  makes 
them  the  subject  of  its  censures,  and  studies  to 
dim  the  splendour  of  whatever  outshines  itself; 
a  disguised  hatred,  which  sheds  in  its  speeches  the 
hidden  venom  of  the  heart ;  an  unworthy  dupli- 
city, which  praises  to  the  face,  and  tears  in  pieces 
behind  the  back  ;  a  shameful  levity  which  has  no 
command  over  itself  or  words,  and  often  sacrifices 
both  fortune  and  comfort  to  the  imprudence  of 
an  amusing  conversation;  a  deliberate  barbarity, 
which  goes  to  pierce  an  absent  brother;  a  scan- 
dal, where  we  become  a  subject  of  shame  and  sin 
to  those  who  listen  to  us;  an  injustice,  where  we 
ravish  from  our  brother  what  is  dearest  to  him. 
It  is  a  restless  evil,  which  disturbs  society  ;  spreads 
dissension  through  cities  and  countries;  dis- 
unites the  strictest  friendships  ;  is  the  source  of 
hatred  and  revenge ;  fills  wherever  it  enters  with 
disturbances  and  confusion  ;  and  every  where  is 
an  enemy  to  peace,  comfort,  and  Christian  good 
breeding.  Lastly,  it  is  an  evil  full  of  deadly  poi- 
son :  whatever  (lows  from  it  is  infected,  and 
poisons  whatever  it  approaches ;  even  its  praises 
are  empoisoned  ;  its  applauses  malicious  ;  its  si- 
lence criminal ;  its  gestures,  motions,  and  looks, 
have  all  their  venom,  and  spread  it  each  in  their 
way.  Still  more  dreadful  is  this  evil  when  it  is 
found  amongst  those  who  are  the  professed  disci- 
ples of  Jesus'  Christ.  Ah  !  the  church  formerly 
held  in  horror  the  exhibitions  of  gladiators,  and 
denied  that  believers,  brought  up  in  the  tender- 
ness and  benignity  of  Jesus  Christ,  could  inno- 
cently feast  their  eyes  with  the  blood  and  death 
of  these  unfortunate  slaves,  or  form  a  harmless 
■ecreation  of  so  inhuman  a  pleasure  ;  but  these 
renew  more  detestable  shows;  for  they  bring 
upon  the  stage,  not  infamous  wretches  devoted 
to  death,  but  members  of  Jesus  Christ,  their  bre- 
thren; and  there  they  entertain  the  spectators 
with  wounds  which"  they  inflict  on  persons 
who  havedevcted  themselves  to  God."  Barrow's 
Marks,  vol.  i.  ser.  17,  18;  MansUlon's  Sermons, 
vol.  i.  ser.  5;  English  trans.;  and  article  Evil 
Speaking. 

SOBR1F.TY,  freedom  from  any  inordinate 
passion.  "Sobriety,"  as  one  observes,  "is  both 
the  ornament  and  tin-  defence  of  a  I  Ihristian,  It 
is  requisite  in  every  situation,  and  in  every  en- 
terprise ;  indeed,  nothing  can  be  done  well  with- 
4-J1 


SOCIN1ANS 
out  it'.  The  want,  of  sobriety  is  seen  and  felt  by 
multitudes  every  day.  Without  sobriety  a  man 
is  exposed  to  the  tossing  of  the  merciless  waves, 
destitute  of  an  anchor.  Sobriety  is  a  security 
against,  the  baneful  influence  of  turbulent  pas- 
sions :  it  is  self-possession  :  it  is  self-defence.  It 
is  necessary  on  all  occasions :  when  we  read, 
when  we  hear,  when  we  pray,  when  we  con- 
verse, when  we  form  schemes,  when  we  pursue 
them,  when  we  prosper,  when  we  fail.  Sobriety 
is  necessary  for  all  descriptions  of  character;  it  is 
necessary  for  the  young  and  for  the  old  ;  for  the 
rich  and  the  poor,  for  the  wise  and  for  the  illite- 
rate ;  all  need  to  '  be  sober.'  The  necessity  of 
sobriety  is  obvious,  1.  In  our  inquiries  after  truth, 
as  opposed  to  presumption. — '2.  In  our  pursuit  of 
this  world,  as  opposed  to  covetousness. — 3.  In  the 
use  and  estimate  of  the  things  of  this  world,  as 
opposed  to  excess. — 4.  In  trials  and  afflictions,  as 
opposed  to  impatience. — 5.  In  forming  our  judg- 
ment of  others,  as  opposed  to  censoriousness. — 
6.  In  speaking  of  one's  self,  as  opposed  to  egotism. 
Many  motives  might  be  urged  to  this  exercise, 
as,  1.  The  general  language  of  Scripture,  1  Pet. 
v.  8;  Phil.  iv.  5;  Tit.  ii.  12;  1  Pet.  iv.  7.— 
2.  Our  profession  as  Christians. — 3.  The  example 
of  Jesus  Christ;  and,  4.  The  near  approach  of 
death  and  judgment."  See  Drunkenness,  Mo- 
deration1. 

SOCINIANS,  a  sect  so  called  from  Faustus 
Socinus,  who  died  in  Poland  in  1604.  There 
were  two  who  bore  the  name  Socinus,  uncle  and 
nephew,  and  both  disseminated  the  same  doc- 
trine ;  but  it  is  the  nephew  who  is  generally  con- 
sidered as  the  founder  of  this  sect.  They  main- 
tain "  that  Jesus  Christ  was  a  mere  man,  who 
had  no  existence  before  he  was  conceived  by  the 
Virgin  Mary ;  that  the  Holy  Ghost  is  no  dis- 
tinct person ;  but  that  the  Father  is  truly  and 
properly  God.  They  own  that  the  name  of  God 
is  given  in  the  holy  Scriptures  to  Jesus  Christ, 
but  contend  that  it  is  only  a  deputed  title,  which, 
however,  invests  him  with  a  great  authority 
over  all  created  beings.  They  deny  the  doctrines 
of  satisfaction  and  imputed  righteousness,  and 
say,  that  Christ  only  preached  the  truth  to  man- 
kind, set  before  them  in  himself  an  example  of 
heroic  virtue,  and  sealed  his  doctrines  with  his 
blood.  Original  sin,  and  absolute  predestination, 
they  esteem  scholastic  chimeras.  Some  of  them 
likewise  maintain  the  sleep  of  the  soul,  winch, 
they  say,  becomes  insensible  at  death,  and  is 
raised  again  with  the  body  at  the  resurrection, 
when  the  good  shall  be  established  in  the  pos- 
session of  eternal  felicity,  while  the  wicked  shall 
be  consigned  to  a  fire  that  will  not  torment  them 
eternally,  but  fir  a  certain  duration  proportioned 
to  their  demerits." 

There  is  some  difference,  however,  between 
ancient  and  modern  Socinians.  The  latter,  in- 
dignant at  the  name  Socinian,  have  appropriated 
to  themselves  that  of  Unitarians,  and  reject  the 
notions  of  a  miraculous  conception  and  the  wor 
ship  of  Christ ;  both  which  were  held  by  Socinus. 
Dr.  Priestley  has  laboured  hard  in  attempting  to 
defend  this  doctrine  of  the  Unitarians;  but  Dr. 
Horsley,  Bishop  of  Rochester,  has  ably  refuted 
the  doctor  in  his  Theological  Tracts,  which  are 
worthy  the  perusal  of  every  Christian,  and  espe- 
cially every  candidate  for  the  ministry. 

Dr.  Price  agreed  with  the  Socinians  in  the 
main,  yet  his  system  was  somewhat  dillereut. 


SORROW 

He  believed  in  the  pre-existence  of  Christ,  and 
likewise  that  he  was  more  than  a  human  being; 
and  took  upon  him  human  nature  for  a  higher 
purpose  than  merely  revealing  to  mankind  the 
will  of  God,  and  instructing  them  in  their  duty 
and  in  the  doctrines  of  religion. 

The  Socinians  flourished  greatly  in  Poland 
about  the  year  1551 ;  and  J.  Siemienius,  palatine 
of  Podoliu,  built  purposely  for  their  use  the  city 
of  Racow.  A  famous  catechism  was  published, 
called  the  Raeovian  catechism;  and  their  most 
able  writers  are  known  by  the  title  of  the  Polones 
Fratres,  or  Polonian  Brethren.  Their  writings 
were  republished  together,  in  the  year  165(5,  in 
one  great  collection,  consisting  of  six  volumes  in 
folio,  under  the  title  of  BibRotheca  Fratrum.  An 
account  of  these  authors  may  be  seen  in  Dr. 
Toxdmin's  Life  of  Socinus.  Some  of  the  writers 
on  the  Socinian  doctrine,  besides  the  above-men- 
tioned, have  been  IIayn.es,  in  his  Scripture  Ac- 
count of  the  Attributes  and  Worship  of  God, 
and  of  the  Character  and  Offices  of  Jesus  Ch  rist.  ; 
Dr.  Lardner  on  the  Logos ;  Priestley's  Hist,  of 
early  Opinions,  and  Disquisitions;  Lindsay  in 
his  Historical  Vine  of  Unitarianism  ;  Carpen- 
ter's Unitarianism ;  and  Belsham's  Ansicer 
to  Wilberforce.  Against  the  Socinian  doctrine 
may  be  consulted,  Dr.  Home's  Sermon  on  the 
Duty  of  contending  for  the  faith;  Dr.  Owen 
against  Biddlc ;  Dr.  Hornbeck's  Confutation 
of  Socinianism  ;  Calovius's  Ditto;  Macgowan's 
Socinianism  brought  to  the  Test ;  and  books  un- 
der articles  Arians  and  Jesus  Christ. 

SOLDINS,  so  called  from  their  leader,  one 
Soldin,  a  Greek  priest.  They  appeared  about 
the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  in  the  kingdoms 
of  Saba  and  Godolia.  They  altered  the  manner 
of  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass;  their  priests  offered 
gold,  their  deacons  incense,  and  their  sub-deacons 
myrrh ;  and  this  in  memory  of  the  like  offerings 
made  to  the  infant  Jesus  by  the  wise  men. 

Very  few  authors  mention  the  Soldins,  neither 
do  we  know  whether  thev  still  subsist. 

SOLFIDIANS,  those  who  rest  on  faith  alone 
for  salvation,  without  any  connexion  with  works ; 
or  who  judge  themselves  to  be  Christ's,  because 
thev  believe  thev  are. 

SON  OF  GOD,  a  term  applied  in  the  Scrip- 
tures not  onlv  to  magistrates  and  saints,  but 
more  particularly  to  Jesus  Christ.  Christ,  says 
Bishop  Pearson,  has  a  fourfold  right  to  this  title. 
1.  By  generation,  as  begotten  of  God,  Luke  i.  35. 
— 2.  By  commission,  as  sent  by  him,  John  x.  34, 
36. — 3.  By  resurrection,  as  the  first  born,  Acts 
xiii.  32,  33. — 4.  By  actual  possession,  as  heir  of 
all,  Heb.  i.  2,  5.  But,  besides  these  four,  many 
think  that  he  is  called  the  Son  of  God  in  such  a 
way  and  manner  as  never  any  other  was,  is,  or 
can  be,  because  of  his  own  divine  nature,  he  be- 
ing the  true,  proper,  and  natural  Son  of  God, 
begotten  by  him  before  all  worlds,  John  iii. 
Hi;  Rom,  viii.  3;  1  John  iv.  9.  See  article 
Generation,  Eternal,  and  books  there  refer- 
red to. 

SORCERY,  magic,  conjuration.  See  Charms 
and  Witchcraft. 

SORROW,  uneasiness  or  grief,  arising  from 
the  privation  of  some  good  we  actually  possessed. 
It  is  the  opposite  to  joy.  Though  sorrow  may  be 
allowable  under  a  sense  of  sin,  and  when  involved 
iu  troubles,  yet  we  must  beware  of  an  extreme. 
Sorrow,  i;idi>ed,  becomes  sinful  and  excessive  j 
425  3  D 


SOUL 
when  it  leads  us  to  slight  our  mercies;  causes  U9 
to  be  insensible  to  public  evils ;  when  it  diverts  us 
from  duty  ;  so  oppresses  our  bodies  as  to  endanger 
our  lives;  sours  the  spirit  with  discontent,  and 
makes  us  inattentive  to  the  precepts  of  God's 
word,  and  advice  of  our  friends.  In  order  to 
moderate  our  sorrows,  we  should  consider  that 
we  are  under  the  direction  of  a  wise  and  merciful 
Being ;  that  he  permits  no  evil  to  come  upon  us 
without  a  gracious  design  ;  that  he  can  make  our 
troubles  sources  of  spiritual  advantage;  that  he 
might  have,  afflicted  us  in  a  far  greater  degree ; 
that,  though  he  has  taken  some,  yet  he  has  left 
many  other  comforts;  that  he  has  given  many 
promises  of  relief;  that  he  has  supported  thou- 
sands in  as  great  troubles  as  ours ;  and,  finally, 
that  the  time  is  coming  wdien  he  will  wipe  away 
all  tears,  and  give  to  them  that  love  him  a  crown 
of  glory  that  fadeth  not  away.  See  Resignation. 

teOUL,  that  vital,  immaterial,  active  substance, 
or  principle  in  man,  whereby  he  perceives,  re- 
members, reasons,  and  wills.  It  is  rather  to  be 
described  as  to  its  operations,  than  to  be  dpfined 
as  to  its  essence.  Various,  indeed,  have  been  the 
opinions  of  philosophers  concerning  its  substance. 
The  Epicureans  thought  it  a  subtle  air,  composed 
of  atoms,  or  primitive  corpuscles.  The  Stoics 
maintained  it  was  a  flame,  or  portion  of  heavenly 
light.  The  Cartesians  make  thinking  the  essence 
of  the  soul.  Some  hold  that  man  is  endowed  with 
three  kinds  of  soul,  viz.  the  rational,  which  is 
purely  spiritual,  and  infused  by  the  immediate 
inspiration  of  God ;  the  irrational  or  sensitive, 
which  being  common  to  man  and  brutes,  is  sup- 
posed to  be  formed  of  the  elements;  and,  lastly, 
the  vegetative  soul,  or  principle  of  growth  and 
nutrition,  as  the  first  is  of  understanding,  and  the 
second  of  animal  life. 

The  rational  soul  is  simple,  uncompounded. 
and  immaterial,  not  composed  of  matter  and 
form;  for  matter  can  never  think  and  move  of 
itself  as  the  soul  does.  In  the  fourth  volume  of 
the  Memoirs  of  the  Literary  and  Philosophical 
Society  of  Manchester,  the  reader  will  find  a  very 
valuable  paper,  by  Dr.  Ferrier,  proving,  by  evi- 
dence apparently  complete,  that  every  part  of  the 
brain  has  been  injured  without  affecting  the  act 
of  thought.  It  will  be  difficult  for  any  man  to 
peruse  this  without  being  convinced  that  the 
modern  theory  of  the  Materialists  is  snaken  from 
its  very  foundation. 

The  immortality  of  the  soul  may  he  argued 
from  its  vast  capacities,  boundless  desires,  great 
improvements,  dissatisfaction  with  the  present 
state,  and  desire  of  some  kind  of  religion.  It  is 
also  argued  from  the  consent  of  all  nations;  the 
consciousness  that  men  have  of  sinning;  the  sting 
of  conscience;  the  justice  and  providence  of  God. 
How  far  these  arguments  are  conclusive,  1  wii! 
not  say  ;  but  the  safest,  and,  in  fact,  the  only  sure 
ground  to  go  upon  to  prove  this  doctrine  is  the. 
word  of  God,  where  we  at  once  see  it  clearly 
established,  Matt.  x.  28 ;  xxv.46;  Dan.  xii.  2; 
2  Tim.  i.  10;  1  Thess.  iv.  17,  18;  John  x.  2». 
But  as  this  article  belongs  rather  to  metaphysics 
than  to  theology,  we  rcfi  r  the  reader  to  A.  Baxter 
on  the  Soul;  Locke  on  the  Understanding ; 
Walls's  Ontology;  Jackson  on  Mailer  and 
Spirit;  floret  on  the  Soul;  Move's  Immortality 
of  the  Soul;  Hartley  on  Man;  Up.  Porte  us  i 
Sermons,  scr.  5,  6.  7,  vol.  i.  ;  Doddridge's  Lec- 
tures, led.  92,  i'3,  1)4.  95,  !!(i  \}~-  Drtu's  Essay 
2  i.  i 


SOUTHCOTTERS 

sn  the  Immateriality  and  Immortality  of  the 
Soul. 

Care  of  the  Soul.     See  Carr. 
SOUTHCOTTERS;  the  followers  of  Jo- 
anna Southcot,  well  known  at  this  time  in  the 
south  of  England  as  a  prophetess. 

The  book  in  which  Joanna  published  her  pro- 
phecies is  dated  London,  April  25,  1804  ;  and  she 
begins  by  declaring  she  herself  did  not  understand 
the  communications  given  her  by  the  Spirit,  till 
they  were  afterward  explained  to  her.  In  Novem- 
ber,  1803,  she  was  told  to  mark  the  weather  during 
the  twenty-four  first  days  of  the  succeeding  year 
and  then  the  Spirit  informs  her  that  the  weather 
each  day  was  typical  of  the  events  of  each  suc- 
ceeding month :  New-year's  day  to  correspond 
with  January;  January  2,  with  February,  &c 

After  this  she  relates  a  dream  she  had  in  1792, 
and  declares  she  foretold  the  death  of  Bishop 
Duller,  and  appeals  to  a  letter  put  into  the  hands 
of  a  clergyman  whom  she  names. 

One  night  she  heard  a  noise  as  if  a  ball  of  iron 
tvas  rolling  down  the  stairs  three  steps,  and  the 
Spirit  afterwards,  she  says,  told  her  this  was  a 
sign  of  three  great  evils,  which  were  to  fall  upon 
this  land,  the  sword,  the  plague,  and  the  famine. 
She  affirms  that  the  late  war,  and  that  the  ex- 
traordinary harvest  of  1797  and  1800,  happened 
agreeably  to  the  predictions  which  she  had  pre- 
viously made  known ;  and  particularly  appeals  to 
the  people  of  Exeter,  where  it  seems  she  was 
brought  up  from  her  infancy. 

In  November,  1803,  she  says  she  was  ordered 
to  open  her  Bible,  which  she  did  at  Eccles.  ch.  i. 
9 ;  and  then  follows  a  long  explanation  of  that 
chapter. 

When  she  was  at  Stockton-upon-Tces  in  the 
next  month,  she  informs  us  three  methodist 
preachers  had  the  confidence  to  tell  her  she  ut- 
tered lies,  and  she  then  refers  them  to  four  clergy- 
men who  could  prove  she  and  her  friends  were 
not  liars. 

After  this  she  gives  us  a  long  communication 
on  Gen.  xlix.  wherein  Jacob  warns  his  sons  of 
what  should  befall  them  in  the  last  days,  and 
which  she  applies  to  our  present  tiroes.  She  then 
avours  her  readers  with  a  long  essay  on  the 
marriage  of  the  Lamb,  and,  as  variety  is  always 
pleasing,  it  commences  in  sober  prose,  but  ends 
in  jingling  rhyme. 

The  following  is  the  conclusion  of  a  communi- 
cation which  she  had  at  Stockport :  "  As  wrong 
as  they  are,  saying  thou  hast  children  brought  up 
by  the  parish,  and  that  thou  art  Buonaparte's 
brother,  and  that  thou  hast  been  in  prison;  so 
false  is  their  sayings,  thy  writings  came  from  the 
devil  or  any  spirit  but  the  spirit  of  the  living 
God;  and  that  every  soul  in  this  nation  shall 
know  before  the  FIVE  years  1  mentioned  to  thee 
in  1802  are  expired  ;  and  then  I  will  turn  as  a  dia- 
dem of  beauty  to  the  residence  of  my  people,  and 
they  slnll  praise  the  God  of  their  salvation." 
In  March  1805,  we  find  Joanna  published  a 
pamphlet  in  London,  endeavouring  to  confute 
"  Five  Charges"  against  her,  which  had  ap- 
peared in  the  Leeds  Mercury,  -dm]  four  of  which 
Mic  says  were  absolutely  false.  The  first  charge 
was  respecting  the  sealing  of  her  disciples.  The 
second  on  the  invasion.  1  he  third  on  the  famine. 
The  fourth  on  her  mission.  The  fifth  on  her 
death.  Scaling  is  the  grand  peculiarity  and  ordi- 
nance of  these  people.  Joanna  gives  those  who 
426 


SPIRITUAL 
profess  belief  in  her  mission,  and  will  subscribe  to 
the  things  revealed  in  her  "  Warning,"  a.  sealed 
written  paper,  with  her  signature,  and  by  which 
they  are  led  to  think  they  are  sealed  against  the 
day  of  redemption ;  and  that  all  those  who  are 
possessed  of  these  seals  will  be  signally  honoured 
by  the  Messiah  when  he  comes  this  spring.  It  is 
said  they  look  upon  Joanna  to  be  the  bride,  the 
Lamb's  wife  ;  and  that  as  man  fell  by  a  woman, 
he  will  be  restored  by  a  woman.  Some  of  her  fol- 
lowers pretend  also  to  have  visions  and  revelations. 
At  present,  it  seems,  both  warning  and  sealing 
have  subsided;  they  are  waiting,  probably,  in 
awful  suspense,  for  the  commencement  of  the 
thousand  years'  reign  on  the  earth,  when  peace 
will  universally  prevail.  Yet  it  is  said  they  do  not 
mean  that  Christ  will  come  in  person,  but  in 
spirit;  and  that  the  sealed  who  are  dead  before 
this  time,  will  be  raised  from  their  graves  to  par- 
take in  this  happy  state. 

SOVEREIGNTY  OF  GOD,  is  his  power 
and  right  of  dominion  over  his  creatures,  to  dis- 
pose and  determine  them  as  seemeth  him  good. 
This  attribute  is  evidently  demonstrated  in  the 
systems  of  creation,  providence,  and  grace  ;  and 
may  be  considered  as  absolute,  universal,  and 
everlasting,  Dan.  iv.  35;  Eph.  i.  11.  See  Do- 
minion, Government,  Power,  and  Will  of 
God;  Coles  on  the  Sovereignty  of  God;  and 
Charnock  on  the  Dominion  of  God,  in  his  Works, 
vol.  i.  p.  690 ;  Edieards's  Sermons,  ser.  4. 

SPINOSISM,  the  doctrines  of  Spinosa,  who 
was  born  a  Jew  at  Amsterdam  in  1632.  The 
chief  articles  in  his  system  are  such  as  these  : 
that  there  is  but  one  substance  in  nature,  and  that 
this  only  substance  is  endued  with  an  infinite 
variety  of  attributes,  among  which  are  extension 
and  cogitation ;  that  all  the  bodies  in  the  universe 
are  modifications  of  this  substance,  considered  as 
extended,  and  that  all  the  souls  of  men  are  modi- 
fications, of  the  same  substance  considered  as  co- 
gitative ;  that  God  is  a  necessary  and  infinitely 
perfect  Being,  and  is  the  cause  of  all  tilings  that 
exist,  but  not  a  different  Being  from  them  :  that 
there  is  but  one  Being,  and  one  nature ;  and  that 
this  nature  produces  within  itself,  by  an  imma- 
nent act,  all  those  which  we  call  creatures ;  and 
that  this  Being  is,  at  the  same  time,  both  agent 
and  patient,  efficient  cause  and  subject,  but  that 
he  produces  nothing  but  modifications  of  himself. 
Thus  is  the  Deity  made  the  sole  agent  as  well  as 
patient,  in  all  evil,  both  physical  and  moral.  If 
this  impious  doctrine  be  not  Atheism,  (or,  as  it  is 
sometimes  called,  Pantheism,)  I  know  not  what 
is.     See  Pantheism. 

SPIRIT,  an  incorporeal  being  or  intelligence ; 
in  which  sense  God  is  said  to  be  a  Spirit,  as  are 
angels  and  the  human  soul. 

SPIRIT,  HOLY.     See  Holy  Ghost. 

SPIRITUALITY  OF  GOD,  is  his  immate- 
riality, or  being  without  body.  It  expresses  an 
idea  (says  Dr.  Paley)  made  up  of  a  negative  part 
and  of  a  positive  part.  The  negative  part  con- 
sists in  the  exclusion  of  some  of  the  known  pro- 
perties of  matter,  especially  of  solidity,  of  the  vis 
inertias,  and  of  gravitation.  The  positive  part 
comprises  perception,  thought,  will,  power,  action, 
by  which  last  term  is  meant  the  origination  of 
motion.    Nat.  Theol.  p.  481.    See  Incorpore- 

ALITY  OP  Goi). 

SPIRITUAL  MINDEDNESS,  that  dispo- 
sition implanted  in  the  mind  ot  the  Holy  Spirit, 


STATUTE 
by  which  it  is  inclined  to  love,  delight  in,  and 
attend  to  spiritual  things.  The  spiritual-minded 
nig  lily  appreciate  spiritual  blessings — are  en- 
gaged in  spiritual  exercises — pursue  spiritual  ob- 
jects— are  influenced  by  spiritual  motives — and 
experience  spiritual  joys.  To  be  spiritually- 
minded,  says  St.  Paul,  is  life  and  peace,  Rom. 
viii.  6.  See  Dr.  Owen's  excellent  treatise  on 
this  subject. 

SPONSORS,  are  those  persons  who  in  the 
office  of  baptism,  answer,  or  are  sureties,  for  the 
persons  baptized.     See  Godfathers. 

SPORTS,  BOOK  OF,  a  book  or  declaration 
drawn  up  by  Bishop  Morton  in  the  reign  of  king 
James  I.  to  encourage  recreations  and  sports  on 
the  Lord's  day.  It  was  to  this  effect :  "  That  for 
his  good  people's  recreation  his  Majesty's  plea- 
sure was.  that  after  the  end  of  divine  service,  the}' 
should  not  be  disturbed,  letted  or  discouraged, 
from  any  lawful  recreations ;  such  as  dancing, 
either  of  men  or  women ;  archery  for  men ; 
leaping,  vaulting,  or  any  such  harmless  recrea- 
tions ;  nor  having  of  mar/games,  whitsonales  or 
morrice  dances ;  or  setting  up  of  maypoles,  or 
other  sports  therewith  used,  so  as  the  same  may 
be  had  in  due  and  convenient  time,  without  im- 
pediment or  let  of  divine  service ;  and  that  women 
should  have  leave  to  carry  rushes  to  the  church 
for  the  decoring  of  it,  according  to  their  old  cus- 
toms; withal  prohibiting  all  unlawful  games  to 
be  used  on  Sundays  only;  as  bear-baiting,  bull- 
bailing,  interludes,  and  at  all  times  (in  the  meaner 
sort  of  people  prohibited)  bowling."  Two  or 
three  restraints  were  annexed  to  the  declaration, 
which  deserve  the  reader's  notice :  1st.  No  re- 
cusant (i.  e.  Papist)  was  to  have  the  benefit  of 
this  declaration. — Silly.  Nor  such  as  were  not 
present  at  the  whole  of  divine  service. — Nor, 
3dly.  Such  as  did  not  keep  to  their  own  parish 
churches,  that  is,  Puritans." 

This  declaration  was  ordered  to  be  read  in  all 
the  parish  churches  of  Lancashire,  which  abound- 
ed with  Papists ;  and  Wilson  adds,  that  it  was 
to  have  been  read  in  all  the  churches  of  England, 
but  that  Archbishop  Abbott,  being  at  Croydon, 
flatly  forbade  its  being  read  there.  In  the  reign 
of  King  Charles  I.,  Archbishop  Laud  put  the 
king  upon  republishing  this  declaration,  which 
was  accordingly  done.  The  court  had  their  balls, 
masquerades,  and  plays,  on  the  Sunday  evenings  ; 
while  the  youth  of  the  country  were  at  their  mor- 
rice dances,  may-games,  church  and  clerk  ales, 
and  all  such  kind  of  revelling.  The  severe  press- 
ing of  this  declaration  made  sad  havoc  among 
the  Puritans,  as  it  was  to  be  read  in  the  churches. 
Many  poor  clergymen  strained  their  consciences 
in  submission  to  their  superiors.  Some,  after 
publishing  it,  immediately  read  the  fourth  com- 
mandment to  the  people  : — "  Remember  the  Sab- 
bath-day, to  keep  it  holy:"  adding,  "This  is  the 
law  of  God :"  the  other,  "  The  injunction  of 
man."  Some  put  it  upon  their  curates,  whilst 
great  numbers  absolutely  refused  to  comply  :  the 
consequence  of  which  was,  that  several  clergy- 
men were  actually  suspended  for  not  reading  it. — 
Such,  alas,  was  the  awful  state  of  the  times ! 

STATUTE,  BLOODY,  or  the  law  of  the 
six  articles ;  a  law  enacted  in  the  reign  of  Henry 
VIII.  which  denounced  death  against  all  those 
who  should  deny  the  doctrine  of  transubstantia- 
tion ;  or  maintain  the  necessity  of  receiving  the 
sacrament  in  both  kinds,  or  affirm  that  it  was 
427 


SUB-DEACON 

lawful  for  priests  to  marry,  that  vows  of  celibacy 
might  be  broken,  that  private  masses  were  of 
no  avail,  and  that  auricular  confession  to  a  priest 
was  not  necessary  to  salvation. 

STEADFASTNESS.     See  Constancy. 

STOICS,  heathen  philosophers,  who  took 
their  names  from  the  Greek  word  sloa,  signifying 
a  porch  or  portico,  because  Zeno,  the  head  of  the 
Stoics,  kept  his  school  in  a  porch  of  the  city  of 
Athens.  It  is  supposed  that  Zeno  borrowed 
many  of  his  opinions  from  the  Jewish  Scriptures; 
but  it  is  certain  that  Socrates  and  Plato  had 
taught  much  of  them  before.  The  Stoics  gene- 
rally maintained  that  nature  impels  every  man  to 
pursue  whatever  appears  to  him  to  be  good.  Ac- 
cording to  them,  self-preservation  and  defence  is 
the  first  law  of  animated  nature.  All  animals  neces- 
sarily derive  pleasure  from  those  things  which  are 
suited  to  them  ;  but  the  first  object  of  pursuit  is 
not  pleasure,  but  conformity  to  nature.  Every 
one,  therefore,  who  has  a  right  discernment  of 
what  is  good,  will  be  chiefly  concerned  to  conform 
to  nature  in  all  his  actions  and  pursuits.  This  is 
the  origin  of  moral  obligation.  With  respect  to 
happiness  or  good,  the  stoical  doctrine  was  alto- 
gether extravagant :  they  taught  that  all  external 
things  are  indifferent,  and  cannot  affect  the  hap- 
piness of  man  ;  that  pain,  which  docs  not  belong 
to  the  mind,  is  not  evil ;  and  that  a  wise  man  will 
be  happy  in  the  midst  of  torture,  because  virtue 
itself  is  happiness. 

Of  all  the  sects,  however,  of  the  ancient  philo- 
sophers, it  is  said  that  the  Stoics  came  nearest  to 
the  Christians:  and  that  not  only  with  respect 
to  their  regard  to  moral  virtue,  but  also  on  ac- 
count of  their  moral  principles ;  insomuch  that 
Jerome  affirms  that  in  many  things  they  agree 
with  us.  They  asserted  the  unity  of  the  Divine 
being — the  creation  of  the  world  by  the  Ao?t>;,  or 
Word — the  doctrine  of  Providence — and  the  con- 
flagration of  the  universe.  They  believed  in  the 
doctrine  of  fate,  which  they  represented  as  no 
other  than  the  will  and  purpose  of  God,  and  held 
that  it  had  no  tendency  to  looseness  of  life. 

STYLITES,  pillar  saints:  an  appellation 
given  to  a  kind  of  solitaries,  who  stood  motionless 
upon  the  tops  of  pillars,  raised  for  this  exercise 
of  their  patience,  and  remained  there  for  several 
years,  amidst  the  admiration  and  applause  of  the 
stupid  populace.  Of  these,  we  find  several  men- 
tioned in  ancient  writers,  and  even  as  lo\~  as  the 
twelfth  century,  when  they  were,  totally  sup- 
pressed. 

The  founder  of  the  order  was  St.  Simeon  Sty- 
lites,  a  famous  anchoret  in  the  fifth  century,  who 
first  took  up  his  abode  on  a  column  six  cubits 
high  ;  then  on  a  second  of  twelve  cubits ;  a  third 
of  twenty-two;  a  fourth  of  thirty-six;  and  on 
another  of  forty  cubits,  where  he  thus  passed 
thirty -seven  years  of- his  life.  The  tops  of  these 
columns  were  only  three  feet  in  diameter,  and 
were  defended  by  a  rail  that  reached  almost  to  the 
girdle,  somewhat  resembling  a  pulpit.  There 
was  no  lying  down  in  it.  The  Faquirs,  or  de- 
vout people  of  the  East,  imitate  this  ex'  inordinary 
kind  of  life  to  this  day. 

SUB-DEACON,  an  inferior  minister,  who 
anciently  attended  at  the  altar,  prepared  the  sa- 
cred vessels,  delivered  them  to  the  deacons  in  time 
of  divine  service,  attended  the  doors  of  the  church 
during  communion  service,  went  on  the  bishop's 
embassies  with  his  letters  or  messages  to  ioreign 


SUBSCRIPTION 

churches,  and  was  invested  with  the  first  of  the 
holy  orders.  They  were  so  subordinate  to  the 
superior  rulers  of  the  church,  that,  by  a  canon 
of  the  council  of  Laodicea,  they  were  forbidden 
to  sit  in  the  council  in  the  presence  of  a  deacon 
without  his  leave. 

SUBLAPSARIANS;  those  who  hold  that 
God  permitted  the  first  man  to  fall  into  trans- 
gression  without  absolutely  predetermining  his 
fall;  or  that  the  decree  of  predestination  regards 
man  as  fallen,  by  an  abuse  of  that  freedom  which 
Adam  had,  into  a  state  in  which  all  were  to  be 
left  to  necessary  and  unavoidable  ruin,  who  were 
not  exempted  from  it  by  predestination.     See 

SUPRALAPSARIANS. 

SUBMISSION  TO  GOD  implies  an  entire 
giving  up  of  our  understanding,  will,  and  affec- 
tions to  him ;  or,  bs  Dr.  Owen  observes,  it  con- 
sists in,  1.  An  acquiescency  in  his  right  and 
sovereignty. — 2.  An  acknowledgment  of  his 
righteousness  and  wisdom. — 3.  A  sense  of  his 
love  and  care. — i.  A  diligent  application  of  our- 
selves to  his  mind  and  will. — 5.  Keeping  our 
souls  by  faith  and  patience  from  weariness  and 
despondency. — U.  A  full  resignation  to  his  will. 
See  Resignation,  Sorrow. 

SUBSCRIPTION,  CLERICAL.  Subscrip- 
tion to  articles  of  religion  is  required  of  the  clergy 
of  every  established  church,  and  of  some  churches 
not  established.  But  it  has  been  a  matter  of  dis- 
pute whether  it  answers  any  valuable  purpose  as 
to  religion,  however  necessary  as  a  test  to  loyalty. 
All  language  is  more  or  less  ambiguous,  so  that 
it  is  difficult  always  to  understand  the  exact 
sense,  or  the  aniinus  imponentis,  especially  when 
creeds  have  been  long  established.  It  is  said  that 
the  clergy  of  the  churches  of  England  and  Scot- 
land seldom  consider  themselves  as  fettered  with 
the  Thirty-nine  Articles,  or  the  Confession  of 
Faith,  when  composing  instructions  for  their 
parishes,  or  the  public  at  large. 

It  is  to  be  feared,  indeed,  that  many  subscribe 
merely  for  the  sake  of  emolument ;  and  though 
it  be  professedly  ex  animo,  it  is  well  known  that 
it  is  not  so  in  reality.  How  such  will  answer  to 
the  Gnat  Head  of  the  church,  we  must  leave 
them  to  judge.  They  who  think  subscription  to 
be  proper  should  remember  that  it  approaches 
very  near  the  solemnity  of  an  oath,  and  is  not  to 
be  trifled  with.  "Great  care,"  says  Doddridge, 
"ought  to  be  taken  that  we  subscribe  nothing 
that  we  do  not  firmly  believe.  If  the  signification 
of  the  words  be  dubious,  and  we  believe  either 
sense,  and  that  sense  in  which  we  do  believe 
them  is  as  natural  as  the  other,  we  may  consis- 
tently with  integrity  subscribe  them  ;  or  if  the 
sense,  in  which  we  t\o  believe  them,  be  less  natu- 
ral, and  we  explain  that  sense,  and  that  explica- 
tion be  admitted  by  the  person  requiring  the 
subscription  in  his  own  right,  there  can  be  no 
just  foundation  for  a  scruple.  Some  have  added, 
that,  if  we  have  reason  to  believe  (though  it  is 
not  expressly  declared)  that  he  who  imposes  the 
subscription  <\ot^  not  intend  that  we  should 
hereby  declare  our  assent  to  those  articles,  but 
only  that  we  should  pay  a  compliment  to  his 
authority,  and  engage  ourselves  not  openly  to 
contradict  them,  we  may,  in  this  case,  subscribe 
what  is  most  directly  contrary  to  our  belief:  or 
that,  if  we  declare  our  belief  in  any  book,  as,  for 
instance,  the  Bible,  it  is  to  be  supposed  that  we 
subscribe  other  articles  onlv  so  far  as  they  arc 
i-2S 


SUFFERINGS 

consistent  with  that;  because  we  cannot  imagine 
that  the  law  would  require  us  to  profess  our  be- 
lief of  contrary  propositions  at  the  same  time. 
But  subscription  upon  these  principles  seems  a 
very  dangerous  attack  upon  sincerity  and  public 
virtue,  especially  in  those  designed  for  publio 
offices."  If  the  reader  be  desirous  of  investigat- 
ing the  subject,  he  may  consult  Paley's  Moral 
Phil.  vol.  i.  p.  218;  Dyer  on  Subscription;  Dod- 
dridge's Led.  led.  70;  Conybemre'8  Sermon  on 
Subscription-  Free  and  Candid  Disquisitions 
relating  to  the  Church  of  England;  and  The 
Confessional. 

SUCCESSION,  UNINTERRUPTED,  a 
term  made  use  of  by  the  Romanists,  and  others, 
in  reference  to  those  bishops  who  are  supposed 
to  have  derived  their  authority  from  the  apostles, 
and  so  communicated  that  authority  to  others  in 
a  line,  or  succession.  It  is  a  very  precarious  and 
uncomfortable  foundation  for  Christian  hope  (says 
Dr.  Doddridge,)  which  is  laid  in  the  doctrine  of 
an  uninterrupted  succession  of  bishops,  and 
which  makes  the  validity  of  the  administration 
of  Christian  ministers  depend  upon  such  a  suc- 
cession, since  there  is  so  great  a  darkness  upon 
many  periods  of  ecclesiastical  history,  insomuch 
that  it  is  not  agreed  who  were  the  seven  first 
bishops  of  the  church  of  Borne,  though  that 
church  was  so  celebrated ;  and  Eusebius  himself, 
from  whom  the,  greatest  patrons  of  this  doctrine 
have  made  their  catalogues,  expressly  owns  that 
it  is  no  easy  matter  to  tell  who  succeeded  the 
apostles  in  the  government  of  the  churches,  ex- 
cepting such  as  may  be  collected  from  St.  Paul's 
own  words.  [See  Episcopacy.]  Contested 
elections,  in  almost  all  considerable  cities,  make 
it  very  dubious  which  were  the  true  bishops; 
and  decrees  of  councils,  rendering  all  those  ordi- 
nations null  where  any  simoniacal  contract  was 
the  foundation  of  them,  makes  it  impossible  to 
prove  that  there  is  now  upon  earth  any  one  per- 
son who  is  a  legal  successor  of  the  apostles;  at 
least,  according  to  the  principles  of  the  Romish 
church.  Consequently,  whatever  system  is  built 
on  this  doctrine  must  be  very  precarious.  Howe's 
Episcopacy,  p.  170,  183;  Doddridge's  Lcct.lec- 
tun^  197;  Chandler's  Sermons  against  Popery, 
p.  31,  37;  Pierce's  Sermons,  pref. ;  and  article 

OnPINATION. 

SUFFERINGS  OF  CHRIST.  To  form 
an  idea  of  Christ's  sufferinirs,  we  should  consider 
the  poverty  of  his  birth  ;  the  reproach  of  his  cha- 
racter ;  the  pains  of  his  body ;  the  power  of  his 
enemies  ;  the  desertion  of  his  friends  ;  the  weight 
of  his  people's  sins ;  the  slow,  ignominious,  and 
painful  nature  of  his  death  ;  and  the  hidings  of 
his  Father's  face.  All  these  rendered  his  suffer- 
ings extremely  severe  ;  yet  some  heretics  said, 
that  the  sufferings  of  Christ  were  only  in  appear- 
ance, and  not  real :  but,  as  Bishop  Pearson  ob- 
serves, "  If  hunger  and  thirst ;  if  revilings  and 
contempt;  if  sorrows  and  agonies;  if  stripes  and 
buffeting;  if  condemnation  and  crucifixion,  be 
sufferings,  Jesus  saj'ered.  If  the  infirmities  of 
our  nature;  if  the  weight  of  our  sins;  if  the  ma- 
lice of  men;  if  the  machinations  of  Satan  ;  if  the 
hand  of  God  could  make  him  suffer,  our  Saviour 
suffered.  If  the  annals  of  time  ;  if  the  writing, 
of  the  apostles  ;  if  the  death  of  his  martyrs;  if 
the  confession  of  pentiles  ;  if  the  scoffs  of  the 
.lews,  be  testimonies,  Jesus  suffered." — Pearson 
on  the   Creed;  Dr.  RambaclCs  Meditations  on 


SUPERSTITION 
tfie  Sufferings  of  Christ.  For  the  end  of  Christ's 
sufferings,  see  Death  of  Christ. 

SUNDAY,  or  the  Lord's  Day,  a  solemn  fes- 
tival observed  by  Christians  on  the  first  day  of 
every  week,  in  memory  of  our  Saviour's  resur- 
rection.    See  Sabbath. 

It  has  been  contended  whether  Sunday  is  a 
name  that  ought  to  be  used  by  Christians.  The 
words  Sabbath  and  lord's  Day,  say  some,  are 
the  only  names  mentioned  in  Scripture  respecting 
this  day.  To  call  it  Sunday,  is  to  set  our  wis- 
dom before  the  wisdom  of  God,  and  to  give  that 
glory  to  a  Pagan  idol  which  is  due  to  him  alone. 
The  ancient  Saxons  called  it  by  this  name,  be- 
cause upon  it  they  worshipped  the  Sun  ;  and 
shall  Christians  keep  up  the  memory  of  that 
which  was  highly  displeasing  to  God,  by  calling 
the  Sabbath  by  that  name,  rather  than  by  either 
of  those  he  hath  appointed?  It  is,  indeed,  called 
Sunday  only  because  it  is  customary ;  but  this, 
Bay  they,  will  not  justify  men  in  doing  that  which 
is  contrary  to  the  example  and  command  of  God 
in  his  word. 

Others  observe,  that  although  it  was  originally 
called  Sunday  by  the  Heathens,  yet  it  may  very 
properly  retain  that  name  among  Christians,  be- 
cause it  is  dedicated  to  the  honour  of  the  true 
light,  which  lighteth  every  man  that  cometh  into 
the  world,  of  Him  who  is  styled  by  the  prophet 
"the  Sun  of  Righteousness,"  and  who  on  this 
day  arose  from  the  dead.  But  although  it  was  in 
the  primitive  times  indifferently  called  the  Lord's 
Day,  or  Sunday,  yet  it  was  never  denominated 
the  Sabbath  ;  a  name  constantly  appropriated  to 
Saturday,  or  the  seventh  day,  both  by  sacred  and 
ecclesiastical  writers.     See  Sabbath. 

SUPEREROGATION,  what  a  man  does 
beyond  his  duty,  or  more  than  he  is  commanded 
to  do.  The  Romanists  stand  up  strenuously  for 
works  of  supererogation,  and  maintain  that  the 
observance  of  evangelical  councils  is  such.  By 
means  hereof  a  stock  of  merit  is  laid  up,  which 
the  church  has  the  disposal  of,  and  which  she  dis- 
tributes in  indulgences  tc  such  as  need. 

This  absurd  doctrine  was  first  invented  to- 
wards the  close  of  the  twelfth  century,  and  modi- 
fied and  embellished  by  St.  Thomas  in  the 
thirteenth  :  according  to  which,  it  was  pretended 
that  there  actually  existed  an  immense  treasure 
of  merit,  composed  of  the  pious  deeds  and  vir- 
tuous actions  which  the  saints  had  performed  be- 
yond what  was  necessary  for  their  own  salvation, 
and  which  were,  therefore,  applicable  to  the  benefit 
of  others ;  that  the  guardian  and  dispenser  of 
this  precious  treasure  was  the  Roman  pontiff; 
and  that,  of  consequence,  he  was  empowered  to 
assign  to  such  as  he  thought  proper  a  portion  of 
this  inexhaustible  source  of  merit,  suitable  to 
their  respective  guilt,  and  sufficient  to  deliver 
thein  from  the  punishment  due  to  their  crimes. 

SUPERINTENDANT,  an  ecclesiastical  su- 
perior in  several  reformed  churches  where  episco- 
pacy is  not  admitted,  particularly  among  the 
Lutherans  in  Germany,  and  the  Calvinists  in 
some  other  places.  The  superintendent  is  simi- 
lar to  a  bishop,  only  his  power  is  somewhat  more 
restrained  than  that  of  our  diocesan  bishops.  He 
is  the  chief  pastor,  and  has  the  direction  of  all  the 
inferior  pastors  within  his  district  or  diocese. 

SUPERSTITION  is  a  word  that  has  been 
used  so  indefinitely,  that  it  is  difficult  to  deter- 
mine its  precise  meaning.     From  its  resemblance 
4-29 


SUPRALAPSARIANS 
in  sound  to  the  Latin  word  superstes,  a  survivrrr, 
it.  is  evidently  derived  from  it ;  and  diflerenj 
attempts  have  been  made  to  trace  their  connexion 
in  signification,  but  without  any  degree  of  cer- 
tainty. It  is  generally  defined  to  be,  the  observ- 
ance of  unnecessary  and  uncommanded  rites  and 
practices  in  religion  ;  reverence  of  objects  not  fit 
for  worship ;  too  great  nicety,  fears,  or  scrupu- 
lousness ;  or  extravagant  devotions ;  or  religion 
wrong  directed  or  conducted.  The  word  may  be 
applied  to  the  idolatry  of  the  Heathens,  the  tra- 
ditions of  the  Jews,  the  unscriptural  rites  of  tho 
Catholics ;  to  the  dependence  placed  by  many  on 
baptism,  the  Lord's  supper,  and  other  ceremonies. 
It  may  be  extended  to  those  who,  without  any 
evidence,  believe  that  prophecies  are  still  uttered, 
or  miracles  are  performed.  It  is  also  applied  to 
those  who  believe  in  witchcraft,  magic,  omens,  &c. 

Superstition,  says  Claude,  usually  springs 
either,  1.  From  servile  fear,  which  makes  people 
believe  that  God  is  always  wrathful,  and  invents 
means  to  appease  him. — 2.  Or  from  a  natural  in- 
clination we  all  have  to  idolatry,  which  makes 
men  think  they  see  some  ray  of  the  Divinity  in 
extraordinary  creatures,  and  on  this  account  wor- 
ship them. — Or,  3.  From  hypocrisy,  which  makes 
men  willing  to  discharge  their  obligations  to  God 
by  grimace,  and  by  zeal  for  external  services. — 
Or,  4.  From  presumption,  which  makes  men 
serve  God  after  their  own  fancies.  Claude's 
Essay  on  the  Composition  of  a  Seirnon,  vol.  ii. 
p.  49  and  299;  SaurMs  Sermons,  vol.  v.  p.  49, 
Eng.  edit.;   Gregory  Essays,  essay  iii. 

SUPRALAPSARIANS,  persons  who  hold 
that  God,  without  any  regard  to  the  good  or  evil 
works  of  men,  has  resolved,  by  an  eternal  decree, 
supra  lapsum,  antecedently  to  any  knowledge  of 
the  fall  of  Adam,  and  independently  of  it,  to  save 
some  and  reject  others :  or.  in  other  words,  that 
God  intended  to  glorify  his  justice  in  the  con- 
demnation of  some,  as  well  as  his  mercy  in  the 
salvation  of  others  ;  and  for  that  purpose,  decreed 
that  Adam  should  necessarily  fall. 

Dr.  Gill  gives  us  the  following  account  of 
Supralapsarianism. — The  question  which  he  pro- 
poses to  discuss,  is,  "  Whether  men  were  consi- 
dered in  the  mind  of  God  in  the  decree  of  election 
as  fallen  or  unfallen,  as  in  the  corrupt  mass 
through  the  fall,  or  in  the  pure  mass  of  creature- 
ship,  previous  to  it,  and  as  to  be  created  1"  There 
are  some  who  think  that  the  latter,  so  considered, 
were  the  objects  of  election  in  the  divine  mind. 
These  are  called  Supralapsarians,  though,  of 
these,  some  are  of  opinion  that  man  was  consi- 
dered as  to  be  created  or  creatable,  and  others  as 
created  but  not  fallen.  The  former  seems  best, 
that,  of  the  vast  number  of  individuals  which 
came  up  in  the  divine  mind  whom  his  power 
could  create,  those  whom  he  meant  to  bring  into 
being  he  designed  to  glorify  himself  by  them  in 
some  way  or  other.  The  decree  of  election  re- 
specting any  part  of  them  may  be  distinguished 
into  the  decree  of  the  end  and  the  decree  of  the 
means.  The  decree  of  the  end  respecting  some 
is  either  subordinate  to  their  eternal  happiness,  or 
ultimate,  which  is  more  properly  the  end,  the 
glory  of  God;  and  if  both  are  put  together,  it  isva 
state  of  everlasting  communion  with  God,  for  the 
glorifying  of  the  riches  of  his  grace.  The  decree 
of  the  means  includes  the  decree  to  create  men  to 
permit,  them  to  fall,  to  recover  them  out  of  it 
I  through  redemption  by  Christ,  to  sanctity  then 


SUPRALAPSARIANS 
by  the  grace  of  the  Spirit,  ami  completely  save 
them ;  and  which  are  not  to  he  reckoned  as  ma- 
terially many  decrees,  but  as  making  one  formal 
decree ;  or  they  are  not  to  be  considered  as  subor- 
dinate, but  as  co-ordinate  means,  and  as  making 
up  one  entire  complete  medium  :  for  it  is  not  to 
be  supposed  that  God  decreed  to  create  man,  that 
he  might  permit  him  to  fall,  in  order  to  redeem, 
sanctify,  and  save  him;  but  he  decreed  all  this 
that  he  might  glorify  his  grace,  mercy,  and  jus- 
tice. And  in  this  way  of  considering  tne  decrees 
of  God,  they  think  that  they  sufficiently  obviate 
ind  remove  the  slanderous  calumny  cast  upon 
them  with  respect  to  the  other  branch  of  predes- 
tination, which  leaves  men  in  the  same  state 
when  others  are  chosen,  and  that  for  the  glory  of 
God.  Which  calumny  is,  that,  according  to 
them,  God  made  man  to  damn  him ;  whereas, 
according  to  their  real  sentiments,  God  decreed 
to  make  man,  and  made  man  neither  to  damn 
him  nor  save  him,  but  for  his  own  glory,  which 
end  is  answered  in  them  some  way  or  other. — 
Again;  they  argue  that  the  end  is  first  in  view 
before  the  means,  and  the  decree  of  the  end  is,  in 
order  of  nature,  before  the  decree  of  the  means ; 
and  what  is  first  in  intention,  is  last  in  execution. 
Now,  as  the  glory  of  God  is  last  in  execution,  it 
must  be  first  in  intention,  wherefore  men  must 
be  considered  in  the  decree  of  the  end  as  not  yet 
created  and  fallen;  since  the  creation  and  per- 
mission of  sin  belong  to  the  decree  of  the  means, 
which  in  order  of  nature  is  after  the  decree  of  the 
end.  And  they  add  to  this,  that  if  God  first  de- 
creed to  create  man,  and  sufl'ered  him  to  fall,  and 
then  out  of  the  fall  chose  some  to  grace  and  glory, 
he  must  decree  to  create  man  without  an  end, 
which  is  to  make  God  to  do  what  no  wise  man 
w.ould;  for  when  a  man  is  about  to  do  any  thing, 
he  proposes  an  end,  and  then  contrives  and  fixes 
on  ways  and  means  to  bring  about  that  end. 
They  think  also  that  this  way  of  conceiving  and 
speaking  of  these  things  best  expresses  the  so- 
vereignty of  God  in  them,  as  declared  in  the  9th 
of  Romans,  where  he  is  said  to  will  such  and  such 
things,  for  no  other  reason  but  because  he  wills 
them. 

The  opponents  of  this  doctrine  consider,  how- 
ever, that  it  is  attended  with  insuperable  diffi- 
culties. We  demand,  say  they,  an  explanation 
of  what  they  mean  by  this  principle,  "  God  hath 
made  all  things  for  his  own  glory."  If  they  mean 
that  justice  requires  a  creature  to  devote  himself 
to  the  worship  and  glorifying  of  his  Creator,  we 
grant  it ;  if  they  mean  that  the  attributes  of  God 
are  displayed  in  all  his  works,  we  grant  this  too ; 
but  if  the  proposition  be  intended  to  affirm  that 
God  had  no  other  view  in  creating  men,  so  to 
speak,  than  his  own  interest,  we  deny  the  pro- 
position, and  affirm  that  God  created  men  for 
their  own  happiness,  and  in  order  to  have  subjects 
Upon  whom  he  might  bestow  favours. 

We  desire  to  be  informed,  in  the  next  place, 
say  they,  how  it  can  be  conceived  that  a  deter- 
mination to  damn  millions  of  men  can  contribute 
to  the.  glory  of  God  .'  We  easily  conceive,  that  it 
is  for  the  glory  of  divine  justice  to  punish  guilty 
men:  hut  to  resolve  to  damn  men  without  the 
consideration  of  sin,  to  create  them  that  they 
might  sin,  to  determine  that  they  should  sin  in 
order  to  their  destruction,  is  what  seems  to  us 
more  likely  to  tarnish  the  glory  of  God  than  to 
display  it. 

430 


SWEARING 

Again ;  we  demand  how,  according  to  this 
hypothesis,  it  can  be  conceived  that  God  is  not 
the  author  of  sin?  In  the  general  scheme  of  our 
churches,  God  only  permits  men  to  sin,  and  it  is 
the  abuse  of  liberty  that  plunges  man  into  misery  : 
even  this  principle,  all  Ienified  as  it  seems,  is  yet 
subject  to  a  great  number  of  difficulties;  but  in 
this  scheme  God  wills  sin  to  produce  the  end  lie 
proposed  in  creating  the  world,  and  it  was  neces 
sary  that  men  should  sin  :  God  created  them  foi 
that,  if  this  be  not  to  make  God  the  author  of 
sin,  we  must  renounce  the  most  distinct  and  clear 
ideas. 

Again  ;  we  require  them  to  reconcile  this  sys- 
tem with  many  express  declarations  of  Scripture, 
which  inform  us  that  God  icould  have  all  men  tc 
be  saved.  How  doth  it  agree  with  such  pressing 
entreaties,  such  cutting  reproofs,  such  tender 
expostulations,  as  God  discovers  in  regard  to  the 
unconverted  ?    Matt,  xxiii.  37. 

Lastly,  we  desire  to  know,  how  is  it  possible  to 
conceive  a  God,  who  being  in  the  actual  enjoy- 
ment of  perfect  happiness,  incomprehensible,  and 
supreme,  could  determine  to  add  this  decree, 
though  useless  to  his  felicity,  to  create  men  with- 
out number  for  the  purpose  of  confining  them  for 
ever  in  the  chains  of  darkness,  and  burning  them 
for  ever  in  unquenchable  flames.  GUI's  Body  oj 
Div.  vol.  i.  p.  299;  Brine's  Works;  Sauririi 
Sermons,  vol.  v.  p.  33o,  Eng.  trans. 

SUPREMACY  OP  THE  POPE,  a  doc- 
trine held  by  the  Roman  Catholics,  who  believe 
that  the  bishop  of  Rome  is,  under  Christ,  supreme 
pastor  of  the  whole  church ;  and,  as  such,  is  not 
only  the  first  bishop  in  order  and  dignity,  but  has 
also  a  power  and  jurisdiction  over  all  Christians. 
This  doctrine  is  chiefly  built  upon  the  supposed 
primacy  of  Saint  Peter,  of  whom  the  bishop  of 
Rome  is  the  pretended  successor,  a  primacy  we 
no  where  find  commanded  or  countenanced,  but 
absolutely  prohibited,  in  the  word  of  God,  Luke 
xxii.  14,24;  Mark  ix.  35.  See  Infallibility, 
Primacy,  Pope,  and  Popery.  Dr.  Barrow's 
Treatise  on  the  Pope's  Supremacy;  Chilling- 
icorth's  Religion  of  the  Protestants ;  and  Smith's 
Errors  of  the  Church  of  Rome. 

SUPREMACY,  Oath  of.     See  Oath. 

SUSPICION  consists  in  imagining  evil  of 
others  without  proof.  It  is  sometimes  opposed  to 
charity,  which  tliinketh  no  evil.  "A  suspicious 
temper  checks  in  the  bud  every  kind  affection  :  it 
hardens  the  heart,  and  estranges  man  from  man. 
What  friendship  can  we  expect  from  him  who 
views  all  our  conduct  with  distrustful  eyes,  and 
ascribes  every  benefit  we  confer  to  artifice  and 
stratagem  ?  A  candid  man  is  accustomed  to  view 
the  characters  of  his  neighbours  in  the  most 
favourable  light,  and  is  like  one  who  dwells 
amidst  those  beautiful  scenes  of  nature  on  which 
the  eye  rests  with  pleasure.  Whereas  the  suspi- 
cious man,  having  his  imagination  filled  with  all 
the  shocking  forms  of  human  falsehood,  deceit, 
and  treachery,  resembles  the  traveller  in  the  wil- 
derness, who  discerns  no  objects  around  him  but 
what  are  either  dreary  or  terrible;  caverns  that 
open,  serpents  that  hiss,  and  beasts  of  prey  tliat 
howl." 

SWEARING.    See  Oath. 

Cursing  and  Sicearing  is  an  offence  against 
God  and  religion,  and  a  sin  of  all  others  the  most 
extravagant  and  unaccountable,  as  having  no 
benefit  or  advantage  attending  it.     It  is  a  <otk- 


SWEDENBORGIANS 
tempt  of  God ;  a  violation  of  his  law ;  a  great 
breach  of  good  behaviour ;  and  a  mark  of  levity, 
weakness,  and  wickedness.  How  those  who  live 
in  the  habitual  practice  of  it  can  call  themselves 
men  of  sense,  of  character,  or  of  decency,  I  know 
not.  By  the  last  statute  against  this  crime,  19 
Geo.  II.  which  repeals  all  former  ones,  every  la- 
bourer, sailor,  or  soldier,  profanely  cursing  ©r 
swearing,  shall  forfeit  one  shilling ;  every  other 
person,  under  the  rank  of  a  gentleman,  two  shil- 
ling* •  -uid  every  gentleman,  or  person  of  superior 
rank,  nve  shillings,  to  the  poor  of  the  parish; 
and  on  a  second  conviction  double,  and  for  every 
subsequent  offence,  treble  the  sum  first  forfeited, 
with  all  charges  of  conviction ;  and,  in  default  of 
payment,  shall  be  sent  to  the  house  of  correction 
for  ten  days. 

SWEDENBORGIANS,  the  followers  of 
Emanuel  Swedenborg,  a  Swedish  nobleman, 
born  at  Stockholm,  in  1689.  He  appears  to  have 
had  a  good  education ;  for  his  learning  was  ex- 
tensive in  almost  every  branch.  He  professed 
himself  to  be  the  founder  of  the  New  Jerusalem 
Church,  alluding  to  the  New  Jerusalem  spoken 
of  in  the  book  of  the  Revelations.  He  asserts 
that,  in  the  year  1743,  the  Lord  manifested  him- 
self to  him  by  a  personal  appearance,  and  at  the 
same  time  opened  his  spiritual  eyes,  so  that  he 
was  enabled  constantly  to  see  and  converse  with 
spirits  and  angels.  From  that  time  he  began 
to  print  and  publish  various  wonderful  things, 
which,  he  says,  were  revealed  to  him,  relating  to 
heaven  and  hell,  the  state  of  men  after  death,  the 
worship  of  God,  the  spiritual  sense  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, the  various  earths  in  the  universe,  and 
their  inhabitants ;  with  many  other  strange  par- 
ticulars. 

Swedenborg  lived  and  died  in  the  Lutheran 
communion,  but  always  professed  the  highest 
respect  for  the  church  of  England.  He  carried 
his  respect  for  the  person  and  divinity  of  Jesus 
Christ  to  the  highest  point  of  veneration,  con- 
sidering him  altogether  as  "  God  manifested  in 
the  flesh,  and  as  the  fulness  of  the  Godhead  united 
to  the  man  Christ  Jesus."  With  respect,  there- 
fore, to  the  sacred  Trinity,  though  h»  rejected 
the  idea  of  three  distinct  persons  as  destructive 
of  the  unity  of  the  Godhead,  he  admitted  three 
distinct  essences,  principles,  or  characters,  as 
existing  in  it;  namely,  the  divine  essence  or 
character,  in  virtue  of  which  he  is  called  the  Fa- 
ther or  Creator ;  the  human  essence,  principle, 
or  character,  united  to  the  divine  in  the  person 
of  Jesus  Christ,  in  virtue  of  which  he  is  called 
the  son  and  Redeemer;  and,  lastly,  the  proceed- 
ing essence  or  principle,  in  virtue  of  which  he  is 
called  the  Holy  Ghost.  He  further  maintains, 
that  the  sacred  Scripture  contains  three  distinct 
senses,  called  celestial,  spiritual,  and  natural, 
which  are  united  by  correspondences ;  and  that 
in  each  sense  it  is  divine  truth  accommodated 
respectively  to  the  angels  of  the  three  heavens, 
and  also  to  men  on  earth.  This  science  of  cor- 
respondence (it  is  said)  has  been  lost  for  some 
thousands  of  years,  viz.  ever  since  the  time  of 
Job,  but  is  now  revived  by  Emanuel  Sweden- 
borg, who  uses  it  as  a  key  to  the  spiritual  or  in- 
ternal sense  of  the  sacred  Scripture ;  every  page 
of  which,  he  says,  is  written  by  correspondence, 
that  is,  by  such  things  in  the  natural  world  as 
correspond  unto  and  signify  things  in  the  spiritual 
world.  He  denies  the  doctrine  of  atonement,  or 
4?1 


SYNOD 

vicarious  sacrifice ;  together  with  the  doctrine  of 
predestination,  unconditional  election,  justifica- 
tion by  faith  alone,  the  resurrection  of  the  mate- 
rial body,  &c. ;  and,  in  opposition  thereto,  main- 
tains that  man  is  possessed  of  free-will  in  spiritual 
things ;  that  salvation  is  not  attainable  without 
repentance,  that  is,  abstaining  from  evils,  because 
they  are  sins  against  God,  and  living  a  life  of 
charity  and  faith,  according  to  the  command- 
ments; that  man,  immediately  on  his  decease, 
rises  again  in  a  spiritual  body,  which  was  inclosed 
in  his  material  body ;  and  that  in  this  spiritual 
body  he  lives  as  a  man  to  eternity,  either  in 
heaven  or  in  hell,  according  to  the  quality  of  his 
past  life.  That  all  those  passages  in  the  Scrip- 
ture generally  supposed  to  signify  the  destruction 
of  the  world  by  fire,  and  commonly  called  the 
last  judgment,  must  be  understood  according  to 
the  abovementioned  science  of  correspondences, 
which  teaches,  that  by  the  end  of  the  world,  or 
consummation  of  the  age,  is  not  signified  the  de- 
struction of  the  world,  but  the  destruction  or  end 
of  the  present  Christian  church,  both  among  Ro- 
man Catholics  and  Protestants,  of  every  descrip- 
tion or  denomination ;  and  that  this  last  judgment 
actually  took  place  in  the  spiritual  world  in  the 
year  1757 ;  from  which  ffira  is  dated  the  second 
advent  of  the  Lord,  and  the  commencement  of  a 
new  Christian  church,  which,  they  say,  is  meant 
by  the  new  heaven  and  new  earth  in  the  Reve- 
lation, and  the  new  Jerusalem  thence  descending. 
They  use  a  liturgy,  and  instrumental  as  well  as 
vocai  music,  in  their  public  worship.  Summary 
View  of  Swedenborg' s  Doctrines;  Swedenborg' 
Works;  Dialogues  on  Swedenborg  s  Theologi- 
cal Writings. 

SWEDENBORGIANS  in  the  UNITED 
STATES.  This  sect,  in  this  country,  are  or- 
ganised into  a  General  Convention,  which  meets 
annually.  The  eleventh  meeting  was  held  in 
Boston,  in  August,  1829.  It  consists  of  pastors, 
or  teachers,  ana  lay  delegates.  From  the  minutes 
of  this  body  published  in  1829,  it  appears  that 
the  total  number  of  their  clergy  is  29 ;  and  that 
they  have  regular  societies  formed  in  28  towns  in 
the  United  States.— B. 

SYMBOL,  an  abstract  or  compendium;  a 
sign  or  representation  of  something  moral  by  the 
figures  or  properties  of  natural  things.  Hence 
symbols  are  of  various  kinds ;  as  hieroglyphics, 
types,  enigmas,  parables,  fables,  &c.  See  Dr. 
Lancaster's  Dictionary  of  Scripture  Symbols; 
and  Bicheno's  Symbolical  Vocabulary  in  his 
Signs  of  the  Times  ;  Faber  on  the  Prophecies; 
W.  Jones's  Works,  vol.  iv.  let.  11. 

SYNAGOGUE,,  a  place  where  the  Jews  mee» 
to  worship  God. 

SYNERGISTS,  so  called  from  the  Greek 
rvvtfynx,  which  signifies  co-operation.  Hence 
this  name  was  given  to  those  in  the  sixteenth 
century  who  denied  that  God  was  the  sole  agent 
in  the  conversion  of  sinful  man,  and  affirmed  that 
man  co-operated  with  divine  grace  in  the  accom- 
plishment of  this  salutary  purpose. 

SYNOD,  a  meeting  or  assembly  of  ecclesiasti- 
cal persons  to  consult  on  matters  of  religion.  Of 
these  there  are  four  kinds,  viz.  1.  General,  where 
bishops,  &c.  meet  from  all  nations.  These  were 
first  called  by  the  emperors ;  afterwards  by  Chris- 
tian princes;  till,  in  later  ages,  the  pope  usurped 
to  himself  the  greatest  share  in  this  business,  and 
by  his  legates  presided  in  them  when  called.— 


TALENT 

2.  National,  where  those  of  one  nation  only  come 
together  to  determine  any  point  of  doctrine  or 
discipline.  The  first  of  this  sort  which  we  read 
of  in  Engl  snd  was  that  of  Herudford,  or  Hert- 
ford, in  673  ;  and  the  last  was  that  held  by  Car- 
dinal Pole,  in  1355. — 3.  Provincial,  where  those 
onlv  of  one  prov;  ice  meet,  now  called  the  convo- 
cation.—  t.  Dio  rsan,  where  those  of  but  one 
diocese  meet,  to  enforce  canons  made  by  general 
councils,  or  national  and  provincial  synods,  and 
to  consult  and  agree  upon  rules  of  discipline  for 
themselves.  These  were  not  wholly  laid  aside, 
till,  by  the  act  of  submission,  25  Hen.  VIII.  c. 
19,  it  was  made  unlawful  for  any  synod  to  meet 
but  by  royal  authority.  See  Council  and  Con- 
vocation*. 

SYRIAN  CHRISTIANS.  The  number  of 
Syrian  churches  is  greater  than  has  been  sup- 
posed. There  are,  at  this  time,  fifty-five  churches 


TALMUD 

in  Malayala,  acknowledging  the  Patriarch  of  An 
tioch.  The  church  was  erected  by  the  preeeni 
bishop,  in  1793.  See  Etang.  Mag.  for  1807 
p.  4ft0. 

The  Syrian  Christians  are  net  Nestorians. 
Formerly,  indeed,  they  had  bishops  of  that  com- 
munion ;  but  the  liturgy  of  the  present  church 
is  derived  from  that  of  the  early  church  of  An- 
tioch,  called  Liturgia  Jacobi  Apostoli.  They 
are  usually  denominated  Jacobitce;  but  they  dif- 
fer in  ceremonial  from  the  church  of  that  name 
in  Syria,  and  indeed  from  any  existing  church  in 
the  world.  Their  proper  designation,  and  that 
which  is  sanctioned  by  their  own  use,  is  Syrian 
Christians,  or  the  Syrian  church  of  Malayala. 

The  doctrines  of  the  Syrian  church  are  con- 
tained in  a  very  few  articles ;  and  are  not  at  va- 
riance, in  essentials,  with  the  doctrines  of  the 
church  of  England. 


T. 


TABERNACLE,  among  the  Hebrews,  a 
kind  of  building,  in  the  form  of  a  tent,  set  up 
by  the  express  command  of  God  for  the  perform- 
ance of  religious  worship,  sacrifices,  &c,  Exod. 
xxvi.  xxvii. 

Feast  of  Tabernacles,  a  solemn  festival  of  the 
Hebrews,  observed  after  harvest,  on  the  15th  day 
of  the  month  Tisri,  instituted  to  commemorate 
the  goodness  of  God,  who  protected  the  Israel- 
ites in  the  wilderness,  and  made  them  dwell  in 
booths  when  thev  came  out  of  Eo-\pt. 

TABORITES.    See  Bohemian  Brethren. 

TALAPOINS,  or  Tat.opixs,  priests  of  Si- 
am.  They  enjoy  great  privileges,  but  are  enjoined 
celibacy  and  austerity  of  life.  They  live  in  mo- 
nasteries contiguous  to  the  temples ;  and,  what 
is  singular,  any  one  may  enter  into  the  priest- 
hood, and,  after  a  certain  age,  may  quit  it  to 
marry,  and  return  to  society.  There  are  Tala- 
poinesses,  too,  or  nuns,  who  live  in  the  same  con- 
vents, but  are  not  admitted  till  they  have  passed 
their  fortieth  year.  The  Talapoins  educate  chil- 
dren, and  at  every  new  and  full  moon  explain  the 
precepts  of  their  religion  in  their  temples ;  and, 
during  the  rainy  season,  they  preach  from  six  in 
the  morning  till  noon,  and  from  one  in  the  after- 
noon till  five  in  the  evening.  They  dress  in  a 
very  mean  garb,  and  go  bare-headed  and  bare- 
footed •,  and  no  person  is  admitted  among  them 
who  is  not  well  skilled  in  the  Baly  language. — 
Thev  believe  that  the  universe  is  eternal,  but 
admit  that  certain  parts  of  ify  as  this  world,  may 
be  destroyed,  and  again  regenerated.  They  he- 
lifcve  in  a  universal  pervading  spirit,  and  in  the 
immortality  and  transmigration  of  the  soul;  but 
they  extend  this  last  doctrine  not  only  to  animals, 
but  to  vegetables  and  rocks.  They  have  their 
giil  and  evil  genii,  and  particular  local  deities, 
who  preside  over  forests  and  rivers,  and  interfere 
in  all  sublunary  a  Hairs. 

TALENT  figuratively  signifies  any  gift  or 
opportunity  God  gives  to  men  for  the  promotion 
of  his  glory.  ,:  Every  thing  almost,"  savs  Mr. 
Scott,  "  that  we  are,  or  possess,  or  meet  with,  may 
oc  considered  as  a  talent;  for  a  good  or  a  bid  use 
may  be  made  of  every  natural  endowment,  or  pro- 
vidential appointment,  or  they  may  remain  un- 
occupied through  inactivity  and  selfishness.  Time, 
432 


health,  vigour  of  body,  and  the  power  of  exertion 
and  enduring  fatigue — the  natural  and  acquired 
abilities  of  the  mind,  skill  in  any  lawful  art  or  sci- 
ence, and  the  capacity  for  close  mental  application 
— the  gift  of  speech,  and  that  of  speaking  with 
fluency  and  propriety,  and  in  a  convincing,  at- 
tractive, or  persuasive  manner — wealth,  influ- 
ence, or  authority — a  man's  situation  in  the 
church,  the  community,  or  relative  life — and  the 
various  occurrences  which  make  way  for  him  to 
attempt  any  thing  of  a  beneficial  tendency  :  these, 
and  many  others  that  can  scarcely  be  enume- 
rated, are  talents  which  the  consistent  Christian 
will  improve  to  the  glory  of  God,  and  the  benefit 
of  mankind.  Nay,  this  improvement  procures  an 
increase  of  talents,  and  gives  a  man  an  accession 
of  influence,  and  an  accumulating  power  of  doing 
good ;  because  it  tends  to  establish  his  reputation 
for  prudence,  piety,  integrity,  sincerity,  and  dis- 
interested benevolence :  it  gradually  forms  him 
to  an  habitual  readiness  to  engage  in  beneficent 
designs,  and  to  conduct  them  in  a  gentle,  un- 
obtrusive and  unassuming  manner :  it  disposes 
others  to  regard  him  with  increasing  confidence 
and  affection,  and  to  approach  him  with  satisfac- 
tion ;  and  it  procures  for  him  the  countenance  of 
many  persons,  whose  assistance  he  can  employ  in 
accomplishing  his  own  salutary  purposes." 

TALMUD,  a  collection  of  Jewish  writings. 
There  are  two  works  which  bear  this  name — the1 
Talmud  of  Jerusalem,  and  the  Talmud  of  Baby- 
lon. Each  of  these  are  composed  of  two  parts — 
the  Mishna,  which  is  the  text,  and  is  common  to 
both;  and  the  Gemara,  itt  commentary. 

The  Mishna,  which  comprehends  all  the  laws, 
institutions,  and  rules  of  life  (which,  beside  the 
ancient  Hebrew  Scripture,  the  Jews  thought 
themselves  bound  to  observe,)  was  composed,  ac- 
cording to  the  unanimous  testimony  of  the  Jews, 
about  the  close  of  the  second  century.  It  was 
the  work  of  rabbi  Jehuda  (or  Juda)  Hakkadosh, 
who  was  the  ornament  of  the  school  of  Tiberiat., 
and  is  said  to  have  occupied  him  forty  years.— 
The  commentaries  and  additions  which  suc- 
ceeding rabbies  made,  were  collected  by  rabbi 
Joelunan  P.en  F.lie/.er,  some  say  in  the  fifth, 
others  say  in  the  sixth,  and  others  in  the  seventh 
century,   under    the   name  of  Gemara,   that  if, 


TANQ.UELINIANS 
aimplelion,  because  it  completed  the  Talmud.  A 
similar  addition  was  made  to  the  Mishna  by  the 
Babylonish  doctors  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixth 
century,  according  to  Enfield ;  and  in  the  se- 
venth, according  to  others. 

The  Mishna  is  divided  into  six  parts,  of 
which  every  one  which  is  entitled  order  is 
formed  of  treatises :  every  treatise  is  divided 
into  chapters ;  and  every  chapter  into  mishnas, 
or  aphorisms.  In  the  first  part  is  discussed 
whatever  relates  to  seeds,  fruits,  and  trees :  in 
the  second,  feasts:  in  the  third,  women,  their 
duties,  their  disorders,  marriages,  divorces,  con- 
tracts, and  nuptials:  in  the  fourth,  are  treated 
the  damages  or  losses  sustained  by  beasts  or  men, 
of  things  found,  deposits,  usuries,  rents,  farms, 
partnership  in  commerce,  inheritance,  sales  and 
purchases,  oaths,  witnesses,  arrests,  idolatry;  and 
here  are  named  those  by  whom  the  oral  law  was 
received  and  preserved  :  in  the  fifth  part  are  no- 
ticed what  regards  sacrifices  and  holy  things : 
and  the  sixth  treats  on  purifications,  vessels,  fur- 
niture, clothes,  houses,  leprosy,  baths,  and  nume- 
rous other  articles  : — all  this  forms  the  Mishna. 

As  the  learned  reader  may  wish  to  obtain  some 
notion  of  rabbinical  composition  and  judgment, 
we  shall  gratify  his  curiosity  sufficiently  by  the 
following  specimen :  "  Adam's  body  was  made 
of  the  earth  of  Babylon,  his  head  of  the  land  of 
Israel,  his  other  members  of  other  parts  of  the 
world.  R.  Meir  thought  he  was  compact  of  the 
earth  gathered  out  of  the  whole  earth :  as  it  is 
written,  thine  eyes  did  see  my  substance.  Now 
it  is  elsewhere  written,  the  eyes  of  the  Lord  are 
over  all  the  earth.  R.  Aha  expressly  marks  the 
twelve  hours  in  which  his  various  parts  were 
formed.  His  stature  was  from  one  end  of  the 
world  to  the  other ;  and  it  was  for  his  transgres- 
sion that  the  Creator,  laying  his  hand  in  anger 
on  him,  lessened  him  ;  '  for  before,'  says  R.  Elea- 
zer,  'with  his  hand  he  reached  the  firmament.' 
R.  Jehuda  thinks  his  sin  was  heresy;  but  R. 
Isaac  thinks  that  it  was  nourishing  his  foreskin." 
The  Talmud  of  Babylon  is  most  valued  by  the 
Jews ;  and  this  is  the  book  which  they  mean  to 
express  when  they  talk  of  the  Talmud  in  general. 
An  abridgment  of  it  was  made  by  Maimonides  in 
the  12th  century,  in  which  he  rejected  some  of 
its  greatest  absurdities.  The  Gemara  is  stuffed 
with  dreams  and  chimeras,  with  many  ignora  r  t 
and  impertinent  questions,  and  the  style  very 
coarse.  The  Mishna  is  written  in  a  style  com- 
paratively pure,  and  may  be  very  useful  in  ex- 
plaining passages  of  the  New  Testament,  where 
the  phraseology  is  similar.  This  is,  indeed,  the 
only  use  to  which  Christians  can  apply  it :  but  this 
renders  it  valuable. — Lightfoot  has  judiciously 
availed  himself  of  such  information  as  he  could 
derive  from  it.  Some  of  the  po[>es,  with  a  bar- 
barous zeal,  and  a  timidity  of  spirit  for  the  success 
of  the  Christian  religion,  which  the  belief  of  its 
divinity  can  never  excuse,  ordered  great  numbers 
of  the  Talmud  to  be  burned.  Gregory  IX.  burned 
about  twenty  cart-loads;  and  Paul  IV.  ordered 
12,000  copies  of  the  Talmud  to  be  destroyed. 
See  Mischn'a  ;  the  last  edition  of  the  Talmud  of 
Babylon,  printed  at  Amsterdam,  in  12  vols,  folio : 
the  Talmud  of  Jerusalem  is  in  one  large  volume 
folio. 

TANQ.UELINIANS,  so  called  from  Tan- 
quelinus,  who  formed  a  numerous  denomination 
in  Brabant  and  Antwerp  in  the  twelfth  century. 
433  3  E 


TARGUM 
He  treated  with  contempt  the  external  worship 
of  God,  the  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  and 
the  rite  of  baptism,  and  held  clandestine  assem- 
blies to  propagate  his  opinions.  He  declaimed 
against  the  vices  of  the  clergy  with  vehemence 
and  intrepidity. 

TARGUM,  a  name  given  to  the  Chaldee 
paraphrases  of  the  books  of  the  Old  Testament 
They  are  called  paraphrases  or  expositions,  be- 
cause they  are  rather  comments  and  explications, 
than  literal  translations  of  the  text,  They  are 
written  in  the  Chaldee  tongue,  which  became 
familiar  to  the  Jews  after  the  time  of  their  cap- 
tivity in  Babvlon,  and  was  more  known  to  them 
than  the  Hebrew  itself;  so  that  when  the  Hebrew 
text  was  read  in  the  synagogue,  or  in  the  temple, 
they  generally  added  to  it  an  explication  in  the 
Chaldee  tongue,  for  the  service  of  the  people,  who 
had  but  a  very  imperfect  knowledge  of  the  He- 
brew tongue.  It  is  probable,  that  even  from  the 
time  of  Ezra  tins  custom  began :  since  this  learned 
scribe,  reading  the  law  to  the  people  in  the  tem- 
ple, explained  it,  with  the  other  priests  that  were 
with  him,  to  make  it  understood  by  the  people, 
Neh.  viii.  7,  9. 

But  though  the  custom  of  making  these  sorts 
of  expositions  in  the  Chaldee  language  be  very 
ancient  among  the  Hebrews,  yet  they  have  no 
written  paraphrases  or  Targums  before  the  aera 
of  Onkelos  and  Jonathan,  who  lived  about  the 
time  of  our  Saviour.  Jonathan  is  placed  about 
thirty  years  before  Christ,  under  the  reign  of 
Herod  the  Great.  Onkelos  is  something  more 
modern.  The  Targum  of  Onkelos  is  the  most  of 
all  esteemed,  and  copies  are  to  be  found  in  which 
it  is  inserted  verse  for  verse  with  the  Hebrew.  It 
is  so  short,  and  so  simple,  that  it  cannot  be  sus- 
pected of  being  corrupted.  This  paraphrast  wrote 
only  upon  the  books  of  Moses ;  and  his  style  ap- 
proaches nearly  to  the  purity  of  the  Chaldee,  as 
it  is  found  in  Daniel  and  Ezra,  This  Targum  is 
quoted  in  the  Mishna,  but  was  not  known  either 
to  Eusebius,  St,  Jerome,  or  Origen. 

The  Targum  of  Jonathan,  son  of  Uziel,  is 
upon  the  greater  and  lesser  prophets.  He  is  much 
more  diffuse  than  Onkelos,  and  especially  upon 
the  lesser  prophets,  where  he  takes  greater  liber- 
ties, and  runs  on  in  allegories.  His  style  is  pure 
enough,  and  approaches  pretty  near  to  the  Chal- 
dee of  Onkelos.  It  is  thought  that  the  Jewish 
doctors,  who  lived  above  seven  hundred  years 
after  him,  made  some  additions  to  him. 

The  Targum  of  Joseph  the  Blind  is  upon  the 
Hagiographia.  This  author  is  much  more  modern, 
and  less  esteemed,  than  those  we  have  now  men- 
tioned. He  has  written  upon  the  Psalms,  Jol\ 
the  Proverbs,  the  Canticles,  Ecclesiastes,  Ruth, 
and  Esther.  His  style  is  a  very  corrupt  Chaldee, 
with  a  great  mixture  of  words  from  foreign  lan- 
guages. 

The  Targum  of  Jerusalem  is  only  upon  the 
Pentateuch ;  nor  is  that  entire  or  perfect.  There 
are  whole  verses  wanting,  others  transposed, 
others  mutilated ;  which  has  made  many  of  opi- 
nion that  this  is  only  a  fragment  of  some  ancient 
paraphrase  that  is  now  lost.  There  is  no  Targum 
upon  Daniel,  or  upon  the  books  of  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah. 

These  Targums  are  of  great  use  for  the  better 

understanding  not  only  of  the  Old  Testament,  on 

which  they  are  written,  but  also  of  the  New.  As 

to  the  Old   Testament,  they  serve  to  viudicate 

2  M 


TEMPLARS 
the  genuineness  of  the  present  Hebrew  text,  by 
proving  it  to  be  the  same  that  was  in  use  when 

these  Targums  were  made  :  contrary  to  the  opi- 
nion of  those  who  think  the  Jews  corrupted  it 
after  our  Saviours  time.  They  help  to  explain 
many  words  and  phrases  in  the  Hebrew  original, 
and  they  hand  clown  to  us  many  of  the  ancient 
customs  of  the  Jews.  And  some  of  them,  with 
the  phraseologies,  idioms,  and  peculiar  forms  of 
speech,  which  we  find  in  them,  do,  in  many  in- 
stances, help  as  much  for  the  better  illustration 
and  better  understanding  of  the  New  Testament 
as  of  the  Old  ;  the  Jerusalem  Chaldee  dialect,  in 
which  they  are  written,  being  the  vulgar  language 
of  the  Jews  in  our  Saviour's  time.  They  also 
very  much  serve  the  Christian  cause  against  the 
Jews,  by  interpreting  many  of  the  prop-hecies  of 
the  Messiah  in  the  Old  Testament  in  the  same 
manner  as  the  Christians  do.  Many  instances 
arc  produced  to  this  purpose  by  Dr.  Prideaux  in 
his  Connections  of  the  History  of  the  Old  and 
New  Testament.  These  Targums  are  published 
to  the  best  advantage  in  the  second  edition  of  the 
great  Hebrew  Bible  set  forth  at  Basil  by  Buxtorf 
the  father,  anno  1G10. 

TEMPER,  the  disposition  of  the  mind,  whe- 
ther natural  or  acquired.  The  word  is  seldom 
used  by  good  writers  without  an  epithet,  as  a 
good  or  bad  temper.  Temper  must  be  distin- 
guished (roni  passion.  The  passions  are  quick 
and  strong  emotions  which  by  degrees  subside. 
Temper  is  the  disposition  which  remains  after 
these  emotions  are  past,  and  which  forms  the 
habitual  propensity  of  the  soul.  See  Dr.  Evans's 
Practical  Discourses  on  the  Christian  Temper  ; 
and  the  various  articles  Love,  Patience,  Hu- 
mility, Fortitude,  &c.  in  this  work. 

TEMPERANCE,  that  virtue  which  a  man 
is  said  to  possess  who  moderates  and  restrains  his 
sensual  appetites.  It  is  often,  however,  used  in  a 
much  more  general  sense,  as  synonymous  with 
moderation,  and  is  then  applied  indiscriminately 
to  all  the  passions. 

"  Temperance,"  says  Addison,  "  has  those  par- 
ticular advantages  above  all  other  means  of  health, 
that  it  may  be  practised  by  all  ranks  and  condi- 
tions at  any  season  or  in  any  place.  It  is  a  kind 
of  regimen  into  which  every  man  may  put  him- 
self without  interruption  to  business,  expense  of 
money,  or  loss  of  time.  Physic,  for  the  most  part, 
is  nothing  else  but  the  substitute  of  exercise  or 
temperance."  In  order  to  obtain  and  practise  this 
virtue,  we  should  consider  it,  1.  As  a  divine  com- 
mand, Phil.  iv.  5;  Luke  xxi.  34;  Prov.  xxiii.  1 — 3. 
— 2.  As  conducive  to  health. — 3.  As  advan- 
tageous to  the  powers  of  the  mind. — 4.  As  a  de- 
fence against  injustice,  lust,  imprudence,  detrac- 
tion, poverty,  &e. — And,  lastly,  the  example  of 
Christ  should  be  a  most  powerful  stimulus  to  it. 
See  Intemperance,  Sobriety. 

TEMPLARS,  Templers,  or  Knights  of 
the  Temple,  a  religious  order  instituted  at  Jeru- 
salem, in  the  beginning  of  the  13th  century,  for 
the  defence  of  the  holy  sepulchre,  acd  the  pro- 
tection of  Christian  pilgrims.  They  were  first 
called  The  Poor  of  the  Holy  City,  and  afterwards 
assumed  the  appellation  of  Templars,  because 
their  house  was  near  the  temple.  The  order  was 
founded  by  Baldwin  II,  then  king  of  Jerusalem, 
with  the  concurrence  of  the  pope :  and  the  prin- 
cipal articles  of  ttvir  rule  were,  that  they  should 
hear  the  holy  office  throughout  every  day ;  or  that, 
434 


TEMPTATION 

when  their  military  duties  should  prevent  this, 
they  should  supply  it  by  a  certain  number  of  pa- 
ternosters; that  they  should  abstain  from  flesh 
lour  days  in  the  week,  and  on  Fridays  from  eggs 
and  milk  meats;  that  each  knight  might  have 
three  horses  and  one  squire,  and  that  they  should 
neither  hunt  nor  fowl.  After  the  ruin  of  Jerusa 
lem,  about  1186,  they  spread  themselves  through 
Germany  and  other  countries  of  Europe,  to  which 
they  were  invited  by  the  liberality  of  the  Chris 
tians.  In  the  year  1338  this  order  acquired  sta- 
bility by  being  confirmed  in  the  council  of  Troves, 
and  subjected  to  a  rule  of  discipline  drawn  up  by 
St.  Bernard.  In  every  nation  they  had  a  particu- 
lar governor,  called  Master  of  the  Temple,  or  of 
the  militia  of  the  temple.  Their  grand  master 
had  his  residence  at  Paris.  The  order  of  Tem- 
plars flourished  for  some  time,  and  acquired,  by 
the  valour  of  its  knights,  immense  riches,  and  an 
eminent  degree  of  military  renown;  but,  as  their 
prosperity  increased,  their  vices  were  multiplied, 
and  their  arrogance,  luxury,  and  cruelty,  rose  at 
last  to  such  a  great  height,  that  their  privileges 
were  revoked,  and  their  order  suppressed  with 
the  most  terrible  circumstances  of  infamy  and 
severity. 

TEMPLE,  a  public  building  erected  for  the 
purpose  of  religious  worship. 

TEMPORAL,  a  term  often  used  for  secular, 
as  a  distinction  from  spiritual  or  ecclesiastical ; 
likewise  for  any  thing  belonging  to  time  in  con- 
trast with  eternity. 

TEMPORALITIES  OF  BISHOPS  are 
the  revenues,  lands,  tenements,  and  lay  fees,  be- 
longing to  bishops,  as  they  are  barons  and  lords 
of  parliament.. 

TEMPTATION,  the  enticement  of  a  person 
to  commit  sin  by  offering  some  seeming  advan- 
tage. There  are  four  things,  says  one,  m  temp- 
tation :  1.  Deception. — 3.  Infection. — 3.  Seduc- 
tion.— 4.  Perdition.  The  sources  of  temptation 
are  Satan,  the  world,  and  the  flesh.  We  are  ex- 
posed to  them  in  every  state,  in  every  place,  and 
in  every  time  of  life.  They  may  be  wisely  per- 
mitted to  show  us  our  weakness,  to  try  our  faith, 
to  promote  our  humility,  and  to  learn  us  to  place 
our  dependence  on  a  superior  Power:  yet  we 
must  not  run  into  them,  but  watch  and  pray ; 
avoid  sinful  company  ;  consider  the  love,  suffer- 
ings, and  constancy  of  Christ,  and  the  awful 
consequences  of  falling  a  victim  to  them.  The 
following  rules  have  been  laid  down,  by  which  we 
may  in  some  measure  know  when  a  temptation 
comes  from  Satan. — 1.  When  the  temptation  is 
unnatural,  or  contrary  to  the  general  bias  or  tem- 
per of  our  minds. — 3.  When  it  is  opposite  to  the 
present  frame  of  the  mind. — 3.  When  the  temp- 
tation itself  is  irrational ;  being  contrary  to  wnat- 
ever  we  could  imagine  our  own  minds  would 
suggest  to  us. — 1.  When  a  temptation  is  detested 
in  its  first  rising  and  appearance. — 5.  Lastly, 
when  it  is  violent.  See  Satan.  Brooks,  Owen, 
Gilpin,  Capel,  and  Gillespie  on  Temptation  ; 
South's  Seven  Ser?nons  on  Temptation,  in  the 
6th  vol.  of  his  Sermons ;  Pike  and  Hayward'a 
Cases  of  Conscience  ;  and  Bishop  Portcus's  Ser- 
mons, ser.  3  and  4,  vol.  i. 

TEMPTATION  OF  CHRIST.  The  temp- 
tation of  Cnnst,  of  which  we  read  in  the  4th 
chap,  of  Matthew,  has  been  much  the  subject  of 
infidel  ridicule,  and  some  ingenious  writers,  to 
avoid  the  difficulties  of  a  literal  interpretation, 


TESTAMENT 

have  reduced  the  whole  to  vision  and  allegory. 
But  perhaps  this  has  increased  rather  than  re- 
moved those  difficulties.  Is  it  not  best  always  to 
adhere  as  close  as  possible  to  the  language  of  in- 
spiration, without  glossing  it  with  fancies  of  our 
own']  And  after  all,  what  is  there  so  inconsist- 
ent with  reason  in  this  account?  That,  when 
our  Lord  retired  to  the  interior  part  of  the.  wil- 
derness, the  enemy  of  mankind  should  assume 
a  disguise  (whether  human  or  angelic  is  not  im- 
portant,) and  present  the  most  plausible  temp- 
tation to  our  Redeemer,  under  these  trying  cir- 
cumstances, is  perfectly  consistent  with  the 
malevolence  of  his  character;  but  how  far  he 
was  permitted  to  exert  his  power  in  forming 
them,  is  not  necessary  to  be  inquired.  The  grand 
objection  is,  why  was  Satan  suffered  thus  to  in- 
sult the  Son  of  God  ?  "Wherefore  did  the  Re- 
deemer suffer  his  state  of  retirement  to  be  thus 
disturbed  with  the  malicious  suggestions  of  the 
fiend?  May  it  not  be  answered  that  herein, 
1.  He  gave  an  instance  of  his  own  condescension 
and  humiliation. — 2.  He  hereby  proved  his  power 
over  the  tempter. — 3.  He  set  an  example  of  firm- 
ness and  virtue  to  his  followers. — And,  4.  He 
here  affords  consolation  to  his  suffering  people, 
by  showing  not  only  that  he  himself  was  tempted, 
but  is  able  to  succour  those  who  are  tempted, 
Heb.#i.  13;  iv.  15.  Farmer  on  Christ's  Temp- 
tations; Edwards's  History  of  Redemption,  note 
334 ;  Henry,  Gill,  and  Macknigkt,  in  loc. 

TERAPHIM,  a  word  in  the  Hebrew  lan- 
guage which  has  much  exercised  the  ingenuity 
of  the  critics.  It  is  commonly  interpreted  idols. 
It  would  be  useless  here  to  trouble  the  reader 
with  the  numerous  conjectures  which  have  been 
formed  respecting  its  meaning.  Perhaps  the  best 
way  to  determine  it  would  be  to  examine  and 
compare  all  the  passages  in  which  it  occurs,  and 
to  consult  the  ancient  translations. 

TESTAMENT,  OLD.   See  Bible,  Scrip- 

TESTAMENT,  NEW.  The  religious  in- 
stitution of  Jesus  Christ,  says  Mr.  Campbell,  is 
frequently  denominated  >|  x«ir>i  JibSmkh,  which  is 
almost  always  rendered  the  New  Testament;  yet 
the  word  SiaSnx*,  by  itself,  is  generally  translated 
covenant.  It  is  the  Greek  word,  whereby  the 
Seventy  have  uniformly  translated  the  Hebrew 
word  Bcrith,  which  our  translators  have  invari- 
ably translated  covenant.  That  the  Hebrew 
term  corresponds  much  better  to  the  English 
word  covenant  than  to  testament,  there  can  be  no 
question;  yet  the  word  £iaSnx>,  in  classical  use  is 
more  frequently  rendered  Testament*  The  pro- 
per Greek  word  for  covenant  is  o-ui-fl^x^,  which  is 
not  found  in  the  New  Testament,  and  occurs 
only  thrice  in  the  Septuagint,  where  it  is  never 
employed  for  rendering  the  word  Berith. 

The  term  New  is  added,  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  Old  Covenant,  that  is,  the  dispensation 
of  Moses.  The  two  covenants  are  always  in 
Scripture  the  two  dispensations :  that  under 
Moses  is  the  old,  that  under  the  Messiah  is 
the  new.  In  the  latitude  wherein  the  term 
is  used  in  holy  writ,  the  command  under  the 
sanction  of  death,  which  God  gave  to  Adam,  may, 
with  sufficient  propriety,  be  termed  a  Covenant ; 
but  it  is  never  so  called  in  Scripture;  and  when 
mention  is  made  of  the  two  covenants,' the  old 
and  the  new,  or  the  first  and  the  second,  there 
appears  to  be  no  reference  to  any  tlung  that  ire- 
433 


THANKSGIVING 

lated  to  Adam.  In  all  such  places,  Moses  and 
Jesus  are  contrasted, — the  Jewish  economy  and 
the  Christian:  mount  Sinai,  in  Arabia,  where 
the  law  was  promulgated ;  and  mount  Sion  in 
Jerusalem,  where  the  Gospel  was  first  published. 
These  terms,  from  signifying  the  two  dispensa- 
tions, came  soon  to  denote  the  books  wherein 
they  were  written,  the  sacred  writings  of  the 
Jews  being  called  the  Old  Testament ;  and  the 
writings  superadded  by  the  apostles  and  evange- 
lists, the  New  Testament.  An  example  of  the 
use  of  the  former  application  we  have  in  2  Cor. 
iii.  14.  "  Until  this  day  remaineth  the  veil  untaken 
away  in  the  reading  of  the  Old  Testament." 
See  Dr.  Campbell's  Pract.  Dissert,  part  3. 

TEST  ACT,  is  the  statute  25  Car.  II.  cap. 
2,  which  directs  all  officers,  civil  and  military,  to 
take  the  oaths,  and  make  the  declaration  against 
transubstantiation,  in  the  Court  of  King's  Bench 
or  Chancery,  the  next  term,  or  at  the  next  quar- 
ter-sessions, or  (by  subsequent  statutes)  within 
six  months  after  their  admission  ;  and  also  within  % 
the  same  time  to  receive  the  sacrament  of  the 
Lord's  Supper,  according  to  the  usage  of  the 
church  of  England,  in  some  public  church,  imme- 
diately after  divine  service  or  sermon,  and  to  de- 
liver into  court  a  certificate  thereof,  signed  by  the 
minister  and  churchwarden :  and  also  to  prove 
the  same  by  two  credible  witnesses,  upon  forfei- 
ture of  five  hundred  pounds,  and  disability  to  hold 
the  said  office.  The  avowed  object  of  this  act 
was,  to  exclude  from  places  of  trust  all  members 
of  the  church  of  Rome ;  and  hence  the  Dissen- 
ters of  that  age,  if  they  did  not  support  the  bill 
when  passing  through  the  two  houses  of  parlia- 
ment, gave  it  no  opposition.  For  this  part  of 
their  conduct  they  have  been  often  censured  with 
severity,  as  having  betrayed  their  rights  from  re 
sentment  to  their  enemies. 

To  make  the  ordinance  of  the  Lord's  Supper 
a  qualification  of  admittance  to  any  office  in  or 
under  the  civil  government,  is  evidently  a  profa- 
nation of  the  ordinance  itself;  not  to  insist  upon 
the  impropriety  of  excluding  peaceable  and  loyal 
subjects  from  places  of  trust  and  profit,  merely  on 
account  of  their  religious  opinions.  Various 
tracts  have  been  written  on  the  subject  of  a  re- 
peal of  this  act  by  Priestley,  Englelieid,  Walker, 
Wakefield,  Bristow,  Palmer,  and  others.  On 
the  contrary  side,  by  a  great  number  of  anonymous 
writers. 

THANKFULNESS.  See  Gratitude,  and 
the  next  article. 

THANKSGIVING,  that  part  of  divine  wor- 
ship wherein  we  acknowledge  benefits  received. 
"  It  implies,"  says  Dr.  Barrow  (vol.  i.  ser.  8  and 
!>,)  "  1.  A  right  apprehension  of  the  benefits 
conferred. — 2.  A  faithful  retention  of  benefits  in 
the  memory,  and  frequent  reflections  upon  them. 
3.  A  due  esteem  and  valuation  of  benefits. — 4.  A 
reception  of  those  benefits  with  a  willing  mind,  a 
vehement  affection. — 5.  Due  acknowledgment  of 
our  obligations. — (>.  Endeavours  of  real  compen- 
sation ;  or,  as  it  respects  the  Divine  Being,  a 
willingness  to  serve  and  exalt  him. — 7.  Esteem, 
veneration,  and  love  of  the  benefactor."  The 
blessings  for  which  we  should  be  thankful  are, 
1.  Temporal;  such  as  health,  food,  raiment,  rest, 
&c. — 2.  Spiritual;  such  as  the  Bible,  ordinances, 
the  Gospel  and  its  blessings ;  as  free  grace,  adop- 
tion, pardon,  justification,  calling,  &c. — 3.  JSier. 
>iul}  or  the  enjoyment  of  God  in  a  future  state.- 


THEOLOGY 

Also  for  all  that  is  past,  which  we  now  enjoy, 
anil  what  is  promised  ,  for  private  and  public,  for 
ordinary  and  extraordinary  blessings;  for  pros- 
perity, and  even  adversity,  so  far  as  rendered  sub- 
servient to  our  good.  The  excellency  of  this  duty 
appears,  if  we  consider,  1.  Its  antiquity;  it.  ex- 
isted in  Paradise  before  Adam  fell,  and  therefore 
prior  to  the  graces  of  faith,  repentance,  &c. — 

2.  Its  sphere  of  operation  ;  being  far  beyond  many 
other  graces  which  are  confined  to  time  and 
place. — 3.  Its  felicity;  some  duties  are  painful: 
as  repentance,  conflict  with  sin,  &c. ;  but  this  is 
a  source  of  sublime  pleasure. — 4.  Its  reasonable- 
ness.— And,  5.  Its  perpetuity.  This  will  be  in 
exercise  for  ever,  when  other  graces  will  not  be 
necessary,  as  faith,  repentance,  &c.  The  obli- 
gation to  this  duty  arises,  I.  From  the  relation 
we  stand  in  to  God. — 2.  The  divine  command. — 

3.  The  promises  God  hath  made. — 4.  The  ex- 
ample of  all  good  men. — 5.  Our  unworthiness  of 
the  blessings  we  receive. — And,  6.  The  prospect 
of  eternal  glory. 

THEFT,  the  taking  away  the  property  of  an- 
other without  his  knowledge  or  consent.  This 
is  not  only  a  sin  against  our  neighbour,  but  a 
direct  violation  of  that  part  of  tne  decalogue 
which  says,  "Thou  shalt  not  steal."  This  law 
requires  justice,  truth,  and  faithfulness  in  all  our 
dealings  with  men ;  to  owe  no  man  any  thing, 
but  to  give  to  all  their  dues ;  to  be  true  to  all  en- 
gagements, promises,  and  contracts;  and  to  be 
faithful  in  whatever  is  committed  to  our  care  and 
trust.  It  forbids  all  unjust  ways  of  increasing 
our  own  and  hurting  our  neighbour's  substance 
by  using  false  balances  and  measures ;  by  over- 
reaching and  circumventing  in  trade  and  com- 
merce ;  by  taking  away  by  force  or  fraud  the 
goods,  persons,  or  properties  of  men ;  by  borrow- 
ing and  not  paying  again;  by  oppression,  extor- 
tion, and  unlawful  usury,  it  may  include  in  it 
also,  what  is  very  seldom  called  by  this  name,  i.  e. 
the  robbing  of  ourselves  and  families,  by  neglect- 
ing our  callings,  or  imprudent  management 
thereof;  lending  iarger  sums  of  money  than  our 
circumstances  will  bear,  when  there  is  no  pros- 
pect of  payment;  by  being  profuse  and  excessive 
in  our  expenses;  indulging  unlawful  pleasures, 
and  thereby  reducing  our  families  to  poverty;  or 
even,  on  the  other  hand,  by  laying  up  a  great 
ileal  for  the  time  to'  come,  while  our  families  are 
left  to  starve,  or  reduced  to  the  greatest  inconve- 
nience and  distress. 

THEODOSIANS.  _  See  Angei.ites. 

THEOLOGY,  signifies  that  science  which 
treats  of  the  being  and  attributes  of  God,  his  rela- 
tions to  us,  the  dispensations  of  his  providence,  his 
will  with  respect  10  our  actions,  and  his  purposes 
with  respect  to  our  end.  The  word  was  first  used 
to  denote  the  systems,  or  rather  the  heterogeneous 
fables  of  those  poets  and  philosophers  who  wrote 
of  the  genealogy  and  exploits  of  the  gods  of 
Greece.  Hence  Orpheus,  Musauis,  Hesiod,  &c. 
were  called  theologians  ;  and  the  same  epithet  was 
given  to  Plato,  on  account  of  his  sublime  specu- 
lations on  the  Baffle  subject.  It  was  afterwards 
adopted  by  the  earliest  writers  of  the  Christian 
church,  who  styled  the  author  of  the  Apocalypse, 
by  way  of  eminence,  0  SttKayag,  'lie  divine.  As 
he  various  branches  of  theology  are  considered  in 
their  places  in  this  work,  they  need  not  be  insist- 
ed on  here.  The  theological  student  will  find 
•  he  following  books  on  the  sunject  of  utility ; 
43G 


THEOPHILANTHROPTSTS 

Grotius  de  Vevitate  Religionis  Christiana , 
StiltingfteeVs  Origines  Sacra;  Turretxne's  In- 
stitutio  Theologies Elencti-ce;  Butler's  Analogy; 
Picteti  Thcologia  Christiana;  Stapferi  lnstitu- 
tiones  Theologies ;  Witsius  on  the  Covenants; 
Usher,  Boston,  Watson,  Gill,  and  Rixlgley's  Di- 
vinity; Doddridge's  Lectures;  Broun 's  Com- 
pendium of  Natural  and  Revealed  Religion; 
and  Ryan's  Effects  of  Religion  on  Mankind. 
See  also  articles  Christianity,  Religion,  Re- 
velation, Scriptures. 

THEOPASCH1TES,  a  denomination  in  the 
fifth  century,  who  held  that  Christ  had  but  one 
nature,  which  was  the  divine,  and  consequently 
that  this  divine  nature  suffered. 

THEOPHILANTHROPISTS,  a  sect  of 
deists,  who,  in  September  17%,  published  at 
Paris  a  sort  of  catechism  or  directory  for  social 
worship,  under  the  title  of  Manuel  des  Thean- 
throphU.es.  This  religious  breviary  found  favour; 
the  congregation  became  numerous;  and  in  the 
second  edition  of  their  Manuel  they  assumed  the 
less  harsh  denomination  of  Thcophilanthropists, 
i.  e.  lovers  of  God  and  man. — According  to  them, 
the  temple  the  most  worthy  of  the  Divinity  is  the 
universe.  Abandoned  sometimes  under  the  vault 
of  heaven  to  the  contemplation  of  the  beauties  of 
nature,  they  render  its  Author  the  homage  of 
adoration  and  of  gratitude.  They  neveithelcss 
have  temples  erected  by  the  hands  of  men,  in 
which  it  is  more  commodious  for  them  to  assem- 
ble, to  hear  lessons  concerning  his  wisdom.  Cer- 
tain moral  inscriptions;  a  simple  altar,  on  which 
they  deposit  a  sign  of  gratitude  for  the  benefits  of 
the  Creator,  such  flowers  or  fruits  as  the  seasons 
afford  ;  a  tribune  for  the  lectures  anil  discourses, 
form  the  whole  of  the  ornaments  of  their  temples. 

The  first  inscription,  placed  above  the  altar, 
recals  to  remembrance  the  two  religious  dogmas 
which  are  the  foundation  of  their  moral. 

First  inscription. — We  believe  in  the  exist- 
ence of  God,  in  the  immortality  of  the  soul. — 
Second  inscription.  Worship  God,  cherish  your 
kind,  render  yourselves  useful  to  your  country. — 
Third  inscription.  Good  is  every  thing  which 
tends  to  the  preservation  or  the  perfection  of  man. 
Evil  is  every  thing  which  tends  to  destroy  or  de- 
teriorate him. — fourth  inscription.  Children, 
honour  your  fathers  and  mothers;  obey  them 
with  affection,  comfort  their  old  age.  Fathers  and 
mothers,  instruct  your  children. — Fifth  inscrip- 
tion. Wives,  regard  your  husbands,  the  chiefs^if 
your  houses.  Husbands,  love  your  wives,  and 
render  yourselves  reciprocally  happy. 

From  the  concluding  part  of  the  Slanucl  of  the 
Thcophilanthropists,  we  may  learn  something 
more  of  their  sentiments.  "  If  any  one  ask  you,' 
say  they,  "  what  is  the  origin  of  your  religion  and 
of  your  worship,  you  can  answer  him  thus  :  Open 
the  most  ancient  books  which  are  known,  seek 
there  what  was  the  religion,  what  the  worship  of 
the  first  human  beings  of  which  history  has  pre- 
served the  remembrance.  There  you  will  see  that 
their  religion  was  what  we  now  call  natural  re- 
ligion, because  it  has  for  its  principle  even  the 
Author  of  nature.  It  is  he  that  has  engraven  it 
in  the  heart  of  the  first  human  beings,  in  ours,  in 
that  of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth;  this  reli- 
gion, which  consists  in  worshipping  God  and 
cherishing  our  kind,  is  what  we  express  by  one 
single  word,  that  of  Theophilanthropy.  Thus 
our  religion  is  that  of  our  first  parents ;  it  is  yours ; 


THERAPEUTiE 
It  is  ours ;  it  is  the  universal  religion.  As  to  our 
worship,  it  is  also  that  of  our  first  fathers.  See 
even  in  the  most  ancient  writings,  that  the  exterior 
signs  by  which  they  rendered  their  homage  to  the 
Creator  were  of  great  simplicity.  They  dressed 
for  him  an  altar  of  earth ;  they  offered  him,  in 
sign  of  their  gratitude  and  of  their  submission, 
some  of  the  productions  which  they  held  of  his 
liberal  hand.  The  fathers  exhorted  their  children 
to  virtue ;  they  all  encouraged  one  another,  under 
the  auspices  of  the  Divinity,  to  the  accomplish- 
ment of  their  duties.  This  simple  worship  the 
sages  of  all  nations  have  not  ceased  to  profess, 
and  they  have  transmitted  it  down  to  us  without 
interruption. 

"  If  they  yet  ask  you  of  whom  you  hold  your 
mission,  answer,  we  hold  it  of  God  himself,  who, 
in  giving  us  two  arms  to  aid  our  kind,  has  also 
given  us  intelligence  to  mutually  enlighten  us, 
and  the  love  of  good  to  bring  us  together  to  virtue ; 
of  God,  who  has  given  experience  and  wisdom  to 
the  aged  to  guide  the  young,  and  authority  to 
fathers  to  conduct  their  children. 

"  If  they  are  not  struck  with  the  force  of  those 
reasons,  do  not  farther  discuss  the  subject,  and  do 
not  engage  yourself  in  controversies,  which  tend 
to  diminish  the  love  of  our  neighbours.  Our  prin- 
ciples are  the  Eternal  Truth ;  they  will  subsist, 
whatever  individuals  may  support  or  attack  them, 
and  the  efforts  of  the  wicked  will  not  even  prevail 
against  them.  Rest  firmly  attached  to  them,  with- 
out attacking  or  defending  any  religious  system; 
and  remember,  that  similar  discussions  have  never 
produced  good,  and  that  they  have  often  tinged 
the  earth  with  the  blood  of  men.  Let  us  lay  aside 
systems,  and  apply  ourselves  to  doing  good ;  it  is 
the  only  road  to  happiness."  So  much  for  the 
divinity  of  the  Theophilanthropists ;  a  system  en- 
tirely defective,  because  it  wants  the  true  founda- 
tion,— the  word  of  God ;  the  grand  rule  of  all  our 
actions,  and  the  only  basis  on  which  our  hopes 
and  prospects  of  success  can  he  built. 

THEOSOPHISTS,  a  sect  who  pretend  to 
derive  all  their  knowledge  from  divine  illumina- 
tion. They  boast  that  by  means  of  this  celestial 
light,  they  are  not  only  admitted  to  the  intimate 
knowledge  of  God,  and  of  all  divine  truth,  but 
have  access  to  the  most  sublime  secrets  of  nature. 
They  ascribe  it  to  the  singular  manifestation  of 
divine  benevolence,  that  they  are  able  to  make 
such  a  use  of  the  element  of  fire  in  the  chemical 
art,  as  enables  them  to  discover  the  essential  prin- 
ciples of  bodies,  and  to  disclose  stupendous  myste- 
ries in  the  physical  world.  To  this  class,  it  is  said, 
belonged  Paracelsus,  R.  Fludd,  Van  Helmont, 
Peter  Poirct,  and  the  Rosicrusians. 

THERAPEUTiE,  so  called  from  the  extra- 
ordinary purity  of  their  religious  worship,  were  a 
Jewish  sect,  who,  with  a  kind  of  religious  frenzy, 
placed  their  whole  felicity  in  the  contemplation  of 
the  divine  nature.  Detaching  themselves  wholly 
from  secular  affairs,  they  transferred  their  pro- 
perty to  their  relations  or  friends,  and  withdrew 
into  solitary  places,  where  they  devoted  them- 
selves to  a  holy  life.  The  principal  society  of  this 
kind  was  formed  near  Alexandria,  where  they 
lived,  not  far  from  each  other,  in  separate  cot- 
tages, each  of  which  had  its  own  sacred  apart- 
ment; to  which  the  inhabitant  retired  for  the 
purposes  of  devotion.  After  their  morning  prayers, 
they  spent  the  day  in  studying  the  law  and  the 
prophets,  endeavouring,  by  the  help  of  the  com- 
4o7 


THOUGHT 

mentaries  of  their  ancestors,  to  discover  soma 
allegorical  meaning  in  every  part.  Besides  this, 
they  entertained  themselves  with  composing  sa- 
cred hymns  in  various  kinds  of  metre.  Six  day* 
of  the  week  were,  in  this  manner,  passed  in  soli- 
tude. On  the  seventh  day  they  met,  clothed  in  a 
decent  habit,  in  a  public  assembly,  where,  taking 
their  places  according  to  their  age,  they  sat  witn 
the  right  hand  between  the  breast  and  the  chin, 
and  the  left  at  the  side.  Then  some  one  of  the 
elders,  stepping  forth  into  the  middle  of  the  as- 
sembly, discoursed  with  a  grave  countenance  and 
a  calm  tone  of  voice,  on  the  doctrines  of  the  sect; 
the  audience,  in  the  mean  time,  remaining  in 
perfect  silence,  and  occasionally  expressing  their 
attention  and  approbation  by  a  nod.  The  chapel 
where  they  met  was  divided  into  two  apartments, 
one  for  the  men,  and  the  other  for  the  women. 
So  strict  a  regard  was  paid  to  silence  in  these 
assemblies,  that  no  one  was  permitted  to  whisper, 
nor  even  to  breathe  aloud ;  but  when  the  discourse 
was  finished,  if  the  question  which  had  been  pro- 
posed for  solution  had  been  treated  to  the  satis- 
faction of  the  audience,  they  expressed  their 
approbation  by  a  murmur  of  applause.  Then  the 
speaker,  rising,  sung  a  hymn  of  praise  to  God ;  in 
the  last  verse  of  which  the  whole  assembly  joined. 
On  great  festivals,  the  meeting  was  closed  with 
a  vigil,  in  which  sacred  music  was  performed, 
accompanied  with  solemn  dancing;  and  these 
vigils  were  continued  till  morning,  when  the  as- 
sembly, after  a  morning  prayer,  in  which  their 
faces  were  directed  towards  the  rising  sun,  was 
broken  up.  So  abstemious  were  these  ascetics 
that  they  commonly  ate  nothing  before  the  setting 
sun,  and  often  fasted  two  or  three  days.  They 
abstained  from  wine,  and  (.heir  ordinary  food  was 
bread  and  herbs. 

Much  dispute  has  arisen  among  the  learned 
concerning  this  sect.  Some  have  imagined  them 
to  have  been  Judaizing  Gentiles  ;  but  Philo  sup- 
poses them  to  be  Jews,  by  speaking  of  them  as  a 
branch  of  the  sect  of  Essenes,  and  expressly 
classes  them  among  the  followers  of  Moses. 
Others  have  maintained,  that  the  Therapeuts? 
were  an  Alexandrian  sect  of  Jewish  converts  to 
the  Christian  faith,  who  devoted  themselves  to  a 
monastic  life.  But  this  is  impossible;  for  Philo, 
who  wrote  before  Christianity  appeared  in  Egypt, 
speaks  of  this  as  an  established  sect.  From  com- 
paring Philo's  account  of  this  sect  with  the  state 
of  philosophy  in  the  country  where  it  flourished, 
it  seems  likely  that  the  Therapeutaj  were  a  body 
of  Jewish  fanatics,  who  suflered  themselves  to 
be  drawn  aside  from  the  simplicity  of  their  an- 
cient religion  by  the  example  of  the  Egyptians 
and  Pythagoreans.  How  long  this  sect  con- 
tinued is  uncertain;  but  it  is  not  improbable  that, 
after  the  appearance  of  Christianity  in  Egypt,  it 
soon  became  extinct. 

THOUGHT,  an  image  of  any  thing  formed 
in  the  mind ;  sentiment,  reflection,  opinion,  de- 
sign. As  the  thoughts  are  the  prime  movers  of 
the  conduct ;  as  in  the  sight  of  the  Divine  Being 
they  bear  the  character  of  good  or  evil ;  and  as 
they  are  therefore  cognizable  at  his  tribunal ;  the 
moral  regulation  of  them  is  of  the  greatest  impor- 
tance. It  is  of  consequence  to  inquire  what 
thoughts  ought  to  he  rejected,  and  what  to  be  in- 
dulged. Those  of  an  evil  nature,  which  ought 
to  be  banished,  are,  1.  Fretful  and  discontented 
thoughts. — 2.  Anxious  and  apprehensive  thoughts. 
'2w  2 


TOLERATION 

— 3.  Angry  and  wrathful  thoughts. — 4.  Malig- 
nant and  revengeful  thoughts. — 5.  Such  as  are 
foolish,  trifling,  and  unreasonable. — 6.  Wild  and 
extravagant,  vain  and  fantastical. — 7.  Romantic 
and  chimerical. — 8.  Impure  and  lascivious. — 
9.  Gloomy  and  melancholy. — 10.  Hasty  and  vola- 
tile.— 11.  Profane  and  blasphemous.  The  thoughts 
tec  ought  to  indulge,  are  those  which  give  the 
mind  a  rational  or  religious  pleasure ;  tend  to  im- 
prove the  understanding:  raise  the  affections  to 
divine  objects ;  to  promote  the  welfare  of  our 
fellow-creatures,  and  withal  the  divine  glory.  To 
bring  the  mind  into  a  habit  of  thinking  as  we 
ought  to  think,  there  should  be  a  constant  de- 
pendence on  and  imploring  of  divine  grace ;  an 
increasing  acquaintance  with  the  sacred  Scrip- 
tures ;  an  improvement  of  every  opportunity  of 
serious  conversation ;  a  constant  observance  of 
the  works  of  God  in  creation,  providence,  and 
grace;  and,  lastly,  a  deep  sense  of  the  realities  of 
an  eternal  world  as  revealed  in  the  word  of  God. 
Mason  on  Self-knowledge  ;  Watts  on  the  Mind  ; 
Goodwin's  Vanity  of  Thoughts.  See  his  Works, 
vol.  iii.  p.  232. 

TIARA,  the  name  of  the  pope's  triple  crown. 
The  tiara  and  keys  are  the  badges  of  the  papal 
dignity,  the  tiara  of  his  civil  rank,  and  the  keys 
of  his  jurisdiction ;  for  as  soon  as  the  pope  is 
dead,  his  arms  are  represented  with  the  tiara 
alone,  without  the  keys.  The  ancient  tiara  was 
a  round  high  cap.  John  XIII.  first  encompassed 
it  with  a  crown.  Boniface  VIII.  added  a  second 
crown  ;  and  Benedict  XII.  a  third. 

TIME,  mode  of  duration  marked  by  certain 
periods,  chiefly  by  the  motion  and  revolution  of 
the  sun.  The  general  idea  which  time  gives  in 
every  thing  to  which  it  is  applied,  is  that  of  limit- 
ed duration.  Thus  we  cannot  say  of  the  Deity 
that  he  exists  in  time,  because  eternity,  which  he 
inhabits,  is  absolutely  uniform,  neither  admitting 
limitation  nor  succession. 

Time  is  said  to  be  redeemed  or  improved  when 
it  is  properly  filled  up,  or  employed  in  the  con- 
scientious discharge  of  all  the  duties  which  de- 
volve upon  us,  as  it  respects  the  Divine  Being, 
ourselves,  and  our  fellow-creatures.  Time  may 
be  said  to  be  lost  when  it  is  not  devoted  to  some 
good,  useful,  or  at  least  some  innocent  purpose ; 
or  when  opportunities  of  improvement,  business, 
or  devotion,  arc  neglected.  Time  is  wasted  by 
excessive  sleep,  unnecessary  recreations,  indolent 
habits,  useless  visits,  idle  reading,  vain  conversa- 
tion, and  all  those  actions  which  have  no  good 
end  in  them.  We  ought  to  improve  the  time, 
When  we  consider,  1.  That  it  is  short. — 2.  Swift. 
— 3.  Irrecoverable. — i.  Uncertain. — 5.  That  it  is 
a  talent  committed  to  our  trust. — And,  G.  That 
the  improvement  of  it  is  advantageous  and  inter- 
esting in  every  respect.  See  Shower  on  Time 
and  Eternity ;  Fox  on  Time ;  J.  Edwards's 
Posthumous  Sermons,  ser.  24,  25,  26;  Hale's 
Contemplations,  p.  211  ;  Hcrrcy's  Meditations  ; 
Young's  Might  Thoughts;  Blair's  Grave. 

TOLERATION,  in  matters  of  religion,  is 
either  civil  or  ecclesiastical.  Civil  toleration  is  an 
impunity,  and  safely  granted  by  the  state  to  every 
sect  that  does  not  maintain  doctrines  inconsistent 
with  the  public  peace.  Ecclesiastical  toleration  is  the 
allowance  which  the  church  grants  to  its  members 
to  differ  in  certain  opinions  not  reputed  essential. 
Sec  Dr.  Owen,  Locke,  and  Dr.  Furneaux,  on 
Toleration  ;  Milton's  Civil  Power  in  Ecclesias- 
438 


TOLERATION 

Heal  Cause :  Hints  on  Toleration,  by  Phila* 
gatharch.es:  Refections  Philosophiqv.es  et  Po- 
litiipirs  sur  la  Tolerance  Religieusc,  par  J.  P. 
De  N***. 

TOLERATION  ACT,  an  act  for  exempt- 
ing their  Majesties'  Protestant  subjects,  dissenting 
from  the  Church  of  England,  from  the  Penalties 
of  certain  Laws. 

The  preamble  states,  "  That  forasmuch  as 
some  ease  to  scrupulous  consciences,  in  the  exer- 
cise of  religion,  may  be  an  effectual  means  to 
unite  their  Majesties'  Protestant  Subjects  in  in- 
tsrest  and  affection,"  it  enacts  as  follows  :  viz. 

Sect.  II.  That  neither  the  statute  made  in  the 
23d  of  Elizabeth,  intituled  "  An  Act  to  retain  the 
Queen's  Majesty's  Subjects  in  their  due  obe- 
dience ;"  nor  the  statute  made  in  the  20th  year 
of  the  said  CLueen,  "  for  the  more  speedy  and  due 
execution  of  certain  branches  of  the  former  act;" 
nor  that  clause  of  a  statute  made  in  the  first  year 
of  the  said  CLueen,  intituled  "An  Act  for  the  Uni- 
formity of  Common  Prayer,"  &c;  whereby  all 
persons  are  required  to  resort  to  their  parish 
church  or  chapel,  upon  pain  of  punishment  by , 
the  censures  of  the  church;  and  also  upon  pain 
that  every  person  so  offending,  shall  forfeit  for 
every  such  offence  twelve  pence ;  nor  the  statute 
made  in  the  3d  year  of  the  late  King  James,  inti 
tuled  "  An  act  for  the  better  discovering  and 
repressing  Popish  Recusants ;"  nor  that  other 
statute,  intituled  "  An  act  to  prevent  and  avoid 
dangers  which  may  grow  by  Popish  Recusants ;" 
nor  any  other  law  or  statute  of  this  realm  made 
against  Papists  or  Popish  Recusants,  shall  be 
construed  to  extend  to  any  person  or  persons  dis- 
senting from  the  Church  of  England,  that  shall 
take  the  oaths  (of  allegiance  and  supremacy)  and 
shall  make  and  subscribe  the  declaration  (against 
Popery;)  which  oaths  and  declaration  the  jus- 
tices of  the  peace  at  the  general  sessions  of  the 
peace  for  the  county  or  place  where  such  per- 
sons shall  live,  are  hereby  required  to  administer 
to  such  persons  as  shall  offer  themselves  to  make 
and  subscribe  the  same,  and  thereof  to  keep  a 
register;  and,  likewise,  none  of  the  persons  afore- 
said shall  give  or  pay,  as  any  fee  or  reward,  to 
any  officer  belonging  to  the  court,  above  the  sum 
of  six-pence  for  his  entry  of  his  taking  the  said 
oaths,  &c.  nor  above  the  further  sum  of  six-pence 
for  any  certificate  of  the  same. 

Sect.  IV.  That  every  person  that  shall  take 
the  said  oaths,  and  make  and  subscribe  the  de- 
claration aforesaid,  shall  not  be  liable  to  any 
pains,  penalties,  or  forfeitures,  mentioned  in  an 
act  made  in  the  35th  of  the  late  Glueen  Eliza- 
beth, nor  in  an  act  made  in  the  22d  of  Charles 
the  Second,  intituled  "An  act  to  prevent  and 
suppress  Seditious  Conventicles;"  nor  shall  any 
of  the  said  persons  be  prosecuted  in  any  eccle- 
siastical court  for  their  nonconforming  to  the 
Church  of  England. 

Sect.  V.  Provided  that,  if  any  assembly  of 
persons,  dissenting  from  the  Church  of  England, 
shall  be  held  in  any  place  for  religious  worship 
with  the  doors  locked,  barred  or  bolted,  during 
any  time  of  such  meeting  together,  such  persons 
shall  not  receive  any  benefit  from  this  law,  but 
be  liable  to  all  the  pains  and  penalties  of  the 
aforesaid  laws. 

Sect.  VI.  Provided  that  nothing  herein  con- 
tained shall  be  construed  to  exempt  any  of  the 
persons  aforesaid  from  paying  of  tythes,  or  Otnej 


TOLERATION 
parochial  duties  ;  nor  from  any  prosecution  in  any 
ecclesiastical  court  or  elsewhere,  for  the  same. 

Sect.  VI 1.  That  if  any  person  dissenting,  &c., 
as  aforesaid,  shall  hereafter  he  chosen  high  con- 
stable, cr  petit  constable,  church-warden,  over- 
seer of  the  poor,  or  any  other  parochial  or  ward 
officer,  and  such  person  shall  scruple  to  take  upon 
him  any  of  the  said  offices,  in  regard  of  the 
oaths,  or  any  other  matter  or  thing  required  by 
the  law  to  be  taken  or  done  in  respect  of  such 
office,  every  such  person  shall  and  may  execute 
euch  office  by  a  sufficient  deputy,  that  shall  com- 
ply with  the  laws  on  this  behalf. 

Sect.  VIII.  That  no  person  dissenting  from 
the  Church  of  England,  in  holy  orders,  or  pre- 
tended holy  orders,  or  pretending  to  holy  orders, 
nor  any  preacher  or  teacher  of  any  congregation 
of  Dissenting  Protestants,  that,  shall  make  and 
subscribe  the  declaration  aforesaid,  and  take  the 
said  oaths  at  the  General  or  Quarter  Sessions  of 
the  Peace,  to  be  held  for  the  county,  town,  parts, 
or  division  where  such  person  lives,  which  court 
is  hereby  impowered  to  administer  the  same,  and 
shall  also  declare  his  approbation  of  and  subscribe 
the  Articles  of  Religion  mentioned  in  the  statute 
made  in  the  13th  of  Q.  Elizabeth,  except  the 
34th,  35th,  and  36th,  and  these  words  in  the  20th 
article;  viz.  "The  church  hath  power  to  decree 
rites  or  ceremonies,  and  authority  in  controversies 
of  faith," — shall  be  liable  to  any  of  the  pains  or 
penalties  mentioned  in  former  acts. 

Sect.  X.  recites,  That  some  Dissenting  Pro- 
testants scruple  the  baptizing  of  infants;  and 
then  proceeds  to  enact,  That  every  person  in 
pretended  holy  orders,  &e.  &c,  that  shall  sub- 
scribe the  aforesaid  Articles  of  Religion,  except 
before  excepted,  and  also  except  part  of  the  27th 
article,  touching  infant  baptism,  and  shall  take 
the  said  oaths,  &c.  &c.  shall  enjoy  all  the  privi- 
leges, benefits,  and  advantages  which  any  other 
Dissenting  Minister  might  enjoy. 

Sect.  XI.  That  every  teacher  or  preacher  in 
holy  orders,  or  pretended  holy  orders,  that  is,  a 
minister,  preacher,  or  teacher  of  a  congregation, 
that  shall  take  the  oaths  herein  required,  and 
make  and  subscribe  the  declaration  aforesaid,  &c. 
&c.  shall  be  exempted  from  serving  upon  any  jury, 
or  from  being  appointed  to  bear  the  office  of 
church-warden,  overseer  of  the  poor,  or  any  other 
parochial  or  ward  office,  or  other  office  in  any 
hundred  of  any  shire,  city,  town,  parish,  division, 
or  wapentake. 

Sect.  XII.  That  every  justice  of  the  peace 
may,  at  any  time,  require  any  person  that  goes 
to  any  meeting  for  exercise  of  religion,  to  make 
and  subscribe  the  declaration  aforesaid,  and  also 
to  take  the  said  oaths  or  declaration  of  fidelity 
hereinafter  mentioned ;  in  case  such  person  scru- 
ples the  taking  of  an  oath,  and  upon  refusal,  such 
justice  of  the  peace  is  required  to  commit  such 
person  to  prison,  and  to  certify  the  name  of  such 
person  to  the  next  General  or  Quarter  Sessions 
of  the  Peace,  &c. 

Sect.  XIII.  recites,  That  there  are  certain 
other  Dissenters  who  scruple  the  taking  of  any 
oath;  and  then  proceeds  to  enact,  That  every 
such  person  shall  make  and  subscribe  the  afore- 
said declaration,  and  also  this  declaration  of  fide- 
lity following ;  viz.  "  1,  A.  B.,  do  sincerely  pro- 
mise and  solemnly  declare,  before  God  and  the 
world,  that  I  will  be  true  and  faithful  to  King 
William  and  Queen  Mary ;  and  I  do  solemnly 
439 


TOLERATION 
profess  and  declare,  that  I  do  from  my  heart  ab- 
hor, detest,  and  renounce,  as  impious  and  here- 
tical, that  damnable  doctrine  and  position,  That 
princes  excommunicated  or  deprived  by  the  pope, 
or  any  authority  of  the  see  of  Rome,  may  be  de- 
posed or  murthered  by  their  subjects,  or  any  other 
whatsoever;  and  I  do  declare,  That  no  foreign 
prince,  person,  prelate,  state,  or  potentate,  hath, 
or  ought  to  have  any  power,  jurisdiction,  supe- 
riority, pre-eminence,  or  authority,  ecclesiastical 
or  spiritual,  within  this  realm ;"  and  shall  sub- 
scribe a  profession  of  their  Christian  belief  in 
these  words  :  "  I,  A.  B.,  profess  faith  in  God  the 
Father,  and  in  Jesus  Christ,  his  eternal  Son,  the 
true  God,  and  in  the  Holy  Spirit,  one  God,  bless- 
ed for  evermore ;  and  do  acknowledge  the  Holy 
Scriptures  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament  to  be 
given  bv  divine  inspiration  :" — which  declara- 
tions and  subscriptions  shall  be  entered  of  record 
at  the  General  Quarter  Sessions,  &c. ;  and  every 
such  person  shall  be  exempted  from  all  the  pains 
and  penalties  of  all  and  every  the  aforementioned 
statutes.  &c. 

Sect.  XVI.  Provided,  That  all  the  laws  made 
and  provided  for  the  frequenting  of  divine  ser- 
vice on  the  Lord's  Day,  commonly  called  Sun- 
day, shall  be  still  in  force,  and  executed  against 
all  persons  that  offend  against  the  said  laws,  ex- 
cept such  persons  come  to  some  congregation  or 
assembly  of  religious  worship,  allowed  or  per- 
mitted by  this  act. 

Sect.  XVII.  Provided,  That  neither  this  act, 
nor  any  clause,  article,  or  thing  herein  contained, 
shall  extend,  or  be  construed  to  extend,  to  give 
any  ease,  benefit,  or  advantage  to  any  Papist  or 
Popish  Recusant  whatsoever,  or  any  person  that 
shall  deny  in  his  preaching  or  writing  the  doc- 
trine of  the  blessed  Trinity,  as  it  is  declared  in 
the  aforesaid  Articles  of  Religion. 

Sect.  XVIII.  Provided,  That  if  any  person 
or  persons  do  and  shall  willingly,  maliciously,  or 
contemptuously,  come  into  any  cathedral  or  pa- 
rish-church, chapel,  or  other  congregation  per- 
mitted by  this  act,  and  disquiet  and  disturb  the 
same,  or  misuse  any  preacher  or  teacher,  such 
person  or  persons,  upon  proof  thereof  before  any 
justice  of  the  peace,  by  two  or  more  sufficient 
witnesses,  shall  find  two  sureties,  to  be  bound  by 
recognizance  in  the  penal  sum  of  50/.,  and,  in  de- 
fault of  such  sureties,  shall  be  committed  to  prison, 
there  to  remain  till  the  next  General  or  Quarter 
Session;  and,  upon  conviction  of  the  said  offence 
at  the  said  General  or  Quarter  Sessions,  shall 
suffer  the  pain  and  penalty  of  20/.,  to  the  use  of 
the  King's  and  Queen's  Majesties,  their  heirs 
and  successors. 

Sect.  XIX.  That  no  congregation  or  assembly 
for  religious  worship  shall  be  permitted  or  allowed 
by  this  act  until  the  place  of  such  meeting  shall 
be  certified  to  the  bishop  of  the  diocese,  or  to  the 
archdeacon  of  that  archdeaconry,  or  to  the  jus- 
tices of  the  peace  at  the  General  or  Quarter  Ses- 
sions of  the  peace  for  the  county,  city,  or  place 
in  which  such  meeting  shall  be  held,  and  regis- 
tered in  the  said  bishop's  or  archdeacon's  court 
respectively,  or  recorded  at  the  said  General  or 
Quarter  Sessions ;  the  register  or  clerk  of  the 
peace  whereof  respectively  is  hereby  required  to 
register  the  same,  and  to  give  certificate  thereof 
to  such  person  as  shall  demand  the  same;  for 
which  there  shall  be  no  greater  fee  or  reward 
taken  than  the  sum  of  six-pence." 


TRANSLATION 

Lord  Skimouth  has  lately  attempted  to  ntro- 
duce  a  bill  in  the  House  of  Lords,  proposing  some 
amendment  or  explanation  of  this  famous  act,  in 
order  to  prevent  abuses :  but  the  fact  appeared  to  be 
the  prevention  of  Sectarianism  by  means  of  itine- 
rant preachers ;  and  to  clog  the  exertions  of  those 
who  wish  to  instruct  their  neighbours.  Mast 
numbers  of  petitions  from  all  parts  of  the  country 
were  presented  against  the  bill ;  so  that  when  it 
was  brought  forward  on  May  21,  1811,  (after  a 
considerable  discussion)  the  question  for  a  second 
reading  was  put  and  negatived  without  a  division. 
The  bill  was,  therefore,  thrown  out.  It  is  to  be 
hoped  that  this  will  be  the  last  effort  ever  made 
to  infringe  the  Act  of  Toleration. 

TONGUE,  Duties  op  the.— 1.  To  glorify 
God  by  magnifying  his  name. — 2.  To  sing  his 
praises. — 3.  To  declare  to  others  God's  good- 
ness.— 4.  To  pray  to  him  for  what  we  want. — 
5.  To  make  open  profession  of  our  subjection  to 
him. — 6.  To  preach  his  word. — 7.  To  defend 
the  truth. — 8.  To  exhort  men  to  particular  du- 
ties.—9.  To  confess  our  sins  to  God. — 10.  To 
crave  the  advice  of  others. — 11.  To  praise  that 
which  is  good  in  others. — 12.  To  bear  witness  to 
the  truth. — 13.  To  defend  the  cause  of  the  inno- 
cent and  just. — 14.  To  communicate  to  others 
the  same  good  impressions  we  have  received. 

TONGUES,  GIFT  OF.  See  Gift  of 
Tongues. 

TRADITION,  something  handed  down  from 
one  generation  to  another.  Thus  the  Jews  pre- 
tended, that,  besides  their  written  law  contained 
in  the  Old  Testament,  Moses  had  delivered  an 
oral  law,  which  had  been  conveyed  down  from 
father  to  son ;  and  thus  the  Roman  Catholics  are 
said  to  value  particular  doctrines,  supposed  to  have 
descended  from  the  apostolic  times  by  tradition. 

TRANSLATION,  in  the  ecclesiastical  sense 
of  the  word,  is  the  removing  of  a  bishop  from  one 
see  to  another.  It  is  also  used  for  the  version  of 
a  book  or  writing  into  a  different  language  from 
that  in  which  it  was  written. 

In  translating  the  Scriptures,  great  know- 
ledge and  caution  are  necessary.  Dr.  Campbell 
lays  down  three  fundamental  rules  for  translat- 
ing: ].  The  translation  should  give  a  complete 
transcript  of  the  ideas  of  the  original. — 2.  The 
style  and  manner  of  the  original  should  be  pre- 
served.— 3.  The  translation  should  have  all  the 
ease  of  original  composition.  He  observes,  that 
the  difficulties  found  in  translating  the  Scriptures 
arise,  1.  From  the  singularity  of  the  Jewish  cus- 
toms.— 2.  From  the  poverty  (as  appears)  of  their 
native  language. — 3.  From  the  fewness  of  the 
books  extant  in  it. — 1.  From  the  symbolical  style 
of  the  prophets. — 5.  From  the  excessive  influ- 
ence which  a  previous  acquaintance  with  trans- 
lations have  occasioned. — And,  G.  From  prepos- 
sessions, in  what  way  soever  acquired,  in  regard 
to  religious  tenets. 

Notwithstanding  these  difficulties,  however, 
the  divines  employed  by  king  James  to  translate 
the  ( )ld  and  New  Testaments  have  given  us  a 
translation  which,  with  a  very  few  exceptions,  can 
scarcely  be  improved.  These  divines  were  pro- 
foundly skilled  in  the  learning  as  well  as  in  the 
languages  of  the  e;ist;  whilst  some  of  those  who 
have  presumed  to  improve  their  version,  seem  not 
to  have  possessed  a  critical  knowledge  of  the 
Greek  tongue,  to  have  known  still  less  of  the  1  le- 
orew,  and  to  have  been  absolute  strangers  to  the 
440 


TRINITARIANS 

dialect  spoken  in  Judca  in  the  days  of  our  Sa- 
viour,  as  well  as  to  the  manners,  customs,  and 
peculiar  opinions  of  the  Jewish  sects.  "  Neither," 
as  one  observes,  "  metaphysical  acuteness,  nor  the 
most  perfect  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  trans- 
lation in  general,  will  enable  a  man  who  is  igno- 
rant of  these  things  to  improve  the  authorized 
version  either  of  the  Gospels  or  Epistles ;  for  such 
a  man  knows  not  accurately,  and  therefore  cannot 
give  a  complete  transcript  of  the  ideas  of  the  ori- 
ginal work."  See  Bible;  Air.  Tytler's  Essay 
on  the  Principles  of  Translation ;  and  Dr.  Camp- 
bell's Preliminary  Dissertations  to  his  Transla- 
tion of  the  Gospels. 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION,  the  conver- 
sion or  change  of  the  substance  of  the  bread  and 
wine  in  the  eucharist  into  the  body  and  blood  of 
Jesus  Christ,  which  the  Romish  church  suppose 
to  be  wrought  by  the  consecration  of  the  priest. 
Nothing  can  be  more  contradictory  to  Scripture, 
or  to  common  sense,  than  this  doctrine.  It  must 
be  evident  to  every  one  who  is  not  blinded  by 
ignorance  and  prejudice,  that  our  Lord's  words, 
<;  This  is  my  body,"  are  mere  figuratixe  expres- 
sions :  besides,  such  a  transubstanliation  is  so 
opposite  to  the  testimony  of  our  senses,  as  com- 
pletely to  undermine  the  whole  proof  of  all  the 
miracles  by  which  God  hath  confirmed  revelation. 
According  to  such  a  transubstantiation,  the  same 
body  is  alive  and  dead  at  once,  and  may  be  in  a 
million  of  different  places  whole  and  entire  at  the 
same  instant  of  time ;  accidents  remain  without 
a  substance,  and  substance  without  accidents ; 
and  that  a  part  of  Christ's  body  is  equal  to  the 
whole.  It  is  also  contrary  to  the  end  of  the  sa- 
crament, which  is  to  represent  and  commemorate 
Christ,  not  to  believe  that  he  is  corporeally  pre- 
sent, 1  Cor.  xi.  24 — 26.  But  we  need  not  waste 
time  in  attempting  to  refute  a  doctrine  which,  by 
its  impious  consequences,  refutes  itself.  See 
Smith's  Errors  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  dial.  (J; 
A  Dialogue  between  Philalethcs  and  Benevolus; 
Kidder's  Alcssiah,  part  iii.  p.  80;  and  Brown's 
Compendium,  p.  013. 

TRENT,  Council  of  denotes  the  council  as- 
sembled by  Paul  III.  in  1545,  and  continued  by 
twenty-five  sessions  till  the  year  15G3,  under  Ju- 
lius III.  and  Pius  IV.,  in  order  to  correct,  illus- 
trate, and  fix  with  perspicuity  the  doctrine  of  the 
church,  to  restore  the  vigour  of  its  discipline,  and 
to  reform  the  lives  of  its  ministers.  The  decrees 
of  this  council,  together  with  the  creed  of  pope 
Pius  IV.,  contain  a  summary  of  the  doctrines  of 
the  Roman  Catholics.  See  JMosheim's  Cliurch 
History;  The  Alodcrn  Universal  History,  vol. 
xxiii;  Era.  Paolo  Sarpi's and  Father  Paul's  His- 
tory of  the  Council  of  Trent. 

TRIERS,  a  society  of  ministers,  with  some 
others,  chosen  by  Cromwell  to  sit  at  Whitehall. 
They  were  mostly  Independents,  though  some 
Presbyterians  were  joined  with  them.  They  had 
power  to  try  all  that  came  for  institution  and  in- 
duction ;  and  without  their  approbation  none 
were  admitted.  They  examined  all  who  were 
able  to  come  up  to  London,  but  if  any  were  un- 
able, or  of  doubtful  qualifications,  they  referred 
then)  to  some  ministers  in  the  county  where  they 
lived.  They  rejected  all  those  who  did  not  live 
according  to  their  profession,  and  placed  in  their 
room  able  serious  preachers  who  lived  godly  lives 
though  of  different  opinions. 

TRINITARIANS,  those  who  believe  in  the 


TRITHEISTS 
trinity.  See  next  article,  and  the  162nd  Lecture 
of  Doddridge,  where  the  reader  will  find  a  state- 
ment of  the  opinions  of  the  ancients  on  this  doc- 
trine, as  likewise  many  of  the  moderns;  such  as 
Baxter,  Dr.  Clarke,  Burnet,  Howe,  Waterland, 
Taylor,  Pearson,  Bull,  Wallis,  Watts,  and  Jere- 
my Taylor. 

TRINITY,  the  union  of  three  in  one  ;  gene- 
rally applied  to  the  ineffahle  mystery  of  three 
persons  in  one  God, — Father,  Son,  and  Holy 
Spirit.  This  doctrine  is  rejected  hy  many  he- 
cause  it  is  incomprehensible ;  but,  as  Mr.  Scott 
observes,  if  distinct  personality,  agency,  and  di- 
vine perfections,  be  in  Scripture  ascribed  to  the 
Father,  and  to  the  Son,  and  to  the  Holy  Spirit, 
no  words  can  more  exactly  express  the  doctrine, 
which  must  unavoidably  be  hence  inferred,  than 
those  commonly  used  on  this  subject,  viz.  that 
there  are  three  distinct  Persons  in  the  Unity  of 
the  Godhead.  The  sacred  oracles  most  assuredly 
teach  us  that  the  One  living  and  true  God  is,  in 
some  inexplicable  manner,  Triune,  for  he  is 
spoken  of  as  One  in  some  respects,  and  as  Three 
in  others,  Gen.  i.  26;  xi.  G,  7;  Isa.  xlviii.  16; 
xxxiv.  16;  2  Cor.  xiii.  14;  John  xiv.  23;  Matt, 
xxviii.  19;  2  Thess.  iii.  3;  1  John  v.  7;  Acts  v. 
3,  4.  The  Trinity  of  Persons  in  the  Deity  con- 
sists with  the  Unity  of  the  Divine  Essence; 
though  we  pretend  not  to  explain  the  modus  of 
it,  and  deem  those  reprehensible  who  have  at- 
tempted it ;  as  the  modus  in  which  any  being 
subsists,  according  to  its  distinct  nature  and 
known  properties,  is  a  secret  to  the  most  learned 
naturalists  to  this  present  day,  and  probably  will 
always  continue  so.  But  if  the  most  common  of 
God's  works,  with  which  we  are  the  most  con- 
versant, be  in  this  respect  incomprehensible,  how 
can  men  think  that  the  modus  cxistendi  (or 
manner  of  existence)  of  the  infinite  Creator  can 
be  level  to  their  capacities'? — The  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  is  indeed  a  mystery,  but  no  man  hath 
yet  shown  that  it  involves  in  it  a  real  contradic- 
tion. Many  have  ventured  to  say,  that  it  ought 
to  be  ranked  with  transubstantiation,  as  equally 
absurd.  But  Archbishop  Tillotson  has  shown 
by  the  most  convincing  arguments  imaginable, 
that  transubstantiation  includes  the  most  palpa- 
ble contradictions ;  and  that  we  have  the  evidence 
of  our  eyes,  feeling,  and  taste,  that  what  we  re- 
ceive in  the  Lord's  Supper  is  bread,  and  not  the 
body  of  a  man :  whereas  we  have  the  testimony 
of  our  eyes  alone  that  the  words,  "This  is  my 
body,"  are  at  all  in  the  Scriptures.  Now  this  is 
intelligible  to  the  meanest  capacity  :  it  is  fairly 
made  out,  and  perfectly  unanswerable:  but  who- 
ever attempted  thus  to  prove  the  doctrine  of  the 
Trinity  to  be  self-contradictory  1  What  testimony 
of  our  senses,  or  what  demonstrated  truth  does  it 
contradict  1  Yet  till  this  be  shown,  it  is  neither 
fair  nor  convincing,  to  exclaim  against  it  as  con- 
tradictorv,  absurd,  and  irrational."  See  articles 
Jesus  Christ  and  Hoi.y  Ghost;  also,  Owen, 
Watts,  Jones,  S.  Browne,  Fawcelt,  A.  Taylor, 
J.  Scott,  Simpson,  and  Wesley's  Pieces  on  the 
Subject;  Bull's  Dcfensio  Fulei  Nicance ;  Dr. 
Alix's  Testimonies  of  the  Jewish  Church;  Dis- 
play of  the  Trinity  by  a  Layman;  Scott's  Essays. 
TRITHEISTS,  a  sect  of  the  sixth  century, 
whose  chief  was  John  Ascunage,  a  Syrian  phi- 
losopher, and  at  the  same  time  a  Monophysite. 
This  man  imagined  in  the  Deity  three  natures 
or  substances  absolutely  equal  in  all  respects,  and 
441  iF 


TRUST 

joined  together  by  no  common  essence ;  to  which 
opinion  his  adversaries  gave  the  name  of  Tnthe- 
ism.  One  of  the  warmest  defenders  of  this  doc- 
trine was  John  Philoponus,  an  Alexandrian 
philosopher  and  grammarian  of  the  highest  repu- 
tation ;  and  hence  he  has  been  considered  by  many 
as  the  author  of  this  sect,  whose  members  have 
consequently  derived  from  him  the  title  of  Philo- 
ponists. 

This  sect  was  divided  into  two  parties,  the 
Philoponists  and  the  Cononites;  the  latter  of 
whom  were  so  called  from  Conon,  bishop  of  Tar- 
sus, their  chief.  They  agreed  in  the  doctrine  of 
three  persons  in  the  Godhead,  and  differed  only 
in  their  manner  of  explaining  what  the  Scriptures 
taught  concerning  the  resurrection  of  the  body. 
Philoponus  maintained,  that  the  form  as  well  as 
the  matter  of  all  bodies  was  generated  and  cor- 
rupted, and  that  both,  therefore,  were  to  be  re- 
stored in  the  resurrection.  Conon  held,  on  the 
contrary,  that  the  body  never  lost  its  form;  that 
its  matter  alone  was  subject  to  corruption  and 
decay,  and  was  consequently  to  be  restored  when 
this  mortal  shall  put  on  immortality. 

TRUCE  OF  GOD,  a  scheme  set  on  foot  for 
the  purpose  of  quelling  the  violence  and  prevent- 
ing the  frequency  of  private  wars,  occasioned  by 
the  fierce  spirit  of  the  barbarians  in  the  middle 
ages.  In  France,  a  general  peace  and  cessation 
from  hostilities  took  place  A.  D.  1032,  and  con- 
tinued for  seven  years,  in  consequence  of  the 
methods  which  the  bishop  of  Aquitaine  success- 
fully employed  to  work  upon  the  superstition  of 
the  times.  A.  resolution  was  formed,  that  no 
man  should,  in  time  to  come,  attack  or  molest  his 
adversaries  during  the  seasons  set  apart  for  cele- 
brating the  great  festivals  of  the  church,  or  from 
the  evening  of  Thursday  in  each  week  to  the 
morning  of  Monday  in  the  week  ensuing,  the 
intervening  days  being  consecrated  as  particu- 
larly holy ;  our  Lord's  passion  having  happened 
on  one  of  these  days  and  his  resurrection  on  an- 
other. A  change  in  the  disposition  of  men  so 
sudden,  and  which  proposed  a  resolution  so  un- 
expected, was  considered  as  miraculous;  and  the 
respite  from  hostilities  which  followed  upon  it 
was  called  the  Truce  of  God.  This  cessation 
from  hostilities  during  three  complete  days  every 
week,  allowed  a  considerable  space  for  the  pas- 
sions of  the  antagonists  to  cool,  and  for  the  people 
to  enjoy  a  respite  from  the  calamities  of  war,  and 
to  take  measures  for  their  own  security. 

TRUST  IN  GOD,  signifies  that  confidence 
in,  or  dependence  we  place  on  him.  This  trust 
ought  to  be,  1.  Sincere  and  unreserved,  not  in 
idols,  in  men,  in  talents,  riches,  power,  in  our- 
selves part,  and  him  part,  Prov.  iii.  5,  6. — 2.  Uni- 
versal ;  body,  soul,  circumstances,  1  Pet.  v.  7. — 
3.  Perpetual,  Isa.  xxvi.  4. — 4.  With  a  lively  ex- 
pectation of  his  blessing,  Mic.  vii.  7.  The  encou- 
ragement we  have  to  trust  inhim  arises,  1.  From 
his  liberality,  Rom.  viii.  32;  Psal.  lxxxiv.  11. — ■ 
2.  His  ability,  James  i.  17. — 3.  His  relationship, 
Psal.  ciii.  13. — 4.  His  promise,  Isa.  xxxiii.  16. — 
5.  His  conduct  in  all  ages  to  those  who  have 
trusted  him,  Gen.  xlviii.  15,  16;  Psal.  xxxvii. 
23.  The  happiness  of  those  who  trust,  in  him  is 
great,  if  we  consider,  1.  Tbeirsafety,  Psal.cxxv.  1. 
— 2.  Their  courage,  Psal.  xxvii.  1.— 3.  Their 
peace,  Isa.  xxvi.  3.— -4.  Their  character  and  fruit- 
fulness,  Psal.  i.  3.-5.  Their  end,  Psal.  xxxvii. 
37;  Job  v.  26. 


UCKEWALLISTS 

TRUTH,  a  term  used  in  opposition  to  false- 
hood, and  applied  to  propositions  which  answer 
or  accord  to  the  nature  and  reality  of  the  thing 
whereof  something  is  affirmed  or  denied.  Natural 
or  physical  truth  is  said  to  be  the  agreement  of 
our  sentiments  witli  the  nature  of  things.  Moral 
truth  is  the  conformity  of  our  words  and  actions 
to  our  sentiments.  Evangelical  or  Gospel  truth 
is  taken  for  Christ ;  the  doctrines  of  the  Gospel ; 
substance  or  reality,  in  opposition  to  the  shadows 
and  ceremonies  of  the  'aw,  John  i.  17.  For  this 
truth  we  ought  to  be  sincere  in  seeking,  zealous 
in  defending,  and  active  in  propagating ;  highly  to 
prize  it,  constantly  to  rejoice  in  it,  and  uniformly 
to  be  obedient  to  it.  See  Lying,  Sincerity; 
Tat  ham's  Scale  of  Truth  ;  Locke  on  the  Under- 
standing;  Beattie  on  Truth;  Dr.  Stennet's 
Sermon  on  propagating  the  Truth ;  Saurin's 
Sermons,  Eng.  trans,  vol.  ii.  ser.  1  and  14. 

TUNKERS.     See  Dunkers. 

TURLUPINS,  a  denomination  which  ap- 
peared about  the  year  1372,  principally  in  Savoy 
and  Dauphiny.  They  taught  that  when  a  man 
is  arrived  at  a  certain  state  of  perfection,  he  is 
freed  from  all  subjection  to  the  divine  law.  It  is 
said,  they  often  went  naked,  and  they  allowed  of 
no  prayer  to  God  but  mental.  They  called  them- 
selves the  fraternity  of  the  poor. 

TYPE,  an  impression,  image,  or  representation 
of  some  model,  which  is  termed  the  antitype.  In 
this  sense  we  often  use  the  word  to  denote  the 
prefiguration  of  the  great  events  of  man's  re- 
demption by  persons  or  things  in  the  Old  Testa- 
ment. Types  are  distinguished  into,  1.  Such  as 
were  directly  appointed  for  that  end ;  as  the  sacri- 


UNBELIEF 

fices. — 2.  Such  as  had  only  a  providential  ordina- 
tion to  that  end ;  as  the  story  of  Jacob  and  Esau. 
— And,  3.  Things  that  fell  out  of  old,  so  as  to 
illustrate  present  things  from  a  similitude  between 
thern  ;  as  the  allegory  of  Hagar  and  Sarah.  Some 
distinguish  them  into  real  and  personal;  by  the 
former  intending  the  tabernacles,  temples,  and 
religious  institutions;  and  under  the  latter,  in- 
cluding what  are  called  providential  and  personal 
types.  While  we  may  justly  consider  the  death 
of  Christ,  and  his  resurrection  from  the  dead,  as 
events  that  are  typified  in  the  Old  Testament,  we 
should  be  careful  not  to  consider  every  thing 
mentioned  in  the  Hebrew  Scripture  as  a  type,  for 
this  will  expose  the  whole  doctrine  of  types  to 
ridicule :  for  instance,  what  can  be  a  greater  bur- 
lesque on  the  Scriptures  than  to  suppose,  as  some 
have  done,  that  the  extraction  of  Eve  from  the 
side  of  Adam,  while  he  was  in  a  deep  sleep,  was 
intended  as  a  type  of  the  Roman  soldiers'  piercing 
our  Saviour's  side  while  he  slept  the  sleep  of 
death  ?  Such  ideas  as  these,  vented  sometimes  by 
novices,  and  sometimes  by  more  aged  divines, 
give  a  greater  proof  of  the  wildness  of  their  fan- 
cies than  the  correctness  of  their  judgments.  See 
Mather  and  M'Ewen  on  the  Types:  Ridgley't 
Div.  ques.  35. 

'  TYTHE,  the  tenth  part  of  all  fruits,  &c.  a 
revenue  payable  to  the  clergy.  The  tythes  among 
the  Jews  were  of  three  sorts.  The  first  to  the 
Levites,  for  their  maintenance,  Num.  xviii.  21 — 
24.  The  second  for  the  feasts  and  sacrifices, 
Deut.  xiv.  22 ;  and  the  third  for  the  poor  every 
third  year.  Deut.  xiv.  28,  ,29.  See  Supp.  Pa- 
pers. 


u. 


UBIQ.U1TARIANS,  formed  from  ubique, 
'every  where,"  in  ecclesiastical  history,  a  sect  of 
Lutherans  which  rose  and  spread  itself  in  Ger- 
many; and  whose  distinguishing  doctrine  was, 
that  the  body  of  Jesus  Christ  is  every  where,  or 
in  every  place. 

Brentius,  one  of  the  earliest  reformers,  is  said 
to  have  first  broached  this  error  in  15(i0.  Luther 
himself,  in  his  controversy  with  Zuinglius,  had 
tlirown  out  some  unguarded  expressions  that 
seemed  to  imply  a  belief  of  the  omnipresence  of 
the  body  of  Christ;  but  he  became  sensible  after- 
wards that  this  opinion  was  attended  with  great 
difficulties,  and  particularly  that  it  ought  not  to 
be  made  use  of  as  a  proof  of  Christ's  corporeal 
presence  in  the  Eucharist.  However,  after  the 
death  of  Luther,  this  absurd  hypothesis  was  re- 
newed, and  dressed  up  in  a  specious  and  plausible 
form  by  Brentius,  Chemnitius,  and  Andraas, 
who  maintained  the  communication  of  the  pro- 
perties of  Christ's  divinity  to  his  human  nature. 
It  is,  indeed,  obvious  that  every  Lutheran  who 
believes  the  doctrine  of  consubstantiation,  what- 
ever he  may  pretend,  must  be  an  Ubiquitarian. 

UBIQ.U1TY,  omnipresence  ;  an  attribute  of 
the  Deity,  whereby  be  is  always  intimately  pre- 
sent to  all  things.     See  Omniscience. 

UCKEWALLISTS,  a  sect  which  derived 
its  denomination  from  Uke  Walles,  a  native  of 
Friesland,  who  published  his  sentiments  in  1037. 
He  entertained  a  favourable  opinion  of  the  eter- 
nal state  of  Judas  and  the  rest  of  Christ's  uiur- 
4-12 


derers.  His  argument  was  this,  that  the  period 
of  time  which  extended  from  the  birth  of  Christ 
to  t  he  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  was  a  time  of 
deep  ignorance,  during  which  the  Jews  were 
destitute  of  divine  light ;  and  that  of  consequence, 
the  sins  and  enormities  which  were  committed 
during  this  interval  were  in  a  great  measure  ex- 
cusable, and  could  not  merit  the  severest  displays 
of  the  divine  justice.  This  denomination  strictly 
adhered  to  the  doctrine  of  the  Mennonites. 

UNBELIEF,  the  refining  assent  to  testimo- 
ny. It  is  often  taken  for  distrust  of  God's  faith- 
fulness, but  more  particularly  for  the  discrediting 
the  testimony  of  God's  word  concerning  his  Son, 
John  iii.  18,  19 ;  John  xvi.  9.  "  It  includes,'' 
savs  Dr.  Guise,  " disaffection  to  God,  disregard 
to  his  word,  prejudices  against  the  Redeemer, 
readiness  to  give  credit  to  any  other  than  him, 
inordinate  love  to  the  world,  and  preferring  of  the 
applause  of  men  to  the  approbation  of  God." — 
"Unbelief,"  says  the  gnat  Charnoek,  "is  the 
greatest  sin,  as  it  is  the  fountain  of  all  sin :  it 
was  Adam's  first  sin  :  it  is  a  sin  against  the  Gos- 
pel, against  the  highest  testimony;  a  refusal  to 
accept  of  Christ  upon  the  terms  of  the  Gospel. 
It  strikes  peculiarly  at  God ;  is  the  greatest 
reproach  of  him,  robs  him  of  his  glory,  a  contra- 
diction to  his  will,  and  a  contempt  or  his  autho- 
rity." The  causes  of  unbelief  arc  Satan,  igno- 
rance, pride,  and  sensuality.  The  danger  of  it 
is  great :  it  hardens  the  heart,  fills  with  presump- 
tion, creates  impatience,  deceives  with  error,  and 


UNCTION 
finally  exposes  to  condemnation,  John  iii.  11. — 
Charnock's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  601 ;  Case's  Ser- 
mons, ser.  2 ;  Bishop  Portcus's  Sermons,  vol.  i. 
Ber.  2;  Dr.  Owen's  Reasons  of  Faith;  Han- 
nam's  Compendium,  vol.  ii.  p.  20;  Churchill's 
Essay  on  Unbelief. 

UNBEL1  E  V E  R  S  are  of  three  sorts.— 
1.  Those  who,  having  heard  the  Gospel,  reject 
it. — 2.  Those  who  verbally  assent  to  it,  yet  know 
not  to  what  they  assent,  or  why  they  believe. — 
3.  They  who,  whatever  knowledge  they  may 
have  of  certain  speculative  points  of  divinity,  yet 
obey  not  the  truth,  but  live  in  sin. 

The  following  is  a  striking  description  given 
by  Massillon  of  an  unbeliever  (Ser.  i.  vol.  iii. 
Eng.  trans.)  "  He  is  a  man  without  morals, 
probity,  faith,  or  character;  who  owns  no  rule 
but  his  passions,  no  law  but  his  iniquitous 
thoughts,  no  master  but  his  desires,  no  check  but 
the  dread  of  authority,  no  God  but  himself;  an 
unnatural  child,  since  he  believes  that  chance 
alone  hath  given  him  fathers;  a  faithless  friend, 
seeing  he  looks  upon  men  merely  as  the  wretch- 
ed fruits  of  a  wild  and  fortuitous  concurrence,  to 
whom  he  is  connected  only  by  transitory  ties ;  a 
cruel  master,  seeing  he  is  convinced  that  the 
strongest  and  the  most  fortunate  have  always 
reason  on  their  side.  Who  could  henceforth 
place  any  dependence  on  such?  They  no  longer 
fear  a  God  ;  they  no  longer  respect  men ;  they 
look  forward  to  nothing  after  this  life  ;  virtue  and 
vice  are  merely  prejudices  of  education  in  their 
eyes,  and  the  consecpjences  of  popular  credulity. 
Adulteries,  revenge,  blasphemies,  the  blackest 
treacheries,  abominations  which  we  dare  not  even 
name,  are  no  longer  in  their  opinion  but  human 
prohibitions  established  through  the  policy  of 
legislators.  According  to  them  the  most  horrible 
crimes  or  the  purest  virtues  are  all  equally  the 
same,  since  an  eternal  annihilation  shall  soon 
2qualize  the  just  and  the  impious,  and  for  ever 
confound  them  both  in  the  dreary  mansion  of  the 
tomb.  What  monsters,  then,  must  such  be  upon 
the  ea  rth !" 

UNCHANGEABLENESS  OF  GOD.— 
See  Faithfulness  and  Immutability  of  God. 

UNCTION,  in  matters  of  religion,  is  used 
for  the  character  conferred  on  sacred  things  by 
anointing  them  with  oil.  Unctions  were  very 
frequent  among  the  Hebrews.  They  anointed 
both  their  kings  and  high  priests  at  the  ceremony 
of  their  inauguration.  Thdy  also  anointed  the 
sacred  vessels  of  the  tabernacle  and  temple,  to 
sanctify  and  consecrate  them  to  the  service  of 
God.  In  the  ancient  Christian  church,  unction 
accompanied  the  ceremonies  of  baptism  and  con- 
firmation. Extreme  unction,  or  the  anointing 
persons  in  the  article  of  death,  was  also  practised 
by  the  ancient  Christians,  in  compliance  with  the 
precept  of  St.  James,  chap.  v.  14,  15;  and  this 
extreme  unction  the  Romish  church  has  ad- 
vanced to  the  dignity  of  a  sacrament.  It  is 
administered  to  none  but  such  as  are  affected 
with  some  mortal  disease,  or  in  a  decrepit  age. 
It  is  refused  to  impenitent  persons,  as  also  to 
criminals.  The  parts  to  be  anointed  are,  the 
eyes,  the  ears,  the  nostrils,  the  mouth,  the  hands, 
the  feet,  and  the  reins.  The  laity  are  anointed  in 
the  palms  of  the  hands,  but  priests  on  the  back 
of  it,  because  the  palms  of  their  hands  have  been 
already  consecrated  by  ordination. 

The  oil  with  which  the  sick  person  is  anointed, 
443 


UNION 
represents,  it  is  said,  the  grace  of  God,  which  is 
poured  down  into  the  soul ;  and  the  prayer  used 
at  the  time  of  anointing  expresses  the  remission 
of  sins  thereby  granted  to  the  sick  person ;  for 
the  prayer  is  this — "  By  this  holy  unction,  and 
his  own  most  pious  mercy,  may  the  Almighty 
God  forgive  thee  whatever  sins  thou  hast  com- 
mitted by  the  sight,"  when  the  eyes  are  anoint- 
ed ;  by  the  hearing,  when  the  ears  are  anointed ; 
and  so  of  the  other  senses. 

The  passage  before-mentioned  from  St.  James, 
respecting  the  anointing  with  oil,  has  been  a 
source  of  difficulty  to  some  pious  minds ;  but  in 
order  to  understand  it,  it  is  necessary  to  observe 
that  anointing  with  oil  was  an  ordinance  for  the 
miraculous  cure  of  sick  persons  (Mark  vi.  13.) 
But  since  those  extraordinary  gifts  are  ceased,  as 
being  no  longer  necessary  for  the  confirmation 
of  the  Gospel,  of  course  there  is  no  warrant  now 
for  using  that  ceremony. 

UNDERSTANDING,  the  faculty  of  per- 
ceiving things  distinctly ;  or  that  power  of  the 
mind  by  which  we  arrive  at  a  proper  idea  or 
judgment  of  things.  See  Judcment,  Mind,  Soul. 

UNIFORMITY,  regularity  ;  a  similitude  or 
resemblance  between  the  parts  of  a  whole.  The 
word  is  particularly  used  for  one  and  the  same 
form  of  public  prayers,  administration  of  sacra- 
ments, and  other  rites,  &c.  of  the  church  of  Eng- 
land, prescribed  by  the  famous  stat.  1  Eliz.  and 
13,  14  Carol.  II.  cap.  4.  called  the  Act  of  Uni- 
formity. 

UNION  TO  CHRIST,  that  act  of  divine 
grace  by  which  we  are  joined  to  Christ ;  and  is 
considered, — 1.  As  virtual,  or  that  which  was 
formed  from  all  eternity,  Eph.  i.  4. — 2.  Vital,  or 
spiritual,  formed  in  the  moment  of  our  regene- 
ration, John  xvii.  26;  1  John  iv.  13.  It  is  re- 
presented hi  the  Scripture  by  the  strongest 
expressions  language  can  admit  of,  and  even 
compared  to  the  union  between  the  Father  and 
the  Son,  John  xvii.  11,  21,  &c.  It  is  also  com- 
pared to  the  union  of  a  vine  and  its  branches, 
John  xv.  4,  5.  To  the  union  of  our  food  with 
our  bodies,  John  vi.  56,  57.  To  the  union  of 
the  body  with  the  head,  Eph.  iv.  15,  16.  To  the 
conjugal  union,  Eph.  v.  23,  30.  To  the  union 
of  a  king  and  his  subjects,  Matt.  xxv.  34,  40. 
To  a  building,  1  Pet.  ii.  4,  5 ;  Eph.  ii.  21,  22.  It 
is  also  represented  by  an  identity  or  sameness  of 
spirit,  1  Cor.  vi.  17.  By  an  identity  of  body, 
1  Cor.  xii.  12,  27.  By  an  identity  of  interest, 
Matt.  xxv.  40;  John  xx.  17.  This  union  must 
be  considered  not  as  a  mere  mental  union  only  in 
comfort  or  notion  :  nor  a  physical  union  as  be- 
tween the  head  and  the  members ;  nor  as  an 
essential  union,  or  union  with  the  divine  nature  ; 
but  as  a  mystical  union,  Eph.  v.  32.  Honour- 
able union,  1  John  iii.  1,  2.  Supernatural  union, 
1  Cor.  i.  30.  Holy,  1  John  iii.  24.  Necessary, 
Join:  xv.  4.  Inviolable,  Rom.  viii.  38,  39.  Some 
state  it  thus  : —  1.  A  union  of  natures,  Heb.  ii. 
11. — 2.  Of  actions,  his  obedience  being  imputed 
to  us,  and  our  sins  reckoned  to  him,  2  Cor.  v.  21. 
—3.  Of  life,  Col.  iii.  4.-4.  Of  sentiment,  2  Cor. 
v.  17—  5.  Of  interest,  Matt.  xxv.  34,  &c. — 
6.  Of  affection,  2  Cor.  v.  14. — 7.  Of  residence, 
John  xvii.  24.  The  advantages  of  it  are  know- 
ledge, Ephesians  i.  18.  Fellowship,  1  Cor.  i.  9. 
Security,  John  xv.  Felicity,  1  Pet.  i.  8.  Spiri- 
tuality, John  xv.  8 ;  and  indeed  all  the  rich  com- 
munications of  spiritual  blessings  here  and  here- 


UNITARIANS 
after,  Colossians  i.  22.  The  evidences  of  union  to 
Christ  are,  light  in  the  understanding,  1  Pet.  ii. 
9-  Affection  to  him,  John  xiv.  21.  Frequent 
communion  with  him,  1  John  i.  3.  Delight  in 
his  word,  ordinances,  and  people,  Fsal.  x.wii.  4; 
cxix.  Submission  to  his  will,  and  conformity  to 
his  image,  1  John  ii.  5.  Dickinson's  Letters, 
let  17;  FlaveC 8  Method  of  Grace,  ser.  2;  Po- 
thill  on  Union  ;  Brown's  Compcnd.  p.  5,  ch.  1. 

UNION,  HYPOSTATICAL,  is  the  union 
of  the  human  nature  of  Christ  with  the  divine, 
constituting  two  natures  in  one  person.  Not  con- 
substantinlly,  as  the  three  persons  in  the  God- 
head ;  nor  ■physically,  as  soul  and  body  united  in 
one  person  ;  nor  mystically,  as  is  between  Christ 
and  believers ;  but  so  as  that  the  manhood  sub- 
sists in  the  second  person,  yet  without  making 
confusion,  both  making  but  one  person.  It  was 
miraculous,  Luke  i.  34,  35.  Complete  and  real : 
Christ  took  a  real  human  body  and  soul,  and  not 
in  appearance.  Inseparable,  Heb.  vii.  25.  For 
the  reasons  of  this  union,  see  article  Mediator. 

UNITARIANS,  those  who  confine  the  glory 
and  attributes  of  divinity  to  the  Father,  and  not 
allowing  it  to  the  Son  or  Holy  Spirit.  They  are 
the  same  as  the  Socinians.     See  Socinians. 

UNITARIANS.  The  sect  distinjruisiied 
by  this  appellation  differ  but  little  in  sentiment 
from  the  Socinians.  (See  Socinians.)  They 
choose,  however,  to  he  denominated  Unitarians, 
a  title  which  they  consider  as  more  descrip- 
tive of  their  tenets,  particularly  the  leading  one 
of  the  divine  unity.  Thus  Mr.  Belsham  speaks 
of  the  term  Socinians: — "We  do  not  answer 
to  that  name,  nor  do  we  approve  of  being 
distinguished  by  it.  In  the  first  place,  because 
the  doctrine  we  hold  is  not  borrowed  from  So- 
cinus,  but  is  known,  and  universally  allowed, 
to  have  been  coeval  with  the  apostles.  And  fur- 
ther, we  differ  very  materially  from  the  opinions 
of  that  very  great  and  good  man,  and  his  im- 
mediate followers,  who  strangely  imagined  that 
Christ,  though  a  human  being,  was  advanced  by 
God  to  the  government  of  the  whole  created  uni- 
verse, and  was  the  proper  object  of  religious  wor- 
ship. We  call  ourselves  Unitarians,  or,  to  dis- 
tinguish ourselves  from  other  classes  of  Christians 
who  assume  that  name,  proper,  or  original 
Unitarians;  and  we  regard  ourselves  as  entitled 
to  this  distinction  from  the  reason  of  the  thing, 
and  now  from  the  custom  of  the  language."  But 
this  designation,  although  claimed  and  appro- 
priated to  themselves  by  this  class  of  people,  is 
not  generally  admitted  by  others,  because  it  is 
assumed  in  contradistinction  from  Trinitarians, 
who  contend  as  strenuously  for  the  doctrine  of 
the  divine  unity  as  any  other  denomination.  The 
name  is  also  objected  to  because  it  confounds 
them  with  the  Arians,  who  are  also  zealous  ad- 
vocates for  the  doctrine,  "that  there  is  none  other 
God  but  one."  The  Unitarians,  as  a  community, 
never  attracted  much  notice  in  England,  until 
towards  the  end  of  the  last  century,  when  they 
began  to  increase  and  to  acquire  some  distinction 
from  the  writings  and  influence  of  Dr.  Priestley 
and  his  associates.  "  I  have  no  hesitation,"  savs 
Mr.  Belsham,  "  in  stating  it  as  my  firm  convic- 
tion, that  in  consequence  of  his  (Dr.  Priestley's) 
personal  exertions,  and  his  admirable  writings, 
in  connexion  with  those  of  Ins  able  and  learned 
associate  in  the  same  cause,  the  venerable  Theo- 
pliilus  Lindsey,  the  number  of  converts  to  a 
444 


UNITARIANS 
pure  and  rational  Christianity  have  been  multi- 
plied a  hundred  fold,  and  are  daily  increasing 
among  all  ranks  of  society."  Dr.  Priestley  having 
met  with  much  opposition,  and  perhaps  with 
some  ill  treatment  in  England,  retired  to  America 
in  1704,  where  in  conjunction  with  his  fellow 
labourer,  Mr.  William  Christie,  formerly  of 
Montrose,  Pennsylvania,  he  succeeded  in  form- 
ing some  few  Unitarian  congregations.  But, 
however  Dr.  Priestley  may  have  been  respected 
by  many  individuals  in  this  country,  it  does  not 
appear  that  he  met  with  much  success  in  his  fa- 
vourite object,  the  propagation  of  Unitarianism 
for  on  his  arrival  he  was  excluded  from  almost 
every  pulpit ;  and  his  congregation  at  Northum- 
berland, in  Pennsylvania,  where  he  resided  till 
his  death,  is  said  at  no  time  to  have  exceeded 
thirty  or  forty  persons.  In  another  portion  of  the 
United  States,  and  that,  too,  one  where  it  would 
have  been  least  expected,  the  success  of  the  Uni- 
tarian cause  has  been  more  decided.  New  Eng- 
land, particularly  the  region  round  Boston,  Mass. 
had  been  long  famed  for  orthodoxy.  But  from 
about  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  causes  had 
been  secretly  operating  to  prepare  the  way  for 
the.  introduction  of  what  is  cailed  a  rational  or 
liberal  system  of  Christianity.  The  result  was 
hastened  by  the  importation  and  dispersion  of 
books  leavened  with  Arminian,  Pelagian,  and 
Socinian  opinions.  The  writings  of  Whitby, 
Taylor,  Clarke,  Ernlyn,  and  others  of  the  same 
character,  were  brought  over  from  England,  and 
by  many  were  received  and  circulated  with  much 
pleasure.  It  was  in  opposition  to  Whitby  that 
President  Edwards  published  his  treatise  on 
"  The  Freedom  of  the  Will,"  and  in  opposition 
to  Taylor  that  he  wrote  his  work  "  On  Original 
Sin."  In  more  recent  times,  the  works  of  Priest- 
ley, Lindsey,  Belsham,  and  others,  inculcating 
similar  views,  tended  to  confirm  many  in  Unita- 
rian speculations.  In  a  letter  from  the  late  Pre- 
sident Adams  to  Dr.  Morse,  dated  May  15, 1815, 
the  writer  observes:  "Sixty-five  years  ago,  my 
own  minister,  Rev.  Lemuel  Bryant;  Dr.  Jona- 
than Mayhew,  of  the  West  Church  in  Boston ; 
Rev.  Mr.  Shute,  of  Hingham;  Rev,  John 
Brown,  of  Cohasset ;  and  perhaps  equal  to  all,  if 
not  above  all,  Rev.  Mr.  Gay,  of  Hingham,  were 
Unitarians.  Among  the  laity,  how  many  could 
I  name,  lawyers,  physicians,  tradesmen,  and 
farmers.  I  could  fill  a  sheet,  but  at  present  will 
name  only  one,  Richard  Cranch,  a  man  who  has 
studied  divinity,  and  Jewish,  and  Christian  anti- 
quities, more  than  any  clergyman  now  existing 
in  New  England.  More  than  fifty-six  years  ago, 
I  read  Dr.  Samuel  Clarke,  Ernlyn,  &c." 

But  however  many  there  v/ere  in  New  Eng- 
land who  had  privately  embr;rc-ed  Unitarian  sen- 
timents, there  was  a  studied  reserve  as  to  the 
open  expression  of  them  till  about  the  year  1785, 
when  a  Dr.  Freeman,  preacher  of  King's  Chapel, 
Poston,  became  somewhat  conspicuous  as  an 
abettor  of  anti-trinitarian  views.  He  was  instru- 
mental in  promoting  the  cause,  not  so  much  by 
his  own  preaching  or  publications,  as  by  circu- 
lating Ihe  writings  of  English  authors.  The 
interests  of  Unitarianism  were  considerably  pro- 
moted in  this  country  by  the  visit  of  a  Mr.  Haz- 
litt,  an  English  Unitarian  minister,  in  1785.  "I 
bless  the  day,"  says  Dr  Freeman,  "  when  that 
honest  man  "first  landed  in  this  country." — "Be- 
fore Mr.  Hazlitt  came  to  Boston,  the  Trinitarian 


UNITARIANS 
doxology  was  almost  universally  used.  He  pre- 
vailed upon  several  respectable  ministers  to  omit 
it.  Since  his  departure,  the  number  of  those 
who  repeat  only  scriptural  doxologies  has  greatly 
increased,  so  that  there  are  now  many  churches 
in  which  the  worship  is  strictly  Unitarian."  By 
personal  efforts  and  the  circulation  of  books,  two  or 
three  small  Unitarian  societies  were  established  in 
different  parts  of  the  country,  previous  to  the  year 
1800 ;  but  they  died  almost  as  soon  as  they  be- 
gan to  live.  The  doctrine,  though  secretly 
spreading,  was  unpopular ;  very  few  chose  to 
preach  it  openly  ;  and  for  many  years,  indeed 
until  comparatively  a  recent  dale,  the  society  at 
King's  Chapel,  Boston,  was  the  only  avowed 
Unitarian  congregation  of  note  in  New  England. 
In  1810,  Messrs.  Noah  and  Thomas  Worcester, 
brothers,  and  both  settled  ministers  at  that  time 
in  New  Hampshire,  commenced  their  publica- 
tions against  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity.  The 
principal  of  these  publications  was  entitled  "  Bible 
News."  The  author  supposes  that  Christ  is  the 
Son  of  God  "in  the  most  strict  and  proper  sense 
of  the  terms,"  "  as  truly  as  Isaac  was  the  son  of 
Abraham  ;"  "  that  he  is  not  a  created  but  a  de- 
rived being  ;"  "  that  he  is  a  person  of  Divine  dig- 
nity;" and  was  "constituted  the  Creator  of  the 
world ;"  that  he  "  is  the  object  of  divine  honours  ;" 
"  that  he  became  the  Son  of  Man,  by  becom- 
ing the  soul  of  a  human  body,"  &c.  &c.  The 
holder  of  this  strange  theory,  it  would  seem, 
ought  not  to  complain  of  mysteries  in  the  reli- 
gious systems  of  others.  Many,  however,  were 
led,  in  consequence  of  the  discussion  which  grew 
out  of  this  publication,  to  review  their  grounds  of 
belief  in  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity ;  and  the 
faith  of  several  was  shaken.  About  this  time  also 
the  university  of  Cambridge,  Mass.,  fell  under 
the  decided  influence  of  Unitarian  sentiments, 
and  has  since  continued  to  send  out  annually 
large  numbers  of  young  men,  from  whom  the 
ranks  of  the  society  are  hereafter  to  be  supplied. 
Up  to  the  year  1810,  no  party  espousing  Unita- 
rianism  had  been  publicly  and  openly  formed,  but 
tlie  time  had  now  come  when  the  existence  and 
prevalence  of  this  opinion  in  Boston  could  not  be 
much  longer  concealed.  The  truth  had  been 
discovering  itself  in  conversation,  in  letters,  in 
periodical  works,  for  several  years,  and  the  traces 
of  it  were  becoming  continually  more  evident  and 
palpable.  The  pulpit  indeed  was  silent.  The 
opposition  to  the'  prevailing  system  was  canned 
on,  for  the  most  part,  in  secret.  But,  in  the 
spring  of  1815,  a  full  and  unequivocal  develope- 
ment  was  made.  The  temporizing  policy  of 
Unitarians  in  this  country  had  long  been  disap- 
proved of  by  their  brethren  in  England,  who 
took  effectual  means  at  last  to  expose  and  correct 
it.  Mr.  Belsham,  in  his  memoirs  of  Lindsey, 
printed  in  London  in  1812,  devoted  a  whole  chap- 
ter to  publishing  extracts  of  letters  from  this 
country,  and  giving  an  account  of  American 
Unitarianism.  His  work  soon  found  its  way 
across  the  water,  and  though  studiously  kept  out 
of  circulation  for  about  two  years,  it  fell  at  length 
into  the  hands  of  those  who  were  disposed  to 
make  use  of  it.  The  chapter  on  American  Unita- 
rianism was  published  in  a  pamphlet  by  itself, 
and  a  spirited  review  of  it  was  given  in  the  Pa- 
noplistTor  June,  1815.  These  measures  intro- 
duced an  animated  controversy  between  Dr.  Wor- 
cester and  Dr.  Channing,  and  constrained  the 
445 


UNIVERSALISTS 
Unitarians  to  take  a  stand  prominently  before  the 
public,  a  thing  which  they  were  not  very  willing 
to  do,  but  which  had  now  become  unavoidable. 
When  the  disclosure  and  the  discussions  now  re- 
ferred to  had  passed  over,  and  time  had  been 
given  for  those  ministers  and  people  who  had 
already  exchanged  the  religion  of  their  fathers 
for  Unitarianism,  to  avow  their  faith  and  take 
sides  for  themselves,  it  was  found,  as  was  ex- 
pected, that  a  very  considerable  impression  had 
been  made.  At  the  present  time  the  number  of 
churches  belonging  to  the  Unitarians  is  not  defi- 
nitely known.  Six  or  eight  are  formed  in  Maine, 
four  or  five  in  New  Hampshire,  one  in  Vermont, 
one  hundred  and  thirty  or  forty  in  Massachusetts, 
two  in  New  York  city,  one  in  Philadelphia,  and 
a  few  in  other  places  south  and  west. 

Many  of  the  churches  are  connected  in  an 
Association,  which  meets  annually  in  Boston, 
during  the  week  of  General  Election  in  May. 

As  to  the  distinguishing  doctrines  of  Unita- 
rians, particularly  the  modern  class,  it  is  not  easy 
to  give  an  adequate  or  methodical  view  of  them, 
from  the  fact  that  they  do  not  seem  themselves  to 
have  clearly  fixed  and  determined  their  whole 
system  of  belief.  The  process  of  controversial 
discussion  is  constantly  developing  new  features 
of  the  Unitarian  creed,  and  leading  them  to  oc- 
cupy new  ground.  The  result  of  the  more  recent 
discussions,  as  gathered  from  their  periodical  pub- 
lications, exhibits  the  following  as  the  prevailing 
tenets  of  the  New  England  Unitarians.  1.  That 
Christ  is  not  truly  a  Divine  Being,  but  an  ex- 
alted and  pre-eminent  pattern  of  human  perfec- 
tion.— 2.  That  the  Scriptures  are  "  not  a  revelation, 
but  the  record  of  a  revelation." — 3.  That  the 
Sabbath  or  Lord's  Day  of  Christians  under  the 
New  Testament  has  no  connection  whatever  with 
the  ancient  Jewish  Sabbath — that  although  it  is 
to  be  honoured  by  resting  from  secular  business, 
yet  it  is  not  to  be  considered  as  "  set  apart  from 
our  common  lives  to  religion,"  nor  is  to  be  re- 
garded as  more  "  holy"  than  any  other  day  of  the 
week. — 1.  That  it  is  doubtful  whether  the  soul  is 
a  substance  or  principle  separate  from  the  body. — 
5.  That  there  are  no  such  spiritual  beings  as  the 
devil,  or  evil  angels. — 6.  That  the  Scriptures  do 
not  teach  the  doctrine  of  eternal  punishments  to 
be  inflicted  upon  the  wicked.  See  Spirit  of  the 
Pilgrims,  1829;  Christ.  Examiner,  passim. — B. 

UNITED  BRETHREN.  See  Moravians. 

UNITY  OF  GOD,  a  term  made  use  of  to 
denote  that  there  is  but  one  God  or  self-existent 
Being.  The  unity  of  God  is  argued  from  his 
necessary  existence,  self-sufficiency,  perfection, 
independance,  and  omnipotence ;  from  the  unity 
of  design  in  the  works  of  nature  ;  and  from  there 
being  no  necessity  of  having  more  gods  than  one  : 
but  the  Scriptures  set  it  beyond  all  doubt,  Deut. 
vi.  4  ;  Psal.  lxxxvi.  10 ;  Isa.  xliii.  10  ;  Mark  xii. 
29  ;  John  xvii.  3 ;  Romans  iii.  30 ;  1  Cor.  viii.  4, 
6  ;  1  Tim.  ii.  5.  See  Polytheism  ;  Abcrncthy 
on  the  Attributes  of  God,  vol.  i.  ser.  5 ;  Wilkins's 
Natural  Religion,  p.  113,  114;  Howe's  Works, 
vol.  i.  p.  72,  73;  Gill's  Divinity,  vol.  i.  8vo.  edit 
p.  183  ;   Ridglcy's  Divinity,  question  8. 

UNIVERSALISTS,  those  whosuppose  that, 
as  Christ  died  for  all,  so,  before  he  shall  have  de- 
livered up  his  mediatorial  kingdom  to  the  Father, 
all  shall  be  brought  to  a  participation  of  the  bene- 
fits of  his  death,  in  their  restoration  to  holiness 
and  happiness.  The}'  teach,  that  the  wicked 
2N 


UNIVERSALISTS 
will  recrive  a  punishment  apportioned  to  their 
crimes;  that,  punishment  itself  is  a  mediatorial 
work,  and  founded  upon  mercy  ;  that  it  is  a  mean 
of  humbling,  subduing,  and  finally  reconciling  the 
sinner  to  God.  They  suppose  that  the  words 
eternal,  everlasting,  &c.  as  they  sometimes  apply 
to  the  things  Which  have  ended,  so  they  cannot 
apply  to  endless  misery.  They  say,  this  doctrine 
is  the  most  consonant  to  the  perfections  of  the 
Deity,  most  worthy  the  character  of  Christ,  and 
that  the  Scriptures  cannot  be  reconciled  upon  any 
other  plan.  They  teach  their  followers  ardent 
love  to  God  ;  and  peace,  meekness,  candour,  and 
universal  love  to  men,  they  observe,  are  the  natu- 
ral result  of  these  views. 

The  sentiments  of  the  Universalists  were  em- 
braced by  Origen  in  the  3rd  century,  and  in  more 
modern  limes  by  Chevalier  Ramsay,  Dr.  Cheyne, 
Mr  Hartley,  and  others.  But  one  of  the  great- 
est advocates  for  this  doctrine  was  Dr.  Chauncey. 
His  arguments  are  these :  1.  Christ  died  not  for 
a  select  number  of  men  only,  but  for  mankind 
universally,  and  without  exception  or  limitation, 
for  the  sacred  Scriptures  are  singularly  emphati- 
cal  in  expressing  this  truth,  1  Thess.  v.  10;  1 
Cor.  xv.  3 ;  Rom.  v.  6 ;  1  Pet.  iii.  18 ;  John  i.  29 ; 
iii.  16,  17;  1  John  ii.  3;  Hch.  ii.  9.-2.  It  is  (he 
purpose  of  God  according  to  his  good  pleasure 
that  mankind  universally,  in  consequence  of  the 
death  of  his  Son  Jesus  Christ,  shall  certainly  and 
finally  be  saved,  Rom.  v.  12,  &c. ;  viii.  19 — 24 ; 
Col.  i.  19,  20 ;  Eph.  iv.  10 ;  i.  9, 10 ;  2  Tim.  i.  4.— 
3.  As  a  mean,  in  order  to  men's  being  made 
meet  for  salvation,  God  will  sooner  or  later,  in 
this  state  or  another,  reduce  them  all  under  a 
willing  and  obedient  subjection  to  his  moral  go- 
vernment, 1  John  iii.  8 ;  John  i.  29 ;  Matt.  i.  21 ; 
Psalm  viii.  5,  0;  Heb.  ii.  6,  9;  Phil.  ii.  9—11; 
1  Cor.  xv.  21 — 29. — 4.  The  Scripture  language 
concerning  the  reduced  or  restored,  in  consequence 
of  the  mediatory  interposition  of  Jesus  Christ, 
is  such  as  leads  us  into  the  thought,  that  it  is 
comprehensive  of  mankind  universally,  Rev.  v.  13. 

The  opponents,  however,  of  Dr.  Chauncey, 
and  this  doctrine,  observe,  on  the  contrary  side, 
that  the  sacred  Scriptures  expressly  declare  that 
the  punishment  of  the  finally  impenitent  shall  he 
eternal,  Matt,  xviii.  8 ;  xxv.  41,  46 ;  Mark  ix.  43 ; 
Rev.  xiv.  11 ;  2  Thess.  i.  9;  Ephes.ii.  17;  Jude 
xiii. ;  Rev.  ix.  3;  xx.  10;  Matt.  xii.  31,  32; 
Lukexii.  10;  Mark  iii.  29;  1  John  v.  16;  Heb. 
i.  4,  6;  x.  26,  27;  Matt.  xxvi.  24.  See  articles 
Dkstructionists,  Hki.i,. 

The  title  of  Universalists  distinguishes  those 
who  embrace  the  sentiment  of  Mr.  Relly.  See 
Reixyanists.  Dr.  Joseph  Huntingdon  was  a 
great  advocate  also  lor  universal  salvation,  as  may 
l>e  seen  from  a  posthumous  work  of  his,  entitled, 
"Calvinism  improved ;  or  t lie  Gospel  illustrated 
in  a  System  of  real  Grace  issuing  in  the  Salva- 
tion of  all  men."  This  work  was  answered  by 
Mr.  Nathan  Strong,  a  minister  of  Hartford,  in 
Connecticut ;  in  which  he  endeavours  to  recon- 
cile the  doctrine  of  eternal  misery  with  the  infinite 
benevolence  of  God. 

This  doctrine  of  universal  salvation,  or  resto- 
ration, besides  being  generally  acknowledged  by 
the  Socinians,  has  been  defended  in  England  by 
Mr.  Winchester,  and  after  him  by  Mr.  Vidler 
and  others.  The  latter  has  been  opposed  by  Mr. 
A.  Fuller  and  Mr.  C.  Jerram.  Dr.  Chauncey's 
Salvation  of  all  Mc  it;    I  111  ilr'  i  Restoration  of  all 

446 


USURY 

Things;  Hartley  on  Man;  Universalists'  Mis- 
cellany; Fuller's  Letter  to  Vidler;  and  Letters 
to  an  Universalis!,  containing  a  Review  of  that 
Controversy,  by  Scrutator;  Mr.  Spaulding's 
Treatise  on  Universalism,  published  in  America. 

UNIVERSALISTS  IN  THE  UNITED 
STATES.  Of  the  Universalists  in  the  United 
States  there  are  probably  about  300  societies,  and 
150  preachers.  A  general  convention  is  annually 
holden,  in  which  the  several  societies  in  New 
England,  and  some  from  the  other  states,  are 
represented.  There  are  ten  or  twelve  associa- 
tions under  its  jurisdiction.  They  publisn  a  very 
considerable  number  of  magazines  and  news- 
papers. A  part  believe  in  a  limited  punishment 
after  this  life ;  others  believe  that  the  future  state 
of  all  will  be  alike  happy  after  death. — B. 

UNPARDONABLE  SIN.     See  Six,  §  8. 

UR1M  AND  THUMMIM  (light  and  per- 
fection,) among  the  ancient  Hebrews,  a  certain 
oracular  manner  of  consulting  God,  which  was 
done  by  the  high  priest,  dressed  in  his  robes,  and 
having  on  his  pectoral,  or  breast-plate.  There 
have  been  a  variety  of  opinions  respecting  the 
Urim  and  Thummim,  and  after  all  we  cannot 
determine  what  they  were.  The  use  made  of  them 
was,  to  consult  God  in  difficult  cases  relating  to 
the  whole  state  of  Israel,  and  sometimes  in  cases 
relating  to  the  king,  the.  sanhedrim,  the  general 
of  the  army,  or  some  other  great  personage. 

URSULINES,  an  order  of  nuns,  founded 
originally  by  St.  Angela,  of  Brescia,  in  the  year 
1537,  and  so  called  from  St.  Ursula,  to  whom  they 
were  dedicated. 

At  first,  these  religious  did  not  live  in  commu- 
nity, but  abode  separately  in  their  fathers'  houses ; 
and  their  employment  was  to  search  for  the  af- 
flicted, to  comfort  them ;  for  the  ignorant,  to  in- 
struct them  ;  and  for  the  poor,  to  relieve  them :  to 
visit  the  hospitals,  and  to  attend  upon  the  sick ; 
in  short,  to  be  always  ready  to  do  acts  of  charity 
and  compassion.  In  1544,  pope  Paul  III.  con- 
firmed the  institution  of  the  Ursulines.  Sir 
Charles  Borromeo  brought  some  of  them  from 
Brescia  to  Milan,  where  they  multiplied  to  the 
number  of  four  hundred.  Pope  Gregory  XIII. 
and  his  successors  Sixtus  V.  and  Paul  V.  grant- 
ed new  privileges  to  this  congregation.  In  pro- 
cess of  time,  the  Ursulines,  who  before  lived  sepa- 
rately, began  to  live  in  community,  and  embrace 
the  regular  life.  The  first  who  did  so  were  the 
Ursulines  of  Paris,  established  there  in  1604, 
who  entered  into  the  cloister  in  the  year  1614,  by 
virtue  of  a  bull  of  pope  Paul  V.  The  foundress 
of  the  Ursulines  of  franco  was  Madame  Frances 
de  Bermond,  who,  in  157 1,  engaged  about  twenty- 
five  young  women  of  Avignon  to  embrace  the 
institute  of  St.  Angela  of  Brescia.  The  princi- 
pal employ  of  the  Ursulines,  since  their  establish- 
ment into  a  regular  order,  were  to  instruct  young 
women ;  and  their  monasteries  were  a  kind  of 
schools,  wbei-e  young  ladies  of  the  best  families 
received  their  education. 

USURY,  the  gain  taken  for  the  loan  of  money 
or  wares.  The  Jews  were  allowed  to  lend  mo- 
ney upon  usury  to  strangers,  Deut.  xxii:.  20;  but 
were  prohibited  to  take  usury  from  their  brethren 
of  Israel ;  at  least,  if  they  were  poor,  Ex.  xxii.  25 ; 
Lev.  xxv.  35,  37.  From  the  Scriptures  speaking 
against  the  practice  of  usury,  some  have  thought 
it  unlawful,  Psal.  xv.  5;  1'rov.  xxviii.  8 ;  Ezek. 
xviii.  8.     But  it  is  replied,  that  usury  there  only 


VEDAS 
means   immoderate  interest,  or   oppression,   by 
taking  advantage  of  the  indigent  circumstances 
of  our  neighbour ;  and  that  it  seems  as  lawful  for 
a  man  to  receive  interest  for  monev,  which  ano- 


VISION 
ther  takes  pain  with,   improves,   hut  runs  the 
hazard  of  in  trade,  as  it  is  to  receive  rent  for  our 
land,  which  another  takes  pain  with,  improves, 
but  runs  the  hazard  of  in  husbandry. 


-V. 


VALENTINIANS,  a  sect  who  sprung  up  in 
the  second  century,  and  were  so  called  from  their 
leader  Valentinus.  The  Valentinians  were  only 
a  branch  of  the  Gnostics,  who  realized  or  per- 
sonified the  Platonic  ideas  concerning  the  Deity, 
whom  they  called  Pleroma,  or  Plenitude.  Their 
system  was  this :  the  first  principle  is  Bythos,  i.  e. 
Depth,  which  remained  many  ages  unknown, 
having  with  it  Ennoe  or  Thought,  and  Sige  or 
Silence:  from  these  sprung  the  Nous  or  Intelli- 
gence, which  is  the  only  Son,  equal  to  and  alone 
capable  of  comprehending  the  Bythos.  The  sister 
of  Nous  they  called  Aletheia  or  Truth ;  and  these 
constituted  the  first  quaternity  of  iEons,  which 
were  the  source  and  original  of  all  the  rest ;  for 
Nous  and  Aletheia  produced  the  world  and  fife, 
and  from  these  two  proceeded  man  and  the 
church.  But,  besides  these  eight  principal  iEons 
there  were  twenty-two  more ;  the  last  of  which, 
called  Sophia  being  desirous  to  arrive  at  the 
knowledge  of  Bythos,  gave  herself  a  great  deal  of 
uneasiness,  which  created  in  her  Anger  and  Fear, 
of  which  was  born  Matter.  But  the  Horos  or 
Bounder  stopped  her,  preserved  her  in  the  Ple- 
roma, and  restored  her  to  Perfection.  Sophia  then 
produced  the  Christ  and  the  Holy  Spirit,  which 
brought  the  ^Eons  to  their  last  perfection,  and 
made  every  one  of  them  contribute  their  utmost 
to  form  a  Saviour.  Her  Enthymese  or  Thought, 
dwelling  near  the  Pleroma  perfected  by  the 
Christ,  produced  every  thing  tnat  is  in  this  world 
by  its  divers  passions.  The  Christ  sent  into  it  the 
Saviour,  accompanied  with  angels,  who  delivered 
it  from  its  passions  without  annihilating  it :  from 
thence  was  formed  corporeal  matter.  And  in  this 
manner  did  they  romance  concerning  God,  na- 
ture, and  the  mysteries  of  the  Christian  religion. 

VATICAN  MANUSCRIPT,  one  of  the 
principal  Greek  manuscripts  now  extant.  It  con- 
tained originally  the  whole  Greek  Bible.  The  age 
of  this  manuscript  is  supposed  to  be  no  higher 
than  the  fifth  century.  See  No.  29,  article  Bible. 

VANITY,  emptiness.  It  is  often  applied  to 
the  man  who  wishes  you  to  think  more  highly  of 
him  than  what  he  really  deserves :  hence  the  vain 
man  flatters  in  order  to  be  flattered ;  is  always 
fond  of  praise,  endeavours  to  bribe  others  into  a 
good  opinion  of  himself  by  his  complaisance,  and 
sometimes  even  by  good  offices,  though  often  dis- 
played with  unnecessary  ostentation.  The  term 
is  likewise  applied  to  this  world,  as  unsatisfactory, 
Ecc.  i.  2;  to  lying,  Psal.  iv.  2;  to  idols,  Deut. 
xxxii.  21 ;  to  whatever  disappoints  our  hopes, 
Psal.  lx.  11.     See  Pride. 

VEDAS,  the  sacred  books  of  the  Hindoos, 
believed  to  be  revealed  by  God,  and  called  im- 
mortal. They  are  considered  as  the  fountain  of 
all  knowledge,  human  and  divine,  and  are  four  in 
number.  The  principal  part  of  them  is  that 
which  explains  the  duties  of  man  in  methodical 
arrangement.  The  fourth  book  contains  a  system 
of  divine  ordinances.  See  the  first  volume  of  the 
Asiatic  Researches. 
417 


VENERATION,  an  affection  compounded 
of  awe  and  love,  and  which  of  all  others  becomes 
creatures  to  bear  toward  their  infinitely  perfect 
Creator.     See  Devotion. 

VERACITY  OF  GOD  is  his  truth,  or  an 
exact  correspondence  and  conformity  between  his 
word  and  his  mind.  Moses  says,  "  Pie  is  a  God 
of  truth."  He  is  true  in  and  of  himself;  he  truly 
and  really  exists ;  he  is  the  true  and  living  God  : 
all  his  perfections  are  true  and  real ;  truth  is  es- 
sential to  him ;  it  is  pure  and  perfect  in  hirn ;  it 
is  the  first  and  original  in  him ;  he  is  the  fountain 
of  truth :  all  his  works  in  creation,  providence, 
and  grace,  are  according  to  truth.  See  Faith- 
fulness of  God. 

VERSCHORISTS,  a  sect  that  derived  its 
denomination  from  Jacob  Verschoor,  a  native  of 
Flushing,  who  in  the  year  1680,  out  of  a  perverse 
and  heterogeneous  mixture  of  the  tenets  of  Coc- 
ceius  and  Spinosa,  produced  a  new  form  of  reli- 
gion, equally  remarkable  for  its  extravagance  and 
impiety.  His  disciples  and  followers  were  called 
Hebrews,  on  account  of  the  zeal  and  assiduity 
with  which  they  all,  without  distinction  of  age  or 
sex,  applied  themselves  to  the  study  of  the  He- 
brew language.  Their  sentiments  were  nearly 
the  same  as  the  Hattemists.     See  Hattemists. 

VICAR,  a  priest  of  a  parish,  the  predial  tythes 
whereof  are  impropriate  or  appropriated  ;  that  is, 
belong  either  to  a  chapter,  religious  house,  &c.  or 
to  a  layman,  who  receives  them,  and  only  allows 
the  vicar  the  small  tythes,  or  a  convenient  salar". 

VICE,  a  fault;  the  opposite  to  virtue. 

VIGIL,  the  eve  or  day  before  any  solemn  feast, 
because  then  Christians  were  wont  to  watch,  fast, 
and  pray  in  their  churches. 

VIRTUE,  a  term  used  in  various  significa- 
tions. Some  define  it  to  be  "  living  according  to 
nature;"  others,  "universal  benevolence."  Some, 
again,  place  it  "in  regard  to  truth;"  others  in 
"  the  moral  sense."  Some  place  it  in  "  the  imita- 
tion of  God;"  others,  "in  the  love  of  God  and 
our  fellow-creatures."  Some,  again,  think  it  con- 
sists "in  mediocrity,"  supposing  vice  to  consist  in 
extremes ;  others  have  placed  it  in  "  a  wise  regard 
to  our  own  interest."  Dr.  Smith  refers  it  to  the 
principle  of  sympathy ;  and  Paley  defines  it  to  be 
the  doing  good  to  mankind,  in  obedience  to  the 
will  of  God,  and  for  the  sake  of  everlasting  hap- 
piness. Some  of  these  definitions  are  certainly 
objectionable.  Perhaps  those  who  place  it  in  the 
love  of  God  and  our  fellow-creatures  may  come 
as  near  to  the  truth  as  any.  See  Edwards  and 
Jameson  on  Virtue:  Grove's  and  Paley' s  Moral 
Phil. :  Cumberland's  Law  of  Nature,  cap.  1.  §  4; 
Bcattic's  Elements  of  Moral  Science,  vol.  ii.  p. 
8,  77;  Dn.  Watts' s  Self -Love  and  Virtue  Recon- 
ciled, 2d  vol.  of  his  work,  last  edition. 

VISION,  the  supernatural  representation  of 
an  object  to  a  man  when  waking,  as  in  a  glass 
which  places  the  visage  before  him.  It  was  one 
of  the  ways  in  which  the  Almighty  was  pleased 
to  reveal  himself  to  the  prophets,  lsa.  i.  1 :  XX\  2. 


WALDENSES 

VISITATION,  the  survey  or  inspection  per- 
formed by  a  bishop  in  his  diocese,  to  examine 
into  the  state  of  the  church.  In  a  divine  or  spi- 
ritual sense,  it  is  taken  either  for  a  communica- 
tion of  divine  love,  or  for  any  calamity  affecting  a 
nation. 

VOW,  a  solemn  and  religious  promise  or  oath. 
[See  Oath.]  It  is  more  particularly  taken  for  a 
solemn  promise  made  to  God,  in  which  we  bind 
ourselves  to  do  or  forbear  somewhat  for  the  pro- 
moting of  his  glory.  Under  the  Old  Testament 
dispensation,  vows  were  very  common,  Judg.  xi. ; 
Num.  xxx.    But  in  the  New  Testament  there  is 


WALDENSES 
no  command  whatever  for  the  observation  o* 
them.  Hence  it  is  supposed  that  vows  bclonff 
more  to  the  ceremonial  law  than  to  the  Gospel; 
and  that  we  are  to  be  more  dependent  on  divine 
grace  to  keep  us,  than  to  make  resolutions,  and 
vows  which  we  do  not  know  that  we  shall  be 
able  to  perform ;  and  we  certainly  ought  not  to 
vow  any  thing  but  what  we  are  able  to  per- 
form. 

VULGATE,  a  very  ancient  translation  of  the 
Bible,  and  the  only  one  acknowledged  by  the 
church  of  Rome  to  be  authentic.  See  Bible, 
No.  32. 


w. 


WALDENSES,  or  Valorises,  a  sect  of  re- 
formers, who  made  their  first  appearance  about 
the  year  11G0.  They  were  most  numerous  about 
the  vallies  of  Piedmont ;  and  hence,  some  say, 
they  were  called  Valdenses,  or  Vaudois,  and  not 
from  Peter  Valdo,  as  others  suppose.  Mosheim, 
however,  gives  this  account  of  them:  he  says, 
that  Peter,  an  opulent  merchant  of  Lyins,  sur- 
named  Valdensi?,  or  Validisiu.%  from  Vaux,  or 
Waldum,  a  town  in  the  marquisate  of  Lyons, 
being  extremely  zealous  for  the  advancement  of 
true  piety  and  Christian  knowledge,  employed  a 
certain  priest,  called  Stephanus  de  Ecisa,  about 
the  year  1160,  in  translating,  from  Latin  into 
French,  the  four  Gospels,  with  other  books  of 
holy  Scripture,  and  the  most  remarkable  senten- 
ces of  the  ancient  doctors,  which  were  so  highly 
esteemed  in  this  century.  But  no  sooner  had  he 
perused  these  sacred  books  with  a  proper  degree 
of  attention,  than  he  perceived  that  the  rel'gion 
which  was  now  taught  in  the  Roman  church  dif- 
fered totally  from  that  which  was  originally  in- 
culcated by  Christ  and  his  apostles.  Struck  with 
this  glaring  contradiction  between  the  doctrines 
of  the  pontiffs  and  the  truths  of  the  Gospel,  and 
animated  with  zeal,  he  abandoned  his  mercantile 
vocation,  distributed  his  riches  among  the  poor 
(whence  the  Waldenses  were  called  poor  men  of 
Lyons,)  anil,  forming  an  association  with  other 

[)ious  men,  who  had  adopted  his  sentiments  and 
lis  turn  of  devotion,  he  began,  in  the  year  1180, 
to  assume  the  quality  of  a  public  teacher,  and  to 
instruct  the  multitude  in  the  doctrines  and  pre- 
cepts of  Christianity. 

Soon  after  Peter  had  assumed  the  exercise  of 
his  ministry,  the  archbishop  of  Lyons,  and  the 
other  rulers  of  the  church  in  that  province,  vigo- 
rously opposed  him.  However,  their  opposition 
was  unsuccessful ;  for  the  purity  and  simplicity 
of  that  religion  which  these  good  men  taught, 
the  spotless  innocence  that  shone  forth  in  their 
lives  and  actions,  and  the  noble  contempt  of 
riches  and  honours  which  was  conspicuous  in  the 
whole  ot  their  conduct  and  conversation,  appeared 
so  engaging  to  all  such  as  had  any  sense  of  true 
piety,  that  the  number  of  their  followers  daily 
increased  They  accordingly  formed  religious 
assemblies,  first  in  France,  and  afterwards  in 
Lombardy;  from  whence  they  propagated  their 
sect  throughout  the  other  provinces  of  Europe 
with  incredible  rapidity,  and  with  such  invincible 
fortitude,  that  neither  fire  nor  sword,  nor  the 
most  cruel  inventions  of  merciless  persecution, 
could  damp  their  zeal,  or  entirely  ruin  their  cause. 
448 


|  The  attempts  of  Peter  Waldus  and  his  fol- 
I  lowers  were  neither  employed  nor  designed  to 
introduce  new  doctrines  into  the  church,  nor  to 
propose  new  articles  of  faith  to  Christians.  All 
they  aimed  at  was,  to  reduce  the  form  of  eccle- 
siastical government,  and  the  manners  both  of 
the  clergy  and  people,  to  that  amiable  simplicity 
and  primitive  sanctity  that  characterised  the  apos- 
tolic ages,  and  which  appear  so  strongly  recom- 
mended in  the  precepts  and  injunctions  of  the 
Divine  Author  of  our  holy  religion.  In  conse- 
quence of  this  design,  they  complained  that  the 
Roman  church  had  degenerated,  under  Constan- 
tine  the  Great,  from  its  primitive  purity  and  sanc- 
tity. They  denied  the  supremacy  of  the  Roman 
pontiff,  and  maintained  that  the  rulers  and  minis- 
ters of  the  church  were  obliged,  by  their  vocation, 
to  imitate  the  poverty  of  "the  apostles,  and  to  pro- 
cure for  themselves  a  subsistence  by  the  work  of 
their  hands.  They  considered  every  Christian 
as,  in  a  certain  measure,  qualified  and  authorized 
to  instruct,  exhort,  and  confirm  the  brethren  in 
their  Christian  course;  and  demanded  the  resto- 
ration of  the  ancient  penitential  discipline  of  the 
church,  i.  e.  the  expiation  of  transgressions  by 
prayer,  fasting,  and  alms,  which  the  new-invented 
doctrine  of  indulgences  had  almost  totally  abo- 
lished. They  at  the  same  time  affirmed,  that 
every  pious  Christian  was  qualified  and  entitled 
to  prescribe  to  the  penitent  the  kind  or  degree  of 
satisfaction  or  expiation  that  their  transgressions 
required  ;  lhat  confession  made  to  priests  was  by 
no  means  necessary,  since  the  humble  offender 
might  acknowledge  his  sins  and  testify  his  repent- 
ance to  any  true  believer,  and  might  expect  from 
such  the  counsel  and  admonition  which  his  case 
demanded.  They  maintained,  that  the  power  of 
delivering  sinners  from  the  guilt  and  punishment 
of  their  offences  belonged  to  God  alone ;  and  that 
indulgences,  of  consequence,  were  the  criminal 
inventions  of  sordid  avarice.  They  looked  upon 
the  prayers  and  other  ceremonies  that  were  insti- 
tuted in  behalf  of  the  dead,  as  vain,  useless,  and 
absurd,  and  denied  the  existence  of  departed  souls 
in  an  intermediate  state  of  purification ;  affirming, 
that  they  were  immediately,  upon  their  separation 
from  the  Iwdy,  received  into  heaven,  or  thrust 
down  to  hell.  These  and  other  tenets  of  a  like 
nature,  composed  the  system  of  doctrine  propaga- 
ted by  the  Waldenses.  It  is  also  said,  that  several 
of  the  Waldenses  denied  the  obligation  of  infant 
baptism,  and  that  others  rejected  water  baptism 
entirely  ;  but  Wall  has  laboured  to  prove  that  in- 
fant baptism  was  generally  practised  among  them. 


WATERLANDIANS 

Their  rules  of  practice  were  extremely  austere; 
for  they  adopted  as  the  model  of  their  moral  dis- 
cipline the  sermon  of  Christ  on  the  mount,  which 
they  interpreted  and  explained  in  the  most  rigor- 
ous and  literal  manner;  and  consequently  pro- 
hibited and  condemned  in  their  society  all  wars, 
and  suits  of  law,  and  all  attempts  towards  the 
acquisition  of  wealth ;  the  inflicting  of  capital 
punishments,  self-defence  against  unjust  violence, 
and  oaths  of  all  kinds. 

During  the  greatest  part  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  those  of  them  who  lived  in  the  valleys 
of  Piedmont,  and  who  had  embraced  the  doctrine, 
discipline,  and  worship  of  the  church  of  Geneva, 
were  oppressed  and  persecuted  in  the  most  bar- 
barous and  inhuman  manner  by  the  ministers  of 
Rome.  This  persecution  was  carried  on  with 
peculiar  marks  of  rage  and  enormity  in  the  years 
1655,  1656,  and  16D6,  and  seemed  to  portend 
nothing  less  than  the  total  extinction  of  that  un- 
happy nation.  The  most  horrid  scenes  of  violence 
and  bloodshed  were  exhibited  in  this  theatre  of 
papal  tyranny ;  and  the  few  Waldenses  that  sur- 
vived were  indebted  for  their  existence  and  sup- 
port to  the  intercession  made  for  them  by  the 
English  and  Dutch  governments,  and  also  by  the 
Swiss  cantons,  who  solicited  the  clemency  of  the 
duke  of  Savoy  on  their  behalf. 

WATCHERS.     See  Acoemetje. 

WATCHFULNESS,  vigilance,  or  care  to 
avoid  surrounding  enemies  and  dangers.  We  are 
to  watch  against  the  insinuations  of  Satan;  the 
allurements  of  the  world ;  the  deceitfulness  of  our 
hearts ;  the  doctrines  of  the  erroneous ;  and,  in- 
deed, against  every  thing  that  would  prove  inimi- 
cal to  our  best  interests.  We  are  to  exercise  this 
duty  at  all  times,  in  all  places,  and  under  all  cir- 
cumstances I  Cor.  xvi.  13 ;  Luke  xii.  37. 

To  wata\  is  also  to  wait  for  and  expect :  thus 
we  are,  1.  To  watch  the  providence  of  God. — 
'2.  The  fulfilment  of  the  prophecies. — 3.  God's 
time  for  our  deliverance  from  troubles.  Ps.  exxx. — 

4.  We  are  to  watch  unto  prayer,  Eph.  vi.  18. — 

5.  For  death  and  judgment,  Mark  xiii.  37. 
WATERLAND1ANS,  a  sect  of  Anabap- 
tists in  Holland.  They  are  thus  called  in  distinc- 
tion from  the  Flemingians,  or  Flandrians,  and 
likewise  because  they  consisted  at  first  of  the  in- 
habitants of  a  district  in  North  Holland,  called 
Waterland.  The  Flemingians  were  called  the 
fine  or  rigid,  and  the  Waterlandians  the  gross 
or  moderate  Anabaptists.  The  former  observe, 
with  the  most  religious  accuracy  and  veneration, 
the  ancient  doctrine  and  discipline  of  the  purer 
sort  of  Anabaptists ;  the  latter  depart  much  more 
from  the  primitive  sentiments  and  manners  of 
their  sect,  and  approach  nearer  to  the  Protestant 
churches.  These  latter,  however,  are  divided 
into  two  distinct  sects,  the  Waterlanders  and  the 
Frieslanders :  but  this  difference,  it  is  said,  mere- 
ly respects  their  place  of  abode.  Neither  party 
have  any  bishops,  but  only  presbyters  and  dea- 
cons. Each  congregation  is  independent  of  all 
foreign  jurisdiction,  having  its  own  court  of  go- 
vernment, composed  of  the  presbyters  and  dea- 
cons. But  the  supreme  power  being  in  the  hands 
of  the  people,  nothing  of  importance  can  be  trans- 
acted without  their  consent.  The  presbyters  are 
generally  men  of  learning ;  and  they  have  u  pub- 
lic professor  at  Amsterdam  for  instructing  their 
youth  in  the  different  branches  of  erudition,  sa- 
cred and  profane.     About  1661,  the  Waterland- 

44S)  3  G 


WHIPPERS 

ers  were  split  into  the  factions  of  the  Galenists 
and  the  Apostoolians.  Galen  Abraham  Haan, 
doctor  of  physic,  and  pastor  of  the  Mennonites 
at  Amsterdam,  a  man  of  uncommon  penetration 
and  eloquence,  inclined  towards  the  Arian  and 
Socinian  tenets,  and  insisted  for  the  reception  of 
all  such  into  their  church  fellowship  as  acknow- 
ledged the  divine  authority  of  the  Scriptures,  and 
led  virtuous  lives.  He  and  his  followers  re- 
nounced the  designation  of  the  Mennonites. 
They  were  with  great  zeal  opposed  by  Samuel 
Apostool,  another  physician  and  eminent  pastor 
at  Amsterdam,  who,  with  his  followers,  admitted 
none  to  their  communion  but  such  fts  professed 
to  believe  all  the  points  of  doctrine  contained  in 
their  public  Confession  of  Faith. 

WEDNESDAY,  ASH.  The  first  day  of 
Lent,  when,  in  the  primitive  church,  notorious 
sinners  were  put  to  open  penance  thus :  They 
appeared  at  the  church  door  barefooted,  and 
clothed  in  sackcloth,  where,  being  examined, 
their  discipline  was  proportioned  according  to 
their  offences ;  after  which,  being  brought  into 
the  church,  the  bishop  singing  the  seven  peni- 
tential psalms,  they  prostrated  themselves,  and 
with  tears  begged  absolution ;  the  whole  congre- 
gation having  ashes  on  their  heads,  to  signify, 
that  they  were  both  mortal  and  deserved  to  be 
burnt  to  ashes  for  their  sins. 

WESTMINSTER  ASSEMBLY,  a  name 
given  to  the  synod  of  divines  called  by  parliament 
in  the  reign  of  Charles  I.,  for  the  purpose  of  set- 
tling the  government,  liturgy,  and  doctrine  of  the 
church  of  England.  They  were  confined  in  their 
debates  to  such  things  as  the  parliament  proposed. 
Some  counties  had  two  members,  and  some  but 
one.  And  because  they  would  seem  impartial, 
and  give  each  party  the  liberty  to  speak,  they 
chose  many  of  the  most  learned  episcopal  divines  ; 
but  few  of  them  came,  because  it  was  not  a  legal 
convocation,  the  king  having  declared  against  it. 
The  divines  were  men  of  eminent  learning  and 
godliness,  ministerial  abilities,  and  fidelity.  Many 
lords  and  commons  were  joined  with  them,  to  see 
that  they  did  not  go  beyond  their  commission. 
Six  or  seven  Independents  were  also  added  to 
them,  that  all  sides  might  be  heard.  This  assem- 
bly first  met  July  1, 1643,  in  Henry  the  Seventh's 
chapel.  The  most  remarkable  hints  concern- 
ing their  debates  are  to  be  found  in  the  Life  of 
Dr.  Lightfoot,  before  his  works,  in  folio,  and  in 
the  Preface  to  his  remains,  in  octavo.  See  also 
the  Assembh/s  Confession  of  Faith;  Neale's 
History  of  the  Puritans;  and  article  Directory, 
in  this  work.  There  is  a  publication  which  is 
commonly,  but  unjustly  ascribed  tc  this  assembly, 
viz.  The  Annotations  on  the  Bible.  The  truth 
is,  the,  same  parliament  that  called  the  assembly, 
employed  the  authors  of  that  work,  and  several 
of  them  were  members  of  the  assembly. 

WHIPPERS,  or  Flagellantes,  a  sect  of 
wild  fanatics  who  chastised  and  disciplined  them- 
selves with  whips  in  public.  It  had  its  rise  in 
Italy  in  the  year  1'260 :  its  author  was  one  Rai- 
ncr,  a  hermit ;  and  it  was  propagated  from  hence 
through  almost  all  the  countries  of  Europe.  A 
great  number  of  persons,  of  all  ages  and  sexes, 
made  processions,  walking  two  by  two,  with  their 
shoulders  bare,  which  they  whipped  till  the  blood 
ran  down,  in  order  to  obtain  mercy  from  God, 
and  appease  his  indignation  against  the  wicked- 
ness of  the  ace.  They  were  then  called  the 
'2  x  2 


W1CKLIFFITES 
Devout;  and  having  established  a  superior,  he 
Was  called  General  of  the  Devotion.  Though  the 
primitive  Whippers  were  exemplary  in  point  of 
morals,  yet  they  were  joined  by  a  turbulent  rab- 
ble, who  were  infected  with  the  most  ridiculous 
and  impious  opinions  :  so  that  the  emperors  and 
pontilfs  thought  proper  to  put  an  end  to  this  reli- 
gious frenzy,  by  declaring  all  devout  whipping 
contrary  to  the  divine  law,  and  prejudicial  to  the 
soul's  eternal  interest. 

However,  this  sect  revived  in  Germany  towards 
the  middle  of  the  next  century,  and  rambling 
through  many  provinces,  occasioned  great  dis- 
turbances. >  They  held,  among  other  things,  that 
whipping  was  of  equal  virtue  with  baptism  and 
the  other  sacraments;  that  the  forgiveness  of  all 
sins  was  to  be  obtained  by  it  from  God  without 
the  merits  of  Jesus  Christ ;  that  the  old  law  of 
Christ  was  soon  to  be  abolished,  and  that  a  new 
law,  enjoining  the  baptism  of  blood  to  be  ad- 
ministered by  whipping,  was  to  be  substituted  in 
its  place :  upon  which  Clement  VII.,  by  an  inju- 
dicious as  well  as  unrighteous  policy,  thundered 
out  anathemas  against  the  Whippers,  who  were 
burnt  by  the  inquisitors  in  several  places:  but 
they  were  not  easily  extirpated.  They  appeared 
again  in  Thuringia  and  Lower  Saxony  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  and  rejected  not  only  the  sacra- 
ments, but  every  branch  of  external  worship ; 
and  placed  their  only  hopes  of  salvation  in  faith 
and  whipping,  to  which  they  added  other  strange 
doctrines  concerning  evil  spirits.  Their  leader, 
Conrad  Schmidt,  and  many  others,  were  commit- 
ted to  the  flames  by  German  inquisitors  in  and 
after  the  vear  1414. 

WHITE  BRETHREN.  See  Brethren, 
White. 

WHITSUNDAY,  a  solemn  festival  of  the 
Christian  church,  observed  on  the  fiftieth  day 
after  Easter,  in  memory  of  the  descent  of  the 
Holy  Ghost  upon  the  apostles  in  the  visible  ap- 
pearance of  fiery  cloven  tongues,  and  of  those 
miraculous  powers  which  were  then  conferred 
upon  them. 

It  is  called  Whitsunday,  or  White-Sunday, 
because  this  being  one  of  the  stated  times  for  bap- 
tism in  the  ancient  church,  those  who  were 
baptized  put  on  white  garments,  as  types  of  that 
spiritual  purity  they  received  in  baptism.  As  the 
descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  upon  the  apostles  hap- 
pened on  that  day  which  the  Jews  called  Pente- 
cost, this  festival  retained  the  name  of  Pentecost 
among  the  Christians. 

WICKEDNESS.     See  Sin. 

WICKLIPFITES,thefollowersof  the  famous 
John  Wickliffe,  called  "the  first  reformer,"  who 
was  born  in  Yorkshire  in  the  year  1324.  He 
attacked  the  jurisdiction  of  the  pope  and  the 
bishops.  He  was  for  this  summoned  to  a  coun- 
cil at  Lambeth,  to  give  an  account  of  his  doctrines ; 
but  being  countenanced  by  the  duke  of  Lancas- 
ter, was  both  times  dismissed  without  condemna- 
tion. Wickliffe,  therefore,  continued  to  spread 
Ids  new  principles  as  usual,  adding  to  them  doc- 
trines still  more  alarming ;  by  which  he  drew 
after  him  a  great  Dumber  of  disciples.  Upon 
this,  William  Courtnay,  archbishop  of  Canter- 
bury, called  another  council  in  1382,  which  con- 
demned 2-1  propositions  of  Wickliffe  and  his 
disciples,  and  obtained  a  declaration  of  Richard 
JL  against  all  who  should  preach  them ;  but 
•bile  these  proceedings  were  agitating,  Wick- 
450 


WILL 
liffe  died  at  Lutterworth,  leaving  many  work* 
behind  him  for  the  establishment  of  his  doctrines. 
He  was  buried  in  Ims  own  church  at  Lutterworth, 
in  Leicestershire,  where  his  bones  were  suffered 
to  rest  in  peace  till  the  year  1428,  when  by  an 
order  from  the  pope,  they  were  taken  np  and 
burnt.  Wickliffe  was  doubtless  a  very  extraor- 
dinary man,  considering  the  times  in  which  he 
lived.  He  discovered  the  absurdities  and  impo- 
sitions of  the  church  of  Rome,  and  had  the 
honesty  and  resolution  to  promulgate  his  opinions, 
which  a  little  more  support  would  probably  have 
enabled  him  to  establish ;  they  were  evidently  the 
foundation  of  the  subsequent  Reformation. 

WILHELMINI ANS,  a  denomination  of  the 
13th  century,  so  called  from  Wilhelmina,  a  Bo- 
hemian woman,  who  resided  in  the  territory  of 
Milan.  She  persuaded  a  large  number  that  the 
Holy  Ghost  was  become  incarnate  in  her  person 
for  the  salvation  of  a  great  part  of  mankind.  Ac- 
cording to  her  doctrines  none  were  saved  by  the 
blood  of  Jesus  but  true  and  pious  Christians ; 
while  the  Jews,  Saracens,  and  unworthy  Chris- 
tians, were  to  obtain  salvation  through  the  Holy 
Spirit  which  dwelt  in  her,  and  that,  in  conse- 
quence thereof,  all  which  happened  in  Christ 
during  his  appearance  upon  earth  in  the  human 
nature  was  to  be  exactly  renewed  in  her  person, 
or  rather  in  that  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  was 
united  to  her. 

WILKINSONIANS,  the  followers  of  Je- 
mima Wilkinson,  who  was  born  in  Cumberland, 
in  America.  In  October,  1776,  she  asserted  that 
she  was  taken  sick,  and  actually  died,  and  that 
her  soul  went  to  heaven,  where  it  still  continues. 
Soon  after  her  body  was  re-animated  with  the 
spirit  and  power  of  Christ,  upon  which  she  set 
up  as  a  public  teacher ;  and  declared  she  had  an 
immediate  revelation  for  all  she  delivered,  and 
was  arrived  to  a  state  of  absolute  perfection.  It 
is  also  said  she  pretended  to  foretel  future  events, 
to  discern  the  secrets  of  the  heart,  a?»l  to  have 
the  power  of  healing  diseases  ;  and  \i  any  person 
who  had  made  application  to  her  was  not  healed, 
she  attributed  it  to  his  want  of  faith.  She  asserted, 
that  those  who  refused  to  believe  these  exalted 
things  concerning  her,  will  be  in  the  state  of  the 
unbelieving  Jews,  who  rejected  the  counsel  of 
God  against  themselves ;  and  she  told  her  hearers 
that  was  the  eleventh  hour,  and  the  last  call  of 
mercy  that,  ever  should  be  granted  them  :  for  she 
heard  an  inquiry  in  heaven,  saying,  "  Who  will 
go  and  preach  to  a  dying  world  ?'  or  words  t( 
that  import;  and  she  said  she  answered,  "Here 
am  I — send  me ;"  and  that  she  left  the  realms  of 
light  and  glory,  and  the  company  of  the  heavenly 
host,  who  are  continually  praising  and  worship- 
ping God,  in  order  to  descend  upon  earth,  and 
pass  through  many  sufferings  and  trials  for  the 
happiness  of  mankind.  She  assumed  the.  title  of 
the  universal  friend  of  mankind  ;  hence  her  fol- 
lowers distinguish  themselves  by  the  name  of 
Friends. 

WILL,  that  faculty  of  the  soul  by  which  it 
chooses  or  refuses  any  thing  offered  to  it.  When 
man  was  created,  he  had  liberty  and  power  to 
do  what  was  pleasing  in  the  sight  of  God ;  but, 
by  the  fall,  he  lost  all  ability  of  will  to  any  spi- 
ritual good ;  nor  has  he  any  will  to  that  which  is 
good  until  divine  gTace  enlightens  the  under- 
standing and  changes  the  heart.  "  The  natuve 
of  the  will,  indeed,  is  in  itself  indisputably  free. 


WILL 

Will,  as  will,  must  be  so,  or  there  is  no  such  fa- 
cult}'  ;  but  the  human  will,  being  finite,  hath  a 
necessary  bound,  which  indeed  so  far  may  be 
said  to  confine  it,  because  it  cannot  act  beyond 
it ;  yet  within  the  extent  of  its  capacity  it  neces- 
sarily is  and  ever  will  be  spontaneous. 

"  The  limits  of  the  will,  therefore,  do  not  take 
away  its  inherent  liberty.  The  exercise  of  its 
powers  may  be  confined,  as  it  necessarily  must, 
in  a  finite  being;  but  where  it  is  not  confined, 
that  exercise  will  correspond  with  its  nature  and 
situation. 

"  This  being  understood,  it  is  easy  to  perceive 
that  man  in  his  fallen  state  can  only  will  accord- 
ing to  his  fallen  capacities;  and  that  however 
freely  his  volitions  may  flow  within  their  extent, 
he  cannot  possibly  overpass  them.  He,  there- 
fore, as  a  sinful,  carnal,  and  perverse  apostate,  can 
will  only  according  to  the  nature  of  his  apostacy, 
which  is  continually  and  invariably  evil,  without 
capacity  to  exceed  its  bounds  into  goodness,  purity, 
and  truth ;  or  otherwise  he  would  will  contrary  to 
or  beyond  his  nature  and  situation,  which  is 
equally  impossible  in  itself,  and  contradictory  to 
the  revelation  of  God."  See  Edwards  on  the 
Will;  Theol.  Misc.  vol.  iv.  p.  391 ;  Gill's  Cause 
of  God  and  Truth  ;  Toplady's  Historic  Proof; 
Watts's  Essay  on  the  Freedom  of  the  Will; 
Charnock's  Works,  vol.  ii.  p.  175  and  187 ;  Locke 
on  the  Understanding ;  Reid  on  the  Active 
Powers,  p.  207,  291,  and  articles  Liberty  and 
Necessity  in  this  work. 

WILL-WORSHIP,  the  invention  and  prac- 
tice of  such  expedients  of  appeasing  or  of  pleasing 
God  as  neither  reason  nor  revelation  suggest 

WILL  OF  GOD  is  taken,  1.  For  that  which 
he  has  from  all  eternity  determined,  which  is  un- 
changeable, and  must  certainly  come  to  pass : 
this  is  called  his  secret  will. — 2.  It  is  taken  for 
what  he  has  prescribed  to  us  in  his  word  as  a 
rule  of  duty  ;  this  is  called  his  revealed  will.  A 
question  of  very  great  importance  respecting  our 
duty  deserves  here  to  be  considered.  The  ques- 
tion is  this :  "  How  may  a  person  who  is  desirous 
of  following  the  dictates  of  Providence  in  every 
respect,  know  the  mind  and  will  of  God  in  any 
particular  circumstance,  whether  temporal  or 
spiritual  1"  Now  in  order  to  come  at  the  know- 
ledge of  that  which  is  proper  and  needful  for  us 
to  be  acquainted  with,  we  are  taught  by  prudence 
and  conscience  to  make  use  of,  1.  Deliberation. — 
2.  Consultation. — 3.  Supplication;  but,  1.  We 
should  not  make  our  inclination  the  rule  of  our 
conduct. — 2.  We  should  not  make  our  particular 
frames  the  rule  of  our  judgment  and  determina- 
tion.— 3.  We  are  not  to  be  guided  by  any  un- 
accountable impulses  and  impressions. — 4.  We 
must  not  make  the  event  our  rule  of  judgment. — 
1.  Unless  something  different  from  our  present 
situation  offer  itself  to  our  serious  consideration, 
we  are  not  to  be  desirous  of  changing  our  state, 
except  it  is  unprofitable  or  unlawful. — 2.  When 
an  alteration  of  circumstance  is  proposed  to  us, 
or  Providence  lays  two  or  more  things  before  our 
eyes,  we  should  endeavour  to  take  a  distinct  view 
of  each  case,  compare  them  with  one  another, 
and  then  determine  by  such  maxims  as  these* — 
Of  two  natural  evils  choose  neither;  of  two  moral 
or  spiritual  good  things  choose  the  greatest. — 
&  When  upon  due  consideration  nothing  appears 
in  the  necessity  of  the  case  or  the  leadings  of  Pro- 
vidence to  make  the  way  clear,  we  must  not 
451 


WITCHCRAFT 
hurry  Providence,  but  remain  in  a  state  of  sus. 
pense  ;  or  abide  where  we  are,  waiting  upon  the 
Lord  by  prayer,  and  waiting  for  the  Lord  in  the 
way  of  his  providence.  In  all  cases,  it  should  be 
our  perpetual  concern  to  keep  as  much  as  possible 
out  of  the  way  of  temptation  to  omit  any  duty  or 
commit  any  sin.  We  should  endeavour  to  keep 
up  a  reverence  for  the  word  and  providence  of 
God  upon  our  hearts,  and  to  have  a  steady  eye  to 
his  glory,  and  to  behold  God  in  covenant  as  ma- 
naging every  providential  circumstance  in  sub- 
serviency to  his  gracious  purpose  in  Christ  Je- 
sus." Pike  and  Hayward's  Cases  of  Conscience, 
p.  156. 

WISDOM  denotes  a  high  and  refined  notion 
of  things,  immediately  presented  to  the  mind,  as 
it  were,  by  intuition,  without  the  assistance  of 
reasoning.  In  a  moral  sense,  it  signifies  the  same 
as  prudence,  or  that  knowledge  by  which  we 
connect  the  best  means  with  the  best  ends.  Some, 
however,  distinguish  wisdom  from  prudence  thus  : 
wisdom  leads  us  to  speak  and  act  what  is  most 
proper ;  prudence  prevents  our  speaking  or  act- 
ing improperly.  A  wise  man  employs  the  most 
proper  means  for  success;  a  prudent  man  the 
safest  means  for  not  being  brought  into  danger. 

Spiritual  wisdom  consists  in  the  knowledge 
and  fear  of  God.  It  is  beautifully  described  by 
St.  James,  "as  pure,  peaceable,  gentle,  easy  to  be 
entreated,  full  of  mercy  and  good  fruits,  without 
partiality,  and  without  hypocrisy."  James  iii. 
17.     See  Devotion,  Religion. 

WISDOM  OF  GOD  is  that  grand  attribute 
of  his  nature  by  which  he  knows  and  orders  all 
things  for  the  promotion  of  his  glory,  and  the 
good  of  his  creatures.  This  appears  in  all  the 
works  of  his  hands,  Psal.  civ.  24;  in  the  dispen- 
sations of  his  providence,  Psal.  xcvii.  1,  2 ;  in  the 
work  of  redemption,  Eph.  iii.  10;  in  the  govern- 
ment and  preservation  of  his  church  in  all  ages, 
Psal.  cvii.  7.  This  doctrine  should  teach  us 
admiration,  Rev.  xv.  3,  4 ;  trust  and  confidence, 
Psal.  ix.  10;  prayer,  Prov.  iii.  5,  6;  submission, 
Heb.  xii.  9 ;  praise,  Psal.  ciii.  1 — 4.  See  Char- 
nock's Works,  vol.  i. ;  Saurin's  Sermons,  vol.  i. 
p.  157,  Eng.  trans. ;  Gill's  Divinity,  vol.  i.  p. 
93;  Abcrnethy's  Sermons,  vol.  i.  ser.  10;  Ray's 
Wisdom  of  God  in  Creation ;  Paley's  Natural 
Theology. 

WITCHCRAFT,  a  supernatural  power 
which  persons  were  formerly  supposed  to  obtain 
the  possession  of,  by  entering  into  a  compact  with 
the  Devil.  Witchcraft  was  universally  believed 
in  Europe  till  the  10th  century,  and  even  main- 
tained its  ground  with  tolerable  firmness  till  the 
middle  of  the  17th.  The  latest  witchcraft  frenzy 
was  in  New  England  in  1G92,  when  the  execu- 
tion of  witches  became  a  calamity  more  dreadful 
than  the  sword  or  the  pestilence.  Some  have  de- 
nied the  existence  of  witchcraft  altogether.  That 
such  persons  have  been  found  among  men  seems, 
however,  evident  from  the  Scriptures,  Deut.  xviii. 
10;  Exod.  xxii.  18;  Gal.  v.  20;  Lev.  xix.  13; 
xx.  6.  The  inconsistency  of  holding  such  poi- 
sons in  estimation,  or  having  recourse  to  fortune- 
tellers, diviners,  charmers,  and  such  like,  appears 
in  this,  1.  It  is  imitating  the  heathens,  and  giving 
countenance  to  the  foolish  superstition  and  ab- 
surd practice  of  pagans. — 2.  Such  characters  are 
held  in  abhorrence  by  the  Lord,  and  their  very 
existence  forbidden,  Lev.  xx.6;  Exod.  xx.  18. — 
3.  He  threatens  to  punish  those  who  consult 


WORLD 
them,  Lev.  xx.  6. — 4.  It  is  wrong  to  have  any 
thing  to  do  with  them,  as  it  is  setting  an  awful 
example  to  others. — 5.  It  is  often  productive  of  the 
greatest  evils,  deception,  diseord,  disappointment, 
and  incredible  mischief.  Hawkins's  Two  Sermons 
on  Witchcraft. ;  Ency.  Brit. ;  Moore's  Theologi- 
cal Works,  p.  '310,231 ;  Hutchinsonon  Witchcraft. 

WONDER,  any  thing  which  causes  surprise 
by  its  strangeness.  "It  expresses,"  says  Mr. 
Cofan,  "an  embarrassment  of  the  mind  after  it  is 
somewhat  recovered  from  the  first  percussion  of 
surprise.  It  is  the  effect  produced  by  an  inte- 
resting subject  which  has  been  suddenly  present- 
ed to  the  mind,  but  concerning  which  there  are 
many  intricacies,  either  respecting  the  cause  or 
manner  in  which  the  event  has  taken  place,  mo- 
tives of  extraordinary  conduct,  &c."  How  it 
differs  from  admiration,  see  Admiration. 

WORKS  OF  GOD.  See  Bible,  Revela- 
tion, Scripture. 

WORKS,  GOOD,  are  those  actions  which 
are  conformable  to  truth,  justice,  or  propriety; 
whether  natural,  civil,  relative,  moral,  orreligious. 
The  circumstances  requisite  to  a  good  work,  are, 

1.  That  it  be  according  to  the  will  of  God. — 

2.  That  it  spring  from  love  to  God,  I  Tim.  i.  5. — 

3.  It  must  be  done  in  faith,  Rom.  xiv.  23. — 4.  It 
must  be  done  to  the  glory  of  God,  1  Cor.  x.  31 ; 
Phil.   i.  11.      The  causes  of  good  works   are, 

1.  God  himself,  Hob.  xiii.  21. — 2.  By  union  to" 
Christ,  Eph.  ii.  10.— 3.  Through  faith,  Heb.  xi. 

4.  6. — 4.  By  the  word  and  Spirit,  Luke  viii.  15; 
Isa.  iii.  3;  2  Tim.  iii.  16.  As  to  the  nature  and 
•properties  of  good  works,  1.  They  are  imperfect, 
Eccl.  vii.  20;  Rev.  iii.  2. — 2.  Not  meritorious, 
Tit.  iii.  5 ;  Luke  xyii.  10. — 3.  Yet  found  only  in 
the  regenerate,  Matt.  vii.  17.  The  necessary 
uses  of  good  works,  1.  They  show  our  gratitude, 
Psal.  cxvi.  12,  13. — 2.  Are  an  ornament  to  our 
profession,  Tit.  ii.  10. — 3.  Evidence  our  regene- 
ration, Job  xv.  5. — 4.  Profitable  to  others,  Tit. 
iii.  8.  See  Holiness,  Obedience,  Sanctifi- 
cation.  Gill's  Body  of  Div.  book  iv.  vol.  iii.; 
Ridgleifs  Body  of  Die.  qu.  92;  Marshall  on 
Sanctificution. 

WORLD,  the  whole  system  of  created  things. 
[See  Creation.]  It  is  taken  also  for  a  secular 
life,  the  present  state  of  existence,  and  the  plea- 
sures and  interests  which  steal  away  the  soul 
from  God.  The  love  of  the  world  does  not  con- 
sist in  the  use  and  enjoyment  of  the  comforts  God 
gives  us,  but  in  an  inordinate  attachment  to  the 
tilings  of  time  and  sense.  "  1.  We  love  the  world 
too  much,"  says  Dr.  Jortin,  "  when,  for  the  sake 
of  any  profit  or  pleasure,  we  wilfully,  knowingly, 
and  deliberately  transgress  the  commands  of  God. 

2.  When  we  take  more  pains  about  the  present 
life  than  the  next.— 3.  When  we  cannot  be  con- 
tented, patient,  and  resigned,  under  low  and 
inconvenient  circumstances. — 4.  We  love  the 
world  too  much  when  we  cannot  put  with  any 
thing  we  possess  to  those  who  want,  deserve,  anil 
have  a  right  to  it.— 5.  When  we  envy  those  who 
are  more  fortunate  and  more  favoured  by  the 
world  than  we  are. — 6.  When  we  honour,  and 
esteem,  and  favour  persons  purely  according  to 
their  birth,  fortunes,  and  success,  measuring  out 
judgment  ami  approbation  by  their  outward  ap- 
pearance and  situation  in  life.— 7.  When  worldly 
prosperity  makes  us  proud,  and  vain,  and  arro- 
gant.— 8.  When  we  omit  no  opportunity  of  en- 
joying the  good  tilings  of  this  life  ■  when  our 

452 


WORSHIP 
great  and  chief  business  is  to  divert  ourselves  tilj 
we  contract  an  indifference  for  rational  and  manly 
occupations,  deceiving  ourselves,  and  fancying 
that  we  are  not  in  a  bad  condition  because  others 
are  worse  than  we.  Jortin's  Sermons,  vol.  iii. 
scr.  9 ;  Bishop  Hopkins  on  the  Vanity  of  the 
World;  Dr.  StcnneVs  Sermon  on  Conformity  to 
the  World;  H.  More  on  Education,  chap.  9,  vol. 
ii. ;  R.  Walker's  Sermons,  vol.  iv.  ser.  20. 

WORLD,  AGES  OF.  The  time  preceding 
the  birth  of  Christ  has  generally  been  divided  into 
six  ages.  The  first  extends  from  the  beginning 
of  the  world  to  the  deluge,  and  comprehends  one 
thousand  six  hundred  and  fifty-six  years.  The 
second,  from  the  deluge  to  Abraham's  entering 
the  Land  of  Promise  in  20S2,  comprehends  four 
hundred  and  twenty-six  years.  The  third,  from 
Abraham's  entrance  into  the  promised  land  to  the 
Exodus  in  2523,  four  hundred  and  tliirty  years. 
The  fourth,  from  the  going  out  of  Egypt  to  the 
foundation  of  the  temple  by  Solomon,  in  2992, 
four  hundred  and  seventy-nine  years.  The  fifth, 
from  Solomon's  foundation  of  the  temple  to  the 
Babylonish  captivity  in  3416,  four  hundred  and 
twenty-one  years.  The  sixth,  from  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  A.  M. 
4000,  the  fourth  year  before  the  vulgar  ara,  in- 
cludes five  hundred  and  eighty-four  years. 

WORLD,  DISSOLUTION  OF.  See  Con- 
flagration', Dissolution. 

WORLD,  ETERNITY  OF.  See  Eter- 
nity of  the  World. 

WORSHIP,  DAEMON,  the  worship  of  a 
class  of  spirits  which  were  thought  to  be  superior 
to  the  soul  of  man ;  but  inferior  to  those  intelli- 
gences which  animated  the  sun,  the  moon,  and 
the  planets,  and  to  whom  were  committed  the 
government  of  the  world,  particular  nations,  &c. 
Though  they  were  generally  invisible,  they  were 
not  supposed  to  be  pure  disembodied  spirits,  but 
to  have  some  kind  of  ethereal  vehicle.  They  were 
of  various  orders,  and,  according  to  the  situation 
over  which  they  presided,  had  different  names. 
Hence  the  Greek  and  Roman  poets  talk  of  satyrs, 
dryads,  nymphs,  fauns,  &c.  &c.  These  different 
orders  of  intelligences  which,  though  worshipped 
as  gods,  or  demigods,  were  yet  believed  to  partake 
of  human  passions  and  appetites,  led  the  way  to 
the  deification  of  departed  heroes,  and  other  emi- 
nent benefactors  of  the  human  race ;  and  from 
this  latter  probably  arose  the  belief  of  natural  and 
tutelar  gods,  as  well  as  the  practice  of  worship- 
ping these  gods  through  the  medium  of  statues 
cut  into  a  human  figure.  See  Idolatry  and 
Polytheism.  Warburton's  Divine  Legation; 
Farmer  on  the  Worship  of  Daemons;  Gale's 
Court  of  the  Gentiles. 

WORSHIP  OF  GOD  (cultus  Dei)  amounts 
to  the  same  with  what  we  otherwise  call  religion. 
This  worship  consists  in  paying  a  due  respect, 
veneration,  and  homage  to  the  Deity,  under  a 
sense  of  an  obligation  to  him.  And  this  internal 
respect,  &e.  is  to  be  shown  and  testified  by  ex- 
ternal acts ;  as  prayers,  thanksgivings,  &c. 

Private  worship  should  be  conducted  with, — 
1.  Reverence  and  veneration. — 2.  Self-abasement 
and  confession. — 3.  Contemplation  of  the  ]>cr- 
fections  and  promises  of  God. — 1.  Supplication 
for  ourselves  and  others. — 5.  Earnest  desire  of 
the  enjoyment  of  God. — 6.  Frequent  and  regu- 
lar. Some  who  have  acknowledged  the  pro- 
priety of  private  worship  have  objected  to  that 


ZEND 

of  a  public  nature,  but  without  any  sufficient 
ground.  For  Christ  attended  public  worship 
himself,  Luke  iv. ;  he  prayed  with  his  disciples, 
Luke  ix.  28,  29 ;  xi.  1 ;  he  promises  his  pre- 
sence to  social  worshippers,  Matt,  xviii.  20.  It 
may  be  argued  also  from  the  conduct  of  the 
apostles,  Acts  i.  24 ;  ii. ;  iv.  21 ;  vi.  4 ;  Rom.  xv  ; 
30;  1  Cor.  xiv. ;  Acts  xxi.;  2  Thess.  hi.  1,  2; 
1  Cor.  xi. ;  and  from  general  precepts,  1  Tim. 
ii.  2,  8;  Hcb.  x.  23 ;  Deut.  xxxi.  12;  Psal.  c.  4. 

Public  worship  is  of  great  utility,  as, — 1.  It 
gives  Christians  an  opportunity  of  openly  pro- 
fessing their  faith  in,  and  love  to,  Christ. — 2.  It 
preserves  a  sense  of  religion  in  the  mind,  without 
which  society  could  not  well  exist. — 3.  It  en- 
livens devotion  and  promotes  zeal. — 4.  It  is  the 
mean  of  receiving  instruction  and  consolation. — 
5.  It  affords  an  excellent  example  to  others,  and 
excites  them  to  fear  God,  &c. 

Public  worship  should  be,  1.  Solemn,  not  light 
and  trifling,  Psal.  Ixxxix.  7. — 2.  Simple,  not 
pompous  and  ceremonial,  Isa.  lxii.  2. — 3.  Cheer- 
ful, and  not  with  forbidding  aspect,  Psalm  c. — 
4.  Sincere,  and  not  hypocritical,  Isaiah  i.  12 ; 
Matt,  xxiii.  13  ;  John  iv.  24. — 5.  Pure,  and  not 
superstitious,  Isa.  Ivii.  15. 

We  cannot  conclude  this  article  without  taking 
notice  of  the  shameful  and  exceedingly  improper 
practice  of  coming  in  late  to  public  worship.  It 
evidently  manifests  a  state  of  lukewarmness ;  it 


ZUINGLIANS 
is  a.  breach  of  order  and  decency ;  it  is  a  disturb- 
ance to  boih  ministers  and  people;  it  is  slighting 
the  ordinances  which  God  has  appointed  for  our 
good ;  and  an  affront  to  God  himself!  How 
such  can  be  in  a  devotional  frame  themselves, 
when  they  so  often  spoil  the  devotions  of  others, 
I  know  not.  Waits' s  Holiness  of  Time  and 
Places  ;  Kinghorn  and  Loader  o?i  Public  Wor- 
ship ;  Parry's,  Barbauld's,  Simpson's,  and  Wil- 
son's Answer  to  Wakefield's  Inquiry  on  the 
Authority,  Propriety,  and  Utility  of  Public 
Worship ;  Newman  en.  Early  Attendance. 

WRATH,  violent  and  permanent  anger. — 
See  Anger. 

WRATH  OF  GOD  is  his  indignation  at 
sin,  and  punishment  of  it,  Rom.  i.  18.  The  ob- 
jects of  God's  anger  or  wrath  are  the  ungodty, 
whom  he  has  declared  he  will  punish.  His  wrath 
is  sometimes  manifested  in  this  life,  and  that  in 
an  awful  degree,  as  we  see  in  the  case  of  the  old 
world.  Sodom  and  Gomorrah,  the  plagues  of 
Egypt,  the  punishment  and  captivity  of  the 
Jews,  and  the  many  striking  judgments  on  na- 
tions and  individuals.  But  a  still  more  awful 
punishment  awaits  the  impenitent  in  the  world 
to  come ;  for  the  wicked,  it  is  said,  shall  go  away 
into  everlasting  punishment,  where  the  worm 
dieth  not,  and  the  fire  is  not  quenched.  Matt, 
xxv.  46;  Romans  ii.  8,  9;  i.  18.  See  Hell, 
Sin. 


z. 


ZACHEANS,  the  disciples  of  Zacheus,  a 
native  of  Palestine,  who,  about  the  year  350,  re- 
tired to  a  mountain  near  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  and 
there  performed  his  devotions  in  secret ;  pretend- 
ing that  prayer  was  only  agreeable  to  God  when 
it  was  performed  secretly,  and  in  silence. 

ZEAL,  a  passionate  ardour  for  any  person  or 
cause.  There  are  various  kinds  of  zeal ;  as, 
1.  An  ignorant  zeal,  Rom.  x.  2,  3. — 2.  A  per- 
secuting zeal,  Phil.  iii.  6. — 3.  A  superstitious 
zeal,  1  Kings  xviii. ;  Gal.  i.  14. — 4.  An  hypo- 
critical zeal,  2  Kings  x.  16. — 5.  A  contentious 
zeal.  1  Cor.  xi.  16. — 6.  A  psrtial  ieal,  Hos.  vii. 
8. — 7.  A  temporary  zeal,  2  Kings  xii.  and  xiii. ; 
Gal.  iv.  15,  16. — 8.  A  genuine  zeal,  which  is  a 
sincere  and  warm  concern  for  the  glorv  of  God, 
and  the  spiritual  welfare  of  mankind.  1  his  is  ge- 
nerally compounded  of  sound  knowledge,  strong 
faith,  and  disinterested  regard ;  and  will  manifest 
itselfbv  self-denial,  patient  endurance,  and  constant 
exertion.  The  motives  to  true  zeal  are,  1.  The  di- 
vine command,  Rev.  iii.  1!). — 2.  The  example  of 
Christ,  Actsx.  38. — 3.  The  importance  of  the  ser- 
vice of  Christ. — 4.  The  advantage  anil  pleasure  it 
brings  to  the  possessor. — 5.  The  instances  and 
honourable  commendation  of  it  in  the  Scriptures  : 
Moses,  Phineas,  Caleb,  David,  Paul,  &c.  Gal.  iv. 
18;  Rev.  iii.  15,  &c. ;  Tit.  h.  14.-6.  The  incal- 
culable good  effects  it  produces  on  others,  James 
v.  20.  See  Reynolds  and  Orton  on  Sacred  Zeal ; 
Evans's  Christian  Temper,  ser.  37;  Hughes's 
Ser.  on  Zeal ;  Mason's  Christian  Mor.  ser.  28. 

ZEALOT,  an  ancient  sect  of  the  Jews,  so 
caSed  from  their  pretended  zeal  for  God's  law, 
and  the  honour  of  religion. 

ZEND,  or  Zendavesta,  a  took  ascribed  to 
453 


Zoroaster,  and  containing  his  pretended  revela- 
tions, which  the  ancient  Magicians  and  modern 
Persees  observe  and  reverence  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  Christians  do  the  Bible,  making  it  the 
sole  rule  of  their  faith  and  manners.  The  Zend 
contains  a  reformed  system  of  Magianism,  teach- 
ing that  there  is  a  Supreme  Being,  eternal,  self- 
existent,  and  independent,  who  created  both  light 
and  darkness,  out  of  which  he  made  all  other 
things;  that  these  are  in  a  state  of  conflict,  which 
will  continue  to  the  end  of  the  world  ;  that  then 
there  shall  be  a  general  resurrection  and  judg- 
ment, and  that  just  retribution  shall  be  rendered 
unto  men  according  to  their  works;  that  the  an- 
gel of  darkness,  with  his  followers,  shall  be  con- 
signed to  a  place  of  everlasting  darkness  and 
punishment;  and  the  angel  of  light,  with  his 
disciples,  introduced  into  a  str.te  of  everlasting 
light  and  happiness;  after  which,  light  and  dark- 
ness shall  no  more  interfere  with  each  other.  It 
is  evident,  from  these,  and  various  other  senti- 
ments contained  in  the  Zend,  that  many  parts  of 
it  are  taken  out  of  the  Old  Testament.  Dr. 
Baumgarten  asserts  that  this  work  contains  doc- 
trines, opinions,  and  tacts,  actually  borrowed  from 
the  Jews,  Christians,  and  Mahometans;  whence, 
and  from  other  circumstances,  he  concludes,  that 
both  the  history  and  writings  of  this  prophet  were 
probably  invented  in  the  later  ages. 

ZUINGLIANS,  a  branch  of  the  Reformers, 
so  called  from  Zuinglius,  a  noted  divine  of  Switzer- 
land. His  chief  difference  from  Luther  was  con- 
cerning the  cueharist.  He  maintained  that  the 
bread  and  wine  were  only  significations  of  the 
body  and  blood  of  Jesus  Christ,  whereas  Luther 
believed  in  consubstantiation. 


APPENDIX. 


(Corrected  to  1844.) 


METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH  IN  AMERICA. 


[Thc  following  account  of  the  Methodist 
Episcopal  Church  in  the  United  States  of  Ame- 
rica, is  from  the  pen  of  the  Rev.  Dr.  Bangs,  of 
New  York ;  with  the  exception  of  such  altera- 
tions as  are  necessary  to  render  it  an  accurate 
narrative  of  the  present  state  of  the  Methodist 
Church.] 

The  first  Methodist  Society  in  the  United 
States  of  America,  was  formed  in  the  city  of 
New  York,  in  the  year  1700,  by  a  few  Methodist 
emigrants  from  Ireland.  Among  these  was  a 
local  preacher,  by  the  name  of  Philip  Embury. 
He  preached  the  first  Methodist  sermon  in  a  pri- 
vate room,  to  those  only  who  had  accompanied 
him  to  this  country.  The  name  of  Methodist 
and  his  manner  of  preaching,  being  a  novelty  in 
this  country,  soon  attracted  attention,  and  many 
came  to  hear  the  stranger  for  themselves ;  and 
the  number  of  hearers  so  increased,  that  thc  house 
in  which  they  assembled  very  soon  became  too 
small  to  contain  all  who  wished  to  hear.  They 
accordingly  procured  a  larger  place.  About  this 
time  considerable  attention  was  excited  by  the 
preaching  of  Capt.  Webb,  who  came  from  Al- 
bany, where  he  was  stationed,  to  the  help  of  Mr. 
Embury.  This  gentleman  had  been  converted 
to  God  under  the  preaching  of  Mr.  Wesley  in 
Bristol,  England,  and  being  moved  with  com- 
passion towards  his  fellow  men,  although  a  sol- 
dier, he  now  employed  his  talent  in  calling  sinners 
to  repentance.  Through  his  and  the  labours  of 
Mr.  Embury,  the  work  of  God  prospered,  and 
the  society  increased  in  number  and  stability. 
From  the  place  they  now  occupied,  which  soon 
became  too  small  to  accommodate  all  who  wished 
to  attend  their  meetings,  they  removed  to  a  rig- 
ging-loft, in  William-street,  which  they  hired, 
;ni'l  fitted  up  for  a  preaching  room. 

Such  was  their  continual  increase,  that,  after 
contending  with  a  variety  of  difficulties  for  want 
of  a  convenient  place  of  worship,  they  succeeded 
in  erecting  a  meeting-house  in  John-street,  in  the 
year  1768. 

About  the  same  time  that  this  society  was 
establishing  in  New  York,  Mr.  Strawbridge,  a 
local  preacher  from  Ireland,  commenced  preach- 
iaa,  and  formed  a  small  class  in  Frederick  County, 
Maryland 

In  October,  1769,  two  preachers,  Messrs. 
Richard  Boardman  and  Joseph  Pihnore,  being 
sent  under  the  direction  of  Mr.  Wesley,  landed 
in  America  ■  and  in  1771,  Messrs.  Francis  As- 
bury  and  Richard  Wright  came  over.  The 
lirst  regular  conference  was  held  in  Philadel- 
phia, in  the  year  1773,  under  the  superinten- 
dence  of  Mr.  Thomas  Rankin,  who  had  been 
«ent  by  Mr.  Wesley  to  take  the  general  over- 
454 


sight  of  the  societies  in  this  country.  These 
zealous  missionaries,  spreading  themselves  in  dif- 
ferent directions  through  the  country,  cities,  and 
villages,  were  instrumental  in  extending  the  in 
fluence  of  evangelical  principles  and  holiness 
among  the  people. 

During  the  revolutionary  war,  all  thc  preachers 
from  Europe,  except  Mr.  Asbury,  returned  to 
their  native  land.  But  prior  to  this  event,  the 
Head  of  the  church  had,  under  the  energetic  la 
hours  of  Mr.  Asbury  and  his  colleagues,  called 
forth  some  zealous  young  men  into  the  ministry, 
whose  labours  were  owned  of  God  in  the  awaken- 
ing and  conversion  of  souls.  These  men  of  God, 
under  the  superintendence  of  Mr.  Asbury,  who 
laboured  hard  and  suffered  much  during  the  san- 
guinary conflict,  continued  in  the  field  of  Gospel 
labour;  and,  notwithstanding  the  evils  insepa- 
rable from  war,  they  witnessed  the  spread  of  pure 
religion  in  many  places. 

At  the  conclusion  of  the  revolution,  in  the  year 
1784,  Dr.  Thomas  Coke  came  to  America  with 
powers  to  constitute  the  Methodist  societies  in 
this  country  into  an  independent  church.  Hither- 
to the  societies  had  been  dependent  on  other 
churches  for  the  ordinances  of  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  supper,  as  the  Methodist  preachers  were 
considered  only  lay-preachers,  and  according  to 
the  uniform  advice  of  Mr.  Wesley,  had  declined 
administering  the  ordinances.  This  had  occa- 
sioned much  uneasiness,  among  both  preachers 
and  people,  in  this  country.  They  therefore 
earnestly  requested  Mr.  Wesley  to  interpose  his 
authority,  and  furnish  them  with  the  ordinances 
independently  of  other  denominations.  After 
maturely  weighing  the  subject  in  his  own  mind, 
he  finally  resolved,  as  the  United  States  had  be- 
come independent  of  both  the  civil  and  ecclesias- 
tical polity  of  Great  Britian,  to  send  them  the 
help  they  so  much  needed.  Accordingly,  being 
assisted  by  other  presbyters  of  the  church  of 
England,  by  prayer  and  imposition  of  hands,  he 
set  apart  Thomas  Coke,  L.L.D.  and  a  presbyter 
of  said  church,  as  a  superintendent  of  the  Metho- 
dist societies  in  America ;  and  directed  him  to 
consecrate  Mr.  Francis  Asbury  for  the  same 
office.  In  conformity  to  these  instructions,  after 
his  arrival  in  the  United  States,  a  conference  of 
preachers  was  assembled  in  Baltimore,  December 
25,  1784,  amounting  in  all  to  61.  Having  com- 
municated his  instructions,  and  the  contemplated 
plans  for  the  future  government  of  the  societies, 
which  were  generally  approved,  Mr.  Asbury,  be- 
ing first  elected  by  the  unanimous  voice  of  the 
preachers,  was  ordained  by  Dr.  Coke  first  to  the 
office  of  deacon,  then  elder,  and  then  superin- 
tendent or  bishop.  Twelve  of  the  preachers  wcie 


METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 


elected  and  ordained  elders  at  the  same  con- 
ference. 

These  proceedings  gave  very  general  satisfac- 
tion to  preachers  and  people.  The  number  of 
members  in  society  at  this  time  was  11,988,  and 
of  preachers  83.  And,  as  an  evidence  of  the 
benefits  resulting  from  the  recent  organization  of 
the  church,  the  work  of  God  grew  and  multiplied 
more  than  ever,  and  many  were  added  to  the 
church.  Mr.  Asbury  being  thus  commended  to 
the  grace  of  God  and  the  affections  of  his  people, 
took  a  more  general  oversight  of  the  whole  church, 
travelling  from  one  ptfrt  of  the  continent  to  an- 
other, preaching  the  Gospel  of  the  kingdom,  and 
assembling  the  preachers  at  different  times  and 
places,  and  appointing  them  to  their  several  sta- 
tions. In  consequence  of  extending  over  so 
large  a  territory,  for  they  soon  spread  over  all  the 
settlements  in  the  United  States,  it  became  in- 
convenient for  ail  the  preachers  to  convene  at  one 
time  and  place ;  they  were  therefore  divided  into 
several  annual  conferences,  at  a  suitable  time  and 
distance  from  each  other,  for  the  superintending 
bishop  to  meet  with  them,  direct  their  councils, 
and  assign  each  man  to  his  work.  But  these 
separate  assemblies,  unless  they  all  agreed  in 
eacli  other's  regulations,  could  ordain  nothing 
that  should  be  binding  upon  the  whole;  and 
therefore,  to  supply  this  deficiency  of  the  govern- 
ment, a  general  conference,  composed  of  all  the 
travelling  elders,  was  found  expedient  and  neces- 
sary. But  from  the  continual  increase  of  preachers 
and  extension  of  their  work,  it  became  quite  bur- 
densome for  so  many  elders  to  convene  together, 
from  so  great  a  distance,  and  at  such  an  expense 
of  both  time  and  money :  hence,  to  exonerate  the 
church  from  this  unnecessary  burden,  in  the 
year  1808,  notice  being  previously  given  to  the 
annual  conferences  of  the  intention,  the  general 
conference  resolved  on  a  delegated  general  con- 
ference, whose  powers  and  privileges  were  de- 
fined and  restricted  in  the  following  words  : 

"  1.  The  general  conference  shall  be  composed 
of  one  member  for  every  seven  members  of  each 
annual  conference,  to  be  appointed  either  by 
seniority  or  choice,  at  the  discretion  of  such  an- 
nual conference :  yet  so  that  such  representatives 
shall  have  travelled  at  least  four  full  calendar 
years  from  the  time  that  they  were  received 
on  trial  by  an  annual  conference,  and  are  in 
full  connexion  at  the  time  of  holding  the  con- 
ference. 

"2.  The  general  conference  shall  meet  on  the 
first  day  of  May,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  1812,  in 
the  city  of  New  York,  and  thenceforward  on  the 
first  day  of  May,  once  in  four  years  perpetually, 
in  such  place  or  places  as  shall  be  fixed  on  by 
the  general  conference  from  time  to  time  ;  but  the 
general  superintendents,  with  or  by  the  advice  of 
all  the  annual  conferences,  or  if  there  be  no 
general  superintendent,  all  the  annual  confer- 
ences respectively,  shall  have  power  to  call  a 
general  conference,  if  they  judge  it  necessary  at 
any  time. 

"  3.  At  all  times  when  the  general  conference  is 
met,  it  shall  take  two  thirds  of  the  representatives 
of  all  the  annual  conferences  to  make  a  quorum 
for  transacting  business. 

"4.  One  of  the  general  superintendents  shall 

preside  in.  the  general  conference;  but  in  case  no 

general  superintendent  be  present,   the   general 

conference  shall  choose  a  president  pro  tempore. 

455 


"5.  The  general  conference  shall  have  full 
powers  to  make  rules  and  regulations  for  our 
church,  under  the  following  limitations  and  re- 
strictions, viz. 

"1.  The  general  conference  shall  not  revoke, 
alter,  or  change  our  articles  of  religion,  nor  esta- 
blish any  new  standards  or  rules  of  doctrine  con- 
trary to  our  present  existing  and  established 
standards  of  doctrine. 

"  2.  They  shall  not  allow  of  more  than  one  re- 
presentative for  every  five  members  of  the  annual 
conference,  nor  allow  of  a  less  number  than  one 
for  every  seven. 

"  3.  They  shall  not  change  or  alter  any  part  or 
rule  of  our  government,  so  as  to  do  away  episco- 
pacy, or  destroy  the  plan  of  our  itinerant  general 
superintendency. 

"  4.  They  shall  not  revoke  or  change  the  gene- 
ral rules  of  the  united  societies. 

"  5.  They  shall  not  do  away  the  privileges  of 
our  ministers  or  preachers  of  trial  by  a  committee, 
and  of  an  appeal :  Neither  shall  they  do  away 
the  privileges  of  our  members  of  trial  before  the 
society,  or  by  a  committee,  and  of  an  appeal. 

"  6.  They  shall  not  appropriate  the  produce  of 
the  book  concern,  or  of  the  charter  fund,  to  any 
purpose,  other  than  for  the  benefit  of  the  travel- 
ling, supernumerary,  superannuated  and  worn- 
out  preachers,  their  wives,  widows  and  children. 

"Provided  nevertheless,  that  upon  the  joint  re- 
commendation of  all  the  annual  conferences,  then 
a  majority  of  two  thirds  of  the  general  conference 
succeeding,  shall  suffice  to  alter  any  of  the  above 
restrictions." 

This  conference  was  composed  of  about  120 
members  from  the  several  annual  conferences; 
of  which  there  were  then  but  seven. 

(For  a  View  of  the  number  of  Annual  Con- 
ferences now  belonging  to  this  Church,  with  the 
number  of  its  Travelling  Preachers,  and  of  it* 
Members,  White,  Coloured,  and  Indian,  see  the 
Tabular  View  to  be  found  at  the  end  of  this  ar- 
ticle.) 

In  1819  the  Missionary  Society  of  the  Metho- 
dist Episcopal  Church  was  formed;  and  it  re- 
ceived the  sanction  of  the  general  conference  in 
1820,  according  to  the  following  constitution : 

"  1.  This  association  shall  be  denominated 
'  The  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  ;'  the  object  of  which  is,  to  enable 
the  several  annual  conferences  more  effectually 
to  extend  their  missionary  labours  throughout  the 
United  States,  and  elsewhere. 

"2.  The  business  of  this  society  shall  be  con- 
ducted by  a  president,  thirteen  vice-presidents, 
clerk,  recording  and  corresponding  secretary, 
treasurer,  and  thirty-two  managers,  all  of  whom 
shall  be  members  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal 
Church.  The  president,  first  two  vice-presidents, 
clerk,  secretaries,  treasurer,  and  the  thirty-two 
managers,  shall  be  elected  by  the  society  annu- 
ally, and  each  annual  conference  shall  have  the 
privilege  of  appointing  one  vice-president  from 
its  own  body. 

"3.  Thirteen  members  at  all  meetings  of  the 
board  of  managers,  and  twenty-five  at  all  meet- 
ings of  the  society,  shall  be  a  quorum. 

"  4.  The  board  shall  have  authority  to  make  by- 
laws for  regulating  its  own  proceedings,  fill  up 
vacancies  that  may  occur  during  the  year,  and 
shall  present  a  statement  of  its  transactions  and 
funds  to  the  society  at  its  annual  meeting";  and 


METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 


also  lay  before  the  general  conference,  a  report 
of  its  transactions,  for  the  four  preceding  years, 
and  the  state  of  its  funds. 

"  5.  Ordained  ministers  of  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church,  whether  travelling  or  local,  being 
members  of  the  society,  shall  be  ex  officio  mem- 
bers of  the  board  of  managers,  and  be  entitled  to 
vote  in  all  meetings  of  the  board. 

"  6.  The  board  ofmanagers  shall  have  authority, 
whenever  they  may  deem  it  expedient  and  requi- 
site, to  procure  Bibles  and  Testaments  for  distri- 
bution, on  such  terms  as  they  may  judge  most 
advisable,  provided  they  shall  not  at  any  time 
apply  to  this  object  more  than  one  third  of  the 
amount  of  the  funds  received  for  the  current  year. 

"  7.  Each  subscriber  paying  two  dollars  annu- 
ally, shall  be  a  member;  and  the  payment  of 
twenty  dollars  at  one  time,  shall  constitute  a 
member  for  life. 

"8.  Auxiliary  societies,  embracing  the  same 
objects  with  this,  shall,  if  they  request  it,  be  sup- 
plied with  Bibles  and  Testaments  at  cost :  pro- 
vided the  same  shall  not  amount  to  more  than 
one  third  of  the  moneys  received  from  such  Auxi- 
liary societies,  and  that  after  supplying  their  own 
districts  with  Bibles  and  Testaments,  they  shall 
agree  to  place  their  surplus  funds  at  the  disposal 
of  this  society. 

"  9.  The  annual  meeting  of  the  society  shall  he 
held  on  the  third  Monday  in  April. 

"  10.  The  president,  vice-presidents,  clerk,  se- 
cretaries, and  treasurer  for  the  time  being,  shall 
be  ex  officio  members  of  the  board  of  managers. 

"11.  At  all  meetings  of  the  society,  and  of  the 
board,  the  president,  or  in  his  absence  the  vice- 
president  first  on  the  list  then  present,  and  in  the 
absence,  of  all  the  vice-presidents,  such  member 
as  shall  be  appointed  by  the  meeting  for  that 
purpose,  shall  preside. 

"  12.  The  minutes  of  each  meeting  shall  be 
signed  by  the  chairman. 

°"  13.  The  treasurer  of  this  society,  under  the 
direction  of  the  board  of  managers,  shall  give  in- 
formation to  the  superintendents  annually,  or 
oftener  if  the  managers  judge  it  expedient,  of  the 
state  of  the  funds  and  of  the  amount  for  which 
drafts  may  he  made  thereon,  for  the  missionary 
purposes  contemplated  by  this  constitution  ; 
agreeably  to  which  information,  the  superintend- 
ents shall  have  authority  to  draw  on  the  treasurer 
for  the  same,  and  to  pay  over  the  amount  to  the 
missionary  or  missionaries  appointed  by  them, 
either  wholly  at  once,  or  by  instalments,  at  the 
discretion  of  the  superintendents;  provided  the 
drafts  of  all  the  superintendents  together  shall  not 
amount  to  more  than  the  sum  thus  authorised  to 
be  drawn  for,  and  that  the  appropriation  for  the 
support  of  any  missionary  or  missionaries  shall 
always  be  regulated  by  the  rules  which  now  are 
or  hereafter  may  be  established  for  the  support  of 
other  itinerant  ministers  and  preachers  of  the 
Methodist  Episcopal  Church;  and  provided  also, 
that  the  appropriations  and  payments  which  may 
be  made  by  the  superintendents  under  this  arti- 
cle, shall  be  communicated  as  soon  as  practicable 
thereafter  to  the  board  of  managers  for  insertion 
in  their  annual  report. 

"  It.  This  constitution  shall  not  be  altered  but 
by  the  general  conference,  on  the  recommenda- 
tion of  the  board  of  managers." 

A  number  of  auxiliary  and  branch   societies 
have  oeen  formed,  V0)1  their  number  is  constantly 
43b" 


increasing.  Several  missionaries  are  also  em- 
ployed in  destitute  parts  of  the  country  under 
the  patronage  of  the  Society. 

DOCTRINES. 

At  the  time  of  the  organization  of  the  church, 
the  following  articles  of  religion  were  adopted  as 
the  doctrines  of  the  church : — 

"  1.  Of  Faith  in  the  Holy  Trinity.  There 
is  but  one  living  and  true  God,  everlasting,  with- 
out body  or  parts,  of  infinite  power,  wisdom  and 
goodness;  the  maker  and  preserver  of  all  things, 
visible  and  invisible. — And  in  unity  of  this  God- 
head, there  are  three  persons,  of  one  substance, 
power,  and  eternity ;  the  Father,  the  Son,  and 
the  Holy  Ghost. 

"2.  Of  the  Word,  or  Son  of God,  who  was  made 
very  Man. — The  Son,  who  is  the  Word  of  the 
Father,  the  very  and  eternal  God,  of  one  sub- 
stance with  the  Father,  took  man's-nature  in  the 
womb  of  the  blessed  virgin ;  so  that  two  whole 
and  perfect  natures,  that  is  to  say,  the  Godhead 
and  manhood,  were  joined  together  in  one  per- 
son, never  to  be  divided,  whereof  is  one  Christ, 
very  God  and  very  man,  who  truly  suffered,  was 
crucified,  dead  and  buried,  to  reconcile  his  Fathei 
to  us,  and  to  be  a  sacrifice,  not  only  for  original 
guilt,  but  also  for  actual  sins  of  men. 

"  3.  Of  the  Resurrection  of  Christ. — Christ  did 
truly  rise  again  from  the  dead,  and  took  again  his 
body,  with  all  things  appertaining  to  the  perfec- 
tion of  man's  nature,  wherewith  he  ascended  into 
heaven,  and  there  sitteth  until  he  return  to  judgo 
all  men  at  the  last  dav. 

"4.  Of  the  Holy  Ghost— The  Holy  Ghost, 
proceeding  from  the  Father  and  the  Son,  is  of  one 
substance,  majesty,  and  glory  with  the  Father 
and  the  Son,  very  and  eternal  God. 

"  5.  The  sufficiency  of  the  Holy  Scriptures  for 
Salration. — The  Holy  Scriptures  contain  all 
things  necessary  to  salvation:  so  that  whatsoever 
is  not  read  therein,  nor  may  be  proved  thereby, 
is  not  to  be  required  of  any  man,  that  it  should 
be  believed  as  an  article  of  faith,  or  be  thought 
requisite  or  necessary  to  salvation.  In  the  name 
of  the  Holy  Scripture,  we  do  understand  those 
canonical  books  of  the  Old  and  New  Testament, 
of  whose  authority  was  never  any  doubt  in  the 
church. 

"  The  names  of  the  canonical  Books.  Gene- 
sis, Exodus,  Leviticus,  Numbers,  Deuteronomy, 
Joshua,  Judges,  Ruth,  the  First  Book  of  Samuel, 
the  Second  Book  of  Samuel,  the  First  Book  of 
Kings,  the  Second  Book  of  Kings,  the  First 
Book  of  Chronicles,  the  Second  Book  of  Chro- 
nicles, the  Book  of  Ezra,  the  Book  of  Nehcmiah, 
the  Book  of  Esther,  the  Book  of  Job,  the  Psalms, 
the  Proverbs,  Ecclesiastes  or  the  Preacher,  Can- 
tica  or  Songs  of  Solomon,  Four  Prophets  the 
greater,  Twelve  Prophets  the  less:  all  the  books 
of  the  New  Testament,  as  they  are  commonly 
received,  we  do  receive  and  account  canonical. 

"6.  Of  the  Old  Testament.— The  Oid  Testa- 
ment is  not  contrary  to  the  New ;  for  both  in  the 
Old  and  New  Testament,  everlasting  life  is  offered 
to  mankind  by  Christ,  who  is  the  only  Mediator 
between  God  and  man,  being  both  God  and  man. 
Wherefore,  they  are  not  to  be  heard,  who  feign 
that  the  old  Fathers  did  look  only  for  transitory 
promises.  Although  the  law  given  from  God  by 
Moses,  as  touching  ceremonies  and  rites,  doth  not 
bind  Christians,  nor  omrht  the  civil  precepts  there- 


METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 


«f  of  necessity  he  received  in  any  commonwealth : 
yet,  notwithstanding,  no  Christian  whatsoever  is 
free  from  the  obedience  of  the  commandments, 
which  are  called  moral. 

"  7.  Of  Original  or  Birth  Sin. — Original  sin 
slandcth  not  in  the  folio wing  of  Adam,  (as  the 
Pelagians  do  vainly  talk)  hut  it  is  the  corruption 
of  the  nature  of  every  man,  that  naturally  is  en- 
gendered of  the  offspring  of  Adam,  whereby  man 
is  very  far  gone  from  original  righteousness,  and 
of  his  own  nature  inclined  to  evil,  and  that  con- 
tinually. 

"  S.  Of  Free-  Will.— The  condition  of  man  after 
the  fall  of  Adam  is  such,  that  he  cannot  turn  and 
prepare  himself,  by  his  own  natural  strength  and 
works,  to  faith,  and  calling  upon  God;  wherefore 
we  have  no  power  to  do  good  works,  pleasant  and 
acceptable  to  God,  without  the  grace  of  God  by 
Christ  preventing  us,  that  we  may  have  a  good  will, 
and  working  with  us,  when  we  have  that  good  will. 

"  0.  Of  the  Justification  of  Man. — We  are 
accounted  righteous  before  God  only  for  the  merit 
of  our  Lord  and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ  by  faith, 
and  not  for  our  own  works  or  deservings ;  where- 
fore, that  we  are  justified  by  faith  only,  is  a  most 
wholesome  doctrine  and  very  full  of  comfort. 

"  10.  Of  Good  Works. — Although  good  works 
which  are  the  fruits  of  faith,  and  follow  after  jus- 
tification, cannot  put  away  our  sins,  and  endure 
the  severity  of  God's  judgments:  yet  are  they 
pleasing  and  acceptable  to  God  in  Christ,  and 
spring  out  of  a  true  and  lively  faith,  insomuch 
that  by  them  a  lively  faith  may  be  as  evidently 
known,  as  a  tree  is  discerned  by  its  fruits. 

"  11.  Of  Works  of  Supererogation. — Voluntary 
works,  besides,  over  and  above  God's  command- 
ments, which  are  called  works  of  supererogation, 
cannot  be  taught  without  arrogancy  and  impiety. 
For  by  them  men  do  declare,  that  they  do  not 
only  render  unto  God  as  much  as  they  are  bound 
to  do,  but  that  they  do  more  for  his  sake  than  of 
bounden  duty  is  required:  whereas  Christ  saith 
plainly,  When  ye  have  done  all  that  is  command- 
ed you,  sav,  We  are  unprofitable  servants. 

"  12.  Of  Shi  after  Justification. — Not  every 
sin  willingly  committed  after  justification,  is  the 
sin  against  the  Holy  Ghost,  and  unpardonable. 
"Wherefore  the  grant  of  repentance  is  not  to  be 
dVeied  to  such  as  fall  into  sin  after  justification  : 
after  we  have  received  the  Holy  Ghost,  we  may 
depart  from  grace  given,  and  fall  into  sin,  and  by 
the  y;race  of  God,  rise  again  and  amend  our  lives. 
And  therefore,  they  are  to  be  condemned,  who 
say  they  can  no  more  sin  as  long  as  they  live 
here ;  or  deny  the  place  of  forgiveness  to  such  as 
trulv  repent. 

"13.  Of  the  Church. — The  visible  church  of 
Christ  is  a  congregation  of  faithfui  men,  in  which 
the  pure  word  of  God  is  preached,  and  the  sacra- 
ments duly  administered  according  to  Christ's 
ordinance,  in  all  those  things  that  of  necessity  are 
requisite  to  the  same. 

"14.  Of  Purgatory. — The  Romish  doctrine 
concerning  purgatory,  pardon,  worshipping,  ami 
adoration,  as  well  of  images  as  of  relics,  and  also 
invocation  of  saints,  is  a  fond  thing,  vainly  in- 
vented, and  grounded  upon  no  warrant  of  Scrip- 
ture, but  repugnant  to  the  word  of  God. 

"  15.   Of  speaking  in  tlie  congregation  in  such 

a  tongue  a-s  the  people  understand. —  It  is  a  thing 

plainly  repugnant  to  the  word  of  God,  and  the 

custom  of  the  primitive  church,  to  have  public 

457  3  // 


prayer  in  the  church,  or  to  minister  the  sacra 
ments,  in  a  tongue  not  understood  by  the  people 

"16.  Of  the  Sacraments. — Sacraments  ordain- 
ed of  Christ,  are  not  only  badges  or  tokens  of  Chris- 
tian men's  profession  :  but  rather  they  are  certain 
signs  of  grace,  and  God's  good  will  "towards  us, 
by  the  which  he  doth  work  invisibly  in  us,  and 
doth  not  only  quicken,  hut  also  strengthen  and 
confirm  our  faith  in  him. 

"  There  are  two  sacraments  ordained  of  Christ 
our  Lord  in  the  Gospel ;  that  is  to  say,  Baptism 
and  the  Supper  of  the  Lord. 

"Those  l\\e  commonly  called  sacraments;  that 
is  to  say,  confirmation,  penance,  orders,  matrimo- 
ny, and  extreme  unction,  are  not  to  be  counted 
for  as  sacraments  of  the  Gospel,  being  such  as 
have  partly  grown  out  of  the  corrupt  following 
of  the  apostles :  and  partly  are  states  of  life  al- 
lowed in  the  Scriptures,  but  yet  have  not  the  like 
nature  of  Baptism  and  the  Lord's  Supper,  be- 
cause they  have  not  any  visible  sign,  or  ceremony 
ordained  of  God. 

"The  sacraments  were  not  ordained  of  Christ 
to  be  gazed  upon,  or  to  be  carried  about ;  but  that 
we  should  duly  use  them.  And  in  such  only  as 
worthily  receive  the  same,  they  have  a  whole- 
some effect  or  operation :  but  they  that  receive 
them  unworthily,  purchase  to  themselves  con- 
demnation, as  St.  Paul  saith,  1  Cor.  si.  29. 

"  17.  Of  Baptism. — Baptism  is  not  only  a  sign 
of  profession,  and  mark  of  difference,  whereby 
Christians  ^re  distinguished  from  others  that  are 
not  baptized  :  but  it  is  also  a  sign  of  regeneration, 
or  the  new  birth.  The  baptism  of  young  children 
is  to  be  retained  in  the  church. 

"  18.  Of  the  Lord's  Supper. — The  Supper  of 
the  Lord  is  not  only  a  sign  that  Christians  ought 
to  have  among  themselves  one  to  another,  but 
rather  is  a  sacrament  of  our  redemption  by 
Christ's  death:  insomuch,  that  to  such  as  rightly, 
worthily,  and  with  faith  receive  the  same,  the 
bread  which  we  break  is  a  partaking  of  the  body 
of  Christ;  and  likewise  the  cup  of  blessing  is  a 
partaking  of  the  blood  of  Christ. 

"  Tra ^substantiation,  or  the  change  of  the  sub 
stance  of  bread  and  wine  in  the  supper  of  our 
Lord,  cannot  be  proved  by  holv  writ,  but  is  re 
pugnaut  to  the  plain  words  of  Scripture,  ove 
throweth  the  nature  of  a  sacrament,  and  hath 
given  occasion  to  many  superstitions. 

"  The  body  of  Christ  is  given,  taken,  and  eaten 
in  the  supper,  only  after  a  heavenly  and  scrip- 
tural manner.  And  the  means  whereby  the 
body  of  Christ  is  received  and  eaten  in  the  sup- 
per, is  faith. 

'•  The  sacrament  of  the  Lord's  Supper,  was  not 
by  Christ's  ordinance  reserved,  carried  about, 
lifted  up.  or  worshipped. 

"  V.).  Of  both  Kinds. — The  cup  of  the  Lord  is 
not  to  be  denied  to  the  lay-people :  for  both  the 
parts  of  the  Lord's  Supper  by  Christ's  ordinance 
and  commandment,  ought  to  be  administered  to 
aJl  Christians  alike. 

"90.  Of  the  one  Oblation  of  Christ,  finished 
upon  the  Cross. — The  offering  of  Christ  once 
made,  is  that  perfect  redemption,  propitiation,  and 
satisfaction  for  ail  the  sins  of  the  whole  world, 
both  original  and  actual :  and  there  is  none  other 
satisfaction  for  sin  but  that  alone.  Wherefore 
the  sacrifice  of  masses,  in  the  which  it  is  com- 
monly said,  that  the  priest  doth  offer  Christ  for 
the  quick  and  the  dead,  to  have  remission  of  pain 
20 


METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH 


or  guilt,  is  a  blasphemous  fable,  and  dangerous 
deceit.  » 

"21.  Of  the  Marriage  of  Ministers. — The 
ministers  of  Christ  are  not  commanded  by  God's 
law  either  to  vow  the  estate  of  a  single  life,  or  to 
abstain  from  marriage ;  therefore  i*.  is  lawful  for 
them,  as  for  all  other  Christians,  to  marry  at  their 
own  discretion,  as  they  shall  judge  the  same  to 
serve  best  to  godliness. 

"22.  Of  the  Rites  and  Ceremonies  of  Churches. 
— It  is  not  necessary  that  rites  and  ceremonies 
sliculd  in  all  places  be  the  same,  or  exactly  alike: 
for  they  have  been  always  different,  and  may 
be  changed  according  to  the  diversity  of  coun- 
tries, times,  and  men's  manners,  so  that  nothing 
be  ordained  against  God's  word. — Whosoever, 
through  his  private  judgment,  willingly  and  pur- 
posely doth  openly  break  the  rites  and  ceremo- 
nies of  the  church  to  which  he  belongs,  which 
are  not  repugnant  to  the  word  of  God,  and  are 
ordained  and  approved 'by  common  authority, 
ought  to  be  rebuked  openly,  that  others  may  fear 
to  do  the  like,  as  one  that  offendeth  against  the 
common  order  of  the  church,  and  woundeth  the 
consciences  of  weak  brethren. 

"  Every  particular  church  may  ordain,  change, 
or  abolish  rites  and  ceremonies,  so  that  all  things 
may  be  done  to  edification. 

"23.  Of  the  Rulers  of  the  United  States  of 
America. — The  president,  the  congress,  the  gene- 
ral assemblies,  the  governors,  and  the  councils  of 
state,  as  the  delegates  of  the  people,  are  the  rulers 
of  the  United  States  of  America,  according  to 
the  division  of  power  made  to  them  by  the  con- 
stitution of  the  United  States,  and  by  the  consti- 
tutions of  their  respective  states.  And  the  said 
states  are  a  sovereign  and  independent  nation, 
and  ought  not  to  be  subject  to  any  foreign  juris- 
diction.* 

"24.  Of  Christian  Metis  Goods. — The  riches 
and  goods  of  Christians  are  not  common  as 
touching  the  right,  title,  and  possession  of  the 
same,  as  some  do  falsely  boast.  Notwithstanding, 
every  man  ought,  of  such  things  as  he  possess- 
cth,  liberally  to  give  alms  to  the  poor,  according 
to  his  ability. 

"25.  Of  3  Christian  Man's  Oath. — As  we 
confess  that  vain  and  rash  swearing  is  forbidden 
Christian  men  by  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  and 
James  his  apostle ;  so  we  judge  that  the  Christian 
religion  doth  not  prohibit  but  that  a  man  may 
swear  when  the  magistrate  requireth,  in  a  cause 
of  faith  and  charity,  so  it  be  done  according  to 
the  prophet's  teaching,  in  justice,  judgment,  and 
truth." 

GOVERNMENT. 

The  general  rules  for  the  government  of  the 
societies,  are  the  same  as  those  in  England, 
termed,  "  The  nature,  design,  and  general  rules 
of  our  United  Societies."  (See  Methodists,  go- 
vernment and  discipline  of,  ante.)  As  to  the 
government,  the  title  sufficiently  ascertains  its 
distinctive  character,  it  being,  in  fact  and  name, 


*  As  far  as  it  respects  civil  affairs,  we  believe  it  the 
luty  of  Christians,  and  especially  ail  Christian  minis- 
ters, to  benibjecl  to  the  supreme  authority  of  the  coun- 
try where  they  may  reside,  and  to  use  all  laudable 
tu'aris  to  enjoin  obedience  to  the  powers  that  he  :  and 
therefore  it  is  expected  that  all  our  preachers  and  peo- 
ple, who  may  be  under  the  British  or  any  other  govern- 
ment, will  behave  themselves  as  oeaceableand  orderly 
subjects. 

453 


Episcopal.  T  hree  orders  of  ministers  are  recog 
nized,  and  the  duties  peculiar  to  each  are  clearly 
defined. 

But  to  give  a  correct  view  of  the  ministry  of 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  it  is  necessary 
to  show  the  manner  in  which  it  is  formed.  A 
man  thinking  himself  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost 
to  preach  the  Gospel,  first  makes  known  his 
views  and  exercises  to  the  preacher  having  charge 
of  the  circuit  or  station,  wlio,  if  he  judge  the  ap- 
plicant a  fit  person,  grants  him  license  to  exhort. 
After  improving  his  talent  as  an  exhorter,  a  suf- 
ficient length  of  time  for  his  brethren  to  judge  of 
his  competency  to  so  important  a  work,  he  makes 
application  to  the  quarterly  meeting  conference, 
which  is  composed  of  all  the  preachers,  travelling 
and  local,  stewards,  leaders  and  exhorters  of  the 
circuit,  and  if  considered  fit  for  the  work,  he  is 
recommended  by  this  body  to  the  local  preachers' 
conference,  where  he  is  examined  on  his  belief 
in  the  doctrines  and  discipline  of  the  church ;  and 
they,  if  they  think  proper,  grant  him  license  as  a 
local  preacher ;  and  if  such  licentiate  desire  to 
enter  the  travelling  ministry,  he  must  be  recom- 
mended to  an  annual  conference,  cither  by  a  quar- 
terly meeting  or  a  local  preacher's  conference. 
When  presented  to  an  annual  conference,  his 
reception  on  trial  depends  on  a  majority  of  votes. 
After  travelling  as  a  preacher  on  probation  two 
years,  if  no  objection  be  made  against  him,  he  is 
admitted  as  a  member  of  conference,  and  ordained 
a  deacon.  The  approved  exercise  of  the  deacon's 
office  for  two  years,  entitles  him  to  the  office  of 
an  elder. 

The  following  quotations  from  the  Methodist 
Discipline,  will  show  the  duties  peculiar  to  each 
order  of  ministers  in  their  church : — 
"  Of  the  Election  and  Consecration  of  Bishops 
and  of  their  duty. 

"  Quest.  I.  How  is  a  bishop  to  be  constituted! 

"Answ.  By  the  election  of  the  general  confer- 
ence, and  the  laying  on  of  the  hands  of  three 
bishops,  or  at  least  of  one  bishop  and  two  elders. 

"  Quest.  2.  If  by  death,  expulsion,  or  other  ■ 
wise,  there  be  no  bishop  remaining  in  our  church, 
what  shall  we  do? 

"Answ.  The  general  conference  shall  elect  a 
bishop ;  and  the  elders,  or  any  three  of  them, 
who  shall  be  appointed  by  the  general  conference 
for  that  purpose,  shall  ordain  him  according  to 
our  form  of  ordination. 

"  Quest.  3.  What  are  the  duties  of  a  bishop? 

"  Ansic.  1.  To  preside  in  our  conferences. 

"2.  To/ix  the  appointments  of  the  preachers 
for  the  several  circuits,  provided  he  shall  not  al- 
low any  preacher  to  remain  in  the  same  station 
more  than  two  years  successively;  except  the 
presiding  elders,  the  editor  and  general  book 
steward,  the  assistant  editor  and  general  book 
steward,  the  editor  of  the  Christian  Advocate 
Journal,  the  supernumerary,  superannuated  and 
worn-out  preachers,  missionaries  among  the  In- 
dians, those  preachers  that  may  be  appointed  to 
labour  for  the  special  benefit  of  seamen,  also 
the  preacher  or  preachers  that  may  be  stationed 
in  the  city  of  New  Orleans,  and  the  presidents, 
principals,  or  teachers  of  seminaries  of  learning 
which  are  or  may  be  under  our  superintendence. 

"  3.  In  the  intervals  of  the  conferences  to 
change,  receive,  and  suspend  preachers,  as  neces- 
sity may  require,  and  as  the  discipline  directs. 

"4    To  travel  through  the  connexion  at  large, 


METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 


"  5.  To  oversee  the  spiritual  and  temporal  busi- 
ness of  our  church. 

"  G.  To  ordain  bishops,  elders,  and  deacons. 

"  Of  the  Election  and  Ordination  of  travelling 

Elders,  and  of  their  duty. 

"  Quest.  1.  How  is  an  elder  constituted. 

"  Answ.  By  the  election  of  a  majority  of  the 
yeaily  conference,  and  by  the  laying  on  of  the 
hands  of  a  bishop,  and  some  of  the  elders  that  are 
present. 

"  Quest.  2.  What  is  the  duty  of  a  travelling 
elder  1 

"  Answ.  1.  To  administer  baptism  and  the 
Lord's  supper,  and  to  perform  the  office  of  matri- 
mony, and  all  parts  of  divine  worship. 

"  2.  To  do  all  the  duties  of  a  travelling  preacher. 

"  No  elder  that  ceases  to  travel,  without  the 
consent  of  the  yearly  conference,  certified  under 
the  hand  of  the  president  of  the  conference,  ex- 
cept in  case  of  sickness,  debility,  or  other  una- 
voidable circumstance,  shall,  on  any  account, 
exercise  the  peculiar  functions  of  his  office,  or 
even  be  allowed  to  preach  among  us ;  neverthe- 
less the.  final  determination  in  all  such  cases  is 
with  the  yearly  conference. 
"  Of  the  Election  and  Ordination  of  travelling 
Deacons,  and  of  their  duty. 

"  Quest.  1.  How  is  a  travelling  deacon  con- 
stituted 1 

"  Answ.  By  the  election  of  the  majority  of  the 
yearly  conference,  and  the  laying  on  of  the  hands 
of  a  bishop. 

"  Quest.  2.  What  is  the  duty  of  a  travelling 
deacon  ? 

"  Ansio.  1.  To  baptize,  and  perform  the  office 
of  matrimony,  in  the  absence  of  the  elder. 

"  2.  To  assist  the  elder  in  administering  the 
Lord's  supper. 

"  3.  To  do  all  the  duties  of  a  travelling  preacher. 

"  Quest.  3.  What  shall  be  the  time  of  proba- 
tion of  a  travelling  deacon  for  the  office  of  an 
elder. 

"Answ.  Every  travelling  deacon  shall  exercise 
that  office  for  two  years,  before  he  be  eligible  to 
the  office  of  elder ;  except  in  the  case  of  missions, 
when  the  annual  conference  shall  have  authority 
to  elect  for  the  elder's  office  sooner,  if  they  judge 
it  expedient. 

"  No  deacon  who  ceases  to  travel  without  the 
consent  of  the  annual  conference,  certified  under 
the  hand  of  the  president  of  the  conference,  ex- 
cept in  case  of  sickness,  debility,  or  other  unavoid- 
able circumstances,  shall  on  any  account  exercise 
the  peculiar  functions  of  his  office,  or  even  be 
allowed  to  preach  among  us:  nevertheless,  the 
final  determination  in  all  such  cases  is  with  the 
annual  conference." 

In  addition  to  the  above,  the  Methodist  church 
recognizes  an  officer  denominated  a  presiding 
elder,  who  is  appointed  to  that  office  by  a  bishop. 
"  Of  the  presiding  Elders,  and  of  their  duly. 

"  Quest.  1.  By  whom  are  the  presiding  elders 
to  be  chosen '.' 

"  Ansio.  By  the  bishops. 

"  Quest.  2.  What  are  the  duties  of  a  presiding 
elder. 

"Answ.  1.  To  travel  through  his  appointed 
district 

"  2.  In  the  absence  of  the  bishop,  to  take 
charge  of  all  the  elders,  and  deacons,  travelling 
and  local  preachers,  and  exhorters  in  his  district. 

"3.  To  change,  receive,  and  suspend  preachers 
4VJ 


in  his  district  during  the  intervals  of  the  confer- 
ences, and  in  the  absence  of  the  bishop,  as  the 
discipline  directs. 

"  4.  In  the  absence  of  a  bishop,  to  preside  in 
the  conference ;  but  in  case  there  are  two  or  more 
presiding  elders  belonging  to  one  conference,  the 
bishop  or  bishops  may  by  letter  or  otherwise  ap- 
point the  president ;  but  if  no  appointment  be 
made,  or  if  the  presiding  elder  appointed  do  not 
attend,  the  conference  shall  in  either  of  these 
cases  elect  the  president  by  ballot,  without  a  de- 
bate, from  among  the  presiding  elders. 

"  5.  To  be  present,  as  far  as  practicable,  at  all 
the  quarterly  meetings ;  and  to  call  together  at 
each  quarterly  meeting,  a  quarterly  meeting  con- 
ference, consisting  of  all  the  travelling  and  local 
preachers,  exhorters,  stewards,  and  leaders  of  the 
circuit,  and  none  else,  to  hear  complaints,  and  to 
receive  and  try  appeals.  The  quarterly  meeting 
conference  shall  appoint  a  secretary  to  take  down 
the  proceedings  thereof,  in  a  book  kept  by  one  of 
the  stewards  of  the  circuit  for  that  purpose. 

"  6.  To  oversee  the  spiritual  and  temporal  bu- 
siness of  the  church  in  his  district. 

"  7.  To  take  care  that  every  part  of  our  dis- 
cipline be  enforced  in  his  district. 

"8.  To  attend  the  bishops  when  present  in  his 
district ;  and  to  give  them,  when  absent,  all  ne- 
cessary information,  by  letter,  of  the  state  of  his 
district." 

For  the  particular  duties  of  preachers  to  God, 
to  themselves  and  each  other,  as  well  as  to  the 
people  of  their  charge,  see  Discipline,  sections 
8,  0,  11,  12,  14,  15,  16,  17. 

Besides  the  travelling  ministry,  the  Methodists 
have  a  large  and  useful  body  of  ministers,  whom 
they  distinguish  by  the  name  of  local  preachers. 
These  attend  to  secular  business  for  a  livelihood ; 
and  preach  generally  on  Sabbath  days,  and  oc- 
casionally, as  time  and  opportunity  will  permit, 
on  other  days.  The  following  section  from  the 
discipline  will  clearly  show  their  duties,  powers, 
and  privileges : 

"  Of  the  Local  Preachers. 

"  Quest.  1.  What  directions  shall  be  given 
concerning  local  preachers  1 

"Answ.  1.  There  shall  be  held  annually  in  each 
presiding  elder's  district,  a  district  conference,  of 
which  all  the  local  preachers  in  the  district,  who 
shall  have  been  licensed  two  years,  shall  be  mem- 
bers ;  and  of  which  the  presiding  elder  of  the 
district  for  the  time  being  shall  be  president ;  or 
in  case  of  his  absence,  the  conference  shall  have 
authority  to  elect  a  president  pro  tem.  It  shall 
be  the  duty  of  the  presiding  elder  of  each  district 
to  appoint  the  time  and  place  of  the  first  con- 
ference, after  which  the  presiding  elder  shall 
appoint  the  time,  and  the  conference  the  place 
of  its  own  sitting. 

"  2.  The  said  district  conference  shall  have  au- 
thority to  license  proper  persons  to  preach,  and 
renew  their  license ;  to  recommend  suitable  can- 
didates to  the  annual  conference  for  deacons  or 
elders'  orders,  in  the  local  connexion,  for  admis- 
sion on  trial  in  the  travelling  connexion,  and  to 
try.  suspend,  expel,  or  acquit  aviy  local  preacher 
in  the  district  against  whom  charges  may  be 
brought.  Provided,  that  no  person  shall  be  li- 
censed without  being  first  recommended  by  the 
quarterly  conference  of  the  circuit  or  station  to 
which  he  belongs ;  nor  shall  any  one  be  licensed 
to  preach,  or  recommended  tc  the  annual  con- 


METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 


ference  for  ordination,  without  first  being  ex- 
amined in  the  district  conference  on  the  subjects 
of  doctrine  and  discipline. 

"3.  The  district  conference  shall  take  cogni- 
zance of  all  the  oral  preachers  in  the  district,  and 
shall  inquire  into  the  gifts,  labours,  and  usefulness 
of  each  preacher  by  name. 

"4.  When  charges  are  preferred  against  any 
focal  preacher,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  preacher 
in  charge  to  call  a  committee  consisting  of  three 
or  more  local  preachers  within  the  station,  circuit, 
or  district,  before  whom  it  shall  be  the  duty  of 
the  accused  to  appear,  and  by  whom  he  shall  be 
acquitted,  or,  if  found  guilty,  be  suspended  until 
the  meeting  of  the  next  district  conference.  And 
the  president  of  the  said  district  conference  shall, 
at  the  commencement  of  the  trial,  appoint  a  secre- 
tary, who  shall  take  down  regular  minutes  of  the 
evidence,  and  proceedings  of  the  trial;  which 
minutes,  when  read  and  approved,  shall  be  signed 
by  the  said  president,  and  also  by  the  members 
of  the  said  district  conference,  or  by  a  majority 
of  them. 

"  And  in  case  of  condemnation,  the  local 
preacher,  deacon,  or  elder,  condemned,  shall  be 
allowed  an  appeal  to  the  next  annual  conference, 
provided  that  he  signify  to  the  said  district  con- 
ference, his  determination  to  appeal;  in  which 
case  the  s aid  president  shall  lay  the  minutes  of 
the  trial  above-mentioned  before  the  said  annual 
conference,  at  which  the  local  preacher,  deacon, 
or  elder,  so  appealing  may  appear  :  and  the  said 
annual  conference  shall  judge  and  finally  deter- 
mine from  the  minutes  of  the  said  trial,  so  laid 
before  them. 

"  5.  A  licensed  local  preacher  shall  be  eligible 
to  the  office  of  a  deacon,  after  he  has  preached  for 
four  years  from  the  time  he  received  a  regular 
license,  and  has  obtained  a  testimonial  from  the 
district  conference  to  which  he  belongs,  after 
proper  examination,  signed  by  the  president,  and 
countersigned  by  the  secretary,  and  his  character 
has  passed  in  examination  before,  and  he  has  ob- 
tained the  approbation  of  the  annual  conference. 
"u\  A  local  deacon  shall  be  eligible  to  the 
office  of  an  elder,  after  he  has  preached  four 
years  from  the  time  he  was  ordained  a  deacon, 
and  has  obtained  a  recommendation  from  the 
district  conference  of  which  he  is  a  member, 
certifying  his  qualifications  in  doctrine,  discipline, 
talents  and  usefulness,  and  the  necessity  of  his 
official  services  as  an  elder  in  the  circuit  where 
he  resides;  signed  by  the  president,  and  coun- 
tersigned by  the  secretary.  He  shall,  if  he  can- 
not attend,  send  to  the  annual  conference  such 
recommendation,  and  a  noto  certifying  his  be- 
lief in  the  doctrine  and  discipline  of  our  church : 
the  whole  being  examined  by  the  annual  con- 
ference, and  if  approved  he  may  be  ordained ; 
provided,  nevertheless,  no  slave-holder  shall  be 
eligible  to  the  office  of  an  elder  or  deacon,  where' 
the  laws  will  admit  of  emancipation,  and  permit 
the  liberated  slave  to  enjoy  freedom. 

"7.  E-ery  local  elder,  deacon,  and  preacher 
shall  ha»  .  his  name  recorded  on  the  journal  of 
the  quarterly  meeting  conference  of  which  he  is 
a  member.  And  every  local  preacher  shall  have 
his  name  enrolled  on  a  class  paper,  and  meet  in 
class,  if  the  distance  of  bis  place  of  residence 
from  any  class  be  not  too  great ;  or,  in  neglect 
thereof,  the  district  conference,  if  they  judge  it 
proper,  may  deprive  him  of  his  ministerial  office. 
4G0 


"  Whenever  a  local  preacher  shall  remove  froia 
one  circuit  to  another,  he  shall  procure  from  the 
presiding  elder  of  the  district,  or  the  preacher 
having  the  charge  of  the  circuit,  a  certificate  of 
his  official  standing  in  the  church  at  the  time  of 
his  removal,  without  which  he  shall  not  be  re- 
ceived as  a  local  preacher  in  other  places. 

"No  preacher  among  us  shall  distil  or  retail 
spirituous  liquors,  without  forfeiting  his  official 
standing." 

The  supreme  legislative  power  of  the  church 
is  concentrated  in  a  general  conference,  which  is 
composed  of  delegates  from  each  annual  con- 
ference, who  meet  together  on  the  first  day  of 
May  of  every  fourth  year.  For  its  powers  see 
this  article,  ante.  In  addition  to  the  powers 
there  enumerated,  the  general  conference  pos- 
sesses an  appellate  jurisdiction  over  all  ministers 
who  may  have  appealed  from  the  decisions  of  an 
annual  conference,  and  the  final  determination 
of  all  disputes  that  may  arise  on  any  question 
of  rights,  which  relates  either  to  the  people  or 
preachers ;  elects  and  fixes  the  salary  of  the  book 
agents ;  elects  the  bishops,  and  may  create  any 
new,  or  divide  any  of  the  old  annual  conferences. 

To  the  annual  conferences  is  committed  the 
oversight,  in  subordination  to  the  episcopal  au- 
thority, of  all  the  preachers  and  people  within 
their  respective  bounds,  the  standing  of  their  own 
numbers,  the  hearing  of  appeals  of  local  preachers, 
and  the  original  jurisdiction  of  the  members  of 
their  own  bodies,  and  the  adoption  of  such  mea- 
sures as  they  may  think  expedient,  for  raisincr 
moneys  to  carry  on  the  work  of  God.  The  fol- 
lowing questions  will  show  the  powers  and  pri- 
vileges, as  well  as  the  particular  business  of  an 
annual  conference : — 

"  Of  the  Annual  Conferences. 

"  Quest.  3.  Who  shall  attend  the  yearly  con- 
ferences? 

"  Answ.  All  the  travelling  preachers,  who 
are  in  full  connexion,  and  those  who  are  to  be 
received  into  full  connexion. 

"  Quest.  4.  Who  shall  appoint  the  times  of 
holding  the  yearly  conferences'? 

"  Answ.  The  bishops;  but  they  shall  allow  the 
annual  conferences  to  sit  a  week  at  least. 

"  Quest.  5.  Who  shall  appoint  the  places  of 
holding  the  annual  conferences? 

"Answ.  Each  annual  conference  shall  appoint 
the  place  of  its  own  sitting. 

"  Quest.  f>.  What  is  the  method  wherein  we 
usually  proceed  in  the  yearly  conference? 

''•Answ.  We  inquire, 

"  1.  What  preachers  are  admitted  on  trial? 

"  2.  Who  remain  on  trial  ? 

"3.  Who  are  admitted  into  full  connexion? 

"  4.  Who  are  the  deacons  ? 

11 5.  Who  have  been  elected  and  ordained  el- 
ders this  year  ? 

"  6.  Who  have  been  elected,  by  the  suffrages 
of  the  general  conference,  to  exercise  the  episco- 
pal office,  and  superintend  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  in  America? 

"7.  Who  have  located  this  year? 

"8.  Who  are  the  supernumeraries? 

"  9.  Who  are  the  superannuated  or  worn-out 
preachers  ? 

"10.  Who  have  been  expelled  from  the  con- 
nexion this  year  ? 

"11.  Who  have  withdrawn  from  the  con- 
nexion this  year  ? 


METHODIST  EPISCOPAL  CHURCH. 


"12.  Are  all  the  preachers  blameless  in  life 
and  conversation  1 

"  13.  Who  have  died  this  year  ? 

"  14.  What  numbers  are  in  society? 

"  15.  What  has  been  collected  for  the  contin- 
gent expenses,  for  the  making  up  the  allowances 
of  the  preachers,  &c.  ? 

"  16.  How  has  this  been  expended  ? 

"  17.  Where  are  the  preachers  stationed  this 
year? 

"  18.  Where  and  when  shall  our  next  con- 
ferences be  held  ? 

"  Quest.  7.  Is  there  any  other  business  to  be 
done  in  the  yearly  conferences  ? 

"  Answ.  The  electing  and  ordaining  of  dea- 
cons and  elders. 

"  Quest.  8.  Are  there  any  other  directions  to 
be  given  concerning  the  yearly  conferences  ? 

"  Ansic.  There  shall  be  twelve  conferences  in 
the  year.  A  record  of  the  proceedings  of  each 
annual  conference  shall  be  kept  by  a  secretary, 
chosen  for  that  purpose,  and  shall  be  signed  by 
the  president  and  secretary :  and  let  a  copy  of  the 
said  record  be  sent  to  the  general  conference." 

Support  of  the  Ministry. — The  ministry  is 
supported  by  the  voluntary  contributions  of  the 
people.  For  this  purpose,  a  collection  is  made  in 
all  the  classes  and  large  congregations  in  the 
country  circuits  once  a  quarter;  in  the  cities,  in 
addition  to  the  quarterly  collections,  a  monthly, 
and  in  some  cities  a  weekly  collection  is  made, 
which  is  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the  stewards 
at  each  leaders'  meeting,  or  at  the  quarterly  meet- 
ing of  the  circuit :  the  stewards  keep  a  record  of 
all  moneys  collected,  and  the  manner  in  which 
they  are  appropriated. 

CHARACTER. 

Each  denomination  of  Christians  have,  some 
peculiarity  of  character,  by  whhh  it  is  distin- 
guished from  others.  And  the  preceding  out- 
line of  the  Methodist  Episcopa.  Church  will,  it  I  kingdom  of  Christ  among  men. 


is  presumed,  enable  the  reader  to  form  a  tolerably 
correct  idea  cf  its  characteristic  distinction.  And 
those  who  ha've  witnessed  the  rise  and  progress 
of  the  church,  in  the  midst  of  a  variety  of  re- 
proaches and  oppositions,  will  be  ready  to  admit, 
that  a  remarkable  zeal  for  the  salvation  of  souls 
has  distinguished  the  Methodist  ministry  from 
the  beginning;  and  that  this  zeal,  tempered  with 
love  to  God  and  man,  has  evinced  itself  by  an  ex 
tended  and  persevering  plan  of  diffusing  the 
Gospel,  by  an  itinerating  ministry  ;  and  also  by 
a  success  in  the  awakening  and  conversion  of 
souls,  scarcely  to  be  paralleled  in  ecclesiastical  his- 
tory, since  the  apostolic  age.  These  arc  facts 
known  and  read  of  all  men.  And  no  less  evi- 
dent has  been  their  own  personal  devotion  to  the 
cause  of  God  and  to  the  interests  of  Jesus  Christ. 

That  particular  doctrine  which  has  charac- 
terized all  their  preaching  is,  salvation  by  grace 
through  faith  in  the  atoning  merits  of  Christ , 
and  no  less  strenuously  have  they  enforced  the 
necessity  of  holiness  of  heart  and  life,  or  the  en- 
tire sanctification  of  the  soul  and  body  to  God. 
And  bating  somewhat  for  the  enthusiasm  of  some, 
the  ignorance  and  irregularity  of  others,  perhaps 
it  is  not  too  much  to  say,  that  no  sect  of  Christians 
have  maintained  a  more  unexceptionable  charac- 
ter for  strict  adherence  to  the  precepts  of  Christ. 

To  undertake  to  estimate  the  comparative  me- 
rits of  the  several  sects  of  Christians  might  seem 
invidious ;  and  it  would  be  equally  so,  to  draw  a 
general  conclusion,  either  for  or  against  any  body 
of  people  from  the  conduct  of  a  tew  individuals. 
All,  however  bright  they  may  have  shone,  have 
had  their  spots ;  and  it  is  granted  without  any  dis- 
paragement to  the  character  of  the  main  body,  that 
there  have  been  individuals  among  the  Metho- 
dists who  have  disgraced  themselves  and  their 
brethren ;  while  the  great  majority  of  both 
preachers  and  people,  have  evinced  deep  devotion 
to  God,  and  an  ardent  attachment  to  truth  and 
holiness,  and  have  done  much  to  advance   tho 


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APPENDIX,  No.  II. 

(Corrected  to  1844.) 


THE  METHODIST  PROTESTANT  CHURCH;  COMPRISING  THE 
ASSOCIATED  METHODIST  CHURCHES. 

By  a  distinguished  Member  of  the  Church. 


Thf.  polity  of  the  original  Wesleyan  Methodist 
Societies  rested  upon  the  principle,  that  their 
illustrious  Founder  had  the  right. to  ordain  every 
thing,  and  to  control  every  preacher  and  member 
of  his  societies,  in  all  matters  of  a  prudential 
character. 

As  he  himself  states,  he  had  the  exclusive  power 
"  to  appoint  when,  and  where,  and  how,  his  socie- 
ties should  meet;  and  to  remove  those  whose  lives 
Bhowed  that  they  had  no  desire  '  to  llee  from  the 
wrath  to  come.'  And  this  power  remained  the 
same,  whether  the  people  meeting  together,  were 
twelve  hundred,  or  twelve  thousand/' 

He  exercised  a  similar  power  over  the  preachers, 
"  To  appoint  each  of  these,  when,  where,  and  how, 
to  labour;  and  to  tell  any  if  I  saw  cause,  '  I  do  not 
desire  your  help  any  longer.'  " 

Most  of  the  members  of  these  Societies  were 
members  of  the  Church  of  England;  some  were 
members  of  the  dissenting  churches.  Mr.  Wesley 
was  a  minister  of  the  Church  of  England,  and  as 
such  he  died.  With  very  few  exceptions,  his 
preachers  were  laymen.  He  was  their  tutor  and 
governor.  He  was  the  patron  of  all  the  Metho- 
dist pulpits  in  England  and  Ireland  for  life,  the 
sole  right  of  nomination  being  vested  in  him 
by  the  deeds  of  settlement.  He  was  the  patron 
of  the  Methodist  societies  in  America  ;  and  is  ac- 
knowledged by  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church 
as  its  founder.  That  he  is  the  author  of  the 
Episcopacy  of  that  church,  is  questioned  by  some, 
for  the  following  reasons,  as  well  as  many  others: 
1.  It  was  not  until  some  years  after  the  institution 
of  Episcopacy,  (1784,)  that  Mr.  Wesley's  authority 
was  alleged  as  its  basis ;  but,  without  any  men- 
tion of  Mr.  Wesley,  the  itinerant  preachers  de- 
clared in  their  first  "  Minutes" — "  We  will  form 
ourselves  into  an  Episcopal  Church,  &c."  2.  Mr. 
Wesley  alleged  no  other  authority  in  himself  to 
ordain  ministers,  but  his  right  as  a  presbyter.  3. 
He  solemnly  forbade  Mr.  Asbury  to  assume  the 
title  of  bishop. 

The  Conference  by  whom  the  Methodist  Epis- 
copal Church  was  founded,  was  composed  of 
itinerant  preachers  only,  who  assumed  to  them- 
selves the  same  powers  which  Mr.  Wesley  had 
exercised  over  the  societies;  making  their  will 
the  only  rule  of  the  church. 

Some  of  the  first  symptoms  indicative  of  dis- 
satisfaction wit  lit  he  new  economy,  were  evinced  by 
these  preachers  themselves,  who  were  soon  made 
to  know  the  poicers  of  the  episcopacy.     On  no 
463 


i  question  have  they  been  so  equally  divided.  No 
changes,  however,  have  been  effected.  The  epis» 
copacy  still  maintains  its  prerogatives  in  their  ori- 
ginal integrity. 

In  1824,  memorials  and  petitions,  from  many 
sections  of  the  church,  were  presented  to  the 
General  Conference,  complaining  of  the  govern- 
ment being  so  constituted  and  administered,  as  to 
exclude  the  local  preachers,  and  the  lay-members 
from  every  sort  of  participation  in  their  own 
government,  as  Methodists.  Some  of  these  peti- 
tioners were  satisfied  with  the  plea  of  expediency ; 
but  the  most  of  them  took  the  ground  of  right. 
All  of  them  craved  a  representative  form  of  govern- 
ment. The  conference  replied,  that  they  "  knew 
no  such  rights,"  nor  did  they  "  comprehend  any 
such  privileges." 

From  that  time  the  controversy  assumed  a  new 
character.  It  was  viewed  as  itinerant  power 
against  church  rights.  Therefore,  as  soon  as  the 
general  conference  had  risen,  a  meeting  of  pro- 
fessed reformers  was  held ;  some  of  the  members 
of  which  had  been  distinguished  members  of  the 
recent  conference.  The  continuance  of  the  periodi- 
cal was  resolved  upon,  "for  the  purpose  of  giving 
the  Methodist  community  a  suitable  opportunity 
to  enter  upon  a  calm  and  dispassionate  examina- 
tion of  the  subjects  in  dispute."  In  order  to  ascer- 
tain and  increase  the  number  of  reformers,  union 
societies  were  formed.  These  measures  were  the 
causes  of  considerable  persecution,  and  in  some 
places  of  excommunications.  Secessions  imme- 
diately followed.  The  expelled  and  the  secedents 
united,  temporarily,  under  the  "  General  Rules"  of 
John  and  Charles  Wesley. 

In  November,  18*27,  a  General  Convention  of 
ministers  and  lay-delegates  was  held  in  the  city  of 
Baltimore ;  a  memorial  to  the  general  conference 
to  be  held  in  1828  was  prepared,  and  a  committee 
appointed  to  present  it.  This  memorial  asserted 
the  right  of  the  church  to  representation.  But, 
instead  of  any  concession,  the  conference  denied 
the  right  altogether;  and,  on  the  high  pretension 
of  divine  right,  claimed  for  the  itineracy  the  same 
exclusive  and  unamenable  powers  of  making  and 
administering  moral  discipline,  which  they  had 
from  the  beginning  exercised.  This  was  a  death- 
blow to  all  hope  on  the  part  of  the  reformers;  and, 
therefore,  at  a  convention  held  in  Baltimore,  No- 
vember, 1828,  a  provisional  government,  under 
the  form  of  Articles  of  Association,  was  adopted, 
to  continue  for  two  years. 


THE  METHODIST  PROTESTANT  CHURCH. 


The  third  convention  was  also  held  in  Balti- 
more, and  continued  its  sessions  from  the  2d  to 
the  23d  of  November,  1830.  One  hundred  and 
twelve  persons  were  elected  as  members,  eighty- 
i»ne  of  whom  attended.  A  Constitution  and  Form 
of  Discipline  were  adopted. 

"  PREAMBLE. 

"We,  the  Representatives  of  the  Associated 
Methodist  Churches,  in  general  convention  as- 
sembled, acknowledging  the  Loud  Jesus  Christ 
as  the  only  Hkad  of  the  Church,  and  the  word 
of  God  as  the  sufficient  rule  of  faith  and  practice 
in  all  things  pertaining  to  godliness ;  and  being 
fully  persuaded,  that  the  representative  form  of 
church  government  is  the  most  scriptural,  best 
suited  to  our  condition,  and  most  congenial  with 
our  views  and  feelings  as  fellow-citizens  with  the 
saints  and  of  the  household  of  God ;  And, 
Whereas,  a  written  constitution,  establishing  the 
form  of  government,  and  securing  to  the  ministers 
and  members  of  the  church  their  rights  and  privi- 
leges, is  the  best  safeguard  of  christian  liberty ; 
We,  therefore,  trusting  in  the  protection  of  Al- 
mighty God,  and  acting  in  the  name  and  by  the 
authority  of  our  constituents,  do  ordain  and  esta- 
blish, and  agree  to  be  governed  by  the  following 
elementary  principles  and  constitution. 

"  ELEMENTARY  PRINCIPLES. 

"I.  A  Christian  Church  is  a  society  of  believers 
in  Jesus  Christ,  and  is  of  divine  institution. 

"II.  Christ  is  the  only  Hkad  of  the  Church  ; 
and  the  word  of  God  the  only  rule  of  faith  and 
conduct. 

"  III.  No  person  who  loves  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  and  obeysthe  gospel  of  God  our  Saviour, 
ought  to  be  deprived  of  church  membership. 

"  IV.  Ev°ry  man  has  an  inalienable  right  to  pri- 
vate judgment  in  n_siters  of  religion ;  and  an 
equal  right  to  exprcts  his  opinion  in  any  way 
which  will  not  violate  the  laws  of  God,  or  the 
rights  of  his  fellow  men. 

"  V.  Church  trials  should  be  conducted  on  gospel 
principles  only;  and  no  minister  or  member  should 
be  excommunicated,  except  for  immorality,  the 
propagation  of  unchristian  doctrines,  or  for  the 
neglect  of  duties  enjoined  by  the  word  of  God. 

"  VI.  The  pastoral  or  ministerial  office  and  d  uties 
are  of  divine  appointment ;  and  all  elders  in  the 
church  of  God  are  equal ;  but  ministers  are  for- 
bidden to  be  lords  over  God's  heritage,  or  to  have 
dominion  over  the  faith  of  the  saints. 

"  VII.  The  church  has  aright  to  form  and  en- 
force such  rules  and  regulations  only  as  are  in 
accordance  with  the  holy  Scriptures,  and  may  be 
necessary,  or  have  a  tendency,  to  carry  into  effect 
the  great  system  of  practical  Christianity. 

"VIII.  Whatever  power  may  be  necessary  to 
the  formation  of  rules  and  regulations,  is  inherent 
in  the  ministers  and  members  of  the  church ;  but 
so  much  of  that  power  may  be  delegated,  from 
time  to  time,  upon  a  plan  of  representation,  as 
they  may  judge  necessary  and  proper. 

"  IX.  It  is  theduty  of  all  ministers  and  members 
of  the  church  to  maintain  godliness,  and  to  eppose 
all  moral  evil. 

"  X.  It  is  obligatory  on  ministers  of  the  gospel  to 
be  faithful  in  the  discharge  of  their  pastoral  and 
ministerial  duties  ;  and  it  is  also  obligatory  on  the 
members  to  esteem  ministers  highly  for  their 
works'  sake,  and  to  render  them  a  righteous  com- 
pensation for  their  labours. 
4G3 


"XI.  The  church  ought  to  secure  to  all  her  of- 
ficial bodies  the  necessary  authority  for  the  pur- 
poses of  good  government ;  but  she  has  no  right  to 
create  any  distinct  or  independent  sovereignties." 

On  these  principles,  the  Constitution  and 
Form  of  Discipline  are  founded. 

Article  I.  declares  the  title — "  The  Methodist 
Protkstant  Church,  comprising  the  Associated 
Methodist  Churches."  This  title,  is  deemed  suit- 
able, because  this  church  repudiates  ministerial 
supremacy,  as  did  the  Protestants  of  the  sixteenth 
century. 

Article  II.  Fixes  probationary  privileges  and 
terms  of  membership,  which  do  not  differ  from 
those  in  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  except 
as  regarding  "the  children  of  our  members,  and 
those  under  their  guardianship  [who]  shall  be  re- 
cognized as  enjoying  probationary  privileges,  and 
held  as  candidates  for  membership ;  and  may  be 
put  into  classes,  as  such,  with  the  consent  of  their 
parents  and  guardians." 

Art.  III.  Provides  for  divisions  of  districts,  cir- 
cuits, and  stations,  by  the  representatives  of  the 
churches,  in  general  and  annual  conferences  as- 
sembled. 

Art.  IV.  "On  receiving  churches,  &c."  pro- 
vides the  mode  of  receiving  churches  into  the 
general  association ;  declares  what  constitutes  an 
individual  Associated  Methodist  church,  to  wit^ 
"Any  number  of  members  residing  sufficiently 
near  each  other  to  assemble  statedly  for  public 
worship,  and  to  transact  its  temporal  business" — 
and  provides  for  the  division  of  churches  "into 
smaller  companies  or  classes,  for  the  purposes  of 
religious  instruction  and  edification."  No  church 
can  be  continued  in  connexion  with  the  general 
body,  but  by  conforming  to  the  constitution  and 
book  of  discipline. 

Art.  V.  Of  "  Leaders'  Meetings." 

Art.  VI.  Constitutes  quarterly  conferences,  to 
be  composed  of  all  the  ministers,  preachers,  ex- 
horters,  stewards,  leaders,  and  trustees,  provided 
the  latter  have  also  the  qualification  of  full  church 
membership.  This  article  also  forbids  the  licensing 
of  any  one  "  to  preach  until  he  shall  have  been 
first  examined,  and  recommended  by  a  committee 
of  five,  composed  of  ministers  and  laymen,  chosen 
by  the  quarterly  conference." 

Art.  VII.  Constitutes  annual  conferences,  and 
declares  their*powers  and  duties.  They  are  com- 
posed of  equal  numbers  of  ministers  and  delegates. 
The  powers  and  duties  of  these  bodies  are  of  the 
utmost  importance  to  the  churches  and  the  general 
connexion.  They  are  vested  with  powers  to  elect 
a  president  annually ;  to  examine  into  the  official 
conduct  of  all  their  members;  to  receive  ministers 
and  preachers;  to  elect  to  orders;  to  hear  and 
decide  on  appeals ;  to  define  and  regulate  bounda- 
ries of  circuits  and  stations ;  to  station  ministers, 
&c.  To  make  such  special  rules  and  regulations 
as  the  peculiarities  of  their  conference  districts 
may  require,  not  inconsistent  with  the  constitution. 

Art.  VIII.  Provides  for  a  general  conference, 
to  consist  of  an  equal  number  of  ministers  and 
laymen,  to  be  chosen  by  the  churches.  No  minis- 
ter is  permitted  to  have  a  seat  in  this  body  but  by 
election  of  the  ministers  and  laymen.  So  that  the 
members  of  this  body  will  be,  indeed,  the  repre- 
sentatives of  those  for  whom  they  legislate.  No 
one  will  have  a  seat  in  virtue  of  his  own  ri<rht,  nor 
of  ordination,  nor  ministerial  order,  nor  office. 


THE  METHODIST  PROTESTANT  CHURCH. 
Declares  the  powers  of  the  general  i  of  God,  or  the  indulgence  in  sinful  words  and 


To  m  ike  rules  and  regula 
supreme    legislature    of  the 


Art.  IX. 
conference  to  be, 
tions."     It   is    the 
church. 

Art.  X.  Consists  of  "  Restrictions  on  the  legis- 
lative assemblies,"  including  the  general  and  an- 
nual conferences. 

"  1.  No  rule  shall  he  passed  which  shall  con- 
travene any  law  of  God. 

"2.  No  rule  shall  be  passed  which  shall  in- 
fringe the  right  of  suffrage,  eligibility  to  office, 
or  the  rights  and  privileges  of  our  ministers, 
preachers,  and  members,  to  an  impartial  trial  by 
committee,  and  of  an  appeal,  as  provided  by  this 
constitution. 

"  3.  No  rule  shall  be  passed  infringing  the  liberty 
of  speech,  or  of  the  press;  but  for  every  abuse  of 
liberty  the  offender  shall  be  dealt  with  as  in  other 
cases  of  indulging  sinful  words  and  tempers. 

"  4.  No  rule,  except  it  be  founded  on  the  holy 
Scriptures,  shall  be  passod,  authorising  the  expul- 
sion of  any  minister,  preacher,  or  member. 

"5.  No  rule  shall  be  passed,  appropriating  the 
funds  of  the  <  hurch  to  any  purpose  except  the 
support  of  the  ministry,  their  wives,  widows,  and 
children ;  the  promotion  of  education,  and  mis- 
sions; the  diffusion  of  useful  knowledge ;  the  ne- 
cessary expenses  consequent  on  assembling  the 
conference:;,  and  the  relief  of  the  poor. 

'•  6.  No  higher  order  of  ministers  shall  be  au- 
thorised than  that  of  elder. 

"  7  No  rule  shall  lie  passed  to  abolish  an  efficient 
itinerant  ministry,  or  to  authorise  the  annual  con- 
ferences to  station  their  ministers  and  preachers 
longer  than  three  years  successively  in  the  same 
circuit,  and  two  years  successively  in  the  same 
station. 

"  8.  No  changes  shall  be  made  in  the  relative 
proportions  or  component  parts  of  the  general  or 
annual  conferences.''' 

Art.  XI.  Declares  how  presidents  of  annual 
conferences  shall  be  elected,  their  time  of  service 
and  duties.  The  term  is  one  year;  the  same  per- 
son may  he  chosen  for  three  successive  years. 
The  duties  of  ministers,  as  pastors,  &c,  and  of 
)ther  officers  of  the  church,  are  deiined. 

Art.  XII.  Declares  the  right  of  suffrage,  and 
eligibility  to  office. 

"  1.  Every  minister  and  preacher,  and  every 
white,  lay,  male  member,  in  full  communion  and 
fellowship,  having  attained  to  the  age  of  twenty- 
one  years,  shall  be  entitled  to  vote  in  all  cases. 

"  2.  Every  minister  and  preacher,  and  every 
while,  lay,  male  member,  in  full  communion  and 
fellowship,  having  attained  to  the  age  of  twenty- 
live  years,  and  having  been  in  full  membership 
two  years,  shall  be  eligible  as  a  representative  in 
the  general  conference. 

""3.  No  person  shall  be  eligible  as  a  delegate  to 
the  annual  conference,  or  as  a  steward,  who  has 
not  attained  to  the  age  of  twenty-one  years,  and 
who  is  not  a  regular  communicant  of  this  church. 

"4.  No  minister  shall  be  eligible  to  the  office  of 
president  of  an  annual  conference,  until  he  shall 
have  faithfully  exercised  the  office  of  elder  two 
years." 

Art.  XIII.  "  Judiciary  Principles. — 1.  All  of- 
fences  condemned  by  the  word  of  God,  as  being 
sufficient  to  exclude  a  person  from  the  kingdom  of 
grace  and  glory,  shall  subject  ministers,  preachers, 
and  members,  bo  expulsion  from  the  church. 

"2.  The  neglect  of  duties  required  by  the  word 
464 


tempers,  shall  subject  the  offender  to  admonition; 
and  if  persisted  in,  after  repeated  admonitions,  to 
expulsion. 

'*  3.  For  preaching  or  disseminating  unscriptural 
doctrines,  affecting  the  essential  interests  of  the 
christian  system,  ministers,  preachers,  and  mero 
bers  shall  be  liable  to  admonition;  and,  if  incor- 
rigible, to  expulsion :  Provided  always,  that  no 
minister,  preachers  or  member  shall  be  expelled 
for  disseminating  matters  of  opinion  alone,  except 
they  be  such  as  are  condemned  by  the  word  ofGod. 

"4.  All  officers  of  the  church  shall  be  liable  to 
removal  from  office,  for  mat-administration." 

Art.  XIV.  "  Privileges  of  accused  Ministers 
and  Members. — 1.  In  all  cases  of  accusation 
against  a  minister,  preacher,  or  member,  the  ac- 
cused shall  be  furnished  by  the  proper  authorities, 
with  a  copy  of  the  charges  and  specifications,  at 
least  twenty  days  before  the  time  appointed  for 
the  trial ;  unless  the  parties  concerned  prefer  going 
into  trial  on  shorter  notice.  The  accused  shall 
have  the  right  of  challenge ;  the  privilege  of  ex- 
amining witnesses  at  the  time  of  trial,  and  of 
making  his  defence  in  person  or  by  representative ; 
provided  such  representative  be  a  member  of  the 
church. 

"2.  No  minister,  or  preacher,  shall  be  expelled, 
or  deprived  of  church  privileges  or  ministerial 
functions,  without  an  impartial  trial  before  a  com- 
mittee of  from  three  to  live  ministers  or  preachers, 
and  the  right  of  appeal :  the  preachers,  to  the  en- 
suing quarterly  conference ;  the  ministers  to  the 
ensuing  annual  conference. 

"  3.  No  member  shall  be  expelled  or  deprived  of 
church  privileges,  without  an  impartial  trial  before 
a  committee  of  three  or  more  lay  members,  or  be- 
fore the  society  of  which  he  is  a  member,  as  the 
accused  may  require,  and  the  right  of  an  appeal  to 
the  ensuing  quarterly  conference ;  but  no  com- 
mittee-man who  shall  have  sat  on  the  first  trial, 
shall  sit  on  the  appeal ;  and  all  appeals  shall  ba 
final." 

Art.  XV.  w  Discipline  Judiciary. — I.  When- 
ever a  majority7  of  all  the  annual  conferences  shall 
officially  call  for  a  judicial  decision  on  any  rule  or 
act  of  the  general  conference,  it  shall  be  the  duty 
of  each  and  every  annual  conference  to  appoint,  at 
its  next  session,  one  judicial  delegate,  having  the 
same  qualifications  of  eligibility  as  are  required 
for  a  representative  to  the  general  conference.  The 
delegates  thus  chosen  shall  assemble  at  the  place 
where  the  general  conference  held  its  last  session, 
on  the  second  Tuesday  in  May  following  their 
appointment. 

"2.  A  majority  of  the  delegates  shall  constitute  a 
quorum ;  and  if  two  thirds  of  all  present  judge 
said  rule  or  act  of  the  general  conference  uncon- 
stitutional, they  shall  have  power  to  declare  the 
same  null  and  void. 

"  3.  Every  decision  of  the  judiciary  shall  be  in 
writing,  and  shall  be  published  in  the  periodical 
belonging  to  this  church.  After  the  judiciary 
shall  have  performed  the  duties  assigned  them  by 
this  constitution,  their  powers  shall  cease:  and  no 
other  judiciary  shall  be  created  until  after  the 
session  of  the  succeeding  general  conference. 

"  Resolved,  That  the  judiciary  tribunal  provided 
for  by  the  15th  article  of  the  constitution  of  this 
church,  shall  publish  as  well  the  reasons  of  their 
opinion  upon  the  part  or  provision  of  the  constitu- 
tion supposed  to  have  been  contravened   by  the 


THE  METHODIST  PROTESTANT  CHURCH. 


law  or  laws,  provision  or  provisions,  considered  to 
he  unconstitutional,  together  with  their  decision/' 

Art.  XVI.  "  Special  call  of  the  General  Con- 
ference.— 1.  Two  thirds  of  the  whole  number  of 
the  annual  conferences,  shall  have  power  to  call 
special  meetings  of  the  general  conference. , 

"2.  When  it  shall  have  been  ascertained  that 
two  thirds  of  ihe  annual  conferences  have  decided 
in  favour  of  such  call,  it  shall  be  the  duty  of  the 
presidents,  or  a  majority  of  them,  forthwith  to  de- 
signate the  time  and  place  of  holding  the  same, 
and  to  give  due  notice  to  all  the  stations  and  cir- 
cuits." 

Art.  XVII.  "  Provision  for  altering  the  Con- 
stitution.— 1.  The  General  Conference  shall  have 
power  to  amend  any  part  of  this  constitution,  ex- 
cept the  second,  tenth,  and  fourteenth  articles,  by 
making  such  alterations  or  additions,  as  may  be 
recommended  in  writing,  by  two  thirds  of  the 
whole  number  of  the  annual  conferences,  next 
preceding  the  sitting  of  the  general  conference. 

"  2.  The  second,  tenth,  and  fourteenth  articles  of 
this  constitution  shall  be  unalterable,  except  by  a 
general  convention,  called  for  the  special  purpose, 
by  two  thirds  of  the  whole  number  of  the  annual 
conferences,  next  preceding  the  general  confer- 
ence. Which  convention,  and  all  other  conven- 
tions of  this  church,  shall  be  constituted  and 
elected  in  the  same  manner  and  ratio  as  prescribed 
for  the  general  conference.  When  a  general 
convention  is  called  by  the  annual  conferences,  it 
shall  supersede  the  assembling  of  the  general  con- 
ference for  that  period ;  and  shall  have  power  to 
discharge  all  the  duties  of  that  body,  in  addition 
to  the  particular  object  for  which  the  convention 
shall  have  been  assembled. 

"  Whereas,  It  is  declared  by  this  convention,  that 
whatever  power  may  be  necessary  to  the  forma- 
tion of  rules  and  regulations,  is  inherent  in  the 
ministers  and  members  of  the  church;  and  that  so 
much  of  that  power  may  be  delegated  from  time 
to  time,  upon  a  plan  of  representation,  as  they  may 
judge  proper;  therefore,  Resolved,  that  all  powers 
not  delegated  to  the  respective  official  bodies  of 
the  Methodist  Protestant  Church  by  this  conven- 
tion, are  retained  to  said  ministers  and  members." 


"  The  convention  deemed  it  matter  of  unspeak- 
able joy  and  gratitude,  that,  under  the  control  and 
blessing  of  Almighty  God,  the  deliberations  were 
brought  to  so  favourable  an  issue.  The  church  is 
now  sacredly  confederated,  in  virtue  of  an  instru- 
ment which  had  been  the  result  of  much  intense 


and  candid  reflection  and  discussion ;  and  whUi 
is  based,  as  is  believed,  on  the  clearest  principle 
of  the  natural  and  religious  rights  of  man.  The 
moral  regulations  have  also  been  carefully  and 
studiously  framed  in  view  of  the  precepts  and  au- 
thority of  the  sacred  canon,  and  will  be  found, 
it  is  also  believed,  to  be  sustained  by  that  high 
sanction." 

The  Articles  of  Religion,  means  of  grace,  pub 
lie  and  social,  are  the  same  in  this  church,  as  ir 
the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church.  The  Formu 
laries  of  Baptism  and  of  ordination,  are  altered  ii 
some  particulars,  so  as  to  suit  the  new  economy 
the  former  of  which  is  adapted  to  a  probationar 
relation  of  children ;  and,  the  latter  recognizin 
no  imposition  of  hands  but  in  the  ordination  o 
deacons  and  elders. 

As  this  church  has  no  new  religious  or  mora 
doctrines,  professed  to  be  found  in  the  scripture? 
to  ofier  to  the  public,  but  rests  its  pretensions  t' 
favour  on  the  ground  common  to  all  orthodox  d'. 
nominations ;  its  superiority  as  a  Methodist  com 
inunity  can  be  argued  only  in  view  of  its  govern- 
ment. And  in  this  view  it  is  stated,  "  that  in  t 
country  distinguished  by  representation  and  con- 
federation, it  is  of  the  highest  importance  that  al! 
the  societies  and  associations,  religious,  literary 
or  of  whatever  character,  which  have  risen  undei 
the  fostering  care,  and  receive  the  continual  pro- 
tection, of  its  civil  institutions,  should,  as  far  as  cir 
cumstances  will  admit,  be  organized  upon  princi 
pies  of  equality  and  mutual  confidence,  and  ii 
respectful  reference  to  the  undisputed  excellence 
and  value  of  those  institutions."  If  this  reasoning 
be  incontrovertible,  of  how  inconceivably  more 
importance  is  it  for  churches  to  conform  to  the 
precepts,  principles,  and  examples  of  the  New 
Testament,  which  forbid  all  masterdom  on  one 
hand,  and  all  servitude  on  the  other,  in  the  relations 
of  ministers  and  members  of  christian  churches. 

The  Methodist  Protestant  Church  is,  at  present, 
composed  of  churches  and  societies  in  sixteen  of 
these  United  States,  and  in  Lower  Canada. 
There  are  thirteen  annual  conference  districts: 
Vermont,  Boston,  New  York  and  Lower  Canada, 
Gennessee,  New  York,  Pennsylvania,  Maryland, 
East  Virginia,  North  Carolina,  Tennessee,  Geor- 
gia, Alabama,  and  Ohio,  districts;  including 
some  thousands  of  members — the  numbers  not 
being  yet  ascertained — and  about  100  itinerant 
preachers,  and  some  three  hundred,  perkaps,  no- 
itinerant,  in  fche  strict  sense  of  that  term. 


Since  the  above  article  was  written  this  body  has  greatly  increased — having  now,  (1844.)  one 
general  and  twenty-two  annual  conferences  ;  upwards  of  eleven  hundred  and  fifty  travelling  and 
local  preachers ;  from  50,000  to  60,000  communicants,  and  near  500  places  of  worship.  It  has 
instituted  a  Board  of  Domestic  and  Foreign  Missions,  and  a  book  concern,  located  at  Baltimore. 
Four  religious  papers  are  published  under  its  auspices,  and  its  churches  are  to  be  found  in  all 
parts  of  the  country,  particularly  in  the  Northern,  Middle,  and  Western  states. 
465  3  I 

k 


APPENDIX,  No.  III. 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  British  colonies  in  America  were  princi- 
pally peopled  by  members  of  various  sects,  who 
resorted  to  this  new  country,  that  they  might  pro- 
fess their  peculiar  creeds  and  modes  of  worship 
unmolested  by  civil  penalties  or  disabilities,  such 
as  their  dissent  from  the  established  church  ex- 
posed them  to  in  their  native  land.  "With  this 
sacred  object,  the  Puritans  chose  New  England, 
the  Quakers  Pennsylvania,  and  the  Roman  Ca- 
tholics Maryland.  Among  the  original  settlers 
were  some  Presbyterians,  but  they  were  too  much 
scattered  to  form  a  single  distinct  congregation, 
and  most  ct"  those  in  the  New  England  colonies 
became  connected  with  the  congregational  churches 
there.  It  was  not  until  prelacy  gained  an  absolute 
ascendency  in  the  father-land,  in  the  reign  of 
Charles  II.,  that  the  members  of  this  denomination 
were  compelled  to  seek  a  refuge  from  the  intoler- 
ance of  the  dominant  party.  When  two  thousand 
ministers  were  at  once  ejected  from  their  churches 
and  livings,  by  the  act  of  uniformity  of  1662,  a 
multitude  of  the  Presbyterians  at  once  turned  their 
eyes  to  the  asylum  of  these  distant  and  peaceful 
colonies.  A  large  number  settled  in  what  are  now 
called  the  middle  States,  where  full  toleration  was 
allowed  by  the  sects  who  pre-occupied  the  ground. 
One  church  was  also  organized  in  the  city  of  New 
York,  and  one  in  Charleston.  Neither  the  pre- 
cise period  of  the  establishment  of  th"*"  churches, 
nor  their  number,  can  be  ascertained.  It  is  pro- 
bable, that  the  First  Presbyterian  Church  in  Phi- 
ladelphia is  the  oldest  in  the  United  S'ates,  and 
that  the  church  of  Snowhill,  in  Maryiaiid,is  nearly 
contemporary:  it  is  certain  that  the  form  r  had  a 
pastor  in  1701.  The  first  Presbytery  was  that  of 
Philadelphia,  which  was  constituted  in  1704,  or 
1705,  comprehending  not  more  than  seven  clergy- 
men, with  their  churches,  in  Pennsylvania  and  the 
adjacent  colonies.  By  the  year  1716,  the  number 
of  ministers  attached  to  this  Presbytery  was  in- 
creased, by  ordination  and  immigration,  to  treble 
the  original  number,  and  twenty-six  congregations 
were  represented  in  that  body.  They  maintained 
i  friendly  correspondence  with  the  Congregational 
and  Independent  churches  of  New  England,  from 
whom  they  dill'ered  only  in  their  views  of  ecclesi- 
astical government,  and  endeavoured  to  excite  the 
sympathy  of  their  British  brethren  in  behalf  of 
those  parts uf  the  country  which  were  destitute  of 
religious  instruction. 

In  September,  1716,  it  was  determined  to  sub- 
divide the  existing  body  into  independent  Presby- 
teries, which  were  to  constitute  a  Synod,  to  meet 
annually.  A  presbytery  of  six  ministers  was  ac- 
cordingly directed  to  meet  iii  Philadelphia ;  another 
nf  six,  in  Newcastle.  I  tela  ware;  and  a  third  of  three 
ministers,  in  Snowhill,  Maryland.     Two  others 


of  the  original  number,  who  were  stationed  al 
Long  Island,  in  New  York,  were  also  rccom 
mended  to  use  their  exertions  to  erect  a  fourth  in 
that  district.  The  first  meeting  of  this  primitive 
Synod  took  place  on  the  third  Tuesday  of  Sep- 
tember, 1717. 

The  Synod  continued  to  be  the  chief  judicatory 
of  the  church  until  1741.  Its  members  were  very 
diverse  in  their  spiritual  idiosyncrasy,  and  then 
christian  unity  was  sacrificed  to  their  feelings : 
one  portion,  remarkable  for  fervid  zeal,  being 
charged  by  their  brethren  with  enthusiasm,  whilst 
the  allegation  was  retorted  of  coldness  and  formal- 
ity. The  orthodox,  or  '  old  side,'  as  the  latter 
were  termed,  wished  to  require  the  proofs  of  tho- 
rough scholarship  from  candidates  for  the  minis- 
try, whilst  the  others  believed  that  the  state  of  the 
country  demanded  an  immediate  supply  of  pious, 
faithful  men,  of  good  capacity,  whatever  were  their 
deficiencies  in  theological  or  classical  learning. 
Whilst  this  contrariety  of  opinion  was  ripening 
the  Synod  for  total  dissension,  the  celebrated  Air. 
Whitcfield  arrived  in  America.  The  '  new  side' 
wished  to  introduce  this  orator  into  their  pulpits, 
and  to  encourage  his  method  of  producing  revivals 
of  religion.  The  other  party,  viewing  him  as 
heterodox  in  his  principles,  irregular  in  Ins  minis- 
try, and  likely  to  cause  injury  by  his  misguided 
ardour,  refused  to  countenance  his  preaching.  A 
division  of  the  Synod  into  two  co-ordinate  bodies 
was  the  result ;  and  the  Synod  of  New  York, 
comprising  the  supporters  of  Mr.  Whitcfield  on 
both  sides  of  the  I'elaware,  was  opened  in  1711. 
This  rupture  quickened  the  religious  enterprise  of 
both  parties,  and  tothat  e>'ent  is  owing  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  College  of  New  Jersey,  which  was 
chartered  through  the  exertions  of  the  New  Synod, 
in  17 16. was  opened  at  once  in  Newark,  and  removed 
to  the  present  buildings  in  Princeton  in  1757. 
That  was.  however,  the  last  year  of  the  separation, 
and  the  edifice  may  in  charity  be  compared  to  the 
altar  of  Ed  on  the  borders  of  Jordan, — to  be  re- 
garded, not  as  a  monument  of  dissension,  but  a 
pledge  of  union  in  a  common  faith — '  That  your 
children  may  not  say  to  our  children  in  time  tu 
come,  Ye  have  no  part  in  the  Lord.' 

In  May,  17oS.  the  rival  powers  met  at  Phila- 
delphia, and  re- united  under  the  title  of  the  Synod 
of  New  York  and  Philadelphia.  At  that  date 
there  were  seventy-eight  ministers,  and  seven  pres- 
byteries; the  latter  being  those  of  Philadelphia, 
New  York,  New  Brunswick,  Suffolk,  lir^t  and 
second  Newcastle,  and  Donnegal,  to  which  were 
soon  added  those  of Lewistown  and  Hanover:  and 
in  the  next  year  the  two  presbyteries  of  Newcastle 
wen'  amalgamated. 

In  1788,  the  Synod  comprised  sjxteen  presby- 

463 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 

teries,  and  on  account  of  the  number  of  congre- 
gations, and  the  great  extent  of  country  over  which 
they  were  scattered,  it  resolved  in  that  year  to  di- 
vide itself  into  four  Synods:  that  of  New  York 
and  New  Jersey,  embracing  the  presbyteries  of 
Duchess  county,  Suffolk,  New  York,  and  New 
Brunswick:  the  Synod  of  Philadelphia,  including 
the  Presbyteries  of  Philadelphia,  Lewistown,  New- 
castle, Baltimore, and  Carlisle;  the  Synod  of  Vir- 
ginia,composed  of  Redstone,  Hanover,  Lexington, 
and  Transylvania ;  and  the  Synod  of  the  Carolinas, 
comprehending  the  presbyteries  of  Abingdon, 
Orange,  and  South  Carolina.  These  Synods 
were  to  send  delegates  to  a  General  Assembly,  to 
be  convened  annually  in  Philadelphia. 

The  first  Assembly  met  in  Philadelphia,  on  the 
21st  of  May,  1789,  at  which  time  there  were  under 
its  jurisdiction  one  hundred  and  eighty-eight  minis- 
ters, and  four  hundred  and  nineteen  churches. 
The  Rev.  Dr.  Witherspoon,  of  New  Jersey,  whose 
signature  is  to  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 

! (reached  the  opening  sermon,  and  the  Rev.  Dr. 
lodgers,  of  New  York,  was  elected  to  the  office  of 
Moderator,  or  President.  Among  the  earliest 
measures  of  the  assembly  was  a  resolution  to  pro- 
secute the  plana  which  had  originated  in  the  pri- 
mary Synod,  of  sending  preachers  to  the  destitute 
parts  of  the  States,  especially  to  the  frontiers,  and 
to  provide  for  the  proper  education  of  poor  young 
men  designed  for  the  ministry.  The  correspon- 
dence with  other  churches,  substantially  presbyte- 
rian,  was  extended;  and  at  this  time  it  is  main- 
tained not  only  witli  various  bodies  of  that  descrip- 
tion in  this  country,  but  with  some  of  the  Protest- 
ant churches  of  Europe. 

In  1S10  occurred  the  secession  of  the  Cumber- 
land Presbytery,  which  now  constitutes  an  inde- 
pendent body,  as  is  detailed  under  the  proper 
head  in  the  body  of  this  dictionary. 

It  was  mutually  resolved  by  the  General  Synod 
of  the  Associate  reformed  Church,  and  the  Gene- 
ral Assembly,  in  the  year  1821,  to  effect  a  union 
of  the  two  churches;  as  they  were  undistinguished 
except  by  name  and  polity.  The  funds  of  the 
Synod  were  transferred  to  the  treasury  of  the  As- 
sembly, and  the  theological  seminaries  of  the  two 
churches  were  consolidated.  The  Synod  com- 
prehended live  presbyteries  and  thirty-two  minis- 
ters, nineteen  of  whom  were  in  favour  of,  and  thir- 
teen opposed  to  the  union:  but  several  of  the  latter 
afterwards  acceded,  though  some  of  the  churches 
still  exist  under  their  old  name  and  government. 

In  the  article  Presbyterians,  an  outline  is  given 
of  the  arguments  upon  which  the  principles  of 
this  form  of  ecclesiastical  government  is  founded, 
with  some  account  of  the  judicatories  of  the  na- 
tional church  of  Scotland.  The  particulars  of  the 
system  are  detailed,  in  the  '  Form  of  Government 
and  Directory  for  the  worship  of  God,'  which  are 
appended  to  the  Confession  of  Faith,  Larger  and 
Shorter  Catechisms,  framed  by  the  Westminster 
Assembly,  in  1G13-9,  ratified  by  the  General 
Assembly  of  the  Church  of  Scotland  in  1(345,  and 
formally  adopted  by  the  Synod  of  Philadelphia,  in 
1729.  In  May,  1785,  after  the  revolution,  these 
standards  were  revised,  a  portion  of  the  rules 
lietter  adapted  to  the  condition  of  the  American 
church,  and  some  inconsiderable  alterations  made 
in  the  confession  and  catechisms.  With  these 
modifications,  the  book  was  adopted  as  the  con- 
stitution ofthechurch,  subject  to  farther  alteration 
by  the  Assemblv,  upon  the  suggestion  of  not  less 
4G7 


IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 
|  than  two  thirds  of  the  presbyteries.  The  doctrines 
set  forth  in  the  constitution  are  those  related  in 
the  dictionary  under  the  title  Calvinists,  which 
are,  however,  embraced  with  various  shades  of 
distinction  and  explanation  by  the  ministers  and 
other  members  of  the  Presbyterian  church.    The 
controversies  that  have  arisen  on  some  points  have 
resulted,  it  is  believed,  mainly  from  a  misunder- 
standing of  the  phrases  employed  by  polemics  on 
both  sides,  and  do  not  imply  any  essential  depar- 
ture from  the  great  principles  of  the  system,  which 
happens  to  be  called  by  the  name  of  an  illustrious 
j  theologist.  This  confession  is  held  to  be  of  no  au- 
i  thority  in  itself,  and  is  considered  only  asa  complete 
j  digest  of  evangelical  doctrine,  as  delivered  in  the 
Holy  Scriptures,  which  it  pronounces  to  be  '  the 
only  rule  of  faith  and  obedience,'  asserting,  that 
'the  infallible  rule  of  interpretation  of  Scripture  is 
the  Scripture  itself,'  and  that  '  no  church  judicato- 
ry ought  to  pretend  to  make  laws  to  bind  the  con- 
science in  virtue  of  their  own  authority.'     Tim 
fundamental  principle  of  the  government  is,  that 
all  the  congregations  of  members  of  the  church 
constitute,  collectively,  one  church ;  that  a  majority 
should  always  govern,  and  that,  to  attain  this  as 
nearly  as  possible,  there  should  be  the  successive 
representation  of  the  people  in  the  sessions,  pres- 
byteries, synods,  and  assembly.    The  officers  of 
the  church  consist  first  of  the  clergy,  who  are  on 
an  entire  parity  of  rank,  and  are  named  indiscri- 
minately Bishops,  Pastors,  Ministers,  Presbyters, 
and  Elders,  which  titles  are  supposed  to  be  syno- 
nymous in  the  New  Testament.     The   second 
class  of  officers  are  Ruling  Elders,  composed  of 
laymen,  elected  by  the  members  of  a  church  from 
their  own  number,  as  their  representatives  to  serve 
conjointly  with  the  Minister  in  such  parts  of  hi* 
spiritual  duties,  other  than  preaching,  as  they  may 
l>e  qualified  to  perform;  and  to  be  connected  with 
him  in  the  spiritual  government  of  the  churches 
as  in  admitting,  trying,  and  disciplining  members 
When  elected,  they  are  publicly  ordained  by  the 
minister,   and    with   him   compose    the   session. 
Deacons  are  the  third  grade,  and  are  entrusted 
with  the.  care  of  the  members  who  stand  in  need 
of  temporal  assistance,  or  are  entirely  dependent, 
on  account  of  age  and  infirmity,  on  the  church 
for  maintenance:  these  are  chosen  in  the  same 
manner  as  ruling  elders,  and  in  most  churches  are 
the  same  individuals.     It  would  seem,  however, 
that  this  practice  is  a  departure  from  the  strict 
definition  of  the  duties  of  Elders  and  Deacons, 
which  are  in  the  standards  treated  as  distinct  of- 
fices, the  former  being  designated  as  rulers  in  spi- 
ritual affairs,  whilst  to  the  latter  is  specially  coin- 
mended  the  care  of  the  poor,  with  a  suggestion 
that  they  should  manage  all  the  temporal  concerns 
of  the  church.    Those  Presbyterian  congregations 
therefore  which  have  no  deacons,  can  scarcely  be 
said  to  adhere   to  the  primitive  model  of  their 
church.     The  secular  business  of  churches  is  now, 
generally,  in  the  hands  of  Trustees,  who  are  not 
required   to  be  communicating   mcubers  of  the 
church.  The  number  of  elders  is  to  be  determined 
by  the  wants  of  each  church ;  their  office  is  per- 
petual, but  the  exercise  of  its  functions  mr»y  cease 
when  the  officer  becomes  disabled  from  acting ;  and 
lie  is  liable  to  deposition  for  misconduct  or  heresy. 
Officially  they  are  equal  in  rank  to  ministers,  all 
being  alike  presbyters ;  the  only  distinction  being, 
that  some  are  considered  more  fitted  lor  the  duties 
of  preaching  and  administering  the  ordinances. 


PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH 
A  Presbytery  is  a  body  composed  of  several 
presbyters,  viz.  of  all  the  ministers,  and  one  ruling 
elder  from  Bach  church  in  a  certain  limit,  over 
whom  it  beeps  a  genera]  oversight.  lis  jurisdic- 
tion is  that  of  an  appellate  judicatory  to  the  ses- 
sions, and  has  original  authority  over  them,  as 
lliey  have  over  the  churches.  It  has  also  the  ex- 
clusive power  of  examining  and  licensing  candi- 
dates for  the  ministry,  ordaining  ministers,  au- 
thorizing their  transition  from  one  church  to 
another,  and  resolving  questions  of  doctrine  or 
discipline  submitted  to  them.  They  are  respon- 
sible to  the  Synod,  a  convention  of  ministers  and 
elders,  delegated  from  the  presbyteries  of  a  cer- 
tain district ;  it  receives  appeals  from  their  deci- 
sions, reviews  their  records,  erects  new  presby- 
teries when  necessary,  and  suggests  to  the  Gene- 
ral Assembly  such  measures  as  are  supposed  to 
require  legislation. 

In  the  General  Assembly,  all  the  churches  are 
represented  by  delegates,  both  ministers  and  elders, 
called  commissioners,  appointed  annually  by  the 
presbyteries.  It  is  the  firml  court  of  appeal  and 
reference,  reviews  the  proceedings  of  the  Synods, 
and  has  a  general  superintendence  of  the  concerns 
of  the  church  of  which  it  is  the  organ.  This  body 
meets  annually  at  such  place  as  it  may  have 
adjourned  to.  In  1834  there  were  in  connexion 
with  the  Assembly  2648  congregations,  1914 
bishops,  with  236  licentiates,  making  2150  preach- 
ers, and  247,964  communicants.  In  that  year, 
5738  adults  and  13,004  infants  were  baptized. 

This  church  has  always  considered  missionary 
labours  an  object  of  importance.  Before  the 
General  Assembly  was  formed,  the  Synods  of 
New  York  and  Philadelphia  enjoined  on  all 
their  churches  to  make  collections  for  sending 
the  gospel  to  the  destitute.  When  the  Assembly 
■was  formed  in  1789,  the  missionary  cause  claimed 


IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

their  first  and  especial  attention.  The  General 
Assembly  is  thus  among  the  oldest  missionary 
bodies  in  our  land.  The  Presbyterian  church 
has  had  her  missionaries  among  the  pagans,  and 
among  the  destitute  of  our  own  citizens,  before 
many  of  the  valuable  institutions  of  our  day  had 
existence.  In  1834,  about  $114,687  were  reported 
as  collected  for  the  cause  of  missions,  and  about 
230  missionaries  ministered  to  upwards  of  500 
congregations. 

The  education  of  young  men  for  the  gospel 
ministry  also  claimed  the  early  attention  of  the 
Assembly.  In  1817,  this  business  was  committed 
to  a  board  of  education,  which  at  this  time  has 
more  than  64  candidates  for  the  gospel  ministry. 
Nearly  $50,000  were  collected  for  this  board  in 
the  year  ending  1835. 

In  1810,  the  Assembly  resolved  to  establish  a 
Theological  Seminary.  At  that  time  there  were 
four  hundred  congregations  without  a  minister. 
The  location  was  subsequently  fixed  at  Princeton, 
in  New  Jersey,  and  the  institution  was  opened 
there  in  August,  1812.  The  average  number 
of  students  is  about  one  hundred  and  thirty. 
Twenty-three  scholarships  have  been  endowed, 
in  the  principal  sum  of  $2500  each,  for  the  sup- 
port of  that  number  of  students,  who  are  unable 
to  pay  for  their  education;  and  funds  for  three 
professorships,  of  $25,000  each,  are  accumulating. 
Another  seminary  was  founded  by  the  Assembly 
in  1825,  at  Alleghenytown,  near  Pittsburgh,  in 
Pennsylvania.  There  are  several  others  which 
are  supported  and  governed  independently,  by 
various  Synods.  It  should  be  mentioned  that  all 
the  institutions  connected  with  the  Assembly,  are 
supported  by  voluntary  contributions ;  and  that, 
consequently,  their  efficiency  and  permanence 
are  dependent,  wholly,  upon  the  annual  continu- 
ance of  individual  support. 


Since  the  above  article  was  written  this  denomination  has  greatly  increased,  and  now.  1844, 
numbers  as  fallows : 

Ministers.  Churches.          Communicants. 

Geieral  Assembly,     (Old  School,)         1730  2156                160,000 

(New  School,)       1414  1496                140,000 


468 


APPENDIX,  No.  IV. 

THE  CUMBERLAND  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH. 


In  the  following  brief  account  of  the  origin, 
doctrines,  and  extent  of  the  Cumberland  Pres- 
byterian Church,  it  will  be  the  object,  to  make 
an  impartial  statement  of  such  general  facts  as 
may  be  deemed  important  to  the  reader.  It  is 
the  wish  of  the  writer  to  divest  himself  of  every 
thing  like  prejudice,  and  to  present  these  facts 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  wrong  no  one,  and  to  do 
entire  justice  to  all  concerned.  The  following 
was  the  occasion  of  the  origin  of  this  denomina- 
tion. In  the  beginning  of  the  present  century  a 
very  great  and  glorious  revival  of  religion  origi- 
nated in  the  states  of  Kentucky  and  Tennessee, 
under  the  pious  labours  of  Rev.  James 
McGready,  and  other  Presbyterian  ministers. 
It  is  known  to  all  familiar  with  the  history  of 
that  portion  of  the  United  States  at  that  time, 
that  wickedness  and  immorality  abounded  to  an 
alarming  extent.  The  country  was  scantily 
supplied  with  the  means  of  grace.  The  few 
ministers  and  Christians  who  were  there,  were 
much  grieved,  as  all  Christians  would  be,  at  the 
abounding  of  wickedness.  They  betook  them- 
selves to  fasting  and  prayer,  in  view  of  the  ex- 
isting state  of  things.  The  great  Head  of  the 
Church  blessed  their  labours  to  a  remarkable 
extent.  This  work  of  grace  extended  in  every 
direction.  "  Come  over  and  help  us,"  was  the 
cry  from  all  quarters.  What  was  to  be  done  ? 
Thousands  called  for  the  bread  of  life,  but  there 
were  none  to  break  it  to  them.  After  much 
deliberation,  and  even  hesitation,  it  was  agreed, 
that,  in  view  of  the  great  ministerial  destitution, 
it  would  be  right  and  proper,  to  set  young  men 
apart  to  the  ministry,  who  did  not  enjoy  a  classi- 
cal education.  Some  three  or  four,  whose 
piety  and  talents  seemed  to  justify  the  step, 
were  encouraged  to  prepare  written  discourses, 
and  present  them  to  Transylvania  Presbytery, 
in  which  the  revival  occurred.  These  indivi- 
duals were  licensed,  in  October,  1802,  after 
warm  opposition  from  some  members  of  the 
Presbytery. 

Previous  to  licensing  them,  they  were  ex- 
amined on  literature  and  theology,  and  adopted 
the  Confession  of  Faith  of  the  Presbyterian 
Church,  with  the  exception  of  what  they  be- 
lieved to  be  fatality,  taught  under  the  name  of 
predestination  and  election.  Here  we  see  a 
departure  from  the  book  of  discipline  in  two 
things.  First.  Individuals  inducted  into  the 
ministry  without  a  classical  education.  This 
lias  been  a  matter  of  frequent  recurrence  in  the 
Presbyterian  Church,  both  before  and  since 
that  period.  Second.  The  Confession  of  Faith 
adopted,  except  one  of  its  leading  doctrines. 
Mental  reservations  in  the  adoption  of  the  Con- 
fession, have  long  been  practised  in  the  Presby- 
terian Church.  It,  is  known,  that  the  New  and 
Old  School  divisions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church, 
assert  that  they  hold  to  widely  different  doc- 
trines; yet  they  both  adopt  the  same  Confession 
of  Faith.  Here  then,  if  the  Confession  be  un- 
derstood, are  mental  reservations,  on  the  part  of 


one,  or  perhaps  of  both,  of  these  divisions.  The 
individuals  in  question,  after  due  examination, 
were  regularly  ordained.  It  was  in  October, 
1802,  that  Kentucky  Synod  divided  Transyl- 
vania Presbytery,  and  created  a  new  one  called 
Cumberland  Presbytery.  As  must  be  obvious 
to  the  reader,  the  body  of  Christians,  afterwards 
driven  to  secession,  and  now  known  as  Cum- 
berland Presbyterians,  took  their  name  from 
this  new  Presbytery. 

At  the  fourth  meeting  of  said  Presbytery, 
in  1804,  a  small  minority,  consisting  of  three, 
transmitted  a  remonstrance  to  Kentucky  Synod, 
complaining  of  what  they  termed  irregularities 
in  licensing  and  ordaining  the  individuals  above 
referred  to,  which  solemn  acts,  it  will  be  borne 
in  mind,  had  been  officially  done  by  the  Pres- 
byterian Church.  Two  of  the  three  remon- 
strants afterward  left  the  Presbyterian  Church. 
The  one  became  a  New-light,  the  other  was 
suspended  and  deposed  for  becoming  a  Pelagian, 
But  little  was  said  about  the  matter  until  the 
succeeding  meeting  of  Synod,  when  a  commis- 
sion was  appointed  to  examine  into  it.  Cum- 
berland Presbytery,  with  all  its  candidates  and 
licentiates,  was  cited  to  appear  before  the  com- 
mission. The  Presbytery  was  called  on  to  sur- 
render all  the  men  whom  it  had  licensed  and 
ordained  for  re-examination  before  the  commis- 
sion. 

Both  the  Presbytery,  and  the  persons  de- 
manded, refused  compliance,  upon  the  solemn 
conviction  that  it  was  wrong.  The  commission 
formally  prohibited  all  the  men,  whom  Cum- 
berland Presbytery  had  licensed  and  ordained, 
from  preaching,  and  cited  the  other  part  of  the 
Presbytery  to  appear  before  the  Synod  at  its 
next  meeting.  This  whole  proceeding  is  un- 
precedented. Men  who  had  been  regularly 
ordained,  against  whom  no  allegation,  either  of 
immorality  or  heresy  was  made,  were  silenced, 
and  that  by  a  commission  from  a  Synod.  A  few 
months  after  this,  a  council  was  held  by  the 
members  of  Cumberland  Presbytery.  It  was 
agreed  to  petition  the  General  Assembly  for  a 
redress  of  grievances ;  and  also  to  act  as  a 
council,  and  not  as  a  Presbytery,  until  an 
answer  could  be  obtained  from  the  General  As- 
sembly. The  Assembly  alleged  that  it  could 
not  act  in  the  case,'  because  it  had  not  been 
regularly  appealed  to.  The  Synod  was  advised 
by  the  Assembly  to  review  its  proceedings. 
The  Synod  in  1807,  reviewed  and  confirmed  its 
former  proceedings.  Cumberland  Presbytery 
was  dissolved  by  Synod.  Transylvania  Pres- 
bytery was  now  ordered  to  settle  the  matter 
with  the  council.  In  1808  the  members  of  the 
council  sent  another  petition  to  the  General  As- 
sembly ;  but  were  again  informed  that  that 
body  could  take  no  action  on  the  case  because 
an  appeal  had  not  been  brought  up  to  them 
from  Kentucky  Synod.  It  may  be  remarked, 
that  a  number  of  the  most  distinguished  clergy- 
man of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  both  sympa- 

469 


THE  CUMBERLAND  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH. 


thized  with  the  council,  and  believed  that  their 
conduct  was  altogether  justifiable  under  the 
circumstances.  In  1809,  a  letter  from  Kentucky 
Synod  was  laid  before  the  General  Assembly, 
in  reference  to  the  action  the  Synod  had  taken 
against  Cumberland  Presbytery.  The  As- 
sembly took  judicial  action  on  the  contents  of 
this  letter,  and  justified  the  proceedings  of  the 
Synod  in  the  case.  Though  the  Assemblies  of 
1807  and  1808  had  decided  that  they  could  not 
act  on  the  case,  because  it  had  come  up  by 
letter  and  not  by  appeal  from  Synod ;  yet,  in 
1809,  when  the  matter  came  before  the  As- 
sembly by  letter,  and  not  by  appeal,  the  exci- 
sion of  Cumberland  Presbytery  from  the  Pres- 
byterian Church  took  place. 

The  news  of  the  Assembly's  action  was 
received  with  astonishment  by  the  members  of 
Cumberland  Presbytery.  They  met  as  before, 
not  in  the  capacity  of  a  Presbytery,  but  of  a 
council,  and  tried  to  effect  a  reconciliation  with 
the  Synod  and  Transylvania  Presbytery,  but 
the  effort  proved  abortive.  It  was  in  1810,  that 
the  Rev.  Samuel  M'Dow,  Finis  Ewing,  and 
Samuel  King,  constituted  themselves  into  a 
Presbytery,  under  the  name  of  Cumberland 
Presbytery.  It  was  not  the  original  design  of 
these  men  to  form  a  new  denomination,  but 
they  were  forced  to  it,  after  waiting  and  peti- 
tioning for  a  redress  of  grievances  in  vain  for 
many  years.  The  hand  of  providence  was 
evidently  manifest  in  the  formation  of  this  infant 
denomination.  Reconciliation  could  be  effected 
only  by  adopting  the  Westminster  Confession, 
to  do  which  the  seceding  party  must  have 
abandoned  principles  dearer  to  them  than  life. 
The  subsequent  progress  of  this  Presbytery 
evinced  that  Heaven  approved  the  steps  taken 
in  its  organization.  In  1813,  a  Synod,  com- 
prising three  Presbyteries,  was  formed  out  of 
Cumberland  Presbytery.  At  this  time,  the 
Westminster  Confession  of  Faith,  being  modi- 
fied, and  such  parts  as  were  deemed  unscrip- 
tural,  expunged,  was  adopted  as  the  Confession 
of  Faith  of  the  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
Church.  From  this  time  until  1829,  the  labours 
of  this  Synod  were  much  blessed.  There  were 
then  eighteen  Presbyteries.  The  bounds  of  the 
Synod  had  become  so  extensive,  that  it  was 
thought  advisable  to  form  a  General  Assembly. 
The  new  Assembly  met  the  first  time  in  Prince- 
ton, Kentucky,  in  the  year  1829.  At  this 
period  there  were  churches  of  this  denomination 
in  Kentucky,  Tennessee.  Alabama,  Arkansas, 
Illinois,  and  Missouri.  The  first  Cumberland 
Presbyterian  Church,  in  Western  Pennsylvania, 
was  formed  in  1831.  The  occasion  of  this 
movement  was  the  following,  viz. : — The  name 
and  doctrines  of  this  denomination  had  been 
heard  of  in  this  part  of  Pennsylvania.  A  num- 
ber of  gentlemen  addressed  a  letter  to  the 
President  of  Cumberland  College,  at  Princeton, 
Kentucky,  requesting  ministers  of  the  new  de- 
nomination  to  be  sent  there.  The  request  was 
laid  before  the  General  Assembly,  and  granted. 
The  first  Presbytery  in  this  state  met  at  Wash- 
ington. 

This  Presbytery  has  since  so  enlarged,  that  a 
Synod,  known  by  the  name  of  Pennsylvania 
Synod,  has  been  made  out  of  it,  consisting  of 
4  Presbyteries,  65  congregations,  and  about 
7,000  communicants.  At  the  General  Assembly 
of  1834,  on  the  authority  of  the  Synods,  10,f>80 
conversions  were  reported,  during  the  then  past 
470 


year.  The  number  of  Synods,  from  the  report 
of  that  Assembly,  was  9 ;  of  Presbyteries,  35  ; 
of  ordained  preachers,  300 ,  of  licensed  preach- 
ers, 100;  of  candidates  for  the  ministry,  75; 
and  of  communicants.  50,000.  This  branch  of 
the  Redeemer's  kingdom  is  mainly  confined  to 
the  southern  and  western  portions  of  the  United 
States.  From  the  lakes  on  the  North,  to  the 
Gulph  of  Mexico  on  the  South,  they  are  nu- 
merous. There  is  a  Presbytery,  and  a  number 
of  flourishing  churches  in  Texas.  A  few 
churches  and  ministers  are  east  of  the  Alleghany 
mountains.  A  church  has  lately  been  organized 
in  the  city  of  Philadelphia.  There  is  a  minister 
and  congregation  in  New  England.  From  the 
reports  of  the  Presbyteries  and  Synods  of  1843, 
the  following  statistical  information  may  be  re- 
garded as  true.  It  is  rather  an  under,  than  an 
over  estimate.  Synods,  13;  Presbyteries,  60 
or  more  than  that  number  ;  Congregations,  600 ; 
there  are  more  than  100,000  communicants. 
Estimating  4  children  and  other  adherents  to 
each  communicant,  which  all  will  see  is  a  very 
low  estimate,  it  will  appear  that  there  are 
500,000  persons  connected  with  this  branch  of 
the  church.  Allowing  3  persons  to  each  com- 
municant, which  is  a  still  lower  estimate,  we 
have  400,000  persons  connected  with  this  church. 
The  number  of  ordained  ministers  amounts  to 
500  ;  the  number  of  licentiates  to  175 ;  the  num- 
ber of  candidates  to  125.  It  has  been  urged  by 
some,  that,  from  the  very  nature  of  its  origin, 
this  is  no  church,  and  that  its  ministers  have  no 
right  to  administer  the  ordinances.  This  re- 
mark cannot  be  true.  If  it  is,  it  at  once  un- 
churches every  Protestant  denomination,  not 
even  the  Episcopalians  excepted.  How  one  or 
two  hundred  years  of  age  can  legalize  a  denomi- 
nation, is  hard  to  be  understood.  Surely,  the 
infancy  of  a  denomination,  is  not  a  sufficient 
reason  for  its  being  unchurched.  Under  the 
patronage  of  this  denomination  two  religious 
periodicals  are  published  : — one  in  Pittsburgh, 
Pa.,  the  other  at  Lebanon,  Tenn.  It  has  two 
colleges  in  active  operation  : — one  at  Princeton, 
Ky.,  which  has  been  in  a  flourishing  condition 
for  16  or  18  years  last  past:  the  other  at 
Lebanon,  Tenn.,  which  was  chartered  lately 
by  the  legislature  of  that  state.  Besides  these, 
there  are  about  10  seminaries  of  some  notoriety, 
some  of  which,  no  doubt,  will  become  large  and 
permanent  seats  of  learning.  In  all  of  these,  it 
may  safely  b'e  asserted,  that  there  are  1,000  stu- 
dents, receiving  a  course  of  literary  education. 
Private  schools  abound  throughout  the  extent 
of  this  denomination  ;  education  being  regardeu 
as  a  powerful  auxiliary  to  the  existence  and 
promotion  of  true  religion.  The  General  As- 
sembly has  recommended  the  churches  under 
its  care,  to  co-operate  with  the  American  Bible, 
Tract,  Missionary,  Sunday-school,  and  Tem- 
perance Societies.  A  few  missionaries  of  this 
denomination  are  actively  engaged  among  some 
of  the  Indian  tribes.  The  church  government 
is  Presbyterian,  comprising  Church  Session, 
Presbytery,  Synod,  and  General  Assembly.  It 
tuny  be  proper  to  make  a  brief  statement  of 
some  of  the  leading  doctrines  of  the  Cumber- 
land Presbyterian  Church.  1.  They  believe  in 
what  is  called  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity;  that 
there  are  three  persons  in  one  God  coequal  and 
eternal, the  Father, Son, andHolyGhost.  2.  That 
Christ  is  very  God  and  very  man,  possessing 
two  distinct  natures  in  one.    3.  That  man  was 


THE  CUMBERLAND  PRESBYTERIAN  CHURCH. 


made  upright,  pure,  and  free,  sufficient  to  have 
stood,  yet  free  to  fall,  his  will  not  being  deter- 
mined by  any  absolute  necessity  either  to  evil 
or  to  good.  4.  That  all  Adam's  family  are 
totally  depraved,  and  that  all  come  into  the 
world  under  the  curse  of  the  law.  5.  That 
Jesus  Christ,  by  the  atonement,  has  elected  all 
the  human  family,  not  one  excepted,  to  a  day 
of  trial,  a  state  of  probation  ;  that  as  Adam,  in 
the  first  state  of  probation,  represented  all  the 
human  family,  so  Christ,  the  second  Adam, 
represents  all,  in  the  second  state  of  probation. 
6.  That  divine  influence  is  necessary — that  no 
man  can  obey  the  Gospel  without  the  aid  of  the 
Holy  Spirit.  7.  That  justification  is  by  faith  as 
the  instrumental,  by  Christ  as  the  meritorious, 
and  by  the  operation  of  the  Spirit  as  the  efficient 
cause.  8.  That  those  who  are  elected,  or  cho- 
sen, heirs  of  glory  in  consequence  of  their  volun- 
tary obedience  and  faith  in  Christ,  will  persevere 
to  eternal  life — those  who  believe  are  ordained 
to  eternal  life,  in  consequence  of  that  belief.  As 
they  dissent  from  the  Westminster  Confession, 
it  will  be  necessary,  in  order  to  understand  fully 
some  of  their  doctrines,  to  contrast  them  with 
that  Confession.  1.  They  understand  the 
Westminster  Confession  as  teaching  absolute 
election,  and,  consequently,  eternal  reproba- 
tion— that  a  part  only  of  mankind  are  embraced 
in  the  atonement,  and  the  other  part  passed  by 
unprovided  for.  2.  That  Christ  died  only  for 
those  whom  God  intended  to  glorify.  3.  As 
not  teaching  the  salvation  of  those  dying  in  in- 
fancy. 4.  That  the  Holy  Spirit  operates  in  a 
sufficient  degree  to  salvation,  only  on  the  elect, 
on  those  whom  God  designed  from  all  eternity 
to  save.  On  these  points  Cumberland  Presby- 
terians believe,  1.  That  neither  election  nor 
reprobation  is  absolute,  irrespective  of  faith  and 
unbelief,  but  that  Christians  are  elected  and 
chosen  in  consideration  of  their  voluntary  obedi- 
ence, and  that  the  wicked  are  reprobated  in 


consideration  of  their  rejection  of  Christ.  2.  That 
Christ  tasted  death  for  every  man.  3.  That  all 
infants,  dying  in  infancy,  ar6  saved  through 
Christ,  and  the  sanctification  of  the  Spirit. 
4.  That  the  Holy  Spirit  operates  on  all  men  in 
such  a  manner  that  they  might  be  saved — that 
the  reason  why  the  influence  of  the  Spirit  is 
effectual  in  one  case  and  not  in  another,  depends 
not  on  the  mode  or  extent  of  operation,  but  on 
the  disposition  and  conduct  of  the  individual 
moved  upon.  They  are  not  satisfied  with  the 
applications  that  are  made  of  the  doctrines  of 
election,  either  by  rigid  Calvinists  or  Arminians  ; 
but  believe  that  the  Bible  views  of  this  doc- 
trine lie  between  these  two  extremes. 

The  motto  adopted  by  this  denomination 
from  one  of  the  Christian  fathers  is,  "  in  essen- 
tials, unity  ;  in  non-essentials,  liberty  ;  in  all 
things,  charity."  The  Cumberland  Presbyterian 
Confession  differs  from  the  Westminster  Con- 
fession, on  the  subject  of  ministerial  qualification. 
It  will  be  borne  in  mind  that  this  was  one  cause 
of  the  original  difficulty  between  Cumberland 
Presbytery  and  Kentucky  Synod.  The  Cum- 
berland Presbyterian  Confession  prefers,  in  all 
possible  cases,  a  classical  education.  No  can- 
didate is  ordained  without  a  thorough  English 
education.  Every  one  is  examined  on  experi- 
mental religion — on  his  internal  call  to  the  mi- 
nistry— on  natural  and  revealed  theology — on 
astronomy  —  geography  —  English  grammar  — 
ecclesiastical  history,  &c.  &c. 

The  remarks  here  submitted  to  the  reader 
are  intended  as  a  concise  view  of  the  origin, 
extent,  and  doctrines  of  the  Cumberland  Pres- 
byterian Church.  If  allusion  has  been  made  to 
the  doctrines  and  practices  of  other  denomina- 
tions, it  has  been  done  out  of  no  ill  design. 
Every  denomination  has  aright  to  present  to  the 
world  its  own  doctrines  and  practices,  and  show 
wherein  they  differ  irom  the  doctrines  and  prac- 
tices of  others. 

471 


APPENDIX,  No.  V. 


BAPTISTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 

By  J.  M.  Pech. 


Baptists,  like  Fasdobaptists,  are  divided  into 
several  sects.  These  are  distinguished  by  the 
terms,  Regular  or  United,  Separate,  Free-Will, 
Seventh  Day,  Six  Principle,  Reformers  or  Cam- 
bellites,  Church  of  God  or  VVinebrennarians, 
Christian  Connection  or  Arians,  Dunkards,  and 
several  minor  sects.  This  sketch  is  confined  to 
the  Regular  or  United  Baptists. 

The  broad  line  of  distinction  between  Baptists 
and  Peedobaptists,  is  found  in  the  following  par- 
ticulars. 

Baptists  of  every  sect  hold  to  the  entire  suffi- 
ciency and  supremacy  of  the  Holy  Scriptures 
over  all  formulas,  or  standards  of  human  com- 
position as  their  guide  in  matters  of  religion — the 
sole  rule  of  faith  and  practice  ;  that  religion  under 
the  Christian  dispensation  is  a  personal  concern; 
that  its  duties  and  obligations  cannot  be  assumed 
and  performed  by  proxy,  either  parental  or 
sponsorial;  that  none  but  persons  who  have 
been  sufficiently  taught  of  God,  have  become 
the  disciples  of  Christ  by  faith,  and  are  capable 
of  knowing  and  obeying  the  divine  law  in  their 
own  persons,  are  the  proper  subjects  of  gospel 
ordinances.  They  furthermore  believe  and  teach 
that  no  persons  are  suitable  candidates  for  the 
ordinance  of  baptism,  except  believers  in  the 
Lord  Jesus  Christ ;  and  that  immersion  in  the 
name  of  the  Father,  Son,  and  Holy  Ghost  is  the 
only  Scriptural  baptism,  the  act  in  all  cases  per- 
formed by  the  Forerunner  of  Christ,  and  by  the 
apostles.  They  hold  that  the  application  of 
water  in  the  mode  of  affusion  or  pouring  does 
not  comport  with  the  legitimate  meaning  of  the 
Greek  word  baptize,  nor  does  it  symbolize  the 
facts  set  forth  by  this  ordinance,  as  being  dead 
unto  sin  and  alive  unto  God,  (Rom.  vi.  chap. 
Col.  ii.  12;  iii.  1 — 3,)  and  as  representing  the 
burial  and  resurrection  of  Jesus  Christ.  They 
deny  that  baptism  in  the  new  dispensation  came 
in  the  place  of  circumcision  in  the  Jewish  eco- 
nomy, but  is  a  new  and  positive  rite,  specific  in 
its  import,  and  enjoined  on  individuals  as  quali- 
fied subjects  of  the  kingdom  of  the  Messiah. 
They  hold  that  infant  baptism,  which  involves 
infant  membership  and  covenant  relationship  in 
the  church,  lies  at  the  foundation  of  all  corrupt 
religious  establishments  in  Christendom,  and 
when  carried  out  to  its  legitimate  results  pro- 
duces a  national  and  worldly  Christianity,  by 
bringing  into  the  pale  of  the  church  the  whole 
population  in  unconscious  infancy  ;  and  that  the 
great  contest  between  a  religion  of  forms  and 
the  mystical  efficacy  of  ordinances,  and  the 
Christianity  of  the  Bible — a  religion  that  is  per- 
sonal, spiritual,  and  founded  on  an  intelligent 
belief  in  the  truth,  cannot  be  successfully  main- 
tained by  the  advocates  and  supporters  of  infant 
baptism. 

Regular  Baptists  in  Hie  ZT/iii>cJ  States. — This 

bodv  includes  much  the  larger  number  of  those 

professors  of  religion  which  we  have  designated 

as  Baptists.     Though  they  symbolize  in  doc- 

472 


trine,  interchange  communion  at  the  Lord's 
table,  correspond  through  their  associations,  and 
co-operate  in  benevolent  institutions,  each  single 
church,  as  Baptists  understand  the  New  Testa- 
ment organization  of  churches,  is  strictly  inde- 
pendent in  its  internal  government  and  discipline 
of  all  other  ecclesiastical  bodies,  exercising  only 
judicial  and  executive  power  over  its  own  mem- 
bers, but  has  no  legislative  power.  "  The  Lord 
is  our  Lawgiver;  the  Lord  is  our  King."  In 
doctrine,  Regular  Baptists  accord  with  the 
Presbyterians.  They  do  not  admit  that  a  know- 
ledge of  the  ancient  languages,  of  mathematics, 
and  philosophy,  is  indispensably  requisite  to  the 
exercise  of  the  ministerial  function.  They 
allow,  however,  the  great  utility  of  learning  as 
a  qualification  for  usefulness  in  preaching ;  and 
encourage  learned  men  with  a  liberality  equal  to 
that  of  any  other  denomination.  The  officers 
which  usually  belong  to  a  church  consist  of  a 
pastor,  and  from  two  to  seven  or  nine  deacons, 
according  to  the  magnitude  of  the  church,  and 
its  exigencies.  Their  ministers  and  pastors  are 
ordained  with  the  imposition  of  hands,  by  a 
presbytery  consisting  of  any  number  more  than 
two.  Every  candidate  for  ordination,  however, 
must  be  presented,  previously  approved,  by  the 
church  of  which  he  is  a  member. 

A  large  proportion  of  their  ministers,  espe- 
cially in  the  Southern  and  Western  States, 
are  not  employed  as  pastors  of  single  churches. 
Many  are  laborious,  self-denying  and  successful 
itinerants;  and  while  they  carry  on  some  secu- 
lar business  for  a  support,  appropriate  from  50 
to  150  week  days  in  a  year,  besides  Sabbaths, 
in  ministerial  labours  to  the  destitute.  Many 
hold  the  official  relation  of  pastor  to  three  and  four 
churches,  which  they  visit  alternately  once  in  a 
month.  Much  of  this  labour  is  performed  gra- 
tuitous, especially  in  new  and  frontier  settle- 
ments. 

In  the  reception  of  persons  into  the  church, 
all  candidates  for  baptism  are  required  to  make 
a  public  declaration  of  their  faith  and  religious 
experience,  either  before  the  church,  or  else  in 
the  presence  of  such  members  of  the  church  as 
may  have  been  especially  appointed  for  such  a 
purpose.  In  the  transaction  of  business,  both 
secular  and  spiritual,  it  is  customary  for  all  the 
members,  male  and  female,  to  assemble,  ap- 
point a  chairman,  have  a  clerk  to  keep  a  regular 
record  of  the  proceedings,  and  to  allow  a  free 
discussion  and  vote  to  every  member  present  on 
every  subject. 

Baptism  upon  a  profession  of  faith  is  regarded 
as  an  indispensable  prerequisite  to  church  mem- 
bership, hence  Regular  Baptists  in  the  United 
States  admit  none  to  the  Lord's  supper  without 
evidence  of  this  qualification.  They  do  not  re- 
gard the  Lord's  supper  as  having  been  instituted 
as  a  test  or  a  pledge  of  Christian  fellowship  one 
with  another,  but  as  showing  forth  the  death  of 
Christ,  symbolizing  communion  with  Him,  and 


BAPTISTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


to  be  observed  by  each  single  church  as  a  body 
politic,  in  its  Scripturally  organized  capacity. 

The  Baptists  of  the  United  States  had  their 
commencement  with  the  earliest  settlement  of 
{lie  country.  Respectable  portions  of  the  colonial 
emigration  from  England  and  Wales  were  of 
this  persuasion.  They  obtained  a  location  in 
Massachusetts,  Rhode  Island,  New  York,  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  Virginia,  and 
the  Carolinas,  whilst  the  colonies  were  yet  in 
their  infantine  state. 

Rhode  Island  was  founded  by  Baptists.  The 
first  church  in  Providence,  and  the  oldest  Bap- 
tist church  in  America,  originated  with  the 
baptism  of  Roger  Williams  and  his  congrega- 
tion in  1639.  The  first  church  in  Newport  was 
constituted  in  1644  ; — the  second  church  in  that 
town,  in  1656 ; — the  church  in  Swansea,  in 
1663 ; — the  first  church  in  Boston  was  founded 
in  Charlestown,  in  1665.  In  the  next  forty  years, 
eleven  more  churches  were  constituted  in  Mas- 
sachusetts, Rhode  Island,  Connecticut,  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  Delaware,  and  South 
Carolina,  in  the  following  order.  Seventh-Day 
church  at  Newport,  R.  I.,  1671 ;  Tiverton,  R.  I., 
1685 ;  Middletown,  N.  J.,  1688 ;  Pennepeck,  now 
called  Lower  Dublin,  Pa.,  1689;  Piscataway, 
N.  J.,  1689  ;  Charleston,  S.  C.  1690  ;  Cohanzy, 
N.  J.,  1691;  Second  church,  Swansea,  Mass., 
1693;  Welch  Tract,  Del.,  1701 ;  Groton,  Con., 
1705;  Seventh-Day,  Piscataway,  N.  J.,  1707; 
First  church  Philadelphia,  in  1698,  although  it 
was  reorganized  in  1746.  In  1792,  there  were 
in  the  United  States,  891  churches,  1,156  minis- 
ters and  licentiates,  and  about  70,000  communi- 
cants. In  1812,  there  were  2,164  churches, 
1,605  ministers,  and  172,972  members.  In 
1825,  there  were  3,743  churches,  2,577  minis- 
ters, and  238,100  members.  In  1832,  there 
were  5,320  churches,  3,618  ministers,  and 
385,000  members. 

The  returns  for  1842,  which  were  somewhat 
deficient,  were  8,546  churches,  5,600  ministers, 
and  650,000  members.  Baptisms  reported  for 
one  year,  78,830.  The  returns  for  1843,  not 
yet  completed,  will  show  about  100,000  bap- 
tisms the  preceding  year,  and  an  aggregate  of 
more  than  9,000  churches,  6,000  ministers,  and 
750,000  communicants. 

A  small  portion  of  this  body,  of  late  years, 
have  ceased  correspondence  and  co-operation, 
on  account  of  missionary  and  other  benevolent 
societies,  with  the  rest,  though  they  retain  the 
same  name,  and  same  principles  of  faith  and 
practice.  They  allege  no  objection  to  the  gos- 
pel being  preached  in  all  the  earth,  but  deny  the 
right  of  any  other  organization,  than  the 
churches,  acting  in  this  business.  This  class 
number  1,623  churches,  829  ministers,  and 
61,162  members. 

Associalional  Connection. — The  Philadelphia 
association  was  one  of  the  very  first  instances  of 
union  among  the  churches  by  means  of  a  regu- 
lar delegation ;  and  this  body  adopted,  as  the 
basis  of  its  union,  the  Confession  of  Faith  and 
Plan  of  Church  Discipline  set  forth  by  a  con- 
vention of  Baptist  ministers  in  and  about  Lon- 
don, in  the  year  1643,  and  revised  by  messen- 
fers  from  more  than  100  congregations  of 
Ingland  and  Wales  in  1689. 

In  the  struggle  for  American  independence 

the  Baptists  were  distinguished  for  their  firm, 

consistent,  and  persevering  patriotism.     Many 

of  their  ministers  took  an  active  part  in  sustain- 

3  K 


ing  the  revolutionary  cause,  both  by  actual  ser- 
vices in  the  camp,  and  by  the  influence  of  their 
animated  and  patriotic  exhortations.  Liberty 
had  no  friends  more  genuine  and  decided.  It  is 
said  that  the  late  Mr.  Jefferson  avowed,  that  he 
took  his  first  impressions  of  a  pure  republic  from 
the  simple  organization  and  government  of  a 
small  Baptist  church  which  was  in  the  habit  of 
meeting  for  the  transaction  of  business  in  the 
neighbourhood  of  his  early  residence  in  the  state 
of  Virginia.  It  is  certain  that  no  people  were 
ever  more  impatient  of  domination,  whether 
civil  or  ecclesiastical.  They  disclaim  the  rights 
and  pretensions  of  all  judicatories  and  church 
tribunals ;  and  admit  no  other  authority  in  deter- 
mining matters  of  controversy,  whether  in  doc- 
trine or  discipline,  than  the  simple  Bible,  without 
note  or  comment.  The  great  mass  of  them  are 
agreed  in  the  views  which  they  form  of  the  word 
of  God.  Their  preachers  are  generally  accus- 
tomed to  deliver  their  sentiments  extemporane- 
ously, but  not  without  much  study  of  the  word 
of  God,  with  the  help  of  uninspired  authors. 

Baptist  churches  have  learning  and  talent  in 
their  ministry  now  equal  to  any  other  religious 
sect.  They  are  making  strenuous  efforts  for 
the  systematic  education  of  the  ministry,  by  the 
establishment  of  Colleges,  Theological  Institu- 
tions, and  minor  seminaries  in  the  different 
states. 

There  has  always  existed  among  the  Baptists 
of  the  United  States  a  desire  to  provide  suitable 
schools  for  the  culture  of  the  mind.  Brown 
University,  at  Providence,  Rhode  Island,  was 
founded  by  them  as  early  as  1765,  and  is  one  of 
the  best  seats  of  learning  in  the  country. 

Waterville  College  in  Maine,  New  Hampton 
Institution  in  New  Hampshire,  Newton  Theo- 
logical Institution  in  Massachusetts,  Hamilton 
Literary  and  Theological  Institution  in  New 
York,  Columbian  College  in  the  District  of 
Columbia,  Richmond  and  Rector  Colleges  in 
eastern  and  western  Virginia,  Wake  Forest 
College  in  North  Carolina,  Furman  Theological 
Institute  in  South  Carolina,  Mercer  University 
in  Georgia,  Georgetown  College,  in  Kentucky, 
Granville  College  in  Ohio,  and  Shurtleff  College 
in  Illinois,  evince  the  determination  of  the 
churches  to  avail  themselves  of  all  the  facilities 
and  moral  power  that  learning  and  a  theological 
education  can  afford.  And  although  most  of 
these  Institutions  are  in  comparative  infancy, 
their  projectors  have  laid  broad  and  deep  foun- 
dations, and  have  planned  with  a  far-reaching 
eye  to  the  future  interests  of  the  churches,  and 
the  cause  of  truth  and  righteousness.  In  literary 
character,  some  of  these  Institutions  are  far  in 
advance  of  most  of  the  older  Colleges  at  the 
commencement  of  the  present  century.  Besides 
those  named,  we  may  add  the  projected  Theo- 
logical Institute  at  Covington,  Kentucky,  oppo- 
site Cincinnati,  for  which  a  valuable  property  has 
been  secured  and  buildings  erected.  Judson 
College  in  Carroll  County,  Mississippi,  Marion 
College  in  Alabama,  and  the  Franklin  Manual 
Labour  Institute  in  Indiana  have  been  projected 
and  commenced,  and  a  wealthy  Baptist  in  Mis- 
souri has  given  $10,000  towards  founding  a  Col- 
lege in  that  state.  Minor  Institutions  for  gene- 
ral education  have  been  established  by  the 
denomination  in  several  states. 

Baptists  commenced  domestic  missions  in  the 
colonies  as  early  as  the  middle  of  the  last  cen- 
tury. In  1802,  the  Massachusetts  Domestic 
2  P  473 


BAPTISTS  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


Missionary  Society  was  formed,  which  in  25 
years  sent  itinerant  missionaries  to  the  British 
Provinces,  Maine,  Vermont,  New  York,  Ohio, 
and  the  states  along  the  Mississippi.  It  has 
since  been  merged  in  the  Convention  of  that 
state.  From  an  early  period  most  of  the  regu- 
lar Baptist  churches  in  the  United  States  have 
been  connected  in  associations  for  objects  of 
common  interest,  and  within  the  last  25  years, 
they  have  formed  Conventions  or  General  As- 
sociations, for  mutual  co-operation,  in  missions 
and  other  benevolent  objects,  in  most  of  the 
states.  These  are  usually  formed  of  ministers 
and  other  delegates  from  churches  and  associa- 
tions, and,  in  some  instances,  of  life  and  annual 
subscribers. 

Foreign  missions  claimed  their  attention  and 
co-operation  from  the  change  of  sentiment  in 
the  Rev.  Messrs.  Judson  and  Rice,  about  1813, 
and  the  Triennial  Convention  for  Foreign  Mis- 
sions was  formed  in  1814.  Its  Board  has  now 
missions  established  amongst  the  American  In- 
dians, in  France,  Germany,  Denmark,  Greece, 
West  Africa,  Burmah,  Siam,  China,  Assam, 
and  amongst  the  Teloogoos. 

The  number  of  missionaries  and  assistants 
now  in  the  field,  are  110;  native  preachers  and 
assistants,  100 ;  churches,  75 ;  baptisms  reported 
474 


in  one  year,  829;  members  of  mission  churches, 
4,800.  Baptist  missionaries  from  England  and 
the  United  States  have  translated  and  printed 
the  Scriptures,  in  whole,  or  in  part,  into  more 
than  fifty  different  heathen  languages. 

The  American  Baptist  Home  Mission  So- 
ciety was  formed  in  1832.  In  ten  years  this 
Society  employed  756  missionaries  and  agents, 
supplied  in  part  732  destitute  churches.  The 
missionaries  formed  401  churches,  assisted  in 
the  ordination  of  142  ministers,  and  baptized 
10,990  converts.  The  State  Conventions  and 
General  Associations  perform  a  much  larger 
amount  of  labour. 

The  American  and  Foreign  Bible  Society 
was  instituted  in  1837,  and  has  aided  largely  in 
publishing  the  Scriptures  in  heathen  lands,  and 
issued  96,705  Bibles  and  Testaments  for  home 
distribution.  _    • 

The  American  Baptist  Publication  Society, 
which  commenced  in  1824,  under  the  name  of 
the  Baptist  General  Tract  Society,  has  entered 
on  the  publication  and  circulation  of  religious 
books  throughout  the  churches.  Many  minor 
institutions  and  local  societies  for  benevolent 
purposes  are  necessarily  omitted  in  this  brief 
sketch. 


APPENDIX,  No.  VI. 


LUTHERAN  (EVANGELICAL)  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


The  term  Lutheran  is  derived  from  the  great 
Saxon  Reformer.  It  was  applied  to  his  followers 
by  the  Romanists  as  a  mark  of  contempt.  Both 
Luther  and  his  friends  were  opposed  to  this  de- 
signation. In  an  address  of  the  elector  of  Saxony 
and  others  to  Charles  the  V.,  the  following  de- 
claration occurs  : — "  The  doctrines  of  Luther 
we  receive,  only  so  far  as  they  agree  with  the 
word  of  God.  On  this  word  we  ground  our- 
selves, and  not  on  the  person  or  doctrines  of  a 
man,  let  him  be  Luther  or  any  other  person  ; 
because  all  men  may  err.  We  will  therefore 
be  judged  only  by  the  word  of  God."  The 
denomination  of  the  church  in  this  country,  is 
that  of  "  The  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  in 
the  United  States." 

The  permanent  introduction  of  the  Evangeli- 
cal Lutheran  church  into  the  United  States, 
dates,  properly,  from  the  year  1743,  when  the 
Rev.  Henry  Melchior  Muhlenberg  arrived  from 
Europe,  and  unfurled  the  standard  of  Luther- 
anism  on  the  shores  of  America.  Congrega- 
tions of  the  Lutheran  faith  had,  indeed,  existed 
in  different  portions  of  the  country,  many  years 
antecedent  to  the  above  date :  but,  from  this 
period  commenced  perhaps  the  earliest  system- 
atic, ecclesiastical  organization  of  the  American 
Lutheran  Church.  Through  a  series  of  years, 
the  church  was  supplied  exclusively  with  mi- 
nisters from  Germany  ;  and,  at  every  stage  of 
its  progress  up  to  the  present  time,  many  of  its 
most  intellectually  endowed,  pious  and  efficient 
clergymen,  have  been  furnished  by  the  parent 
church  in  Europe. 

The  church  in  this  country  is  composed 
chiefly,  though  not  exclusively,  of  Germans  and 
their  descendants.  For  some  years  past,  its 
membership  has  enrolled  many  who  are  not  of 
German  lineage,  and  the  number  augments 
from  year  to  year.  Its  congregations  are  lo- 
cated, in  various  degrees  of  numerical  strength, 
in  nearly  all  the  states.  They  are  most  nu- 
merous in  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  Ohio, 
Maryland,  Virginia,  and  North  and  South  Caro- 
lina. The  number  of  its  congregations  has  been 
computed  at  about  1,400,  and  that  of  its  ordain- 
ed clergymen  and  licentiates  at  about  450. 
There  are  about  150,000  communicants. 

Associated  with  the  American  Lutheran 
Church,  is  Pennsylvania  College,  chartered  by 
the  Legislature  of  Pennsylvania  in  1832,  and 
located  in  Gettysburg,  Adams  co.,  Pennsyl- 
vania. This  College  affords  every  desirable 
facility  for  the  acquisition  of  the  requisite  classi- 
cal attainments,  to  those  young  men  who  de- 
sign to  qualify  themselves  For  the  service  of  the 
altar.  There  are  likewise  four  Theological 
Seminaries  in  connection  with  the  church : — one 
in  Gettysburg,  Pa. ;  another  at  Hartwick,  New 
York;  one  at  Columbus,  Ohio;  and  another 
in  Lexington,  S.  C.  These  Divinity  schools, 
though  not  independent  of  the  fostering  care  of 
the  Synods,  under  whose  auspices  they  severally 
exist,  are  all  in  a  prosperous  condition ;   and 


have  contributed,  each  its  quota,  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  suitable  candidates  for  the  gospel  minis- 
try, in  their  particular  sections  of  the  church. 
There  is  also  an  institution  for  the  education  of 
poor  orphan  children,  called  the  "  Emmaus 
Institute,"  located  at  Middletovvn,  Dauphin 
county,  Pa.,  and  liberally  endowed  by  Mr. 
George  Fry. 

Though  there  exists  no  direct  and  positive 
union  between  the  Lutheran  Church  in  the 
United  States  and  the  Lutheran  Church  in 
Germany,  yet  a  fraternal  and  somewhat  active 
correspondence  is  maintained  between  the  pa- 
rent church  in  Europe  and  some  of  the  Synods 
in  this  country. 

Contemporaneous  with  the  foundation  of  the 
Theological  Seminary  at  Gettysburg,  a  very 
lively  interest  was  evinced  by  the  brethren  in 
Germany  for  the  church  in  the  United  States. 
This  interest  was  created,  chiefly,  by  the  mis- 
sion of  an  American  Lutheran  clergyman,  who 
made  a  successful  tour  through  Germany  to 
collect  funds  and  a  library  for  that  institution. 
Evidences  are  still  furnished  at  intervals,  in  the 
generous  contributions  of  the  brethren  in  Ger- 
many, that  their  solicitude  for  the  welfare  of  the 
American  church  has  experienced  no  abate- 
ment. It  is  much  to  be  regretted  that  this  in- 
terest is  not  reciprocal,  in  some  sections  at  least 
of  the  church  in  this  country. 

There  is  connected  with  the  Evangelical  Lu- 
theran Church  in  the  United  States  a  Foreign 
Missionary  Society,  which  has  already  two 
labourers  among  the  heathen.  The  Rev.  Mr. 
Heyer,  the  pioneer  in  this  great  work,  was  sent 
out  by  the  Missionary  Society  of  the  Synod  of 
Pennsylvania,  and  has  succeeded  in  establishing 
a  Lutheran  mission  under  the  care  of  this  Synod, 
at  Guntoor,  in  the  Presidency  of  Madras.  In  a 
letter,  dated  Guntoor,  September  19th,  1842, 
Mr.  Heyer  writes  : — "  The  Lord  has  granted  to 
our  mission  not  only  a  good  beginning,  but 
likewise  a  blessed  progress.  I  have  three 
schools  for  boys,  four  teachers,  and  about  seventy 
pupils  und*r  my  supervision."  Subsequently, 
his  plan  of  operations  became  more  extended, 
and  his  success  has  been  proportionably  encou- 
raging. More  recently,  the  Foreign  Missionary 
Society  of  the  General  Synod  appointed  the 
Rev.  Mr.  Gunn  to  proceed  to  Southern  India, 
to  labour  among  the  Telegoo  population,  in 
conjunction  with  Mr.  Heyer.  Mr.  Gunn,  it  is 
thought,  has  ere  this  reached  his  allotted  sphere 
of  labour.  Articles  of  agreement  have  been 
entered  into  between  the  missionary  societies 
of  the  Synod  of  Pennsylvania  and  of  the  Gene- 
ral Synod,  by  which  these  missionaries  may 
fraternally  co-operate.  Most  of  the  Synods 
have  also  instituted  home  missions,  which  are 
in  active  operation  within  their  respective  terri- 
torial limits;  and  the  church  at  large  is  be- 
coming increasingly  alive  to  the  promotion  of 
the  great  objects  of  Christian  benevolence  of 
the  present  age.    At  no  period,  since  the  organi- 

475 


LUTHERAN  (EVANGELICAL)  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


zation  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  in 
this  country,  have  there  been  more  zealous  and 
well-sustained  efforts  in  the  cause  of  the  Re- 
deemer, than  at  the  present  time. 

Among  several  of  the  Synods  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,  societies  have  been  created  for  the 
relief  of  disabled  ministers,  and  their  widows 
and  orphans. 

"  The  doctrines  of  the  Reformation  are  gene- 
rally held  and  promulgated  by  the  clergy. 

"  The  doctrines  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Church  are,  substantially,  those  of  the  Confes- 
sion of  Augsburg. 

"  The  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  as  held  by  those 
who  differ  from  Arians  and  Socinians ;  a  vica- 
rious atonement  made  by  the  passion  and  death 
of  Jesus  Christ ;  the  depravity  of  human  na- 
ture ;  the  necessity  of  conversion  produced  by 
the  Holy  Spirit ;  the  resurrection  of  the  body  ; 
and  a  future  state  of  rewards  and  punishments, 
eternal  in  their  duration,  may  be  specified  as 
the  cardinal  articles  of  its  creed. 

"It  differs  from  the  disciples  of  Calvin,  who 
teach  that  the  atonement  is  limited  to  a  part  of 
the  human  family  ;  and  from  those  who,  whilst 
they  maintain  the  universality  of  the  atonement, 
represent  the  Deity  as  applying  it  only  to  a  cer- 
tain elect  number  ;  and  professes  most  firmly  to 
believe,  that  Christ's  propitiation  is  for  all  men, 
and  that  there  is  no  arbitrary  sovereignty  dis- 
played in  the  application  of  it. 

"  Unconditional  decrees  of  God  in  regard  to 
the  salvation  of  men  are  rejected,  and  the  salva- 
tion of  man  is  regarded  as  depending  on  his 
voluntary  and  unforced  reception  of  the  gospel 
— his  damnation,  on  its  free  and  unconstrained 
rejection. 

"  The  perseverance  of  the  saints,  as  it  is  or- 
dinarily called,  is  not  received  as  a  doctrine  of 
this  church." 

The  Evangelical  Lutheran  Church  receives 
but  two  Sacraments  as  ordained  by  Christ,  and 
designed  to  preserve  and  perpetuate  his  religion 
to  all  future  generations,  viz.,  Baptism,  and  the 
Lord's  Supper. 

Infant  baptism  obtains  as  a  general  usage  in 
the  Lutheran  Church.  The  children  thus  bap- 
tized are  regarded  as  the  property  of  the 
church ;  and,  it  is  enjoined  as  a  duty  upon  all 
pastors,  to  teach  the  youth  of  their  congrega- 
tions on  all  fitting  occasions,  the  principles  of 
the  Christian  religion.  When  they  have  at- 
tained a  suitable  age,  they  are  more  thoroughly 
and  carefully  instructed  in  the  doctrines  and 
duties  of  Christianity;  and,  upon  the  ratifica- 
tion of  their  baptismal  vows,  they  are  admitted 
into  full  membership  with  the  church,  by  the 
rite  of  Confirmation,  and  are  entitled  to  partake 
of  the  Lord's  Supper.  The  Lutheran  Church 
administers  the  sacrament  of  baptism  by  pour- 
ing or  sprinkling  of  water,  but  it  does  not  re- 
ject immersion.  The  mere  mode  of  administra- 
tion is  regarded  as  non-fundamental. 

Regeneration  is  not  insisted  upon  as  an  indis- 
pensable pre-requisite  to  full  membership  in  the 
church.  If  upon  examination  by  the  pastor, 
applicants  are  found  to  have  a  competent  know- 
ledge of  the  essential  doctrines  of  the  gospel, 
ana  give  proof  of  a  pious  walk  and  conversation, 
and  of  a  desire  to  devote  themselves  to  the  ser- 
vice of  God,  they  are  invited  and  encouraged  to 
approach  the  holy  communion. 

In  most  of  the  long  established  German  con- 
gregations, there  are  schools  connected  with  the 
476 


congregations,  and  under  the  supervision  of  the 
pastor  and  church  council,  in  which  the  children 
of  the  church  are  not  only  taught  the  ordinary 
branches  of  a  useful  education,  but  likewise  the 
fundamental  articles  of  the  Christian  faith.  It 
were  devoutly  to  be  wished  that,  as  far  as  prac- 
ticable, every  congregation  within  the  enclosure 
of  the  church  had  such  a  school  connected  with 
it.  Were  this  universally  the  case,  the  happiest 
results  might  well  be  anticipated,  both  to  the 
children  and  the  church. 

It  was  formerly  a  very  general  practice  in  the 
Lutheran  Church,  to  catechise  the  children  of 
the  church  publicly  on  Sunday,  at  the  close  of 
the  customary  religious  services.  In  many  con- 
gregations it  is  to  be  lamented  that  this  whole- 
some practice  has  fallen  into  disuse,  while  in 
others  of  more  recent  formation  it  has  not  been 
introduced.  In  those  congregations  in  which 
the  practice  has  not  been  intermitted,  long  ex- 
perience has  taught  that  the  principles  of  piety 
thus  instilled  into  the  youthful  heart,  have 
been  productive  of  incalculable  benefit  to  the 
church. 

It  is  likewise  a  venerable  usage  of  the  Lu- 
theran Church,  coeval  with  its  ecclesiastical  ex- 
istence, and  is  made  the  duty  of  the  pastor, 
annually,  if  practicable,  to  collect  the  youth  of 
his  charge  in  attendance  on  a  course  of  conver- 
sational lectures  on  the  essential  doctrines  of 
religion.  These  lectures  ordinarily  occupy  about 
two  months.  Such  young  persons  as  have  in 
this  way  obtained  a  competent  knowledge  of 
the  doctrines  of  the  gospel,  and  evince  an  earnest 
disposition  to  secure  the  salvation  of  their  souls, 
are  then  encouraged  to  make  a  public  profession 
of  their  faith.  Every  deviation  from  this  usage, 
except  in  the  case  of  admission  of  members 
from  other  churches,  or  of  adults  to  whom  it 
would  be  inconvenient  to  attend  these  lectures, 
is  regarded  as  a  departure  from  a  wise  and 
healthful  regulation  of  the  church. 

By  the  rite  of  Confirmation,  the  Lutheran 
Church  understands  simply  a  renewal  and  rati- 
fication of  baptismal  vows,  accompanied  by 
prayer  and  the  imposition  of  the  hands  of  the 
pastor.  It  is  indispensable  that  this  renewal 
and  ratification  of  baptismal  vows  should  be 
publicly  made  known  by  some  external  act,  and 
confirmation  is  the  mode  preferred  by  this 
church.  It  is  esteemed  a  useful  and  edifying 
custom,  and  it  is  believed  that  many  can  trace, 
to  the  prayerful  reception  of  this  rite,  the  com- 
mencement of  their  conversion  to  God. 

The  gospel  of  Jesus  Christ  has  appointed  no 
other  day  to  be  kept  holy,  than  the  Lord's  day 
or  Christian  Sabbath.  The  Lutheran 'Church, 
however,  regards  it  as  both  right  and  proper  to 
observe  religious  services  on  such  days,  the 
annual  recurrence  of  which  is  associated  with 
memorable  events  in  the  history  of  our  Saviour's 
mission  into  our  world.  The  following  days 
are.  therefore,  observed  as  religious  festivals: — 
1.  Christmas,  in  commemoration  of  the  birth  of 
the  Redeemer  ;  2.  Good  Friday,  in  commemo- 
ration of  his  crucifixion  and  death  ;  3.  Easter,  in 
commemoration  of  his  glorious  resurrection ; 
4.  Ascension  Day,  in  commemoration  of  his 
ascent  into  heaven  ;  and  5.  Whitsuntide  or  Pen- 
tecost, in  commemoration  of  the  effusion  of  the 
Holy  Spirit  on  the  apostles. 

Though  there  are  various  points  of  resem- 
blance between  the  government  of  the  Evan- 
gelical Lutheran  Church  in  the  United  States 


LUTHERAN  (EVANGELICAL)  CHURCH  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES. 


and  that  of  the  Congregational  churches,  yet 
the  analogy  is  not  entire. 

Each  congregation  is  an  independent  polity 
within  itself,  but  a  recognised  bond  of  union 
exists  between  all  the  congregations,  and  every 
pastor  owes  obedience  to  the  constitution  of  the 
Synod  with  which  he  is  connected.  Each  con- 
gregation has  its  own  church  council,  composed 
of  elders  and  wardens,  or  deacons.  In  many 
of  the  incorporated  congregations,  this  church 
council  is  identical  with  the  board  of  trustees 
created  by  the  act  of  incorporation ;  and,  in 
others  it  is  known  as  the  vestry  of  the  church. 
These  officers  are  chosen  by  the  suffrages  of  the 
people,  and  are  consequently  the  agents  of  the 
people.  Their  term  of  office  varies,  according 
to  the  constitutional  requirements  of  the  different 
churches.  It  is  their  province  to  manage  the 
fiscal  department  of  the  congregation,  and  to 
exercise  a  general  direction  over  the  affairs  of 
the  church.  In  some  congregations,  the  pastor 
is  ex  officio  the  president  of  the  church  council : 
but  in  others,  he  has  no  official  connection 
with  it. 

Every  pastor  is  emphatically  the  bishop  of  his 
own  church  ;  and  claims  and  exercises,  undis- 
puted, the  right  to  perform  all  the  duties  apper- 
taining to  the  pastoral  office.  The  parity  of  the 
clergy  is  strenuously  maintained.  The  Presi- 
dent of  a  Synod  is  regarded  merely  as  primus 
inter  pares,  and  holds  his  office  only  for  a  limit- 
ed period,  and  by  the  consent  of  his  ministerial 
brethren. 

There  are  in  the  Lutheran  Church  local 
Synods,  composed  of  the  clergymen  of  a  parti- 
cular district,  associated  with  whom  is  a  lay 
representative  from  each  pastoral  charge,  who 
is  chosen  by  the  people.  These  Synods  meet 
annually,  and  restrict  their  acts  to  the  business 
of  the  congregations  within  their  territorial 
bounds.  Their  power  is  simply  advisory.  There 
is  connected  with  each  Synod  a  ministerium, 
composed  exclusively  of  its  clerical  members, 
who,  after  the  transaction  of  the  Synodical  pro- 
ceedings,, flieet  in  a  separate  convention  for  the 
licensure  of  candidates,  their  ordination,  and 
the  suspension  or  excommunication  of  ministers. 

The  connection  between  a  minister  and  his 
congregation  is  reciprocally  voluntary,  over 
which  the  Synods  and  ministeriums  can  exercise 
no  control. 

There  are  in  the  United  States,  nineteen 
Synods.  Four  of  these  are  located  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  contain  a  large  proportion  of  the 
aggregate  number  of  ministers  and  congrega- 
tions in  America. 

The  local  Synods  have  within  their  respective 
organizations  certain  sub-divisions,  which  are 
composed  of  a  smaller  number  of  ministers, 
residing  at  a  convenient  distance  from  each 
other  for  mutual  intercourse.  These  sub-divi- 
sions are  termed  special  conferences,  which  are 
required  to  meet  during  the  recess  of  the  Synod, 
at  times  previously  designated,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preaching  and  of  mutual  clerical  edifica- 
tion. 

In  addition  to  the  local  Synods,  the  Lutheran 


Church  has  a  General  Synod,  the  constituency 
of  which  is  furnished  by  ministerial  and  lay 
representatives  from  those  Synods  which  have 
united  with  it.  Its  meetings  are  biennial,  and 
it  is  merely  an  advisory  body.  The  General 
Synod  was -organized,  as  stated  in  the  preamble 
to  its  constitution,  "for  the  promotion  of  the 
practice  of  qrotherly  love,  to  the  furtherance  of 
Christian  concord,  and  to  the  firm  establish- 
ment and  continuance  of  the  unity  of  the  spirit 
in  the  bond  peace."  It  was  originated  in  the 
year  1820,  by  a  convention  of  clerical  and  lay 
delegates  from  the  Synods  of  Pennsylvania, 
New  York,  North  Carolina,  and  Maryland. 
The  Synod  of  Pennsylvania  subsequently  with- 
drew from  it;  and,  together  with  the  Synod  of 
Ohio  and  some  other  independent  Synods, 
refuses  to  sanction  its  proceedings  as  the  Gene- 
ral Synod  of  the  Lutheran  Church  in  the  United 
States.  It  is  at  the  present  time  composed  of 
the  Synods  of  New  York,  Hartwick,  East 
Pennsylvania,  West  Pennsylvania,  Alleghany, 
North  Carolina,  South  Carolina,  Maryland, 
Virginia,  English  Synod  of  Ohio,  Synod  of  the 
West,  and  Synod  of  South  Western  Virginia. 
Several  of  these  affiliated  Synods  are,  compara- 
tively, of  recent  creation,  and  still  feeble  in 
point  of  numerical  strength.  When  a  General 
Synod  shall  have  embosomed  within  the  circle 
of  its  operations  all  the  local  Synods,  and  shall 
have  secured  the  confidence  and  co-operation  of 
the  entire  Lutheran  Church  in  the  United  States 
— we  should  hail  with  joy  the  advent  of  such  a 
period  ! — from  this  fraternal  bond  and  the  undi- 
vided energies  of  the  church,  advantages  of  a 
high  order  would  necessarily  accrue  to  our 
American  Lutheran  Zion. 

"  In  some  of  the  Evangelical  Lutheran 
Churches  in  the  United  States,  the  religious 
services  are  performed  in  the  German  language 
exclusively.  In  others  the  services  are  both  in 
German  and  English.  In  many  churches  the 
English  language  is  alone  used.  Many  of  the 
ministers  officiate  in  both  these  languages."     4 

The  religious  periodicals  of  the  Lutheran 
Church,  are 

The  Lutheran  Observer,  issued  weekly  at 
Baltimore,  B.  Kurtz,  D.  D.,  Editor. 

Lutherische  Kirchenzeitung  und  Allgemeines 
Schulblatt,  issued  semi-monthly  at  Pittsburg, 
Pa.,  Rev.  F.  Schmidt,  Editor. 

The  Lutheran  Standard,  issued  weekly  in 
New  Philadelphia,  Ohio,  Rev.  E.  Greenwald, 
Editor. 

Lutherische  Hirtenstimme,  issued  semi- 
monthly at  Baltimore,  Rev.  Charles  Weyl, 
Editor. 

The  Lutheran  Herald,  issued  semi-monthly 
at  Minden,  New  York,  Rev.  J.  D.  Lawyer, 
Editor. 

In  view  of  the  past  history,  the  present  indica- 
tions, and  the  future  prospects,  of  the  Evangeli- 
cal Lutheran  Church  in  the  United  States,  its 
members  and  friends  have  abundant  cause  for 
gratitude  to  that  God,  who  has  "graven  his 
Zion  upon  the  palms  of  his  hands,  and  whoso 
walls  are  continually  before  him." 

2  r  2  477 


APPENDIX,  No.  VII. 


ADVENT  BELIEVERS,  OR  ADVENTISTS, 


Are  a  class  of  Christians  connected  with 
nearly  all  the  evangelical  denominations  in  the 
United  States,  who  derive  their  name  from  their 
peculiar  faith  in  the  speedy  coming  of  Jesus 
Christ,  the  second  time,  without  sin  unto  salva- 
tion, to  them  that  look  for  him.  Their  general 
views  on  religious  subjects  are  those  of  the 
various  sects  with  which  they  stand  connected. 
The  peculiarity  of  sentiment  which  has  given 
them  a  common  sympathy,  was  originally  pro- 
pagated by  Mr.  William  Miller,  a  respectable 
and  influential  lay  member  of  the  Regular  Bap- 
tist Church  in  Low  Hampton,  Washington  co., 
N.  Y. 

Although  religiously  educated,  he  was  driven 
into  Deism,  by  the  manner  in  which  ministers 
of  the  gospel  treated  the  Bible,  calling  its  holy 
and  revealed  truths  mysteries  which  we  could 
not  understand.  He  continued  in  this  state  of 
mind  until  1816,  when,  by  the  grace  of  God,  he 
was  awakened  to  a  sense  of  his  lost  condition  as 
a  sinner,  and  was  led  to  Christ  for  salvation ; 
where  he  found  not  only  pardon  of  sin,  peace  in 
believing,  but  an  ardent  love  for  the  Bible.  He 
commenced  studying  it  without  note  or  com- 
ment, with  only  his  knowledge  of  history 
and  Cruden's  Concordance  to  aid  him;  and  to 
his  surprise,  he  found  before  he  had  gone 
through  the  Bible,  that  none  of  the  prophetic 
periods  extended,  according  to  his  understand- 
ing of  them,  or  any  data  he  could  find,  beyond 
1843. 

He  came  to  the  above  results  respecting  the 
time  of  the  termination  of  the  prophetic  periods 
in  1818.  But  it  was  not  until  1831 ,  that  he  gave 
his  sentiments  to  the  world.  This  he  did  first, 
in  a  series  of  articles  published  in  the  Vermont 
Telegraph,  a  Baptist  paper,  published  in  Bran- 
don, Vt.  Soon  after  this,  he  commenced  at  the 
earnest  solicitation  of  friends,  giving  his  views  in 
neighbouring  towns,  in  the  form  ot  lectures. 

In  1836,  he  wrote  out  a  course  of  sixteen  lec- 
tures, which  were  published  and  widely  circu- 
lated through  the  country,  and  resulted  in 
awakening  a  great  interest  on  the  question. 

The  peculiar  sentiments  of  Mr.  Miller  are, 
1.  That  the  second  advent  of  Christ  will  be 
prc-millcnnial.  2.  That  all  the  saints  who  have 
died  since  Adam,  with  all  who  will  be  alive  on 
earth  at  Christ's  coming  will  be  raised,  changed, 
and  glorified,  in  the  twinkling  of  an  eye  at  the 
last  trump,  and  be  caught  up  to  meet  the  Lord 
in  the  air.  3.  That  nil  the  wicked  of  the  earth, 
both  Jews  and  gentiles,  will  be  destroyed  from 
off  the  earth,  and  that  the  aerial  heavens  and 
the  earth  will  be  dissolved  by  fire,  and  the  new 
heavens  and  earth  be  reared  from  their  ruins. 
That  this  new  earth  will  be  the  eternal  heaven 
of  the  saints,  after  the  New  Jerusalem  comes 
down  from  heaven,  as  the  metropolis  of  God's 
eternal  kingdom.  4.  That  Satan  will  be  shut 
up  in  the  bottomless  pit  for  a  1000  years,  while 
the  wicked  are  all  dead.  That  when  the  1000 
years  are  expired,  Satan  will  be  loosed  for  a 
478 


little  season,  and  at  the  same  time  the  wicked 
will  be  raised  from  the  dead,  in  every  part  of  the 
(new)  earth,  and  will  constitute  the  nations  in 
the  four  quarters  of  the  earth,  Gog  and  Magog. 
The  devil,  whose  servants  they  are,  will  deceive 
them  witli  the  pretence  of  a  battle,  which  they 
will  never  fight.  They  will  be  devoured  or 
swallowed  up  whole,  in  fire  which  will  come 
from  God  out  of  heaven.  And  the  devil,  death, 
hell,  and  all  who  are  not  found  written  in  the 
book  of  life,  shall  be  cast  into  the  lake  of  fire. 
"  This  is  the  second  death."  See  Rev.  xx. 
chapter.  5.  There  will  be  no  national  conversion, 
nor  national  return  of  the  Jews,  in  the  flesh,  to 
Palestine.  All  the  promises  of  restoration  to 
Israel,  which  were  not  fulfilled  in  their  return 
from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  are  to  be  fulfilled 
in  the  resurrection  of  the  dead,  when  "  all  Is- 
rael shall  be  saved,"  or  brought  back  from  their 
graves,  in  their  resurrection  bodies,  with  Abra- 
ham, Isaac,  and  Jacob,  to  have  an  eternal  posses- 
sion of  the  land  promised  them,  in  the  new  earth 
or  "heavenly  country,"  and  the  "city  which 
hath  foundation,  whose  builder  and  maker  is 
God."  There  Christ,  the  sonof  David  and  heir 
to  David's  throne,  will  reign  over  them  forever. 
Thus  "  God  will  in  very  deed  dwell  with  men 
on  the  earth,"  Ezek.  xxxvii.  6.  That  no  such 
thing  is  promised  in  the  Bible  as  a  conversion  of 
the  world,  or  even  a  majority  of  it ;  but  the  tares 
and  wheat  will  grow  together  until  the  end  of 
the  world.  That  the  wicked  will  only  be  de- 
stroyed by  the  brightness  of  Christ's  coming. 
7.  Respecting  the  time  of  the  advent  of  our 
Saviour,  to  begin  this  work  of  destruction  and 
renovation,  the  evidence  is  deduced,  1.  From 
the  grand  prophetic  periods  of  the  Bible.  2.  From 
the  fulfilment  of  the  historical  visions  of  Daniel 
and  John: — and,  3.  From  the  signs  foretold  by 
the  Saviour  and  other  inspired  persons,  which 
were  immediately  to  precede  the  second  advent. 

The  prophetic  periods.  The  seven  titnes  of 
Israel's  bondage,  during  which  the  pride  of  their 
power  was  to  be  broken,  as  foretold  by  Moses, 
Lev.  xxvi.  18,  19,  is  understood  as  being  sym- 
bolical time ;  and  each  time  as  including  360 
symbolical  days,  as  in  Rev.  xii.  6,  14.  The 
seven  times  amounting  to  2520  days.  Each 
day  the  representative  of  a  year  as  in  Ezek. 
iv.  6,  2520  years.  Commencing  this  with  the 
first  captivity  of  the  house  of  David  in  Babylon, 
B.  C.  677,  (see  2  Chron.  xxxiii.  11,)  will  bring 
us  to  1843. 

Again,  Dan.  viii.  14,  gives  a  period  of  2300 
days.  These  also  are  understood  as  being  sym- 
bolical, because  they  cover  a  vision  which  in- 
cludes Media  and  Persia,  Grecia,  and  another 
terrible  power  to  succeed  them,  who  should 
"destroy  the  mighty  and  holy  people,"  which 
Rome  did.  The  date  of  these  days  is  not  given 
in  the  8th  chapter  ;  but  in  the  9th,  Gabriel  ap- 
peared to  Daniel  to  make  him  understand  the 
vision.  Then  he  gave  the  famous  70  weeks,  to 
bou'in  with  the  going  forth  of  the  command 


ADVENT  BELIEVERS,  OR  ADVENTISTS. 


ment  to  restore  and  build  Jerusalem,  and  end- 
ing with  the  death  or  ascension  of  our  Saviour. 
Beginning  those  weeks  70X7=490  days  or 
years,  B.  C.  457,  when  Ezra  received  the  letter 
from  Artaxerxes  to  go  up  and  restore  the  Jew- 
ish government.  (See  Ezra  vii.)  We  end  in 
A.  D.  33,  the  year  of  the  crucifixion.  Then 
take  the  490  from  2300,  1810  years  remain  to 
be  filled  up  after  the  death  of  Christ  in  33.  A.  D. 
33+1810=1843  A.  D.  Thus,  the  70  weeks 
are  understood  to  be  the  key  to  the  vision  of 
2300  days. 

Several  other  periods  given  in  the  Bible  bring 
us  to  the  same  result. 

The  Historical  Visions.  The  dream  of 
Nebuchadnezzar,  as  related  and  interpreted  by 
Daniel,  (see  Dan.  ii.,)  representing  the  four  great 
and  universal  governments  of  earth,  viz.,  Baby- 
lon, Medo-Persia,  Greece,  and  Rome,  has 
been  filled  up  in  the  most  literal  manner  ac- 
cording to  the  terms  of  the  vision  and  its  inter- 
pretation, except  the  setting  up  of  God's  ever- 
lasting kingdom,  which  is  to  break  in  pieces  all 
earthly  kingdoms,  and  take  their  place.  Hence, 
it  is  argued,  we  must  look  for  God's  kingdom 
as  the  next  event.  Whatever  may  be  the  re- 
sult of  the  calculation  of  the  prophetic.periods, 
we  have  a  sure  foothold  here. 

The  vision  of  Dan.  vii.  chapter,  is  similar  in 
its  character  to  the  above,  and  brings  us  to  the 
same  result.  It  also  closes  with  a  description  of 
the  judgment  scene  and  the  coming  of  Christ  in 
the  clouds  of  heaven. 

The  foretold  signs  are  given,  Matt.  xxiv. 
29,  30,  "The  sun  shall  be  darkened."  This 
it  is  alleged  was  fulfilled  in  1780,  on  the  19th 
of  May ;  and  that  in  a  supernatural  manner. 
"The  moon  shall  not  give  her  light."  The 
night  of  that  dark  day,  although  it  was  at  the 
time  of  a  full  moon,  was  so  dark  that  a  sheet  of 
white  paper,  and  the  blackest  velvet  held  near 
the  eyes  were  alike  invisible.  "  The  stars 
shall  fall  from  heaven."  This,  it  is  alleged, 
took  place  on  the  night  of  Nov.  13,  1833,  in 
the  most  literal  manner,  by  the  falling  stars  or 
meteors,  which  then  fell  in  such  profusion.  The 
next  thing  in  the  order  of  events  is  the  shaking 
of  the  powers  of  heaven  ;  the  appearing  of  the 
sign  of  the  Son  of  Man  in  heaven,  and  the 
coming  of  the  Son  of  Man  in  the  clouds  of 
heaven  with  power  and  great  glory.  This  last 
event,  it  is  believed,  will  take  place  within 
one  generation  of  threescore  years  and  ten, 
(man's  age)  of  the  first  sign,  in  1780.  Matt, 
xxiv,  38. 

The  time,  times  and  a  half  of  Dan.  vii.  25,  and 
forty-two  months  of  Rev.  xiii.  5  are  regarded 
as  referring  to  the  triumph  and  reign  of  Popery 
in  Rome,  beginning  in  538,  on  the  fall  of  the 
Ostrogothic  kingdom,  by  Bellisarius  the  Greek 
general.  Then  the  edicts  and  letters  of  Jus- 
tinian the  eastern  emperor,  issued  in  533,  con- 
stituting the  pope  the  head  of  all  the  churches, 
took  effect.  The  1260  years  ended  in  1798, 
when  Berthier  the  French  general  took  Rome, 
abrogated  the  papal  government,  and  erected 
the  Roman  republic.  From  that  point  to  the 
present  time  is  considered  "the  time  of  the 
end"  or  missionary  age. 

The  two  witnesses  of  Rev.  xi.  are  considered 
as  the  Old  and  New  Testament,  and  their  being 
clothed  in  sackcloth,  as  their  suppression  under 
the  papacy.  Their  death,  the  war  against  the 
Bible  in  the  French  Revolution  ;  their  resurrec- 


tion and  ascension,  the  present  exalted  position 
which  the  Bible  occupies  among  the  nations. 

The  five  months,  and  hour,  day,  month,  and 
year,  or  541  years  and  15  days  of  Rev.  ix.,  are 
believed  to  have  commenced  with  the  first 
entrance  of  Othman,  the  founder  of  the  Ottoman 
empire,  into  Nicomedia,  a  Greek  .province,  to 
commence  his  war,  July  27th,  1299.  And  then 
the  period  ended  Aug.  11th,  1840,  the  day  the 
ultimatum  of  the  allied  powers  of  Europe  was 
submitted  to  Mehemet  Ali,  and  the  fate  of  the 
empire  was  sealed. 

The  Adventists  have  no  church  organiza- 
tion, nor  have  they  considered  it  any  part  of 
their  work  to  attempt  such  an  organization. 
Believing  as  they  do  in  the  immediate  coming 
of  the  Lord,  they  have  only  aimed  at  reaching 
the  greatest  possible  number  of  persons  of  all 
sects  and  parties,  and  sound  the  alarm,  to  in- 
duce them,  if  possible,  to  prepare  for  the  event. 

The  means  used  for  the  propagation  of  these 
sentiments  have  been  written  and  oral  exhibi- 
tions of  the  prophecies  and  their  import.  The 
number  of  public  speakers  engaged  in  this  work 
since  1840,  lay  and  clerical,  have  not  been  less 
than  from  1500  to  2000.  There  is  no  means  of 
knowing  the  exact  number  thus  engaged.  The 
doctrine  has  been  published  in  all  the  states  of 
the  Union,  and  has  its  friends  in  nearly  every 
town  and  city. 

There  has  been  four  or  five  millions  of  books 
and  papers  circulated  during  the  last  three 
years  in  the  United  States,  British  provinces, 
and  foreign  countries,  wherever  the  English 
language  is  read.  There  have  also  been  some 
of  the  writings  translated  into  the  French  and 
German  languages,  and  widely  circulated. 
There  are  five  weekly  papers  now  published  in 
the  United  States,  devoted  to  the  dissemination 
of  this  doctrine ;  and  two  in  Canada. 

There  are  large  congregations  of  Adventists 
in  nearly  all  the  Eastern,  Northern,  and  Middle 
States. 

The  time  specified  by  Mr.  Miller,  and  ad- 
hered to  by  most  of  the  advocates  of  the  theory, 
for  the  termination  of  all  the  prophetic  periods, 
was  between  March  21st,  1843,  and  March 
21st,  1844. 

That  time  having  now  gone  by,  (April,  1844,) 
the  believers,  in  general,  are  steadfast  in  their 
faith  as  to  the  correctness  of  their  principles 
and  mode  of  computing  time,  and  their  general 
dates  for  commencing  the  periods,  but  conclude 
there  is  some  slight  discrepancy  in  chronology. 
But  are  still  in  constant  expectation  of  seeing 
their  coming  Lord. 

They  no  longer  calculate  upon  the  prophetic 
times,  but  watch  the  signs  of  the  age,  and  trust 
in  God's  word  of  promise,  that  "yet  a  little 
while  and  he  that  shall  come,  will  come,  and 
will  not  tarry." 

Milleimists  are  those  who  believe  in  the 
spiritual  reign  of  Christ  for  a  1000  years.  Millen- 
arians  believe  in  a  personal  reign  of  Christ  a 
1000  years  before  the  consummation.  Advent- 
ists believe  in  the  personal  reign  of  Christ  a 
1000  years  after  the  consummation  and  restitu- 
tion, between  the  two  resurrections. 

Fora  more  full  account,  see  Miller1  sLeclure1  s  ; 
Prophetic  Expositions  by  J.  Lilch  ;  Hale's 
Second  Advent  Manual,  together  with  the 
writings  of  Storrs,  Fitch,  Whiting,  Brown, 
Cook,  Bliss,  Hervey,  &c.  &c,  published  by 
/.  V.  Himcs,  Boston.     See  Millennium. 

47<J 


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